American-Eurasian Journal of Agronomy, 4 (2): 34-37, 2011
ISSN 1995-896X IDOSI Publications, 2011
Nitrogen Yielding Plants: The Pioneers of Agriculture with a Multipurpose
Kavya Dashora National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India Abstract: Out of the basic elements of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N, P, K), nitrogen is the most unavailable for soil. Though it is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere, yet the form in which it is utilized by the soil and plants for their vital functions is not readily available. Growing of leguminous plants like alfalfa, beans, clovers, nuts, etc in a way benefits the plants and soil by yielding nitrogen in the compound form. The biological nitrogen fixation can be used as an efficient way to equip the soil with nitrogen which takes place with the help of root knot nodule bacteria. Leguminous plants fix atmospheric nitrogen by working symbiotically with special bacteria, rhizobia, which live in the root nodules. Rhizobia infect root hairs of the leguminous plants and produce the nodules. This will not only help the poor farmers but also the soil to get rid of chemical fertilizers. In this paper some plants which yield nitrogen in the soil are discussed. Key words: Agriculture
Nitrogen yield
Bacteria
Leguminous crops
INTRODUCTION
nitrogen is usually provided by using organic or
chemical fertilizers. Plants obtain nitrogen through ammonium and nitrate.
Nitrogen is one of the most abundant gases of the
earths atmosphere and is one of the prime constituents of basic fertilizers (N,P,K). The gaseous form of this element cannot be used directly by the plants. As a result, it is often a limiting factor in agricultural production, especially for those crops that take up large amounts of nitrogen. Adequate nitrogen soil content is necessary for healthy plants and their growth and reproduction. More importantly, plants use nitrogen for photosynthesis [1]. While native plants are better adapted to their surroundings and often times less affected by nitrogen deficiency, in plants such as vegetable crops, supplemental nitrogen may be required. Good crops depend on an adequate supply of nitrogen. Most nitrogen is naturally present in the soil as organic content. However, nitrogen loss due to erosion, runoff and leaching of nitrate can also cause nitrogen deficiency in plants. Some of the most common symptoms of nitrogen deficiency in plants include the yellowing and dropping of leaves and poor growth. Delaying of flowering and fruiting may also be there. As organic matter decomposes, nitrogen is slowly converted to ammonium, which is absorbed by plant roots. Excess ammonium is turned into nitrate, which plants also use to produce protein. However, unused nitrates remain in the groundwater, resulting in leaching of the soil. There are several ways to add nitrogen to soil. Supplemental
Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen fixation refers to the
conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia and then to nitrogen containing organic compounds that becomes available to all forms of life. Nitrogen can be fixed by nonbiological processes, such as lightning or the HaberBosch process used to produce fertilizer products such as urea [2]. However, biological fixation is the most common process for nitrogen fixation. Globally, an estimated 193 x 106 tons of nitrogen is fixed through biological fixation each year (Table 1). Building up levels of organic matter in the soil is another way of raising soil nitrogen. This can be achieved by using organic fertilizer in the form of compost or manure. Another sustainable way is growing legumes for supplement soil nitrogen. Although organic fertilizer must be broken down in order to release ammonium and nitrate, which is much slower, using organic fertilizer to add nitrogen to soil is safer for the environment. The presence of the nitrogen on extreme ends like too much or too little can be just as harmful to plants as too little. Too much nitrogen can result in plant burning, which causes them to shrivel and die. It can also cause excess nitrate to leach into groundwater. Nitrogen is used by the plant to produce leafy growth and formation of stems and branches. Plants most in need of nitrogen include grasses
Corresponding Author: Kavya Dashora, National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India .
34
Am-Euras. J. Agron., 4 (2): 34-37, 2011
recognized [3,4] that interactions are possible between the
processes of absorption, assimilation and translocation of NO3; N2 fixation; and assimilation and translocation of the product NH3.The reduction and assimilation of NO3-in higher plants occurs in both above and below ground organs and the extent to which these parts participate in its assimilation depends on the plant species, the level of NO3, and the environmental conditions to which the plant is expose [5]. Similarly, white sweet clover produces about 2.5 tons/acre dry matter and about 63 lb of nitrogen (N) per ton of dry matter (NRCS). To optimize N fixation, the soil should have adequate phosphorus, sulfur and micronutrients, especially iron and molybdenum, suitable pH and good aeration. Of the total nitrogen required by legumes, generally about half is nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere, with the remainder being taken up from residual nitrate in the soil [6]. It is usually noticed that where legumes are grown, outside applications of manure or fertilizer nitrogen are not needed. Different legumes also vary in the amount of total nitrogen they can fix. Listed below in the table are common legumes used in agriculture and the total amounts of nitrogen they fix during a growing season. (Table 3).
Table 1: Various sources of nitrogen fixation
S. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Source of N fixation
Nitrogen fixed (106 tons per year)
Land Legume Non-legume Others Sea Total biological Lightning Industry Total non-biological
153 39 10 104 40 193 9 85 94
Table 2: List of a Few Rhizobium species and their corresponding hosts
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Rhizobium species
Host plants
Bradyrhizobium japanicum Rhizobium fredii R. phaseoli R. meliloti "Cowpea rhizobia" group or Rhizobium sp. R. trifolii R. Ieguminosarum
Basically, the more leaf a plant produces, the higher its nitrogen requirement. Nitrogen Through Fertilizers: Most chemical fertilizers will contain three elements essential for growth of the plant, Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). These elements help in boosting the plant growth and provide resistance from many deficiency diseases. But, many a times, these chemical fertilizers are not feasible to the economically downtrodden farmers, for whom the nitrogen (N) is often the most limiting element for cereal grain production.
Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF): It is the process
where the atmospheric nitrogen (N=N) is reduced to ammonia in the presence of an enzyme nitrogenase which is a biological catalyst found naturally only in certain microorganisms such as the symbiotic Rhizobium and Frankia, or the free-living Azospirillum and Azotobacter. Biological nitrogen fixation is brought about by free-living soil microorganisms and by symbiotic associations of microorganisms with higher plants. In this paper we will mainly discuss about the legume-Rhizobium symbiosis. Leguminous plants fix atmospheric nitrogen by working symbiotically with special bacteria, rhizobia, which live in the root nodules. Rhizobia infect root hairs of the leguminous plants and produce the nodules. The nodules become the home for bacteria where they obtain energy from the host plant and take free nitrogen from the soil air and process it into combined nitrogen [7]. In return, the plant receives the fixed N from nodules and produces food and forage protein.
Legumes: in House Nitrogen Production for Plants:
Plants in the bean family, legumes, have nodules on their roots where symbiotic bacteria live that fix nitrogen from the air for use by the plant. They are unique among crop plants in their ability to satisfy their large demand for nitrogen either through absorption and assimilation of inorganic nitrogen from the soil solution or by symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. The presence of nitrate in the soil is desirable because it is required by plants for growth and development. However, nitrate is highly mobile and easily moves with water. The results of a heavy rain can move nitrates downward in the soil, below the root zone of plants. With crops that require a lot of nitrogen over a period of time, like cabbages, adding nitrogen incrementally through the growth period is the most efficient application method. It has long been
The biochemical mechanism of N2 fixation can be
written in simplified form as follows: nitrogenase nitrogenase N2-----------------
Rhizobium synthesizes the heme portion and the plant the
globine. Like human hemoglobin, leghemoglobin fixes O 2. It is responsible for the red or brown color of active (i.e., N2-fixing) nodules. Non-N2-fixing nodules have white nodule content or a green content when the globine has degenerated.
The above mechanism indicates that N2-fixing
systems can thrive in soils poor in elementary nitrogen and they are a source of proteins and also they provide nitrogen for soil fertility. Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP) is the source of energy necessary for the fragmentation and reduction of N2 into ammonia. In rhizobia, ATP results from oxidative degradation of sugars and related molecules. These sugars are manufactured by the hostplant during photosynthesis and transferred to the nodules. In general, for each gram of N2 fixed by Rhizobium, the plant fixes 1-20 grams carbon (C) through photosynthesis. It is usually accepted that N2 fixing systems require more Phosphorus (P) than non-N2-fixing systems. Phosphorus is needed for plant growth, nodule formation and development and ATP synthesis, each process being vital for nitrogen fixation. Nitrogenase is an oxygen sensitive enzyme. The low oxygen tension condition is realized through compartmentation in cyanobacteria (heterocyst in Anabaena azollae), active respiration (in Azotobacter) and synthesis of leghemoglobin (in Rhizobium legume). Leghemoglobin is a macromolecule synthesized by symbiotic partners, the rhizobia and the host plant.
Effectiveness of the Legumes in Yielding Nitrogen:
There are approximately 1,300 leguminous plant species in the world. Of these, nearly 10% have been examined for nodulation, 87% of which were nodulated. It was observed that not all legumes are infected by rhizobia. Gliricidia sepium and Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) nodulate freely but nodules have never been found on roots of Cassia siamea. A Rhizobium that nodulates cowpea may not nodulate Leucaena and vice versa. Leguminous species mutually susceptible to nodulation by a particular group of bacteria constitute a crossinoculation group. Therefore it can be seen the mechanisms of recognition between the micro-symbiont and the host-plant is good enough to explain specificity. Table 1 gives a short list of rhizobia and their hosts to illustrate the grouping of rhizobia. Similarly not all 36
Am-Euras. J. Agron., 4 (2): 34-37, 2011
symbioses fix N2 with equal effectiveness. This means
that a given legume cultivar nodulated by different strains of the same species of Rhizobium would fix different amounts of nitrogen. From the biochemical reactions of biological nitrogen fixation, it is evident that N2 fixing systems contribute to the quality and quantity of agricultural production.
various techniques like the acetylene reduction assay
method, xylem exudate analysis, or by other methods. A number of edaphic, climatic and biotic factors inhibit N2 fixation. The amount of biologically fixed nitrogen can be enhanced by different methods, including inoculation with proven strains, screening for improved microbial and host-plant materials and introduction of improved cultural practices through biological nitrogen fixation more nitrogen can be yielded so that the hazards of the chemical fertilizers can be reduced.
How Biological Nitrogen Fixation Takes Place in
Legumes: The bacteria, which are mostly free-living in the soil in the native range of a particular legume, infect the root hairs of the plant and form small root structures called nodules. The association is symbiotic because the energy is provided by the plant to feed the bacteria and fuel the nitrogen fixation process. In return, the plant receives nitrogen for growth. Out of many strains of rhizobia, some will infect many hosts, while certain hosts will accept many different strains of rhizobia. In conventional cropping systems it is estimated that 50-800 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year are accumulated by nitrogen fixing plants, depending on species, soil and climate, Rhizobium efficiency and management [8]. Nodulating bacteria from the family Rhizobiaceae are common in the semi-arid tropics around the world. The opinion that nitrogen fixation by the root nodule bacteria, Rhizobium, is restricted to a specific symbiotic association with specific legumes has recently been challenged. Trinick9 showed that nodules formed on the non-legume Trema canabina by a strain of Rhizobium which nodulated Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), possess nitrogenase activity and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Soybean tissue cultures inoculated with R. japonicum, or with cowpea strains of rhizobia, also possess apparently functional nitrogenase as determined by the acetylene reduction assay. Biological N2 fixed represents nitrogen gain and determines inorganic nitrogen fertilizer savings in agricultural systems. Legumes can fix more than 250 kg N ha 1. However, the amounts of N2 fixed can vary considerably in time and space
REFERENCES 1.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
DISCUSSION
7. 8.
Since nitrogen is commonly the most limiting plant
nutrient and also the most expensive element as a mineral fertilizer, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) holds great promise for smallholder and economically not so sound farmers. Biological nitrogen fixation is accomplished by certain microorganisms and plant-microbe interactions. Legumes are nitrogen-fixing systems that have long been used for biological nitrogen fixation in agriculture. Biologically fixed nitrogen can be estimated by using
9.
37
Mcdonald, L.M., P. Wright and D. Macleod, 2001.
A Nitrogen fixation by lablab (Lablab purpureus) and lucerne (Medicago sativa) rotation crops in an irrigated cotton farming system. Australian J. Experimental Agric., 41(2): 219-225. Martins, L.M.V., G.R. Xavier, F.W. Rangel, J.R.A. Ribeiro, M.C.P. Neves, L.B. Morgado 2 and N.G. Rumjanek, 2003. Contribution of biological nitrogen fixation to cowpea: a strategy for improving grain yield in the semi-arid region of Brazil: Biol. Fertility of Soils, 38(6): 112. Pate, J.S., 1973a. Physiology of the reaction of nodulated legumes to environment. In PS Nutman, ed, Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation in Plants, Chap 27. Cambridge, University Press, Cambridge. De MooY, C.J., J. Pesed and E. Spaldon, 1973. Mineral nutrition. In BE Caldwell, ed, Soybeans, Improvement, Production and Uses, Chap 9, Monograph 16. American Society Agronomy, Madison. Pate, J.S., 1973b. Uptake, assimilation and transport of nitrogen compounds by plants. Soil Biol Biochem 5: 109-119. Allen, O.N. and E.K. Allen, 1981. The Leguminosae: A source book of characteristics, uses and nodulation. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, pp: 812. Trinick, M.J., 1973, Nature, 244: 459-460. Avery, M.E., 1991. Nitrogen-fixing plant interactions in agro forestry systems. In: Avery, M.E.; Cannell, M.G.R.; Ong, C.K., eds. Biophysical research for Asian Agroforestry. New Delhi, India: Winrock International and Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., pp: 125-141. Rondon, M., J. Lehmann, J. Ramrez and M. Hurtado, 2009. Biological Nitrogen Fixation By Common Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.): Biology and Fertility in Soils pp: 67.
