Machine Shop Tools and Methods - Leonard - 1905
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Kelly GiddensMachine Shop Tools and Methods - Leonard - 1905
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Kelly GiddensUNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
ANDREW
SMITH
HALLIDIL:
PREFACE
"
THE
printed matter here presented is designed to serve as an aid
with the lectures on machine-shop methods given in the
in connection
Mechanical Department at the Michigan Agricultural College.
There
are many questions connected with machine-shop practice which can,
be more systematically and economically treated in the class-room
than by giving individual instruction in the shop. Some of these questions will be treated in these notes, and they will be further discussed
and elaborated before the class. The expressions exhibited and black-
board sketch, used in the side-headings, mean that the apparatus to
refers is shown before the class or illustrated on the
which the text
blackboard.
At the
discretion of the instructor the student will
be
required to sketch the apparatus exhibited; however, the work is
largely illustrated by detached blue-print sketches and printed plates,
to
which the text
in the class-room,
refers
and
by number.
it
is
Additional matter will be given
shall, as
intended that the examinations
far as practicable, cover the whole subject."
The foregoing brief introduction, which
preceding loose-leaf editions of this work,
was printed
in
the
two
reproduced here to indicate the circumstances under which the work has been developed and
is
In its original form the book served its purpose
its primary object.
well at the college mentioned above, and the enlarged edition is presented with the hope that it may be equally valuable in connection
with the engineering departments of other schools.
In the foot-notes there are a few references to
articles in
such tech-
nical journals as are likely to be found in college libraries.
It may be
advantageous, in connection with a course of lectures, to require some
of
the students to read these or other similar articles and report their
to the class for discussion.
Such variations from a fixed
findings
method serve to keep up the interest of the student and at the same
time tend to broaden his views. In institutions which have no regular
139702
PREFACE
iv
course of lectures on shop-practice, the book may prove of value for
reference in connection with machine-shop instruction.
In some of the larger shops of this country there has recently been
introduced a system which requires that the workman shall follow a
As suggestive of
carefully prepared order of operations in his work.
what may be done in this direction, the instructions for some of the
exercises in Chapters
order.
The
XVII and XVIII
are presented in this regular
end of the book is not a complete outline
be supplemented by additional questions
at the discretion of the instructor.
Such an outline is of value to the
list
of questions at the
of the contents,
but
it
may
student in preparing for examinations.
It is hoped that a considerable portion of the book
may
be found
This class of readers,
whom the work is prin-
profitable reading for experienced machinists.
bearing in mind that many of the students for
know practically nothing of machine-shop practice,
overlook the elementary character of much of the text.
Among the publications consulted in the preparation of the manu-
cipally designed
will
may be mentioned "Modern Machine-shop Practice/' by Joshua
Rose; "Modern Machine-shop Tools," by Vandervoort; and "Practical
Treatise on Gearing/' and other publications by The Brown and Sharpe
script
Manufacturing Company.
files
Frequent reference was also made to the
"The American Machinist " and "Machinery."
considerable number of the cuts which illustrate
of
the text were
made
expressly for this work; many others were loaned by manufacturers.
Grateful acknowledgment is here made to the friends who have
thus assisted us.
It
is
due to the manufacturers to explain that the
In a few
cuts used do not in every instance represent their best work.
cases the simpler machines were chosen in preference to the more elaborate designs, in order to illustrate a principle
edgments are due also to the publishers
more clearly. Acknowl"American Machinist,"
of the
who very
kindly presented a number of valuable electrotypes. During
the preparation of the manuscript the author was afflicted with a serious
strain.
Sincere thanks are tendered Mr. C. E.
Johnson, of the class of 1905, who in this emergency rendered valuable
assistance in connection with the drawings.
and persistent eye
W.
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MICHIGAN.
S. L.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS
AND METHODS
BY
W.
S.
LEONARD
Instructor in Machine-shop Practice
and
in Practical
Machine Design
Michigan Agricultural College
itt)
nearlji
700
Illustrations
THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED
FIRST THOUSAND
NEW YORK
JOHN" WILEY & SONS
LONDON
CHAPMAN & HALL,
1905
LIMITED
Engineering
Library
Copyright, 1905,
BY
W.
S.
LEONARD.
IOBERT DRrMMOXD, PRINTER, NEW YORK.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGES
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP.
CHAPTER
THE HAMMER AND
ITS
1-29
II
USE
30-36
CHAPTER
CHISELS
STANDARDS OF LENGTH.
III
THEIR FORMS AND USES
CHAPTER
37-43
IV
FILES AND FILING
44-59
CHAPTER V
THE SURFACE-PLATE AND SCRAPER
60-67
CHAPTER^ VI
THE VISE AND SOME VISE ACCESSORIES
CHAPTER
68-73
VII
DRILLING-MACHINES
74-111
CHAPTER
VIII
DRILLS AND DRILLING
112-124
CHAPTER IX
DRILL-SOCKETS, DRILL-CHUCKS, AND ACCESSORIES
125-131
CONTENTS
vi
CHAPTER X
PAGES
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
132-144
CHAPTER XI
LATHES
145-177
CHAPTER XII
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
CHAPTER
XIII
178-207
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
208-223
CHAPTER XIV
LATHE-CENTERS, WORK-CENTERS, ETC
224-232
CHAPTER XV
METHODS OP DRIVING
WORK
THE LATHE.
IN
DOGS AND CHUCKS
233-245
CHAPTER XVI
LATHE-ARBORS, OR MANDRELS, AND ARBOR-PRESSES
246-253
CHAPTER XVII
WORK
SOME EXAMPLES OP ENGINE-LATHE
254-277
CHAPTER XVIII
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
278-293
CHAPTER XIX
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES.
BOLT- AND NUT-THREADING MACHINES
294-313
CHAPTER XX
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
314-327
CHAPTER XXI
HORIZONTAL BORING- AND DRILLING-MACHINES AND WORK.
MACHINE
CRANK-BORING
328-341
CHAPTER XXII
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS, TOOLS AND
WORK
342-355
CONTENTS
vii
CHAPTER XXIII
PAGES
WORK
PLANERS AND SHAPERS AND PLANER AND SHAPER
SLOTTING-MACHINES AND THE
CHATTER XXIV
WORK TO WHICH THEY ARE ADAPTED
356-387
388-393
CHAPTER XXV
KEY-SEATING MACHINES AND KEYS
MILLING-MACHINES AND
394-396
CHAPTER XXVI
MILLING-MACHINE WORK
397-454
CHAPTER XXVII
SPECIAL GEAR-MACHINES
455-466
CHAPTER XXVIII
GRINDING-MACHINES AND METHODS
467-491
CHAPTER XXIX
POLISHING- AND BUFFING-WHEELS
492-495
CHAPTER XXX
THE INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURING
496-505
CHAPTER XXXI
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE-SHOP METHODS
506-512
CHAPTER XXXII
TABLES, RECIPES, ETC
513-520
APPENDIX
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
521-534
INDEX.
535-554
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
CHAPTER
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOPSTANDARDS OF
LENGTH
The British Yard.
by
A vast deal of time and energy have been expended
the nations of civilization in an endeavor to arrive at scientific stan-
The agitations of this question in the United States at
various times, and especially during the closing years of the nineteenth
century, indicate the importance with which the subject is viewed in this
dards of money.
Of scarcely less importance is a standard of length in the
mechanical world; and much labor and research have been directed
country.
towards establishing standards of length upon
scientific
bases.
The
final outcome of these efforts, so far as the English-speaking peoples
are concerned, was the British Imperial yard. The yard became the unit
of length in England by legal enactment in 1824, but the metallic repre-
Later a more accusentation of this unit was destroyed by fire in 1834.
and
to
its
was
rate standard
made,
being lost a number
provide against
made
and
with
other
were
countries.
This
of duplicates
deposited
standard was recognized by an Act of Parliament in 1855, and
a copy of it was presented to the United States in 1856.
"
"
This
Bailey's metal," a composition
yardstick" is made of
The
bar is 38" long by 1" square,
much
chosen after
experimentation.
later
and
lines
36" apart are marked upon gold studs sunk to
its
neutral
are thus placed as a provision against flexure. To
further provide against errors from this cause the positions of supporting the bar had been determined by elaborate calculations before the
lines were drawn.
As* all metals change in dimensions with variations
axis.
The studs
in temperature, the British
perature of 62 F.
yard was established as standard at a tem-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
After having been made with the greatest precision possible the
"yardstick" presented to the United States was found to be .000088"
short at 62 F. This, however, did not necessitate any alteration in
the bar, but merely suggested changing the temperature of the room
in
which
it
was kept. At 62.25 the bar is so nearly a duplicate of the
no difference can be discovered with the most costly and
original that
elaborate instruments.
The French Standard.
In their efforts to discover some natural
standard the French settled upon the ten-millionth part of a quadrant
of the earth through Paris.
This unit they called the metre and it is
equivalent to 39.37 English inches. To be independent of any instrufor gaging the temperature the French made the metre standard
ment
at the temperature of melting ice, or 32
F.
While the English sys-
tem predominates in America, the metric system is used to a considerable extent, and it is generally preferred in scientific investigations.*
The manufacturers of the measuring instruments sold to the public use as their guides duplicates of tVie authorized standard.
The
making
of these duplicates, as well as the production of the original,
For instance, the temperature of ths
involves very great refinements.
metallic bar being lower than that of the human body, special precau-
have to be taken when comparisons are made with duplicate stanOtherwise the heat of the body would expand the yardstick.
The high degree of refinement referred to above is, of course, unnecessary in average shop work, and is commercially impossible in all but ex-
tions
dards.
ceptional cases.
day practice
is
Nevertheless the degree of accuracy required in everysuch as to justify the great expense of establishing and
maintaining an invariable standard. The necessity for this invariable
standard may be illustrated as follows: Suppose John Jones in Chicago
sends to
Brown
in
New York
for a gear to
fit
a 2" shaft.
Now
two
New York must
agree within about .001" with two inches
in Chicago or the gear will not fit.
Both must be Vis of the standard
yard, and both Jones and Brown must have means for determining
inches in
the two inches with practical accuracy. In this connection we shall
describe in detail the measuring-instruments of the machine-shop.
* In 1893 the standard
yardstick was superseded in the National Bureau of
Standards by the National Prototype Metre, Congress having in 1866 legalized the
metre.
metric system and defined the yard as 380
However, this action is not
%w
change the prevailing usage of the people.
very interesting account of the National Prototype Meter
likely to
National Bureau of Standards.
is
published by The
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
Rules,
Wood and
Steel.
The common boxwood
rule
is
familiar to
this rule is used for only very general and
all, but in the machine-shop
rule or scale being used for finer work.
the
steel
measurements,
rough
The boxwood rule is less accurate than the steel rule partly because
it is made with joints subject to wear, and also for reasons of minor im-
The steel rule~is made without any joint, and, while subject
some variation due to temperature changes, the material measured
is affected in very nearly the same ratio, and when made by a reliable
manufacturer the steel rule is a fairly accurate tool. It requires some
within .002" by a rule of any kind, and,
skill, however, to measure to, say,
as above indicated, the fit of many machine details is required to be
But for ordinary measurements, where the
well within this limit.
portance.
to
parts are not required to
fit
as a gear should
fit its
shaft, the steel rule
These rules are made in various graduations, widths,
Figs. 2 and 3
Fig. 1 shows a common form.
lengths, and shapes.
is
satisfactory.
FIG.
1.
FIG.
2.
FIG. 3.
show respectively a square rule and a
shown in Fig. 4 is a very convenient
by
it
one point of the caliper
is
triangular rule.
tool.
The hook
rule
In setting inside calipers
held against the hook, while the other
adjusted to the required dimension. This rule is advantageous,
point
in
measuring the distance from a recess in the hub of a pulley,
also,
The
for instance, to the end of the hub, and in many other ways.
is
hook
may
be detached from the rule by turning the eccentric screw
one-half revolution.
Common
Machinists' Calipers.
also for transferring dimensions
In
fitting
from the
one piece to another, and
steel rule,
common
calipers
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
are frequently used.
joint
and
are made in two leading designs, frictionThese again have various modifications, but
They
spring-joint.
the modifications are not of sufficient importance to justify a detailed
description within the scope of this work.
Fig. 5 shows an outside
It is used generally for outside dimensions, and
spring-joint caliper.
especially for calipering the diameters of cylinders.
Fig. 6 is an inside
FIG.
4.
5.
FIG.
6.
Its principal use is that of calipercaliper of the same design as Fig. 5.
ing internal diameters, but it may also be used for rectangular and
other shaped openings. These calipers are often made with " solid "
nuts, but the designs here shown have spring-nuts.
Slight pressure
on the knurled end of the nut causes disengagement of the thread in
\
the nut,
when
caliper to
it
may
open or
be quickly moved along the screw, allowing the
close in
an
instant.
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
The
calipers
shown
in Figs. 7
and 8 are good examples
of the friction
or firm-joint pattern. Spring-joint calipers are adjusted by screw and
nut, but the old style firm-joint calipers are adjusted by repeated light
taps of the caliper limb against some convenient object preferably a
t
to be a very awkward method;
appeaj
nevertheless some good mechanics prefer these calipers to the spring-
block of wood.
This
may
joint design.
The instrument shown
reality
it
in Fig. 9
is
known
combines in one tool an inside
as a double caliper.
caliper,
In
an hermaphrodite, and
FIG. 7.
FIG. 9.
The double joints admit of the caliper being used with advanin
boring-bar work. By adjusting the joints so as to bring the
tage
legs parallel the points of the caliper will enter a narrow space between
dividers.
a boring-bar and hole which could not be reached by the single-joint
This will often save the trouble of taking the boring-bar out
caliper.
to caliper the hole.
Universal Dividers. A very unique and handy tool is illustrated
The manufacturers call this instrument "universal
in Figs. 10 and 11.
dividers."
By inclining the adjustable point inward
may be drawn. When reversed the point
small circles
as shown, very
will work closer
to shoulders, and draw larger circles than is possible with other dividers
of this character which have straight points.
Any one of the points
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
B, C, D, or V may be inserted in place of either of the points shown
B is a needle-point, C a pen-point attachment,
in the instrument.
an extra straight point and socket, and V a center point designed as a
guide when drawing circles concentric with a reamed center in the end
of a shaft.
A pencil-point may also be used in one of the sockets. An
FIG. 10.
auxiliary beam long
the instrument.
FIG. 11.
enough
drawing 25"
for
circles is furnished
with
Hermaphrodite Caliper. The tool shown in Fig. 12 is commonly
known as the hermaphrodite caliper a very awkward name. In spite
of its name this is quite a useful instrument.
It is used in the same
a
uses
a
that
when
carpenter
marking-gage
way
drawing lines parallel
with the edges of rectangular objects. It can be used also to draw
concentric arcs on the end of a cylinder or circular disk. In drawing
these arcs the legs of the caliper should be held in radial lines, the caliperpoint being pressed against and
moved around
the periphery of the
circle.
Thread-calipers.
The
calipers
shown
in Figs. 13, 14
and 15 are
called
respectively thread-calipers, outside-thread calipers, and inside-thread
The points of Fig. 13 are made quite broad to give a more
calipers.
reliable contact
on
and U.
S.
standard threads.
In order to measure
the small diameter at the root of a screw-thread the points of Fig. 14
are made thin.
Fig. 15 is designed to measure the greater diameter
of internal thread.
screw-thread
is
more
difficult
to measure accu-
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
FIG. 12.
FIG. 14.
FIG. 13.
FIG. 15.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
than a plain cylinder, and these tools are not reliable for closescrews. They answer well enough for approximate measurements, but one of the tools mentioned later should be used for more
rately
fitting
exacting requirements. Otherwise the screw
in the threaded hole must be the final test.
itself
applied
directly
Setting Calipers. To make an accurate measurement with the inside caliper, hold one leg against the inside of the hole and adjust and
vibrate the other leg until its point just touches the part of the hole
diametrically opposite.
To
transfer the
measurement from the
inside
caliper to the outside, place the extreme point of one leg of the outside caliper in contact with the similar point of the inside caliper, and
vibrate and adjust the other leg of the outside caliper until its extreme
Great
point just touches the other extreme point of the inside caliper.
care must be taken to find these extreme points, and the caliper must
be forced over in the least degree.
another caliper, or over a shaft, will cause
Forcing the caliper over
not
it
to register falsely and lead
to misfits.
The Vernier Caliper. The Vernier caliper is a measuring-instrument much used in tool-making and other fine work. It takes its
name from Pierre Vernier, who invented the method of graduating
which admits of reading by the unaided eye dimensions which could
not thus be read from a common rule. The instrument is based on
the principle that the eye can discover when two lines are coincident,
but cannot determine their distance apart when they are not coinciIt is designed
dent. Fig. 16 shows a small pocket Vernier caliper.
FIG. 16.
for
both outside and inside measurements, the outside measurements
being taken between the jaws at 0, and the inside over the jaws at 7.
There are two leading systems of graduation used on machine-
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
shop Vernier
The
calipers.
scale
of the caliper
shown
in the figure
is divided into /&o",
/io", /2", etc., the smallest divisions being equal
on the vernier V equal nineteen of the
divisions
to .020". Twenty
scale.
the
on
The difference between a division on
divisions
smallest
l
the vernier and one on the scale (smallest divisions being meant in
both cases) is, therefore- for this" instrument 1 /2oX 1 /50 (or .05X.02)
= .001". On the other caliper the smallest scale divisions equal .025"
l
the vernier equal twenty-four
/4o", and twenty-five divisions on
on the scale, the difference being l /2B^/4o (or .04 X. 025) = .001.
Then starting at zero with either instrument, moving the vernier jaw
until its second line coincides with the second line on the scale will give
or
.001" opening; moving the jaw to bring its third line coincident with
the next forward line on the scale will give .002" opening, etc. Thus,
to set the caliper shown in the figure:
Divide the number of thousandths of an inch in required dimenby number of thousandths in smallest division of the scale S
sion
both values being expressed as whole numbers. Move sliding jaw
until its zero-mark points off the number of divisions on the scale indicated by the whole number in the quotient. Move jaw further until
the line of the vernier corresponding to the number of thousandths
The
in the remainder coincides with the next forward line on the scale.
For
let it be required to
will
be
as
at
required.
example,
opening
137-^-20 = 6 as the whole
number in the quowe
move
the
So
sliding jaw (vernier
tient,
six
the
to
divisions
on
scale
distance
a
S, and then move
equal
jaw)
it further to bring its seventeenth division in line with the next forward division on the scale. If the required dimension be divisible
without a remainder by the number of thousandths in the smallest
scale division, the required dimension may be read from the scale as
would be done with a common scale.
set this caliper to .137".
with 17 as the remainder.
Applying the same rule to the other Vernier caliper and using the
same required dimension for opening of jaws we have 137 -j- 25 = 5
for the number of fortieths to be read from the scale, and 12 as the
number of thousandths to be measured by the vernier.
This instrument, the typical form of which
in Fig. 17, is perhaps more generally used than the Vernier
It consists of the U-shaped frame A, the anvil B, spindle C,
Micrometer-calipers.
is
shown
caliper.
and thimble E. The spindle is threaded on the concealed
end and screws through a fixed nut in the frame. In setting the instrument the thimble E is turned by the fingers, carrying the screw and
sleeve D,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
10
"
//
1
spindle with it. The thread on the screw is / 40 = .025 lead. Therefore one revolution of the thimble advances the spindle .025", which
is
equal to the smallest division on the sleeve D.
The beveled edge
graduated into twenty-five divisions. If then
1
1
division, the spindle will advance
/4oX /25 = -001".
of
is
mine the opening between
common
and C,
be turned one
Thus to
read the graduations on the
detersleeve
observing that each numbered division equals
Add to
.100", which corresponds to four revolutions of the thimble.
the value thus found as many thousandths of an inch as there are divias of a
sions
rule,
on the thimble between its zero and the longitudinal line on the
The sum gives the opening, which on the instrument of 'the
sleeve.
illustration
is
.178".
Some mechanics, when confused
as to the read-
A-FRAME
B-ANVIL
C-SPINDLF.
D-SLEEVE
E-THIMBLE
FIG. 17.
screw the spindle against the anvil and then unscrew it again,
noting the number of turns. Multiplying the number of turns by .025
and adding the thousandths indicated on the thimble gives the opening.
ing,
When
the zero of the thimble does
line of the sleeve the correction
by a small screw
at the outer
may
end
not- correspond to the zerobe made (in most micrometers)
of the anvil.
When a micrometer-caliper
has vernier graduations these are placed on the sleeve and read in connection with the .001" divisions on the thimble. Fig. 18 shows one
Vernier Graduation on Micrometers.
Ten of the vernier divisions or spaces at D equal
The thimble spaces being .001", the difference
1
1
1
=
The principle is, of course,
or .0001".
/ioooo
/iooo
/ioX
of these instruments.
nine on the thimble E.
equals
the same as explained in connection with Fig. 16, but the finest readings are in ten-thousandths, while the Vernier caliper of Fig. 16 reads
than thousandths.
Large Micrometer-calipers. Makers of micrometers furnish these
instruments with various modifications and minor improvements.
no
finer
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
11
One design is somewhat similar to the Vernier caliper of Fig. 16; but
instead of the vernier it has a micrometer-screw arrangement in the
end of the sliding jaw. The screw-thread is cut but little longer than
one inch (as is the case with most micrometers), but the sliding jaw
FIG. 18.
can be locked at intervals of one inch up to six inches from the fixed
Micrometers of the U-shaped pattern have been made with a
jaw.
measuring capacity of twelve inches. Sweet's measuring-machine,
Fig. 19,
is
a good example of a large micrometer.
Instead of having
FIG. 19.
l
/4o" lead, the screw in this instrument has either Vio" or /2o" lead.
As the range of the screw is but one inch, test-rods are furnished for
l
when measuring
greater dimensions. To guard
be
occasioned
might
by handling these rods (which
errors would be caused by the temperature of the hand), the rods are
covered with rubber sleeves. This provision emphasizes the precau-
the
zero
positions
against errors that
tions necessary in very fine measurements.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
12
Methods of Compensating for Errors in Screws.
There is considerable
making screws sufficiently accurate for measuring-instruThis difficulty is due in part to commercial considerations
difficulty in
ments.
the price must not be prohibitive. A method of compensating for
minute errors in screws is illustrated in Fig. 20. Referring to this
figure, which shows an instrument of the same design as that represented
in Fig. 17, E is the thimble, D the sleeve, C the spindle, and B the anvil.
As the thimble revolves in the direction of the arrow it is advanced
by the concealed screw toward the zero-mark, 0. Suppose that this
//
1
Then will the zero-mark on the beveled
is exactly
lead.
/4o
screw
FIG. 20.
1
//
edge of the thimble indicate /4o advance for each revolution or for
each time it passes a line P, drawn parallel with the axis of the thimble.
If,
it
l
however, the lead of the screw be slightly greater than /4o", then
//
1
will require less than one revolution to advance the thimble /4o
and
..
the line
at X.
should be drawn at some angle with the axis of the spindle, as
This line
may be marked as follows Starting with the anvil B
and spindle C
ends, establish
in contact,
first
both
and
being assumed to have
the two zero-marks on sleeve and thimble.
flat
Now
unscrew C, and with a test-piece 1 /4o" long resting against B, screw C
A point marked on the sleeve coincident with
.against the test-piece.
In a similar
the zero-mark of the thimble will lie on the required line.
manner, and with other test-pieces varying in length by fortieths of an
A
inch, any number of points in the required line may be established.
detachable bar graduated and set to the required angle is used on some
If the screw of the instrument be of irregular lead, the
instruments.
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
13
may be considerably curved. This compensating method involves
an important principle, which may admit of other applications in conline
nection with screws.
This process of establishing* By test-pieces points on the graduated
a micrometer is not knowg, by the writer to have been used, but
line of
it is
mentioned for the instruction of the student as a possible method.
line itself is known to have been used for correct-
However, the angular
ing, or compensating
for,
errors in screws.
The Pratt and Whitney Measuring-machine.
alluded to the refinements necessary in making
standard yard, in originating standard gages,
We
have already
subdivisions of the
etc.
Fig.
21
shows a
purpose. An adequate description of this machine
The manufacturers claim
is impossible within the space here available.
//
1
it
within
This is about
that
readily indicates variations
/iooooo
machine
for this
/30o the thickness of
common
newspaper.
have a measuring capacity of SO".
or the metric system as required.
They
Screw-thread Micrometer-caliper.
ard and V-shaped screws there
is
The
are
largest of these
made
machines
for either the English
For measuring the U.
S.
a special micrometer-caliper.
stand-
The
measuring-points of this instrument are of special construction, as shown
in Fig. 20, the movable point being cone-shaped and the fixed point V-shaped. Thus the points are in contact on the angular sides of the
thread rather than at top or bottom, and the dimension registered is
the pitch diameter. To obtain the outside diameter we add to the pitch
diameter .6495" divided by the number of threads per inch for U.
standard, and .866" divided by the number of threads per inch for
S.
thread.
The Inside Micrometer-gage shown
for internal
measurements, but
was designed primarily
and in other ways.
an inch, and the screw has a movement
calipers,
of
in Fig. 22
may be used as an end gage, for setting
The thimble is graduated to thousandths
it
of half an inch.
By using
with the instrument, measurebe made in thousandths of an inch from 3 to 6 inches.
the extension rods
ments
may
Fig. 23
shown
in connection
shows a Micrometer Depth Gage.
V grooves
The measuring-rod on
an inch apart
(as have
and the screw has a movement
of half an inch.
By an ingenious clamping device near the end of the
thimble the rod may be adjusted and clamped at intervals of half an
ff
The thimble is graduated to read to thousandths
inch from zero to 2 /2
of an inch, and by this means, in connection with the screw, any dimen-
this
instrument has
little
shown
also the extension-rods
exactly half
in Fig. 22)
'
.'1~~
^-; x
vS
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
sions
15
between the notches may be measured in thousandths of an inch.
is used in measuring the depth of slots, drilled holes, etc.
This instrument
Inside Micrometer Caliper
FIG. 22.
5482
IE
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
16
caliper
form they are as well adapted
for cylindrical.
The
for
measuring rectangular shapes as
caliper-gage should not be applied to a shaft while
the shaft is turning; for, notwithstanding it is made quite rigid, it is likely
to be sprung out of shape if used in this manner.
Obviously it may
be used to set common calipers by, as well as for direct measurement.
All things considered, the caliper-gage
instrument used in the shop.
is
and Plug-gages (Figs. 26 and 27)
Collar- and plug-gages
cylindrical in form and are preferred by some mechanics because
Collarare
the best standard measuring-
FIG. 27.
FIG. 26.
of their greater durability and because they are more reliable for cylindrical shapes than the caliper-gage.
But the collar cannot be applied
to rectangular shapes, nor can it be applied to such work as crank-pins,
and similar work having a small diameter between two larger diameters.
The
cost
is
than that of the caliper-gage.
The limit-gage is used where
28).
also greater
Limit-gages (Fig.
accuracy is not required.
It
is
extreme
always made with two dimensions,
FIG
28.
one larger and one smaller than the nominal size. It is intended that
the larger size shall go on, and the smaller size not go on, the work.
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
if
Thus,
17
the piece of work is made of a size between the two sizes of the
considered sufficiently accurate for the work in hand. The
is
it
gage,
difference between the
and may vary from
two
depends upon the quality of the work
an inch. The limit-gage is made
sizes
.001 to .00$ of
both in the internal and external form.
Machining work to an exact
very expensive, and it is obvious
can be used, is a great time-saver. In
of machinery, where competition is very close, it has been
that the limit-gage, wherever
some
lines
found
well-nigh
The
indispensable.
modern tool, and it
more generally used
An
size is
it
Adjustable Limit-gage
that the adjustment
is
limit-gage
not fully appreciated; but
in the future.
is
is
is
shown
effected
in Fig. 29.
it
comparatively
be
will doubtless
It will
by the screws shown.
be understood
These gages
FIG. 29.
could be
made with micrometer-screws and thus
the difference would
be registered.
A gage of this form having only one screw is called a snap-gage.
External and Internal Thread-gages. In Figs. 30 and 31 are represented external and internal standard thread-gages. The slight adjust-
ment provided
in Fig. 30
is
not intended for different
sizes,
but rather
In the manufacture of
to compensate for wear of the instrument.
in
case
in
which
and
other
accurate measurement
and
dies,
any
taps
of screws
collar
is
necessary, these instruments are very reliable.
and plug-gages are to the micrometer-calipers, so are these
As the
instru-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
18
ments to the screw-thread micrometer, and by some they are used in
preference to the latter instrument. The blank end of Fig. 31 is a
gage for the hole before thread
is
cut.
FIG. 30
FIG. 31.
Thread- and Center-gage (Fig. 32). One of the smallest standard
gages used in the machine-shop is the thread-gage. This is used not
only for testing the shape of the thread-tool, but also for setting the
tool when cutting thread in the lathe.
It is used on U. S. standard
FIG. 32.
and V-shaped threads
for
threads.
for setting the tools,
and
It has still another application:
in grinding
the tools
the U. S. standard
and V-shaped threads, having the same angle as lathe-centers, 60, the
large V on the end of the gage is used to test the conical end of the lathecenter.
For this reason it is sometimes called a center-gage.
The
use of the instrument for setting a thread-tool will be more particularly
described in connection with the subject of screw-cutting.
in Fig. 33 is used for testing the shape of thread-
The gage shown
tools for U. S. standard thread.
The thread-pitch gage is someThread-pitch Gage (Fig. 34).
times confused with the thread-gage. The purpose of this instrument
is not to test the angles of the
It
thread, but the pitch of the thread.
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
19
number of gages hinged on a common center, each of which
to
one particular pitch, which pitch is indicated on the gage.
adapted
consists of a
is
FIG. 33.
Another
Distinction between Templets and Gages.
Templets.
instrument used to some extent is the templet. There is some confusion in the
minds
of
mechanics respecting the distinction between
FIG. 34.
templets and gages. A templet is a pattern by which to mark off the
shape of a piece of work or to mark positions for holes, etc. Templets
are generally made of sheet steel. A gage is a standard of measure-
ment
or
or shape, but a gage
size,
may
be used as a pattern to mark off a shape
test a shape; there is, therefore,
and a templet may be used to
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
20
an overlapping
hence the confusion. A gage, howmore frequently used for regular shapes
and sizes, and a templet for special or more com-
of the definitions,
ever,
is
plicated shapes.
Surface-gages. The surface-gage is quite a
departure, both in its design and in its use, from
any of the instruments heretofore described.
It
typical form of this tool is shown in Fig. 35.
consists of a base similar to that of an ordinarylamp, and a central stem, which stem carries a
needle and a clamp by which the needle
may
be
held in any position on the stem. This instrument is used in connection with a base-plate for
establishing centers, marking center lines, etc.,
when
laying out work.
work on a
planer,
It is also
used to adjust
and sometimes on the lathe and
drill-press.
special design of this instrument is so constructed as to admit of its use on cylinders. This
modified design ha a V-shaped grooved cut lengthwise through the base by which the gage may be
FIG. 35.
revolved around the cylinder to mark concentric
circles on the end of the cylinder, as shown in Fig.
It may also be used for small work in general.
36.
Twist-drill
Gages, etc. There is a class of gages used
Wire-gages,
for measuring sheet metal, wire, etc., in which the sizes, with few excep-
FIG. 36.
denoted by numbers. The most common forms are the circular disk with slots cut in the periphery, the rectangular plate with slots
in the two edges, and the rectangular plate with a long angular slot
tions, are
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
21
lengthwise of the plate.; These are shown in Figs. 37, 38, and 39 respectNumbers near the slots indicate the dimensions, the wire or
the plate being measured by passing either into the slot. In the case
ively.
the article
of the gage having angular
openings
is
passed
down the
FIG. 37.
9l
000
Sl
00
FIG. 38.
FIG. 39.
slot until
it
touches two sides, the number at the points of contact indiThe method of using the drill-gage will be readily
cating the size.
understood.
As the numbers of most of the gages are arbitrary, one must be
familiar with the significance of the numbers, or consult a table to ascer-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
22
tain the values.
There would be no serious trouble here were it not
many different gages, and so few persons
for the fact that there are so
understand the usage prevailing among the manufacturers, or the importance of specifying the gage to be used.
Ignorance on this subject has
caused delays, endless disputes, and sometimes expensive lawsuits.
The following table, which is not complete for any of the gages,
and corresponding values of most of the
gages used in this country, and some that are used in foreign countries.
gives the names, numbers,
(8-0, 7-0, etc.
=00000000, 0000000,
etc.)
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
23
and seamless brass .tubing they use the English gage. The gage
of column 9, known as the United States standard, was established in
1893 by Congress as the standard, for sheet and plate iron and steel.
It is used in determining duties* and taxes on the above materials, and
quite generally by manufacturers $f sheet iron and steel for thicknesses
below about Vie"- For heavier sheets or plates the Birmingham gage
In ordering any of the above materials the gage to be
is used, as a rule.
wire,
used should be specified.
As the Stubs' gages are used extensively in America,
to distinguish between the Stubs' wire-gage
and Stubs'
steel-wire
gage.
It
it is
important
should be
noted, also, that Stubs' wire-gage, the English
wire-gage, and the Birmingham gage are one
and the same. The Imperial wire-gage, which
was adopted by Parliament in 1884 as the
English standard, is not used to any great
extent in this country. Neither is the "Old
English" or London gage (which, as shown
in the catalog of Merchant & Company of
Philadelphia, agrees with
Birmingham
in all
between 0000 and
18) used to any
considerable extent in America. Confusion
sizes
respecting the identity of the gages will, in
a large measure, be avoided by attention to
the names given in the preceding table.
The
Gage of column 8 and
sometimes
used for measurFig. 40, though
Twist-drill
the Stubs' drill-gage, and differs
from the Stubs' steel-wire gage,
with which it is sometimes confused. Indeed,
ing wire,
but
it
is
little
follows Stubs' steel-wire gage exactly for
sizes larger
than No.
1,
which
sizes
in
both
these gages are designated by letters.
Thus, A = .234" diameter, B = .238" diameter,
of
FIG. 40.
the largest size, Z, equaling .413" diamThis gage is practically the standard of numbered drill-gages for
eter.
the United States. It is very seldom that any other numbered gage is
etc.,
used for measuring drills in this country.
There is a drill-gage in common use
gage,
on which numbers are not used.
known
On
this
as the "jobbers'" drill-
gage the dimensions are
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
24
given in binary divisions of the inch, and
Vie an d
it
includes
all
the sizes between
/2 inch by sixty-fourths of an inch.
The Gage for Wood and Machine Screws is regarded as the standard
of numbered gages in America for the purposes indicated, although the
"
fractional sizes" (Vie,
jobbers' drill-gage is used to some extent for
Vs,
etc).
We
cannot, within the space of this work, discuss the principles
of the various gages, but, because of its radical and significant difference,
the theory of the Edison gage is briefly outlined. The Engineering
Department of the Edison Company designed this gage with special
reference to electrical requirements.
It is based on the sectional area
of the wire, the number indicating the number of thousands of circular
mils.
few
sizes are
here given:
Gage Number.
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
25
shows the method of applying it to a shaft. Slight pressure at P causes
the two edges to lie parallel with the axis of the shaft, when the lines
may be drawn along the edge w^th a scriber.
FIG. 41.
FIG. 42.
FIG. 43.
FIG. 44.
Machinists' Try-squares. It is unnecessary to enter into a lengthy
A brief reference to a few of the
description of machinists' squares.
more modern instruments will be sufficient. Fig. 44 shows a square
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
26
Each blade fits into the stock, and is held
of
means
the
thumb-nut shown at bottom of the stock.
and adjusted by
is
to
30 and 45 degrees on the two ends. The
One of the blades
shaped
convenient
for die-sinking and similar fine work.
is
narrow blade
very
of
this
feature
The special
square is the provision for endwise adjustblades.
the
ment of
The Combination Square shown in Fig. 45 is very much in favor.
with three different blades.
combines in one instrument a square, center head, bevel protractor,
Each of the first four may be quickly detached
spirit-bevel, and rule.
While these tools are fairly
or used interchangeably with the rule.
It
FIG. 45.
not likely that they can be depended upon to hold their
original accuracy as long as the best solid steel square with hardened
stock and blades.
in the
Fig. 46, which is taken from an article by "E. A. R."
reliable, it is
''American Machinist/' vol. 27, page 287, shows how the combination
square may be used to measure tapers. The degree of taper is indicated on the instrument
Fig. 47 shows a universal bevel protractor, and Fig. 48 shows its
.
application to a variety of cases.
In the preceding pages we have described the principal measuringinstruments used in the machine-shop, and have referred to the high
degree of accuracy possible in the use of some of these tools. But it
should be understood that different classes of work require different degrees
he is the best mechanic who
of accuracy, and, other things being equal,
knows about what degree
may
be a very
skillful
One
is needed in each case.
commercial
a
from
a
failure
be
yet
of refinement
workman and
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
American.Machinwt
FIG. 46.
FIG. 47.
27
28
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
standpoint. It was this difference in judgment that led to the invention and development of the limit-gage.
There is an impression that
this instrument was designed for very fine and accurate
work, but from
THE L.S.STARRETT
ATHOL.MASS.
CO.
U.S.A.
FIG. 48.
the above considerations, and what was previously said in this connection, it will be seen that the limit-gage is intended rather to pre-
vent workmen from wasting time by being more exact than necessary.
Caliper-gages and collar- and plug-gages are adapted to a higher degree
As the plug-gage will not enter the hole until the latter
of accuracy.
THE MEASURING SYSTEM OF THE MACHINE-SHOP
is
as large as the gage,
it is
necessary to use
common
29
machinists' calipers
some other adjustable measuring-tool in connection with this gage.
The same remark applies to inside caliper-gages, and with slight modification to collar- and caliper-gages for outside measurements.
A Peculiar Phenomenon. ,uch tools as caliper- and plug-gages
are machined to approximate dimensions of untempered steel and then
or
hardened.
machinery.
Later
they
But the
ment immediately
ground to final dimensions by special
seems to resent being subjected to any treat-
are
steel
after the hardening process.
Following this fiery
If not allowed this "seaordeal the metal requires a prolonged rest.
soning," the gages will change in size or become otherwise distorted.
Several months are required to thoroughly season such tools.
CHAPTER
II
THE HAMMER AND
ITS
USE
Three Common Forms of the Hammer Material, Weight, etc.
The hammer is one of the oldest instruments connected with industrial art.
To trace its invention would necessitate a search through the remotest
records of history.
Notwithstanding its resonant din was not permitted within the walls of Solomon's temple, this humble tool was
indispensably associated with some of the noblest structures of antiquity.
FIG. 49.
The three forms
mer with flat peen
flat
FIG. 50.
of the
hammer
in
FIG. 51.
most common use
parallel to handle (Fig. 49);
peen at right angles to the handle
(Fig. 50)
are:
second,
and
first,
hammer
hamwith
third, the ball-peen
hammer
Hammers are always made of tool-steel and tem(Fig. 51).
pered on each end about as hard as they will stand without breaking,
the eye being left soft. As used in the machine-shop they are made
in sizes varying from 6 to 28 ounces.
The smaller sizes, from 6 to 16
30
THE HAMMER AND
ITS
USE
31
ounces, are used for light riveting, laying out work, etc. The heavy
sizes are used for heavy riveting, chipping, and for general shop work.
The word "peen" refers to the upper end of the hammer the end
used in riveting.
Used
as a verb,
as in straightening a shaft.
means
to stretch by hammer-blows,
end
of the hammer is called
The^ther
it
The opening "in the center, called the eye, is
oval-shaped and made flaring or larger at each end than in
the middle. The handle should be so fitted to the eye that
a plane passing through the axis of the hammer would bisect
head.
the
the handle through its long diameter, as at A B, Fig. 52.
If the handle be otherwise set, a slight twisting motion
of the workman's hand will be necessary in order to make
the
hammer
strike
a square blow.
that the handle should set at
the
Some
authorities say
right angles to the axis of
hammer, but the writer has observed that many ma-
chinists prefer to incline the handle slightly in the direction
It should never incline in the oppoof the hammer-head.
site
direction.
The hammer
is
held on the handle
'
'
by a
small metal wedge which spreads the end of the handle, causing it to
The wedge should be nicked somewhat like a rasp
fill the flaring eye.
In order to impart a certain flexito keep it from being jarred loose.
handle it is made of smaller cross-section near the hammer or at the neck of the handle. The shock of the blow is by this
means partly neutralized and the use of the hammer is rendered less
bility to the
That part of the head which takes the blow is called the
made slightly "crowning," or high in the center.
Proper Method of Using the Hammer. Some persons swing a hammer as they would a bat. This is a very awkward method. In striking
a blow the hammer should move in a plane but slightly inclined from
tiresome.
face.
It
is
In using the hammer the handle should not be gripped in
the middle, as the beginner is likely to do, but near the end; and for the
heaviest work it should be held at the extreme end. In this connection
the vertical.
the writer recalls a story, read in some technical journal, which is substantially as follows: Bill Shirk applied to John Littlepay & Co. for a
"job," and was set to work at $1.75 per day. Soon afterward the fore-
man
noticed that Shirk held his
hammer
near the neck of the handle,
him about it. In replying, Shirk held up the hammer,
marks on the handle. The first was $1.75, the middle one
three
exposing
mark on the extreme end $3. He explained that the
the
and
$2.50,
marks indicated the relation between wages and work, and that it was
and spoke
to
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
32
work for $1.75 pay. Now that man's
Not only does it make one appear
were
wrong.
entirely
principles
awkward and inexperienced to grip the hammer-handle at the neck,
but when the motive is that of Bill Shirk, or when the workman is so
particular about gaging his work according to wages, he is very likely
to have to continue at low wages.
Furthermore, such a conception of
Work
one's calling, however humble that calling may be, is degrading.
is simply another word for duty, and that word is sacred.
"My Father
worketh hitherto and I work," said the Divine Teacher. Then let us
"
give to life's duties the best that is in us, whether we get "value received
against his principles to do S3
or not.
Another awkward practice on the
Striking Two Blows for One.
part of the novice is that of striking two blows for one a heavy blow and
then a light one. The student may as well overcome this fault in the
beginning.
He
Riveting.
and
riveting.
can make but little progress after this fashion.
The peen end of a hammer is used mainly for peening
The word peen has already been denned. Riveting is
the process of upsetting by hammer-blows, or by machine, a pin or rivet
to fasten two pieces of metal together.
Riveting as used in connection
FIG. 53.
with boilers
is
sometimes done by hand and sometimes by machine, and
the rivets are always heated. In riveting in the machine-shop the rivet,
A plain pin is inserted, as at C (Fig. 53), and the ends
as a rule, is cold.
hammered down to fill the countersink, as at or E\ or a rivet is used,
While one end of the
as at F, in which case one end only is riveted.
rivet is being hammered the other end must be supported by an anvil or
any other suitable means.
For
Figs. 54 and 55 show a special method for riveting large pins.
this method the pin is placed in the lathe and the end recessed or cupped
to be pounded down, rather than
out, leaving a circular edge or ring
method is sometimes used for the
This
the
rivet.
the whole end area of
crank-pins of engines, and
may
be used on any pins of about one inch
THE HAMMER AND
ITS
USE
33
diameter and larger. If the end of the rivet is to present a rounded or
crowned finish, care should be taken that the pin be made long enough
in
have the bottom of the recessed surface project slightly beyond the
surface of the crank disk or other work for which the rivet may be used.
In riveting, the force of the blow should be proportioned to suit
to
the size of the rivet ; comparatively speakblows affect the end of the rivet,
ing, light
while heavy blows tend to bulge the rivet in
the center respecting its length.
Straightening
Shafts
by Peening, by
Screw-press, etc. In the case of a bent or
curved shaft the concave side of the shaft
FIG. 55.
FIG. 54.
is
shorter than the convex side,
and
in
straightening the shaft it is
That the concave
required to make the two sides equal in length.
side is shorter than the convex will be apparent
curved shaft as the sector of a circle
if
if
we
consider the
sufficiently extended, the shaft
make a complete
One method of straightening such a shaft is to place it on the centers
the lathe, pry up the convex side by a lever, and peen by light ham-
will
in
circle.
mer-blows the upper
found to be straight.
side.
To
This should be repeated until the shaft is
convex side of a shaft we revolve
find the
the shaft in the lathe and move a piece of chalk carefully toward the
shaft until it touches the latter. The chalk will mark the convex side.
As a more accurate method we may fasten a
tool in the tool-post of the
lathe, and, while running the lathe backwards, feed the tool toward the
shaft until it touches the convex side. This method of straightening
shafts applies in the case of an old shaft, but is not adapted to shafts
which have to be machined. The reason why it is not adapted to shafts
which have to be machined or turned is that the peening affects only the
outer surface of the shaft, and the turning removes this outer surface,
thereby partially neutralizing the effect of the peening.
For straightening shafts which are to be turned the screw-press method
should generally be used, and in the case of a very large shaft
it is
some-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
34
times necessary to heat the shaft. Lathes designed especially for turning shafting are generally provided with a suitable screw-press. This
device consists essentially of a base and U-shaped standard, with a large
screw passing through the projecting arm of the standard. It usually
has four rollers designed to roll along the ways of the lathe. When
a shaft is to be straightened it is placed in the lathe and the convex side
The
found as above described.
the shaft.
press
is
now moved
along the ways of
about central with the convex portion of
With the convex side of the shaft uppermost, and the under
the lathe until the screw
is
two points on the base of the press, the
applied by the screw and a lever. The screw is next released
and the shaft again revolved to ascertain if the curved portion has been
side of the shaft supported at
pressure
is
When
straight the chalk will make a continuous mark
not straight, the process is repeated.
Straightening a Long Bar of Cast Iron. For straightening a bar
of cast iron (not a regular shaft) we usually ascertain the point of curva-
straightened.
around the shaft;
ture
by means
if
of a straight-edge.
Having found the convex
portion,
placed over an anvil or other suitable support, with concave side
up, and pressure applied by hand to the ends of the bar. The bar is
then peened on the concave side and again tested with straight-edge,
it is
the process being repeated until the bar
is
found to be straight.
however, another method which has some advantages;
The bar or slab is dropped over a
this we call the dropping process.
solid block of wood, the convex side striking the wood and the curvature
being corrected by the momentum of the free ends of the bar. This
There
is,
avoids the bruising incident to the peening process, and in the hands
of skillful workmen gives very satisfactory results.
Care should be
taken, however, to avoid dropping the bar too heavily, as there is some
bar of cast iron may also be broken by applying
danger of breaking it.
too great pressure while peening
it.
Peening a Connecting-rod Strap. That detail on a steam-engine
which binds the crank-pin brasses to the connecting-rod is called a strap,
or a connecting-rod strap. There is also the cross-head strap and the
eccentric-strap, the latter serving a somewhat different purpose from
the other two. Fig. 56 shows a connecting-rod strap. From various
causes, sometimes due to errors in machining the straps, and at other
tunes due to hard usage, these straps become spread, so that the opening
is wider at A than at B.
A knowledge of peening is very useful in this
case.
By holding the strap over a block of copper, or Babbitt metal,
or hard wood, and applying pressure by a carpenter's clamp or other-
THE HAMMER AND
wise to
by
ITS
USE
35
draw the strap sides closer together at A the strap may be peened
hammer-blows at C until the error is corrected
If the sides
,
light
of the strap at
be too close to-
gether, the peening would of course
be needed on the opposite side.
Enlarging
Peening.
Fig.
Piston-ring by
57 shows one form
of piston-packing or a piston-ring.
of this device is to form
The object
a
steam-tight
walls
of
joint
between
steam-engine
the
cylinder
This
and its reciprocating piston.
form of ring is commonly made
FIG. 57.
FIG. 56.
in
diameter
than
the
slightly larger
If by long usage
cylinder-bore, and sprung to its place on the piston.
it becomes too small to make a good joint, it may be enlarged by peenThe ring should be supported on a block of
ing the inside surface.
hard wood or bar of Babbitt metal, and lightly peened throughout its
inner circumference, being frequently tested to ascertain whether it
has been sufficiently spread.
Piston-rings are usually made of cast
iron and special care is required in peening light sections of this material.
Soft Hammers.
There is a modified form of hammer, sometimes
called a mallet, which should be used more frequently in the machineshop than it is. These hammers are made of copper, Babbitt metal,
or rawhide, and are used for driving mandrels in work or adjusting
work in the lathe, and in any case where it is desirable to avoid marring
Raw Hide
FIG. 58.
FIG. 59.
In the absence of such a hammer a block of hard wood
be used in connection with the ordinary hammer. For mandrels,
however, a mandrel-press should be used when one is available, though
finished work.
may
many
shops lack such a machine.
Figs.
a rawhide mallet and a lead mallet.
58 and 59 show respectively
rawhide mallet is made with
36
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
detachable heads or "faces" A, which fit in the metal (east-iron or drop
Extra faces are furnished very
forging) part of the hammer as shown.
cheaply by machinery supply houses. In the lead mallet the body B
may
be made of cast
iron, the lead being held in the dovetail
openings
on the ends. These lead faces may extend about 3 /47/ outside the cast
iron, and for forming the faces a kind of open-and-shut mold enclosing
the iron body may be used. Such molds may be purchased at the machinery supply stores.
CHAPTER
CHISELS: THEIR
Names
of Machinists' Chisels.
from other
3
chisels
by not having
"
III
FORMS AND USES
Machinists' chisels are distinguished
handles. They are generally made
octagonal tool-steel, and about 8" long when new, although
"
1
very delicate work they are sometimes made of / 2 steel. The
most common forms are the flat and cape chisels. Other chisels used
less frequently are the side chisel, the diamond-point chisel, the cowof
/4
for
mouth and the oil-groove chisels. The key-drift and pin-drift, while
somewhat similar to the chisel, are used for different purposes. The
center-punch and drift are modifications of the chisel.
The Flat Chisel (Fig. 60).
The flat chisel is tapered and flatJ
tened about
/3 its length to the cutting edge,
which
is
about
/32"
/4" steel and proportionThe smaller
ally thinner on smaller steel.
thick on the
are
proportionally shorter.
should
be forged about
The
at
the
wider
Vie"
cutting end excepting
when made especially for such soft metal
chisels
flat
as
also
chisel
Babbitt,
when
it
may
~"jT
be made as
much
as 50 per cent wider.
But unless there is a considerable quantity
work to do it will be hardly worth while to keep special chisels
It will pay, however, to grind the chisel to a sharper
for the purpose.
of such
included angle being about right for
Babbitt metal, lead, and copper. For chipping brass and reasonably
will answer, while for average steel 60
soft cast iron 45
would be
angle for the softer metals, 30
about right.
The experienced workman
will not require a gage to test the chisel
but
such
common
as are found on certain tools, have
angle,
angles,
been named as being convenient for those who prefer to use a gage.
Thus the
chisel for steel may be tested by a center-gage, which should
be carried in every machinist's kit.
37
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
38
CL in Fig. 60
Looking at the other
view, the end of the chisel may be square with the center line,
or slightly rounded, as at R.
Many machinists think they can do
smoother chipping with the chisel thus rounded.
The
flat chisel
should be so ground that the center line
shall bisect the angle of cutting edge, or angle a.
A fault
that the beginner is very likely to fall into is that of grinding
the extreme end at an angle with the flat sides,
D
D
<Q
EF should,
EF, Fig. 61. The line formed at
of course, be parallel with the sides,
two facets
should be quite flat.
as at
and the
FIG. 61.
The Cape-chisel. All that has been said respecting the flat chisel
applies equally well to the cape-chisel, excepting that the sides at right
angles to the cutting edge are narrower than the shank (octagonal
part),
and that the
they join
sides at right angles to these are spread wider
up some ugly capers
not properly forged and ground.
"
chisel will cut
if
If
not
GH
made narrower
where
The cape-
shank.
the
at
(see Fig. 62), it will,
AB
when
"~~
Tl
/^
than
*!TI111
FIG. 62.
the
corners wear dull or tapering at GH,
wedge and possibly break open a
frail piece in which it is being used
FIG. 63.
to cut a slot.
Referring to the end
view, if the sides IJ are not ground approximately at right angles with
KL, the chisel will twist and hang, and cannot be accurately guided
in a slot or keyway.
Fig. 63 shows a side view of the cape-chisel.
The Uses of Flat and Cape Chisels. The flat chisel is used prinIf
cipally on flat surfaces, but it is also used for general chipping.
we have a light cut to take from any metal surface, we use the flat
chisel,
the
but
if
flat chisel
we
are to cut Vs" deep,
by grooves cut with the
of these grooves should be less than
leaving narrow strips to be chipped
or deeper,
it is
better
to-
precede
The distance apart
cape-chisel.
the width of the flat chisel, thus
by the
latter.
This method
is
unnecessary when the area
The surface shown in Fig. 64 represents this preparais quite small.
tory grooving with the cape-chisel; the intervening strips are to be cut
used in chipping broad surfaces, but
away with the
it
is
flat chisel.
There are other uses for the cape-chisel than that just described.
used for cutting keyways in shafts, pulleys, gears, etc.; also for
cutting slots. In cutting a slot with the cape-chisel, however, the
It
is
CHISELS: THEIR FORMS
bulk of the metal
finished slot.
is
generally
This slot
M was
AND USES
removed by
first drilled
drilling.
with a
39
Fig. 65
drill
/^2 of
shows a
an inch
FIG. 64.
FIG. 65
smaller than the finished size, the distance apart of the centers of the
The metal between the
holes being equal to the width of the slot.
40
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
holes
is
When
cut out with a cape-chisel, and finished
smoothly with a file.
"
say 1V 2 or more, we sometimes trim the sides
slots are deep,
chisel.
The latter is seldom used for any other purpose.
In cutting a keyway with the cape-chisel, if the
keyway be made
6
/s of an inch, or narrower, the chisel should be about 1 / 32 of an inch
narrower than the finished keyway. The remainder is removed
with a side
by
FIG. 66.
the
file.
FIG. 67.
If the
keyway be
FIG. 68.
3
/4"> or wider,
FIG. 69.
it
is
better to use a cape-
than half the width of keyway and cut two grooves.
Forms afld Uses of Other Chisels. The diamond-point chisel shown
in Figs. 66 and 67 tak^s its name from the fact that a cross-section
near the point is approximately diamond-shaped. It is used for cutting
holes in boiler-plate, to correct errors in holes while drilling, and somechisel less
times for chipping oil-grooves in bearings. For the latter purpose, howIt
ever, the oil-groove chisel shown in Figs. 68 and 69 is preferable.
CHISELS: THEIR
is
FORMS AND USES
41
merely a diamond-point chisel with the cutting end curved to
use for the purpose named.
facilitate
its
The Side Chisel
all
on one
differs
from
side, as in Fig. 70.
The Cow-mouth Chisel
derives^
a better name would be gouge.
carpenter's gouge and is used
surfaces.
See Figs. 71 and 72.
FIG. 70.
Center-punch
FIG. 71.
is
in connection with the
the. flat chisel
only in having the taper
Its use has already
its
It is
been referred to.
its curved shape;
name from
shaped somewhat similar to the
for enlarging holes or chipping curved
FIG. 72.
FIG. 73.
a short punch with a conical point. It is used
to indent the centers and circles in work
hammer
preparatory to drilling, and in a similar manner to establish lines in
laying out work in general. In laying out machined surfaces it is often
more accurate to depend upon the lines, which in this case should be
very clearly denned.
Templets for important cams,
etc.,
are
often
made of sheet steel in the condition in which it comes from the mill.
To prepare such a surface for laying out it may be coated with a solution
Thus prepared the surface is in shape to take sharply
denned and permanent lines. Fig. 73 shows a set of center-punches;
of blue vitriol.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
42
two punches, one for punching small indentations in laying out work, and
a larger one for drilling, are sufficient.
A Drift (Fig. 74) is a tool that is sometimes used instead of a file
for enlarging holes, especially rectangular
pose
For the latter pur-
holes.
the cutting end
made
is
of rectangular
and equal in width to the finished
The drift has no proper cutting edge,
hole.
but the end is at right angles to the body and
cuts on the same principle as the punch used
cross-section
punching holes in
by hammer-blows.
in
boiler-plate.
It
is
driven
The Key-drift is a tool for driving keys
out of pulleys, gears, etc. Like the drift its
small end is rectangular in cross-section, but
it,
FIG. 75
FIG. 74.
of course,
See Fi S- 75
is
not intended to do any cutting.
The
punch
ments
for driving out pins
Pin-drift is merely a round tapering
which are used to hold such machine ele-
as crank-handles, levers, etc.
It is
shaped
like the center-punch,
and the taper longer.
Precaution to Avoid Breaking Edge
excepting that the point
Smooth Chipping.
is flat
off
of Work,
In chipping, the chisel should not be held near the cutting end,
but near the head. To do smooth work it is necessary to maintain a
etc.
constant inclination of chisel to the surface being chipped. The proper
inclination is easily determined during the first few blows of the hammer.
the angle be too great, the chisel will cut too deep; if too small, the
soon ceases to cut. The smaller the angle between center line
of chisel and surface of work, within the above limitations, the more
If
chisel
effective are the
hammer-blows, and consequently the greater the amount
But the smaller this angle, the sharper must
the angle at cutting edge be ground, and this, also, is limited by considerations previously indicated, viz., the chisel edge will get blunt
of
work accomplished.
ground to too sharp an angle.
should be kept well up against the shoulder formed by
If a particle of metal or a small chip gets under one corner
the cut.
A blow struck at that
of the chisel, it will cause that corner to lift.
too quickly
The
if
chisel
instant will
cause
the opposite
corner
to
cut
below the chipping
line.
When
the chisel approaches the edge of the surface
it
should be
reversed, or the cut should be taken at right angles to the preceding
CHISELS
THEIR FORMS AND USES
43
Otherwise the edge: of the metal, especially if it be cast iron, is
be broken.
Precautions in Grinding the Chisel. In drawing the temper on the
chisel it should be plunged in
at the time the color is changing
watej just
from straw to blue. In 'exceptional cases, however, as when chipping
extra-hard metal, the chisel may require to be made harder, but the
hammer-blows must be correspondingly light.
Otherwise the more
cut.
likely to
brittle
edge will
fail.
No matter how
carefully the chisel may be tempered it may be
few minutes by overheating the edge at the emery-wheel. To
avoid this a constant flow of water must be directed to the point of the
softened in a
chisel when grinding it.
If the emery-wheel have no automatic watersupply, the chisel must be frequently dipped in a pail of water. Grinding
the temper from the chisel is a common fault with beginners, and some-
times they botch their work by attempting to use the chisels in this
condition.
When to Use Chisels.
In general the chisel should not be used when
available for the work, because chipping is nearly always
a slower process than machining. The chisel may be used to cut off
a machine
is
and small irregularities from rough castings; for various odds
and ends, incident to the fitting of machine details together, and espe-
risers
cially in emergencies, or when not within reach of a machine-shop.
In order to have an ever-ready and a systematic means of imparting
instruction, an instructor may require a student to chip pieces which
would otherwise be machined.
In this chapter we have discussed the principal
affecting the quality
and quantity
of
work
considerations
possible with the chisel.
Failing to be instructed in these particulars the student will pay for
work required in filing away the irregu-
his heedlessness in the extra
larities left
by the
chisel.
CHAPTER
FILES
Definition
AND FILING
and General Remarks.
sary in this connection, but the
IV
file
definition
may be
is
scarcely necesdefined as a bar of tool-steel
pointed at one end to receive the handle, and having cutting edges
or teeth extending from near the handle to the opposite end. We
bench to remove irregularities left by the chisel, to
and
to smooth surfaces preparatory to the polishing
parts together,
file
is
The
used at the lathe in fitting, and in preparing
processes.
work
for
the
final
finish
with emery.
the
difficult
One of the most
operations of the machine-shop is that
use the
file
at the
fit
of filing a true plane.
Take, for instance, a rectangular block having
a plane surface 2"X4". To file this surface perfectly true is impossible;
to file it sufficiently accurate to meet the most exacting demands re-
quires a high degree of
get discouraged
tive failure.
if
skill.
With
this in
view the beginner need not
file result in compara-
his first efforts in using the
Classification of Files.
Tang, Pitch,
etc.
There
is
a bewildering
names, shapes, and peculiarities connected with the subject
of files.
Many of these names with their corresponding sections are
shown in Figs. 76 and 77. The number adjacent to each section
array of
gives the length of that section, there being as many as fourteen
different lengths and sectional areas under some of the names.
The
sections are not
shown
full size;
they show the relative areas rather
than the actual.
Fig.
78 represents various
cuts, or
teeth
characteristics, the
two
extreme grades, " rough" and "dead-smooth," being omitted. Fig. 79
shows a common flat file without handle.
The spike-shaped end which receives the handle is called the tang,
and the part at which the tang joins the file proper is the heel. The
length of a file is measured from the heel to the end opposite the tang.
44
FILES
AND FILING
45
Notwithstanding the- great variety of files they may be divided
into three general classes, viz., single-cut, double-cut, and
These
rasps.
again may be subdivided with respect to the fineness of the teeth as
follows
Single-cut into rough, coarse, bastard, second-cut, smooth.
Double-cut into coarse, bastard, second-cut, smooth, dead-smooth.
Rasps into coarse, bastard, second-cut, smooth.
Double-cut have a second
Single-cut files have one series of teeth.
series cut diagonally across the first series.
Files are cut with a
kmd
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
46
of chisel-edge tool.
Rasps are cut with a pointed punch. The teeth
of rasps are therefore disconnected cutting points, rather than continuous
cutting edges.
Pitch of Teeth Varies with Length of File. The terms rough, coarse,
bastard, second-cut, etc., refer to the pitch of the teeth, or degree of fineness, the coarsest being
about 20 and the
finest
about 120 to the linear
important to observe, however, that these terms
independently of the length of the file, definitely express the
inch.
It
is
of teeth per inch for a given
file.
They
do not,
number
rather indicate the range of
FILES
AND FILING
47
To definitely express the pitch the
pitches for a given nominal cut.
of
the
file
must
be
length
coupled with the name of the cut. Thus
Rasp Coarse
Rasp Bastard
Double Cut Bastard
Single Cut Bastard
Rasp Second Cut
Dbl. Cut Second Cut
Single Cut Second Cut
Rasp Smooth
Double Cut Smooth
&G*&GV$n
^/^/^v^V^V^
C^Jwl
Single
Cut Smooth
NICHOLSON FILE CO.
FIG. 78.
when we speak
of the bastard file we refer to a subclass of files the pitches
of which vary within certain limits directly as the length of the file
FIG. 79.
varies.
definite
of cuts
But when we speak of a 12" bastard we mean a file having a
number of teeth per lineal inch. Fig. 78 shows different grades
as they appear in 12" files, and Fig. 80 indicates the difference
48
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
in pitch due to the difference in length
of the same cut.
between the longest and shortest
files
To avoid
the confusion which has often arisen the reader should note
that the terms double-cut and second-cut are not
synonymous.
He
should also remember that,
as distinguished from double-cut, which refers to
a file having two courses of chisel-cuts crossing
each other, single-cut means one course of teeth.
Classification of Files with Respect to Shape.
Meaning of the Terms Taper and Blunt. Me-
by names indicating
names
by other names indicating the
chanics often refer to
the
FIG. 80.
form
of
their
files
cross-sections, these
being qualified
With this in view the
general contour of the files.
Company
classify files
Nicholson File
as follows:
Quadrangular, Circular, Triangular,
In connection with this nomenclature the terms
and Miscellaneous.
taper and blunt are used.
smaller in cross-section at the point than near the
The taper applies to both thickness and width and extends on an
tang.
5
average about /s the file's length. A blunt file is uniform in sectional
taper
file is
area throughout
file
its
length.
Quadrangular Sections.
The most important
files
in these sections
are the following: The flat file, mill-file, and square file, each of which
the hand-file and the pillar-file, each
is made either blunt or taper;
made uniform in width and tapering in thickness; the warding-file,
which is made uniform in thickness, but much tapering in width; the
equaling-file, made blunt only; the flat wood-file and flat wood-rasp,
both made taper.
Mill-files are sometimes made with one or both edges semicircular.
The equaling-file is classed as blunt, because it is very nearly of that
shape, but it is in reality very slightly bellied or curved.
Circular Sections. Of these sections the most important are the
round and half-round, made either blunt or taper; the pitsaw-file, blunt;
the half-round wood-file, half-round wood-rasp, and cabinet-file, made
taper.
Triangular Sections.
As indicated by
their
names, the
files
of tri-
Thus we have
hand-saw or slim
tapers; the double-ended hand-saw, the three-square, and the knife or
knife-edge files, made taper; the cant-file and the cant-saw file, blunt;
angular cross-section are used mainly for filing saws.
the hand-saw file, made either blunt or taper; the slim
AND FILING
FILES
and the band-saw
file,
made
the same as the regular hand-saw, excepting
that the edges are rounded.
Miscellaneous. Of this class
we mention only the crossing-file, made
and
the
either blunt or taper,
featjier-edge file, made blunt.
Hand-cut and Machine-cut Fttes. Increment Cut. Formerly all
files were cut by hand, and machine-cut files had been on the market
a. long time before they were regarded as serious competitors of the
older files.
Notwithstanding that the hand-cut files were slightly
in
irregular
pitch they showed a high degree of efficiency in operation.
When it was discovered that their irregularity was in a large measure
the cause of the high efficiency, the makers of machine-cut files endeavored
to imitate this irregularity. As a result of such endeavor we have
the modern increment-cut
between
this
file
file.
It
is
difficult to detect
any
difference
and the hand-cut.
Convexity of Files. Convexity presents one of the advantages of
the irregularly spaced teeth, viz., it increases the bite of the file by affording a smaller area of contact. Convexity is advantageous in another
way, i.e., it compensates for the rocking motion of the file. This rocking or curved movement of the file must of necessity make a convex
"
blunt" or straight-face file is used.
surface on the work when a
Indeed
vex file
requires considerable skill to
used.
it
is
are
Files
more
file
straight even
when a
or less bent during the tempering process.
con-
This
may neutralize the convexity on one side and increase it on the other.
By sighting along the face of the file one may easily determine which
side
is
The opposite
in proper condition for filing a plane surface.
file may be used for round work, either at the vise or while
side of the
the work
is
Grasping
duty
is
in rotation in the lathe.
the File.
required of a
file
Cross-filing
and Draw-filing.
a strong heavy
file
When
should be -used.
heavy
Such a
FIG. 81.
file
should be grasped as in Fig. 81, the
thumb
of the right
hand
rest-
ing on top and the end of the file-handle pressing against the palm of
the hand in line with the wrist-joint. This method is correct also for a
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
50
somewhat lighter file when the pressure is not great enough to seriously bend the file. But when the file is thin or likely to be bent by
make
the pressure required to
it
cut,
it
should be grasped as in Fig. 82.
FIG. 82.
thus grasping the
By
thumb and upward
file
we may, by the downward
pressure of the fingers, support the
pressure of the
file
against flex-
which flexure would cause curvature of the work.
The height of the vise jaws should be about 42" from the floor,
though for the heaviest work it would be better to have the vise lower
if it could be readjusted
again to 42", this height being suitable for general
work. In heavy work the workman should lean forward somewhat,
ure,
using the momentum and weight of the body to aid in applying pressure on the file. But in lighter filing he may stand more erect, depending mainly on the
movement
The above methods
of the
This
file
hold good
file
are approximately in the direction of
movement
In
of his arms.
of grasping the
filing
of the
very light
its
when the
strokes
length, or endwise.
called cross-filing.
file is
work the
file is
sometimes held with one hand,
and
in special cases, as for instance in filing the bore of a long-hub
These
pulley, the file may be grasped at the handle end by both hands.
methods should
Draw-filing
also be classed
is
smoother surface.
mately at right angles to
grasping the
file.
be removed.
If
under
cross-filing.
a slower process than
In draw-filing the file
its
Unless the
cross-filing,
but
it
makes a
moved
in a path approxiFig. 83 shows the method of
is
length.
be of unusual length the handle should
file
the handle remain on the
file, it
should not be used
in draw-filing. To avoid springing the file it should be grasped as close
to the work as the width of the latter will permit.
As the
face of the
file
is
"bellied" lengthwise,
it
will, if
one unchanging path, make a concave surface on the work.
moved in
To obvi-
FILES
ate this the position of the;
file
AND FILING
in relation to the
51
work should be
fre^
}uently changed.
As
draw-filing (on plane surfaces) is used mainly to give the final
preparatory to polishing, the surface of the work should be filed
very nearly true with a coarser file first. In some cases a second-cut
file would answer for the draw-filing process, but for a finer finish the
smooth file would be more satisfactory.
finish
The draw-filing process is sometimes used on cylindrical work, such
as piston-rods, etc. The object in such cases is to lay the direction of
the file-marks parallel with the reciprocating motion of the rod, and
FIG. 83.
thereby lessen the wear on the rod-packing. Great care is required
such work to avoid introducing irregularities in the surface being filed.
The lines of file contact around the rod or shaft should change in very
small steps, and just sufficient
filing
should be done to hide the lathe-
tool marks.
Safe-edge Files.
In
filing
angles, as for instance the
work having two plane
in a shaft,
surfaces at right
sometimes necessary to
file one of the surfaces without cutting the other.
For this purpose
we use a file having one blank side or edge. Such files are called safeBut when one is
edge files, and they may be purchased of the dealers.
not at hand it is permissible to grind the teeth off one edge or one side
of a
common
keyway
it is
file.
Pinning Prevention of. Definition. The term pinning means the
wedging of minute lumps of metal ("pins") between the teeth of the
The latter
It is different from the accumulation of file-dust.
file.
may be brushed out with a file-brush or file-card made for the purpose
see Fig. 84) but pins wedged in between the file-teeth must be removed
;
with a pointed instrument. A machinist's scriber (a tool for drawing
lines upon metal) will answer the purpose, as will also a piece of wire, or
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
52
a nail ground thin at the point. If not removed, the lumps of metal
will cause scratches on the surface being filed.
Pinning may be partly prevented by use of chalk, oil, or turpentine.
The
the
is the best.
Any of these substances may be applied to either
or the work, but they should not be used on cast iron and brass.
are advantageous only in filing fibrous materials, such as wrought
latter
file
They
iron and
steel.
Any
liquid,
even the moisture of the hand, causes cast
when the file will not "bite" or take hold so readily. For
this reason the workman should not test the smoothness of the filed
surface by rubbing his hand over it. The beginner is very prone to
iron to glaze,
FIG. 84.
when
good
smooth-filing, as the writer has often observed.
tendency of cast iron to glaze is that of a piston working in a steam-cylinder. The moisture of the steam and oil causes the
piston-rings to take on a glassy surface which is decidedly advantageous
do
this
illustration of the
in resisting wear of these parts.
Files Most Used in the Machine-shop.
Of the files described the
most common are the flat file, half-round file, round file, square file,
and three-cornered file. The surface to be filed will generally suggest
the shape of the file. For plane surfaces one would naturally use some
make of flat file; for interior curves and large round holes the halfround file; for small round holes the round file; and for slots, rectangular
the
openings, etc., the flat file and square file alternately, with perhaps
half-round file for squaring the corners. As to the character and cut
of the file, it may be stated in general terms that coarse and bastard
files are used on common and heavy work, while second-cut and smooth
files are used on finer work and for finishing work started by the coarse
and bastard. When an exceptionally fine finish is required the deadseldom used. The file techand for a great variety
nically known as a flat file is used very extensively
It is made double-cut and mostly bastard, but may also be
of work.
obtained in second-cut, smooth, and dead-smooth.
The Hand-file, being parallel as to width and taper as to thickness,
file it is doublediffers from the flat file, which is full taper. Like the flat
smooth
file
may
be used.
The rough
file is
FILES
AND FILING
53
cut, mostly bastard, but it may also be had in second-cut, smooth, and
dead-smooth. It is made in lengths from 4 to 16 inches, which are
The hand-file
also the lengths of the flat file.
which is
cross-section as the flat, the section
^of
is
of the
shown
same form in
The
in Fig. 76.
very generally used by machinists for finishing flat surfaces,
and having one safe, edge it may be used in some cases in which the
flat file will not answer.
hand-file
The
is
same as the hand-file, but it is narrower.
has one safe edge, and in addition to being adapted to finishing flat
surfaces in general, it is also made in extra-narrow form, which admits
Pillar-file is nearly the
It
being used in narrow apertures where the hand-file would not
apply. The wider pillar-files are made in lengths from 6 to 14 inches.
of
its
The
Mill-file
cipal use
This
file
adapted
is
is
always single-cut and mostly bastard.
Its
prin-
mowing-machine knives and plows.
favor in the machine-shop.
It is well
for sharpening mill-saws,
has met with
to lathe
much
work and
to draw-filing at the vise.
It is also
used
to some extent for finishing the various compositions of brass and bronze.
In high-grade finishing it should be followed by some file of finer cut
The
or pitch.
mill-file is
made
in lengths varying
between 4 and 16
inches.
The Equaling-file is made from mill sections, but it is double-cut
and blunt, mostly bastard. It is used for general machine-shop work.
Length 6 to 12 inches. Seldom used.
The Round or Rat-tail File is double-cut and mostly bastard, as
But the latter is made also in second-cut,
is also the half-round file.
made finer than bastard are singleThose
dead-smooth.
and
smooth,
cut on the convex side. Being made both taper and blunt, and in
the above range of pitches, the half-round
file
has a very wide appli-
cation in the machine-shop.
Evidently it may be used for fine finishin many kinds of work it may be used
and
to
follow
the
mill-file,
ing
The round file, being generally
file and hand-file.
not well adapted to any other work than enlarging
sometimes used in smoothing small fillets when a half-
instead of the flat
of bastard cut,
holes;
round
round
but
file
files
it is
small enough is not available. Both the round and halfare made in lengths from 4 to 16 inches.
The reader
of a
file
is
will
have observed that a
sometimes materially
half-round
wood
file
from 8 to 14 inches.
slight modification in the
affects its character
is
made only
It
is
and
use.
name
Thus the
in coarse pitch and in lengths
double-cut and used occasionally on coarse
grades of brass work, as well as for woodwork generally.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
54
As previously
mainly
of
stated, the files of triangular cross-section are used
name of the file usually indicating the kind
for filing saws, the
for which the file is adapted.
But the three-square or three-cornered
cannot be used in such work, for the reason that the corners or edges
saw
file
are left sharp
machine-shop
and uncut.
for
This
filing internal
file
is
angles,
generally used in the
squaring the corners of
quite
for
rectangular apertures, key ways, etc., and for filing taps and cutters.
It is double-cut and usually bastard.
Length 6 to 14 inches.
Finishing a Flat Surface. If the surface be rough as left by the
should first be cross-filed with a coarse or bastard file. During
chisel, it
this process the direction of the file-strokes should be frequently changed,
the angle of the alternating strokes being unimportant. The object
of changing the strokes is twofold: first, to make the file "bite" more
second, to show more clearly the points of contact between
and surface, and thus enable the operator to correct any tendency
toward curvature in the filed surface. In this connection refer to what
freely;
file
has been said with respect to convexity in files.
Having thus filed the work as nearly true as practicable, the filemarks should now be reduced with a second-cut or smooth file preparatory to draw-filing. If the detail be steel or wrought iron, great care
be necessary during this preparatory work to prevent pinning.
Draw-filing being a comparatively slow process, too much time will
be required if deep scratches have been made in cross-filing. Work
will
finished without first obliterating these scratches
tically referred to by old mechanics as having
sometimes sarcas"deep scratches and
is
As has been indicated, it may be well to use chalk, oil,
or turpentine at this juncture, if fibrous material is being filed.
For the draw-filing process a second-cut, smooth, or dead-smooth
This method
would be used. Sometimes we use two kinds.
file
high polish."
a better
will give
finish, or
leave less
work
to be
done with the emery-
paper or other polishing material. Assuming that a smooth file is to
be used, the surface should be gone over very carefully with this file,
preferably
moving the
file
crosswise the grain of the metal.
During
should be frequently tested with a straightused to prevent pinning will be found
Chalk
surface
or
plate.
edge
to be more convenient and offer less hindrance to the application of the
The pinning and scratching are less likely
testing instrument than oil.
to occur with short file-strokes than with long ones.
this operation the surface
the surface has been made fairly true and smooth by draw1
The
should next be gone over with emery-cloth, say No. / 2
When
filing it
FILES AND FILING
55
emery-cloth may be wrapped around the file or a straight piece of wood,
and used the same as in draw-filing. The strokes, however, should be
at right angles to those of the latter process.
Changing the strokes
or 00 emery-cloth, a still higher polish will be
again and using No.
Oil should be -used wim the emery-cloth, both for fibrous
obtained.
and non-fibrous materials, the object being to give a polish which is
not so likely to rust.
By using the smooth and dead-smooth files, the strokes of the latter being crosswise
those of the former, and following this
and 00 emery-cloth or
work with
which should also be used with
may be had which will satisfy
crocus-cloth,
alternately changing strokes,
finish
the most exacting requirements.
It may be observed that the average polished surface is merely a surThe
face in which the scratches are very fine and very nearly parallel.
If the polishing-marks run in all direcnot pleasing to the eye.
All that has been said with respect to draw-filing and polishing a
surface which had been prepared for these processes by cross-filing
latter point
is
quite important.
tions, the effect
is
apply equally well to a planed surface. But the latter should
not require the preliminary work of cross-filing. If, however, because
of unskillful manipulation on the planer, cross-filing be required, nothing
will
than a second-cut
coarser
file
should
be
tolerated.
cheaper to replane the surface than consume too
It
would be
much time
with the
file.
Broad Surfaces. In
the ordinary file-handle would
Filing
special
is
that
file-handle
shown
is
The
employed.
in Fig. 85.
It
a surface of such breadth that
filing
interfere with the strokes of the
is
best
device
of
this
called a surface file-holder.
file,
character
The part
FIG. 85.
over the tang is slightly dovetailed and also tapering, the
The part at the point of the file is also
filed to correspond.
Both of these pieces clear the surface of the work.
slightly undercut.
The handle is threaded to fit the rod which passes through the center
which
fits
tang being
and tang
pieces.
By
screwing up the handle and adjusting the center-
piece lengthwise, the convexity of the
along
its
length.
file
may
be increased at
any point
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
56
A
It
cheaper and much inferior surface file-holder is shown in Fig. 86.
would be pertinent to inquire, how the draw-filing process could
In answer to this question it may be
not used by all mechanics, even for narrow
would be more convenient to use coarse emery-
be applied to broad surfaces?
stated that draw-filing
work.
In wide work
it
is
FIG. 86.
It will,
loth on a thick block of wood, finishing with the finer grades.
however, require more preparatory work with the smooth file when
emery-cloth is used instead of draw-filing.
Filing Curved Surfaces. If the curve be exterior or convex, it will
without making
be
difficult to file it
file
must be given a rocking
trated in Fig. 87.
flat
spots.
To obviate
this the
or circular sweep around the work, as illusIn using emery-cloth, a strip of suitable width should
\
FIG. $7.
be wrapped partly around the curved surface, and with one hand on
each end the cloth it should be wiped back and forth around the work
in a kind of seesaw fashion.
Another method may be
briefly given, as follows:
Hollow out a
wood to fit the curved surface, and after smearing the
surface or the wood with oil and emery move the block in a circular
path back and forth around the work until the required finish is
block of soft
attained.
FILES
In
filing
an interior curve
AND FILING
like that of
57
a pulley-bore the largest round
practicable should be used. The problem in this
work is to enlarge or smooth the bore without making a series of small
curves lengthwise the hole.
To 'obviate this the file should be given
or half-round
file
a combined circular and longitudinal motion.
from rocking lengthwise; otherwise the hole
The
will
file must be kept
be made larger at
the ends than in the middle.
Curving Files for Special Work.
curves peculiar to ornamental work
stove patterns, for instance it may
be necessary to use small
such as are shown in Fig.
In
the shallow recesses and
filing
STUB FILES AND HOLDER.
FILES DETACHABLE.
stub-files
88.
The
handle or holder shown in connection with these samples is soldered
to the stub and is called a stub-file
In the
holder.
absence
of
such
permissible to bend an
file
to the required shape.
ordinary
a
Rectangular Recess. In filing a rectangular recess like that
Filing
of a key-seat in a pulley the file is very likely to leave small fillets in the
files it
is
two corners of the recess. If the workman neglect to file correspondingly rounded corners on the detail which is to fit the recess, the detail,
The
instead of fitting correctly, will touch only on the corners.
writer has often observed this fault in the work of beginners. When
there is objection to rounding the corners of the key or other detail,
the small fillets (so small as to be often overlooked) may be cut away
vrrth
a fine half-round or three-cornered
Filing Lathe Work.
file.
The
principles covered in the preceding parawith
some exceptions to rotating work.
of
this
graphs
chapter apply
The first exception we note is that in general only the finer cuts of files
should be used.
If there is much metal to remove, it should be turned
We
notice, secondly, that instead of using our
the
to
rocking of the file, it is advantageous,
highest
prevent
not
to
essential,
though
give it a slightly rocking movement.
The grade or fineness of teeth of the file should be governed by the
off
with a lathe-tool.
skill
quality of the work.
The smooth-cut flat
files
or second-cut mill-files are
suitable for general lathe work, the dead-smooth file in flat, hand, or
half-round shapes being used in exceptionally fine work. To obtain
the best finish the
file
should be
moved
at right angles to the axis of
Each successive stroke
the rotating piece with light uniform pressure.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
58
should advance a small fraction of an inch lengthwise the work until
the total length is covered. In heavier filing, when such is permissible,
the strokes may be inclined to the axis, the direction being changed
back and forth to avoid filing the work in grooves.
Inasmuch as the work is moving toward the file, the novice concludes
It is true that the file-strokes
that the file may be held stationary.
in
vise
slower
than
but
be
work,
holding the file still always causes
may
work.
and
botched
rough
Danger in Filing Rotating Work. In filing close to the headstock
of the lathe there is danger of getting the clothing or the file caught
Here is where the lefthi the revolving chuck-plate or lathe-dog.
handed man has the advantage. His arms and, indeed, his whole body
We sometimes gain the same advantage
is farther away from the chuck.
and standing on the back side. It is
the
lathe
backward
by running
work
case
that
the
having some projecting part near the
occasionally
center of its length must be filed. The student is also cautioned against
this source of danger.
Speed of the
Work when
Filing in the Lathe.
revolved too slowly, the effect will be to
fast, the teeth of the file will wear too
about three times faster for
filing
file it
If the
work be
"out of round";
fast.
if
too
The work should run
than for turning.
The inexperienced and thoughtless workman will sometimes run the
lathe the same number or revolutions in filing a 3" shaft as in a shaft
1" diameter.
It should not
be forgotten that the cutting speed for a
given number of revolutions is proportional to the
file heat up rapidly, the speed should be reduced.
diameter.
If
the
In polishing with emery-cloth or crocus-cloth,
be
may
wrapped around the revolving work and moved
back and forth lengthwise the work by hand. When giving the final
or 00 cloth should be used. This should be moved very
polish No.
Polishing in the Lathe.
either of these
slowly along the shaft, the object being to lay the polishing marks so
close together and so regularly that they will scarcely be discernible.
Some mechanics follow the emery-cloth with waste sprinkled with
This gives a very bright appearance to brasswork, and
the
looks of steel and other metals. The waste is held
improves
around the shaft by the hand.
flour-emery.
also
To obtain a quick
polish,
but generally not so
fine
finish, polishing-
clamps may be used (see Fig. 89). These may be made of two pieces
"
l
The pine sticks
of soft pine about \ / 2 thick X3V2" wide X 24" long.
should be hinged together at one end with sole-leather. The opposite ends
AND FILING
FILES
59
make them more comfortable
About 3" from the hinged ends emery and oil may be
should be trimmed with a draw-shave to
to the hands.
applied to the inner sides of the sticks. Now grip the revolving shaft
or other detail between the clamps, and while applying pressure to the
ends intended for the hands, movAhe clamps back and forth lengthwise
the shaft until a satisfactory polish is obtained. Oil should be used
with the polishing materials, excepting possibly the waste.
in connection
FIG. 89.
The File should not be Lifted. The file should be held to the work
during both forward and return strokes. This applies to vise work as
well as lathe work.
On the return stroke the pressure should be relieved
and the
file
moved back
Care of Files.
teeth of
quickly without cutting.
Cases in which New Files should not be Used.
are very brittle
files
and
easily broken, especially
The
when the
files
For this reason files should not be promiscuously mixed with
other metal tools. They should be kept in some kind of rack or partitioned space, so that they cannot touch each other. For similar reasons
a new file should not be used on a casting just from the foundry; that
is, it should not be used to file the scale of such a casting, nor on a welded
In
joint, nor on the edge of sheet metal, nor on a freshly chipped surface.
all such cases a second-hand or discarded file should first be used.
In.
filing a chipped surface the projections may be flattened somewhat with
the edge of a new file, if a second-hand file is not available. The teeth
are new.
on the edge are not so
easily broken, nor
is
this part of the file so
much
used as the face.
An
old
file
does not readily take hold of brass and cast iron, and
it
proper to start the new file on these and other cast metals, excepting
chipped surfaces. After the extreme points of the teeth are dulled
is
somewhat the
wrought
file
may
be used on the fibrous materials, such as
steel
and
iron.
Oil may be removed from a file by filling the teeth with chalk, and
then brushing the chalk out with a file-brush. The process may need
to be repeated two or three times.
CHAPTER V
THE SURFACE-PLATE AND SCRAPER
A skilled workman can machine a
Object of the Surface-plate.
plane surface so nearly true that it will be difficult to detect any error
in the surface with a straight-edge,* and the work will be sufficiently
accurate for most practical requirements.
Nevertheless there will be
errors in the surface which make it unsatisfactory for some purposes. The sliding surfaces of machine-tools, for instance, require to be
more accurate than it is possible to make them by machinery. For
minute
detecting the minute errors a surface-plate is used.
The surface-plate
Description of the Surface-plate.
plate having one surface which
is
is
a cast-iron
a practically perfect plane.
Fig.
90
shows two surface-plates of the usual form.
In this design they are
made in sizes varying between 3 1 /2 // X4 // and 36"X68", the largest weighing more than 1000
Ibs.
surface-plate of large size should be very carefully and intelligently designed. The metal should be so distributed as to require the
least weight consistent with accuracy.
The plate should also be so
designed that it would not be distorted by variations in temperature.
not in use the plate should be oiled to prevent rusting and kept
When
in a
wooden
case.
kind of ruler for testing plane surfaces.
60
THE SURFACE-PLATE AND SCRAPER
61
Using the Surface-plate. In using the surface-plate a very thin
coat of Venetian red, or red lead mixed with oil, is applied to the plate
The pla1;e "is then moved back and forth over
(preferably by hand).
the work, or the work over the glate, when the prominent spots on
the work surface will be marked with the coating. These spots are
to be removed with the scraper, or scraper and file.
It will depend
on how nearly true the surface has been machined as to whether a file
will be needed, but usually it will save time to file away most of the
inequalities.
A Typical Scraper. The illustrations in Fig. 91 show two views
a
of
It is shaped very much the same as a common
typical hand-scraper.
file and it is often made from a
high-grade thin file. It should be forged
down
to about
y 16 "
at the point
and tapered back about
/ 2" to the
FIG. 91.
normal thickness at B, which thickness may be about 3 /i 6 ". The
width at the point may be about Vs". The end A should be ground
at right angles to the center line.
Looking at the other view, the end
should be slightly rounded as at D. If not thus rounded, the corners are
likely to dig in and score the work.
False Economy in Making a Scraper of Cheap Steel.
Whether
or otherwise the scraper should be made of a high
and very carefully tempered and oil-stoned. As it is
not subjected to hammer-blows, the scraper will stand a much harder
temper than a chisel. Steel makers and dealers are always glad to
forged from a
grade of
file
steel,
assist purchasers in selecting the grade of steel best adapted to any
given purpose, and any effort at economy in the price of scraper-steel is
likely to be more than offset in the time spent in grinding the scraper.
Double-end Scraper.
The scraper shown
in Fig.
91 requires
handle of the same shape as a file-handle. The total length of handle
and scraper when the scraper is new may be 9 to 11 inches. But scrapers
are often
made
double, so as to cut on both ends.
trated in Fig. 92.
as that of Fig. 91.
these scrapers
made
This design
is illus-
The thickness and width may be about the same
As to the length, some mechanics prefer to have
long enough to be gripped by both hands with-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
62
out the right hand touching the unprotected end. The writer has not
found this extra length necessary. If the scraper be made about 10"
and the upper end be covered with a small leather, wooden, or
it will give no trouble.
Waste is sometimes used for this
the
The
at
middle
of this scraper is more ornacurved
purpose.
shape
be
made
the
mental than useful. Unless
scraper
quite long and grasped
long,
lead socket,
in the middle, the curves
may be
omitted.
FIG. 93.
FIG. 92.
Hooked Form of Scraper. Fig. 93 shows the hooked scraper, which
The
preferred by some workmen for very fine and smooth scraping.
fact that this scraper has but one cutting edge, and therefore requires
is
twice the oil-stoning and twice the number of visits to the emerygrinder, is sufficient to offset any other advantages imaginary or real
it
may
possess.
Grasping the Scraper.
scraper
is
shown
in Fig. 94.
The "orthodox" method
It
is
used like the
file,
of grasping
the
in that the pressure
FIG
should be applied during the forward stroke and relieved on the return.
Drawing the Temper in Grinding. It sometimes occurs that a
scraper will cut all right one day but fail the next, and the student will
wonder what the trouble is. In most cases it will be found that the
iemper has been neutralized by allowing the point of the scraper to become
THE SURFACE-PLATE AND SCRAPER
63
The- same precautions are necessary as were advised
heated in grinding.
with respect to the chisel.
Causes of Chattering. When a cutting-tool makes a surface having
minute irregularities of a wavy appearance it is said to chatter. If a
scraper like Fig. 91 be ground so^that the end A vary much from right
angles with the center line, one edge will be sharper than the other,
but the sharper edge will be likely to cause chattering. Chattering is
likely to occur, also, when a tool has too broad a bearing on the work.
The scraper should be held at an acute angle with the work surface.
When necessary to hold it thus in
be
should
cut,
sharpened.
Moving the scraper in one unchanging direction will also cause chattering. The proper method after first testing with surface-plate is to go over
If held too high, it will chatter.
order to
make
it
it
1
7
/ 2 to /g inch in one direction, and
then apply the surface-plate again. Using the scraper the second time,
The third appliit should be moved at right angles to the last strokes.
cation of the scraper may be in the same direction as the first, or midway between the angles of first and second. Continuing thus with sur-
the work in short strokes of about
face-plate
and
scraper, the surface
when completed
will present
a very
An
expert workman can by varying the direction
pleasing appearance.
of scraper-strokes produce various effects, somewhat resembling checkerboard work.
Precautions Against Wasting Time.
It is
important to observe that
and touches only in a few spots
As the surface approaches a
the scraper should be used quite vigorously.
true plane we use thinner coats of lead and apply the scraper more lightly,
when
the surface-plate is first applied
taking care to confine the scraping to the exact points of contact. Scraping
is a very slow process at best, and if we scrape too lightly at first, when
there is considerable metal to remove, it may take very much longer than
necessary to do the work.
for average requirements
3
The surface is considered sufficiently accurate
it is marked all over in spots of Vs to
when
/s inch apart.
The work should be kept scrupulously
when
using the surface-plate.
An
for this purpose.
Scrapers for Interior Curves.
free
old cotton rag
from particles of grit
is better than waste
The scrapers mentioned above may
For a concave surface
be used on convex as well as plane surfaces.
they cannot be used advantageously. However, some mechanics
manage to use these scrapers to a limited extent in scraping at right
angles to the axis in a half -box bearing.
better scraper for the latter
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
64
purpose is frequently made of a three-cornered file. Select such a file
6 or 8 inches long and grind the teeth off, making it quite pointed like
It should be used with a file-handle and grasped with both
Fig. 95.
FIG. 95.
hands at the handle end.
This scraper should cut on
strokes being at right angles to
its
its
side edges, the
length.
scraper for the same purpose may be made of a half-round file.
The teeth should be ground off and the scraper moved at right angles
to its length, as in the previous case. These scrapers should also be
used with strokes at right angles to the axis of the bearing. A halffile ground on its end may be used to scrape lengthwise the axis of
round
a bearing.
is
to bring
It will
it
to a
be understood that the purpose of scraping a bearing
with its shaft.
fit
Special Form of Scraper. Fig. 96 shows a special form of scraper
sometimes used in scraping broad surfaces. The blade is several times
FIG.
common scraper, and to avoid chattering it is used
with a draw-stroke; that is to say, it cuts while being drawn toward the
The cut shows a tool for scraping wood, but by using the
operator.
proper quality of steel in the blade it may be, and is, used in the machineshop for metal- work.
wider than in the
THE SURFACE-PLATE AND SCRAPER
home-made scraper
section of
7
/8
" round
round
pletes
least
may be improvised by inserting a
in a slot milled lengthwise a piece of
2 -inch rod driven into a hole drilled in the
steel.
kind
of this
with teeth ground
file
/8~ or
65
off,
and sharpened on opposite end to fit a file-handle comThe angle formed by the rod and blade should be at
the scraper.
steel
100.
These scrapers are not adapted to
fine fitting,
such as lathe-
rests, etc.
Using Emery-cloth in Connection with the Scraper. Emery-paper
workmen for the finishing touches on a scraped surA stick of hard wood is whittled to about l /4 f or 3 / 8 // square
face.
The
at point, and the finest emery-cloth wrapped around this point.
stick is applied to the work just the same as the scraper of Fig. 91.
Ornamental Finish with Emery. Small work is sometimes ornamented at the shops of the Michigan Agricultural College (the writer is
not aware as to whether this process is used in other shops) as follows:
A stick of wood is fitted to the chuck of the sensitive drill, and flouremery and oil are applied to the work or to the lower end of the stick,
which should be about Vie" diameter and cut off square. Now, placing
is
used by some
work upon the drill-platen, the revolving stick is brought to bear
The stick is next lifted by the lever and
very lightly upon the surface.
and
the second spot polished. This process
about
the work moved
Vie"
the
repeated until the surface is covered with the circular spots, the
direction of these spots with respect to the sides of the work being reguThe surface to be ornamented should be given
lated to suit the fancy.
is
polish with emery-paper or crocus-cloth preceding the ornamental
finish, and during the latter the drilling-machine should run at its
flat
highest speed.
The contact
be very
otherwise
light;
it
of the
will
revolving stick should, as stated,
appreciable indentations in the
make
work.
may be made at the bench by using a breastwriter has also produced various ornamental effects by going
over a polished surface with emery-paper wrapped around a stick, the
This ornamental finish
drill.
The
latter being
moved
in a curling or
wavy
path.
Using the Scraper at the Lathe. In lathe work the scraper is supported upon a rest very much the same as the chisel is supported in
wood-turning.
The scraper shown
in Fig. 91
is
adaped to lathe work
In order to approach the face-plate or a lathemore
conveniently it is sometimes ground to an angle, as at A in
dog
This
97.
scraper can be used for smoothing plain cylinders, such
Fig.
It may be used
as cast-iron pulleys, etc., and also radial-face work.
as well as vise work.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
66
on similar surfaces in brass. Scrapers are used with greater advantage,
however, on lathe work of irregular contour, ornamental work, filleting,
etc.
On work of this character the cutting end or point of the scraper is
made
in various shapes to suit the required curve.
The most common
on the end, and the shop in which scrapers are much
may have these of radii varying from 1 / 8 to 3/4 inch.
are semicircular
used
In Fig. 97 at
fillet.
is
shown a scraper
If the plain face
between the
as applied in smoothing out a
fillets
has been previously brought
to its final finish,
some
skill will
be required to avoid cutting into
For the finishing
this plain face.
touches in the
the scraper
should be brought up to the work,
as at B in Fig. 98, and while barely
fillet
missing the plain surface
be steadily
fillet.
it
should
advanced into
During
the
this operation
the
forefinger of the right hand, being
under the scraper at the dot F
and in contact with the rest R,
prevents the scraper from digging
t
into the
FIG. 98.
FIG. 97.
hand
face while
toward the
fillet.
it
At
is
moved
this
time
on top of the scraper at dot F, while
the left hand supports the other end of the scraper. This may appear
to be a sort of left-handed operation, but where the conditions favor
Of course it will
it the position of the two hands may be reversed.
be unnecessary to observe any cast-iron rules in these small matters,
but the beginner generally needs some definite directions to start with,
and later he may adopt such minor modifications as suit his convenience,
the main consideration being to get results.
This
It will be noticed that the rest R is quite close to the work.
is important, and such rests may be forged to suit various shapes of
work. Moving the rest too far from the work is likely to cause chattering.
Chattering may sometimes be prevented by placing a piece of
leather or other such material between the scraper and the rest.
At
the
thumb
other times
the work.
of the right
it is
In
is
necessary to lessen the line of contact of scraper with
and curved work generally, the experienced work-
fillets
man will vary the point of contact
of the scraper in an arc of a circle.
by gently moving the handle end
THE SURFACE-PLATE AND SCRAPER
67
scraper shaped liked C, Fig. 97, may be used for the
also for the flat surface between tne fillets.
The scraper
is
not used nearly so
much
in
modern
fillets
and
practice, except
was
Curved surfaces are shaped
by
fifty yegrs ago.
These tools are made
tools
called
very largely by special
forming-tools.
with cutting edges of the same shape as the curve.
The Graver. If we take a square file about 8" long and grind the
teeth off and then grind the end to an angle of about 45, we shall have
a graver. Gravers and other hand-tools, formerly used to a considerable
extent on wrought iron and steel work, are gradually being superseded
by more modern appliances.
The cutting edge of a scraper, whether used at the vise or lathe,
should be moistened with water or oil when scraping wrought iron and
amateurs, as
it
teel.
Generally the scraper when used in the lathe should be followed by
emery-cloth, or a file and then emery-cloth.
All such tools as scrapers, files, etc., used on rotating work should
have
its
handles.
Otherwise
pointed tang
may
if
the tool get caught or struck by the work,
flesh of the operator.
be forced into the
Scrapers need to be oil-stoned often. A scraper like that shown in
Fig. 91 should be stoned mainly on the end, the scraper being held perpendicular to the stone and moved in a circular path. The scraper may
also be stoned on the two faces.
Oil should be used on the stone, but
the latter should not be allowed to become gummy.
CHAPTER
VI.
THE VISE AND SOME VISE ACCESSORIES
IN the
five
preceding chapters we have dealt very largely with tools
vise work.
It is proper to give some
and methods connected with
attention to the vise itself. There are
a great many kinds of vises in use,
and inventors have exercised considerable ingenuity in the endeavor to combine in one vise the good features of
all.
The problem is in part a comnew vise should cost
little
more than the simpler
mercial one; the
but
patterns.
The Solid-box
a vise which
is
Vise.
Fig. 99
familiar to all.
shows
It is
one of the older styles, which was
"
doubtless used by the
village blacksmith" whom Longfellow has immorThis vise
talized.
still
holds
its
place
more modern competitors,
its merit being strength and rigidity,
due to its having a support on the
The
floor as well as on the bench.
among
its
objection
against
the
vise,
that
its
jaws are not parallel in vertical planes
when opened wide, has been overcome
FIG. 99.
by providing a second screw below the
main screw.
This second screw is
connected with the main screw by
sprocket-chain and wheels, and its operation will be understood by
The vise shown in the
every boy who has fallen off a bicycle.
68
THE VISE AND SOME VISE ACCESSORIES
69
known
as the solid-box vise.
It is not provided with the
arrangement.
sprocket-chain
Parallel Vise. The manufacturer of the vise shown in Fig. 100
The latter
has been pleased to call it tha "Bulldog" parallel vise.
illustration
is
FIG. 100.
half of the designation, however, is the technical term for vises of this
Parallel vises of the cheaper designs open by lever and
character.
screw on the same principle as that of Fig. 99.
Parallel Swivel Vise. When the vise of Fig. 100 is made to swivel
on its base it is called a parallel swivel vise. Fig. 101 shows this style.
FIG. 101.
of being able to swing the work to any angle in a horizontal plane will appeal to every experienced mechanic.
In Fig. 102 we have a vise which swivels on its base and which also
The advantage
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
70
has one swivel jaw.
tapering work.
This latter provision
is
very convenient in gripping:
FIG. 102
Combination
fitting is likely
work.
The "&
A shop in which a limited amount of steamdone must have at least one vise adapted to this
combination pipe-vise" of Fig. 103 can be used
pe-vise.
je
/el
FIG. 103.
To facilitate threading pipe
for pipe as well as for general work.
be
dies this vise should
placed at the end of the bench.
Quick-acting Vise.
There
"
is
a class of vises on the market
with
known
"
fearfully and
of
the
of
course, desirjaws is,
wonderfully made." The quick closing
the
at
be
obtained
this
feature
not
should
expense of durability
able, but
as "quick-acting" or
and
solidity.
has the least
rapid"
vises.
Some
of these are
In selecting such a vise one should choose a design which
of parts consistent with the necessities of the case.
number
THE VISE AND SOME VISE ACCESSORIES
71
In Fig. 104 is shown the "Emmert Universal Vise."
examined this design, but the manufacturers say:
"It will turn in any position and hold work so that you can work naturally, without bending or twisting the body."
Universal Vise.
The
writer has not
FIG. 104.
Hand- and
Pin-vises.
The hand-vise
is
a very convenient adjunct
to the stationary vise.
It is
Fig. 105 shows one of typical design.
used in filing pins and small pieces which require more delicate manipulation than is possible with the large vise.
The pin-vise is used almost exclusively for pins and other small
The style shown in Fig. 106 is constructed on the
cylindrical details.
A
FIG. 106.
same principle as a certain class of lathe-chucks. The internally threaded
and tapered sleeve S screws on the end of A, which is threaded and tapered
A is drilled and sawed about one fourth its length as shown,
to fit S.
and tightening or screwing up S causes the four jaws to close and grip
a pin or other detail placed in the drilled hole.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
72
such work as small pins in the pin-vise, the latter is held
and the end of the pin is supported on top of the staor
its jaws, which are opened about two thirds
between
tionary vise,
the diameter of the pin. The pin is rotated back and forth by a moveIn
filing
in the left hand,
and a small file is applied during the backward motion.
with
Detachable Faces. The best designs of stationary
Vise-jaws
vises have detachable steel faces on the jaws.
These faces are serrated
or notched somewhat like a double-cut file, the object being to more
ment of the
wrist,
work subjected to heavy chipping, etc. They are made
detachable in order that the manufacturer may duplicate the faces
securely hold
instead of the whole vise in case of breakage.
Vise-clamps. In gripping rough castings, forgings, etc., the steel
faces mentioned are brought into direct contact with the work.
But
to avoid marring finished work, vise-clamps are interposed between
the work and the steel faces.
Copper clamps are used more than any
other kind for this purpose.
Sheet copper about Vie" thick will
answer. Cut out two pieces, each equal in width to the vise-jaws and
about 3" long. Heat them red-hot and cool in water. This will anneal
or soften the copper. Clamp the two pieces tightly in the vise with
the lower edges even with the lower edges of the vise-jaws. Separate
them at the top and bend each over its vise-jaw, hammering the pieces
down
to closely fit the upper surface of the vise- jaws.
In order to grip thin work, the upper edges of the clamps answering to
the upper edges of the vise-jaws should be square and sharply defined.
If
not satisfactory in this respect, heat and pound
down
(after cooling)
the copper pieces again, giving special attention to the upper edges.
The usage to which the clamps are subjected tends to harden them.
For this reason they should occasionally be reannealed.
Lead Clamps. Lead clamps are very desirable for gripping small
pieces which, because of their limited contact, are more likely to be
With
slightly bruised or mashed.
lead clamps a screw may be held in
the vise without spoiling the thread.
shows one of these clamps
and a mold for making them.
FlG 107
Both the lead and copper
with
imbedded
to
become
are
grit and small particles of
likely
clamps
steel.
On this account some mechanics use leather clamps for very
highly polished and delicate work. To make these clamps, cut out
Fig. 107
'
THE VISE AND SOME VISE ACCESSORIES
73
two pieces of leather of the right size, and cut them half-way through
on the line where they are bent over the vise-jaws
Another Method of Holdingj Screws. A threaded bolt or similar
be held in the vise without clamps by screwing the thread
which has been sawed through on one side. The pressure
of the vise-jaws will cause the nut to tightly grip the thread without
detail
may
into a nut
it.
injuring
The Hack-saw. The novice sometimes expresses surprise that the
mechanic can "saw metal as he saws wood."
Fearing, therefore, that
this
be overlooked by the beginner hi purchasing his
mention it in this connection. The hack-saw frame
Fig. 108 will take blades from 6 to 12 inches in length, and
handy
"kit,"
we
shown
in
tool
may
shall
FIG. 108.
hold the blades in four different angles with respect to the frame.
Formerly hack-saw blades were made to be filed like a carpenter's saw,
but these have been very generally superseded by the tempered blades.
The latter are too hard to be filed and too cheap to make it pay to file
them. The average length can be purchased for about 70 cents per
dozen. After one has become accustomed to the use of a hack-saw he
regards it as an almost indispensable tool in connection with vise work.
This is another very useful tool; but there are so many
Pliers.
different designs that it is difficult to settle upon an illustration.
Fig. 109
it will
FIG. 109.
combines in a small compass flat-nose pliers, gas-pliers, wire-cutter, and
screw-driver.
"By a quarter-turn of the handle, and sliding it from
r/
3
one hole to the other, it changes from the size of a gas-burner to /4
pipe, or from Vie" to 1 inch round or square.",
shows a
tool
which
suits the proverbial "jack-at-all-trades."
It
CHAPTER
VII
DRILLING-MACHINES
The term
which primarily means a tool for
originating and enlarging holes, is oft^n used to denote the machine
by which the tool is driven. Thus we have sensitive drills, radial drills,
gang drills, etc., all of which machines are described in this chapter.
Ratchet-drills.
drill,
FIG. 110.
The simplest form
connection with
its
of drilling-machine is the ratchet-drill.
This, in
The device marked
is shown in Fig. 110.
brace,
the ratchet-drill, the brace, which is called the "old man/' being
lettered 0.
C,
1, and
represent respectively a clamp for holding
is
74
DRILLING-MACHINES
75
This ratchet-drill is operated by
drill, and the work.
hand by means of the lever L, anpl is fed to the work by frequent slight
R turns a small screw which has a
movements of the small rod R.
conical point fitting into an indentation in 0, the thread end of the
screw being fitted to a tapped hole in the head of D.
D 1 is caused to rotate with L by a pawl and ratchet, through about
the brace, the
180 for each stroke.
ary.
During the return stroke of L,
The pawl and
ratchet are
more
clearly
shown
remains station-
in Fig. Ill at P.
FIG. ill.
In this figure the feed-screw is hid, being covered by the sleeve S by
which the drill is fed by the grip of the hand.
In some ratchet-drills the drill is rotated during both the forward
and reverse strokes of the lever. With such a machine the drilling can,
of course, be done much faster.
Automatic feed mechanism is provided in the higher-priced machines.
The Breast-drill.
This machine is used for the same purpose as
the ratchet-drill, viz., for drilling odd holes in work which cannot conveniently be taken to the power-drill. Fig 112 shows a typical breastdrill.
The drill is held in a chuck at E, the pressure being applied by
the breast at B. The handle
rotates the drill while / is held in the
left hand to steady the machine.
This machine may be changed from
fast to slow speed by turning the thumb-screw at A.
It will not drill
/'
as large holes as the ratchet-drill, 1 /2 being about the largest.
One
could not
The
handy
drill
many
//
/2
holes before experiencing soreness of the breast.
Drilling Attachment.
Figs. 113 and 114 show a very
drill which is operated in connection with a common carpenter's
Fifield
76
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG. 113.
FIG. 112.
FIG. 114.
DRILLING-MACHINES
77
This device has
brace, the drill being held to the work by a chain.
3
and
ball
for
holes
feed
and
automatic
bearings,
drilling
up to /V' diammachinists
and
in
other
metal-workers.
demand
much
is
it
eter
by
The portable Urill, Fig. 115, is designed to be driven
or
other powe&mechanism, and yet it may be moved
line-shaft
the
from
Portable Drill.
FIG. 115.
about independently of the
latter.
It is driven
by a
belt running
on
the tight and loose pulleys T and L, and is designed to be used mainly
in the erecting-room of the machine-shop.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
78
In using this machine the hanger H is fastened near the main shaft,
and the drilling-machine secured to the work by bolts passing through
the base B. The rope R, which runs over the pulley P, is made in
sections to admit of the machine being operated at various distances
from the hanger H. The machine has universal adjustments by means
of the ball joint J, handle
1, and sockets S.
Having adjusted the
machine so that the drill D is in po-
sition for the first hole, a
number
of
be drilled without
Tension on
removing the base B.
the rope is maintained by a weight
other holes
P4
may
W, and the drill is fed by handwheel
2.
This machine has automatic feed
at
also.
For this purpose a cone-pulley
P is belted to the upper
hid behind
The
cone C.
latter operates a
worm
and worm-wheel, which in turn actuate a feed-nut on screw F.
Portable
made
power-machines
are
various designs, some of
are smaller than the one
in
which
above described.
The Stowe
flexi-
ble shaft, used in dental work, is also
employed in connection with portable
drills.
The
Sensitive
This
Drill.
chine, a good example
shown in Fig. 116, is a
of
ma-
which
is
stationary
power-drill, designed for very small
It is fed by hand, and it is
holes.
116.
made very light and sensitive, so that
any undue strain on a small drill may be felt through the lever L 3 by
which the drill is fed. The object of this is to prevent breaking the
drills.
The Spindle S
hollow column C.
counterbalanced by a weight suspended in the
carries a quill or sleeve Q in which
The head
is
the lower end of the drill-spindle is journaled, the upper end being
The sleeve, and with it the spindle, is fed
journaled in the frame.
to the
work by means
of a rack-and-pinion
movement.
The pinion
DRILLING-MACHINES
79
on the same shaft with the feed-lever, the rack being
The head is adjustable vertically.
The Table T is designed to be tilted to an angle, and to swing around
the column to bring the work in position for drilling holes in different
It is clamped by the lever L 2.
The round table R is
positions.
and
oe
lifted
out
of
its socket and either
adjustable vertically,
may
C 1 or C 2 inserted. The first of these is designed to support the lower
end of shafts, etc., while drilling centers for lathe work; the other is
used as a rest for cylindrical work when the same is to be drilled at
(small gear)
is
secured to the sleeve.
right angles to its axis.
The machine is driven by the counter-shaft C 3. It requires three
The first runs between the shop line-shaft and the tight and
loose pulleys T and L.
The second connects the cone pulley P 1 with
a similar cone, P 2. The third belt runs over the pulleys P 3, P 4,
P 5, and P 6, and thus operates the spindle S which carries the drill.
When the machine is idle the main belt runs on the loose pulley L.
To start the machine the belt is shifted to the tight pulley T by a suitbelts.
able lever.
These machines are made with any number of spindles up to twenty.
Friction-drill.
The drill illustrated in Fig. 116 has three
of
cone
changes
speed by
pulleys.
Fig. 117 shows a machine designed
for the same class of work, but it has no cone pulleys of the ordinary
Sensitive
type, the spindle speed being changed by moving the friction pulley
nearer to or farther from the center of the driving-cone D.
The friction pulley is in contact with both of the cones
driven by the belt B, transmits motion to
D and D
1.
1,
is
and D, being
supported by
the yoke which slides and swings on shaft S, and is moved to or
from the center of D by the knob K. The driving-cone
may be
adjusted vertically to increase its friction on P.
Back-geared Drill. The upright drill shown in Figs. 118 and 119 is
designed for much heavier work than the sensitive drills. The frame
is a great deal stronger and the driving mechanism is much more
powerThe spindle S is driven by a belt connecting the cone pulleys
ful.
and by the bevel-gears G. When the back gears G2 and G 3
brought into mesh with G 1 and G 4 the spindle speed
is reduced to such an extent that the fastest
speed "in gear" is slower
than the slowest speed "out of gear." Thus we have four speeds (due
to the four steps on the cone pulley) "out of gear," and four different
P,
1,
(Fig. 119) are
speeds "in gear," making eight
be in geometrical progression.
speeds
in
all.
These speeds should
80
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
The operation of the back gear is as follows The gear G 1 is secured
to the pulley P, and gear and pulley together turn freely on the shaft
:
FIG. 117.
C is a clutch
1, and may turn at a different speed from the latter.
having teeth on the right-hand end designed to engage with mating
FIG.
118
81
DRILLING-MACHINES
83
G 1 as shown. This clutch is connected to the shaft
which
causes the clutch to turn with the shaft, but leaves
a
by key
Gears G 2 and G 3 are cast integral, being
free to be moved endwise.
teeth on the gear
S
it
joined together by a sleeve in 1^he center of which a groove is turned
This lever has a
to receive a U-shaped shifter pivoted in the lever L.
similar connection with the clutch C, and
below the gears. If the lever be moved
it is fulcrumed on the frame
toward the left, it will cause
clutch C to engage with G 1 and at the same time move the gears G 2
and G 3 to the left, disengaging them from G I and G 4. If the lever
be moved toward the right, it will bring both the clutch and gears to
the position shown in the figure, which is the "in-gear" position for
the back gears. If now pulley P be caused to revolve, it will turn at
/"*
a ratio with shaft
depending on the ratio of
^y
/nr
multiplied
by -*-%
Assuming that G 1 has 20 teeth, G 2
40 teeth, then the ratio of revolutions
40
multiof the cone pulley to the revolutions of shaft S 1 will equal
G4 being tightly keyed to
40 teeth, G 3 20 teeth, and
1.
G4
40
by
plied
equals
When
4.
clutch
is
in
engagement with
1,
the
back gears being out of gear, shaft S 1 will be turned directly by the
cone pulley, and the ratio will be 1 to 1. This ratio is suitable for
drilling small holes, and the ratio due to the engagement of the back
The gain in power is in accordgears is suitable for the larger work.
law
that
well-established
ance with the
(other things being equal)
proportional to speed. However, the source of this power
not in the machine, but in the boiler-furnace.
2 having belt conFeed Gearing. On the spindle S is a pulley
power
is
is
nection with the pulley
P3
P 3.
On
the lower end of the shaft
2 (Fig.
keyed, are three spur-gears numbered 1, 2, and
118),
of
these
Either
3.
gears may be caused to revolve with the pulley
a
P 3 by sliding key, which key is moved by the knob K. Keyed to
to which
the feed-shaft
is
3 are three other gears,
numbered
4, 5,
and
6,
meshing
When
the sliding key is in the gear No. 1, it
causes that gear to revolve with the shaft S 2, and motion is thereby
transmitted to gear No. 4 on shaft S 3, the number of revolutions of
No. 4 depending upon the ratio of the diameter of No. 1 to the diameter
with the
first
three.
At the same time the other two gears on S 3 revolve, carrytwo
the
mating gears on shaft S 2 with them, but as the sliding
ing
has no connection with these two gears they merely
time
this
at
key
of No. 4.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
84
revolve idly on the shaft S 2. If the sliding key be moved so as to
connect gear No. 2 to the shaft S 2, the feed-shaft will be caused to
revolve at a speed depending on the ratio of the diameter of gear No. 2
on shaft S 3. The other two gears on shaft S 2 will revolve
on with the third pair of gears. Thus we obtain three
to gear No. 5
idly, and so
different speeds of the shaft
shown
S 3 and
feeds of the spindle S, as will
be
later.
On
the lower end of the shaft
worm
worm
3, Fig.
120,
a bevel pinion operating
is
The
by means of the bevel-gear G 6.
1
operates the worm-wheel
1, and on the shaft same with
the worm-shaft and
a small gear meshing into the rack R, which is bolted to the quill Q.
The quill Q does not turn in the head H, but is fed vertically at three
is
different rates
by the
train of
mechanism
The
just outlined.
revolves in the quill Q and is forced by the
follow the vertical movement of the quill.
collars
spindle
and C 2 to
The bevel-gear G 6
is not rigidly connected to the worm-shaft W,
caused to turn with the latter by tightening the knurled nut N.
This nut screws on a small shaft passing through the center of the worm-
but
is
shaft,
and on the other end
of the
small shaft
is
a friction-clutch de-
signed to engage with a friction -clutch on the bevel-gear G 6.
Automatic Stop. On the quill Q is a movable collar C 3 which
may
be tightened in any position on the quill. If, when the machine is in
be tightened, it will set in motion the bevel-gear G 6,
operation, the nut
and with it the intervening mechanism, including the quill Q. As the
latter feeds
downward
from the lever
L 2.
it
engages with the trip T, disengaging the latch
This lever is so connected to the worm-bracket
when the lever is disengaged, it permits the worm
to drop out
mesh with the worm-wheel
1
Thus the downward feed of the spindle
that
of
S may be automatically stopped at any required depth, the quill Q being
graduated for adjustment of the collar C 3.
Hand-feed Quick Return. The above description of Fig. 120 has
reference to the automatic feed of the drill-spindle S.
By slackening the
nut
the spindle may be fed by hand by the hand-wheel H. After
drilling a hole the spindle
may
be quickly returned by tripping the lever
L2
and turning the lever L 3.
Vertical Adjustment of Head. The head H
clamped in any position on the vertical face F.
Table Adjustment.
Work may be clamped
may
be adjusted and
to the table
or to the
base B, Fig. 118. The table is supported on the arm A and may be
revolved around the column C 4 and adjusted vertically on the column.
DRILLING-MACHINES
The
table
may
also
be revolved on
its
own
facilitate drilling holes in different positions
85
axis.
and
These adjustments
in different heights of
FIG. 120.
work.
be
Thus having clamped a piece of work to the table T, holes may
any position within the circumference of the table without
drilled in
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
86
unclamping the work. The base has no such adjustments, and consequently work held on the base must be readjusted for holes in different
positions.
RADIAL DRILLS
General Description.
Fig. 121 shows a perspective view of a
from the long radial arm common to all machines
of this class; and Figs. 122-7 show auxiliary views of the same machine.
radial drill, so called
Similar
reference-letters refer to similar parts throughout the several
G
11
FIG. 121.
views.
Referring to the perspective view, the base B, table T, column
arm A, and head H comprise the principal members of the machine.
The column C, carrying the arm A, swings around the stump S (Fig.
123) through a complete circle when the machine is driven from below,
and through about 340 when driven from above. In the latter case
the movement of the arm is limited only by the driving-belt.
The
head H (Fig. 121) slides on the planed ways of the arm A, and with
the arm may be raised and lowered on the column for different heights
This vertical movement of the arm is effected by a shaft
of work.
C,
within the column, in connection with gears G 11 on top of the column.
These gears operate a screw S 1 passing through a threaded nut in
the arm A, as shown in Fig. 124. This mechanism for raising the arm
is
operated by a lever within easy reach of the workman.
DRILLING-MACHINES
87
The shafting between the
Arrangement of the Driving-shafts.
in
a
radial
drill necessarily follows a
and
drill-spindle
driving-pulley
Unless >th"e shafting be amply large there will be
torsion
of
a considerable angle
between these two points. This shafting
it may be traced by the aid of Figs.
but
in
hid
is mostly
Fig. 121,
rather circuitous route.
Thus, starting at the pulley-shaft S 3 in Fig. 122,
this and shaft S 4 by the four pairs of gears
122, 123, 124,
and
connection
made between
is
125.
FIG. 122.
These gears give four different speeds to the shaft
shown.
4.
The
2 by means of the miter-gears G 9 and
G 10, Fig. 123. Now referring to Fig. 124, shaft S 5 is driven by S 2.
Through a system of gearing shown in the gear-box B 2, the shaft S5
transmits motion to the bevel-gear G 12. This in turn drives the shaft
latter drives the vertical shaft
6 by means of the bevel-gear G 13, shaft S 7, and bevel-gears G 14
G 15. Finally, the drill-spindle S 8 receives its motion through
the gear Cr 16, which meshes with gear 17, these two gears being on the
and
shaft
6 and spindle
8 respectively.
Reversing Mechanism.
As
this particular
machine
is
designed to
be used in tapping as well as in drilling holes, there are two bevel-gears
on the shaft S 7, one of these, G 18, being hid behind the spindle counter3 in Fig. 124, but shown in Fig. 125. Both of the gears G 14
weight
88
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
and G 18 mesh with G 15, but are inoperative unless engaged by a
clutch between the two gears.
This clutch is secured to shaft S 7 by
a key * which causes it to rotate with the shaft and at the same time
11
FIG. 123
leaves
it
free to travel lengthwise of the shaft
by the movement
of the
The object of this arrangement is to give
head
along the arm A.
both a forward and reverse movement to the drill-spindle, the forward
*
The
instructor
showing the key.
is
advised to
make on
the blackboard a sectional view of
14,
DRILLING-MACHINES
89
movement being used for drilling and tapping holes, and the reverse
movement for backing the tap out.
This method of getting a forward motion by engaging the clutch
with G 14 and a reverse motton by engaging it with G 18 should be
particularly noted by the student? The clutch is shifted by the handle
H 3,
Figs. 124
Feed-gear.
spindle
by
and 125.
The feed-shaft, S
9, Fig. 125, is
driven from the
At the lower end
spur-gears as shown.
of
and
9,
drill-
in the
11
FIG. 124
gear-box B 3, Fig. 126, is a system of gearing by which eight different
speeds are communicated to the worm W, the handle for same being
within easy reach.
The worm-wheel
1, which is driven by W, has
on the inner end a small gear G 19, Fig. 125, which gives motion to
On
20.
vertical
the
same
movement
shaft with
20
to the drill-spindle
is
a pinion (small gear), giving
8 by meshing with the rack R,
Fig. 126.
The Hand-feed and Quick Return. We have in the above train of
gears a very efficient and convenient system of mechanism for the
automatic feed. When it is desired to feed the spindle by hand the
worm-shaft
126,
is
disengaged from the gearing in feed-box
and the spindle
is
fed
by hand-wheel
1.
The
drill
B
is
3,
Fig.
quickly
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
90
withdrawn from the drilled hole by pushing in lever L and turning it
The effect of pushing this lever in is to disengage
at the same time.
1 to its shaft.
the clutch which binds the worm-wheel
No automatic movement of the head H is needed. It is moved by
the hand-wheel H 2, Fig. 126. H 2 operates the worm and worm-wheel
shown, and these give motion to a pinion meshing into the rack R 2.
G16
FIG. 125
The Depth Gage. This machine is provided with a depth gage of
unique design, shown in connection with G 20, Fig. 126. The graduated dial
may
be
set at zero
independently of the spindle, and several
different depths of holes may be drilled without disturbing the dogs,
which are set by the dial as required.
Thus, suppose the two dogs
and
D1
to be set for drilling holes 9"
ing drilled a 9" hole,
it is
and 12" deep alternately; havlift the latch L 1 an instant
necessary only to
DRILLING-MACHINES
to let the first
stood that
dog
91
when drilling the 12" hole. It will be underof the dogs strikes the latch it causes the
feeding
clear it
when one
by the disengagement. of the clutch C 2. The latter maybe
disengaged by hand by the Handle shown, and to avoid damaging the
to cease
'
H2
FIG 126
it is automatically disengaged when the drill-spindle has
reached the extreme end of its travel.
Detailed Description of the Gearing in the Gear-boxes. The sixteen
speeds of S 8, given by the combination of the gears in gear-boxes B 1
mechanism
and
B 2,
are in geometrical progression ranging from 17 to 267 revolutions
92
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
per minute. So, also, are the eight feeds in the gear-box B 3, which vary
between .007" and .064" per revolution of spindle. All of these
speeds
and feeds are controlled by handles within easy reach of the
operator.
It may be well to further
explain these gearing systems.
Referring to Fig. 122, the four gears G 1, G 2, G 3, and G 4 are tightly
keyed to shaft S 3, while only one of the matmg-gears can be locked
at one time, the clutches C 3 and C 4
The
being used for this
purpose.
velocity ratio of the shafts S 3 and S 4 depends on the ratio of the diameters of the pair of gears which control the
speed at any given time.
When one of the gears on shaft S 4 is locked the other three revolve
FIG. 127
was explained in connection with the sliding-key gears shown in
118
and 119.
Figs.
The gearing in gear-box B 2, which takes the place of "back gears/'
idly, as
The highest speed is obtained by
somewhat more complicated.
Inasmuch as the
at
this
speeding up
particular part of the machine.
in
mesh
arm
for
must
be
thrown
the
by tumbler action,
gears
elevating
it is necessary that these gears run at a comparatively slow speed, and
is
this is the principal reason for speeding
up the back
gears.
Fig. 127 shows a sectional view of the sliding-key gears in gear-box
These are driven by four other gears tightly keyed to a shaft in
3.
the box.
The key
is
moved
lengthwise in the hollow shaft
by the
G 21 with the rack B, the gear being rotated by the
engagement
lever C. The key may be held in a position for locking either of the four
of gear
from what has already been said respecting such systems,
be readily understood that the velocity ratio at any given time
depend upon the ratio of the pair of gears which control the speed
gears, and,
it
will
will
DRILLING-MACHINES
93
The four speeds given by these gears are changed by
other gears in the box, so as to give eight speeds in all.
The student should note the difference between the main drivingmechanism in this machine and that in which a stepped cone is used. It
at that time.
be remarked in this connection that there is a growing tendency in
machine-tool design to substitute gearing for cone pulleys. The manufacturers of this machine claim that they were the first to use gearing
in place of the main driving cones.
may
An Important Principle in Design. It is generally understood by
designers that box and tubular forms of framework are well adapted to
resist the stresses to which machine-tools are subjected.
But, as a rule,
these forms have not been adopted in designing the arms of radial drills.
However, the designer of the machine just described has so arranged
the mechanism connected with the head as to admit of the
made
of
approximately tubular cross-section.
machine was
"
built 3/ 8 holes have been drilled
per revolution of
drill
before the
being about .006".
drill failed,
arm being
In the factory where this
with a feed of nearly .06"
the regular feed for such
The manufacturers
of the drilling-machine
referred to attribute this extraordinary performance to the torsional
Mr. F. G. Halsey, associate editor of the "American
stiffness of the arm.
drills
Machinist," in an editorial in that journal July 24, 1902, illustrates the
theory held by Mr. Norris, the designer and patentee of the machine, as
"
Let the reader take a piece of common pasteboard mailingfollows:
It will of course
tube, 8 to 10 inches long, in the two hands and twist it.
be found to be quite stiff and unyielding. Next slit the tube its entire
length with a penknife, as shown in Fig. 128, and twist it again. Its
FIG. 128.
be found to be gone. There is simply no
comparison in the strength of the tube before and after slitting. In the
former condition it has a good deal of strength, while in the latter it has
stiffness against torsion will
When the tube is slit and then twisted the two edges of the cut
on one another in the manner which we have tried to show in the
illustration, and this sliding takes place with the most trifling effort."
none.
slide
Mr. Halsey, in the editorial a part only of which has been quoted,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
94
does not quite agree with Mr. Norris. He says in effect that while the
ordinary radial drill-arm has a deep gap on one side, this gap is closed
at each end, and this metal on the ends must in a measure resist the
sliding
tendency of the edges of the gap.
He
attributes the extraordi-
nary results hi part to improvements in the twist-drill.
The 3 /s" holes in the test mentioned above were drilled in cast iron
While such results cannot be realized in average pracbe
reasonably inferred that the feeds recommended by the
tice,
may
manufacturers of twist-drills may, under favorable conditions, be considThis is no reflection upon the drill-makers, but rather
erably increased.
from the
solid.
it
FIG. 129
it
is
FIG. 130.
an indication that they have underestimated the value of
their
product.
J
1
Motor-driven Radial Drills. Fig. 129 shows a rear view of the drillingmachine that has been described, in connection with a 3-H.P. constantspeed motor; and Fig. 130 shows the machine as modified to adapt
it to a 3-H.P. variable-speed motor.
In the former case the machine has
16 speeds, the same as when driven by one belt. When the variablespeed motor is used the drill speeds are controlled partly by the motor
and partly by the gearing in the gear-box B 2. In this case gear-box
1 is
not used.
be of interest to the student to know that these machines,
which require a 3-H.P. motor, are designed to drill holes from 1 / 2 to
It
may
3 l /2 inches diameter.
Universal Radial Drills. The plain radial drills above described are
so designed that holes cannot be drilled at any angle with the horizontal
DRILLING-MACHINES
95
than a right angle.
Fig. 131 shows a universal radial drill.
in this machine may be rotated on its axis and clamped in any
position, and the head may be rptated in a plane parallel to the face of
other
The arm
the arm. With these adjustments holes may be drilled at any angle.
The extreme end of the arm of ^his machine may be supported against
springing
by a
tie
Drills are also
from the base.
made with only one
of the angular
machines are called semi-universal radial
movements.
Such
drills.
FIG. 131.
In Fig. 132 is shown a table designed to be used with
Tilting-table.
the plain radial drill for angular drilling. The table may be tilted
It also swings
through 90 by means of the crank and worm-gearing.
on
its
axis.
MISCELLANEOUS DRILLING-MACHINES
Suspension
Drills, etc.
The drilling-machines already shown
approximately typical of their several classes.
great variety of designs of these machines.
We
are
There is, however, a
have post-drills, wall-
One design of
drills, overhead traveling drills, suspension drills, etc.
the last-named drills is illustrated in Fig. 133. This machine has eight
speeds and three automatic feeds. It also has the usual hand-feed. It
will be seen that a 4-step cone and back gear gives the eight speeds,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
96
the three feeds being effected by the two 3-step cones shown on the
left.
Such machines are specially adapted to
work requiring wide horizontal area.
large plate
work and other
Upright Drill with Revolving Table. The machine illustrated in
is similar to the common upright drill,
excepting that it has a
Fig. 134
FIG. 132.
revolving table in addition to the revolving spindle. The mechanism
for driving the table is separate from the spindle-driving mechanism,
so that the spindle may be run for ordinary work without running the
The object in this design is to better adapt the drill to chuck
such
as pulley boring, etc.
With a revolving table such work
work,
can be more quickly " trued up" than with a stationary table. The
work is usually cored, and a boring-bar, guided by a bushing in the
central hole of the table, is often used to enlarge the hole.
Sometimes
table.
a chucking-reamer is used instead of the boring-bar. In either case the
hole would generally be finished with a finishing-reamer.
* drills are manuMultispindle Drills.
Multispindle and gang
factured in many designs and for many different kinds of work. They
* These terms
may
be used interchangeably.
FIG. 133.
97
FIG. 134
DRILLING-MACHINES
made to drill holes in
They may be made also
are
99
straight lines, in rectangles, and in circles.
almost any curve.
In some
for holes in
machines the distances apart of the drill-spindles are fixed; in others
may be changed. The spindles may be driven altogether
by belts, in which case one belt mfty envelop a number of pulleys (one
on each spindle), or they may be driven partly by belts and partly
by gearing. In the latter case there may be one central gear driving,
by intermediate gears, the several spindles, or, if the spindles be in one
straight line, they may be driven by a horizontal shaft and bevel-gears.
Fig. 135, which shows a machine designed especially for drilling arch bars,
has six spindles, and these are so bolted to the frame as to admit of limited
adjustment. The horizontal shaft S is driven by the cone pulley P
and spur-gears, as shown. On the right-hand end of this shaft is an
*
these distances
angular shaft,
shaft,
by means
driven by the two bevel-gears
1,
G and G
1.
This
worm- and spur-gearing shown at its lower end,
the table and work to the revolving drills.
of the
automatically feeds
In Fig. 136 we have a multiple-spindle drill operated by a belt nearly
the same as in the sensitive drill of Fig. 116. The upper sections of the
drill-spindles in this
machine are fixed with respect to the driving-gear,
but the lower sections are adjustable laterally within certain limits,
the lower bearings being separately secured to the framework by bolts
held in T slots. The connection between the lower section of each
spindle and the upper section is made by means of the well-known
universal joint.
the student
If
is
not familiar with this kind of shaft
find it on almost any milling-machine.
The machine shown in Fig. 137 is radically different
from any previously described in this chapter. The main driving
mechanism, consisting of tight and loose pulleys and 4-step cones, is of
connection, he
may
Turret-drills.
between the upper driving
novel.
mechanism and the drill-spindles
Fig. 138 shows an enlarged
with
the
of
the
machine
view of the upper part
pulleys removed. This
which revolves at one
twelve
one
of
machine has
drill-spindles, only
ordinary
design;
but the connection
is
time.
One
of these spindles
is
shown
at
in the figure.
description
covering the operation of this spindle will apply equally well to each
of the twelve.
On the right-hand end of the shaft S 1 is a bevel-gear G meshing
with another bevel-gear, G 1, which is loosely keyed to the driving-shaft
S 2. On the lower end of S 2 is a clutch that engages with a similar
clutch on the spindle S when the latter is in operation. Pivoted at
is
a bell-crank lever, one end of which
is
so connected to the spindle
FIG
135.
100
FIG. 136.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
102
S2
as to give vertical movement to the latter when the lever is moved.
of this lever is connected to a lock-bolt L that holds the
The other end
turret-head in position when one of the drill-spindles is in operation.
The other levers and rod connections, L1,R1, and 2, lead to a treadle
movement within convenient reach
workman. When the treadle
is pressed downward it draws the
lock-bolt out of the socket S 3.
At
the same time the shaft S 2 is
of the
lifted so as to be disengaged from
the spindle S, in which position it is
shown in the engraving.
As was stated, only one drill
or other tool can be used at any
given time, and when the turret
rotated to bring a second tool
into operation,
the
lock-bolt L
is
will
automatically enter
its
socket
and the shaft S 2 move downward
to engage and drive the spindle
S. The turret is revolved by hand
bring each of
to
adjustment
wanted.
with
The student
this
machine
will
the spindles
in
the
as
work,
note that while
differs
from
the
multiple-spindle drills in that only
one spindle can be used at one time,
this drill has a very decided advan-
FIG. 137.
tage as compared with a one-spindle
machine.
Thus
in
operations on each
some
lines of
hole.
The
work
hole
it is
may
necessary to perform several
need to be
drilled,
reamed,
counterbored, tapped, etc. In this machine the required tools having
been adjusted once, each tool may be quickly brought into operation
When a one-spindle machine is used, if
by revolving the turret.
each hole
is
completed with one adjustment of the work a great many
consuming much more
adjustments of various tools will be required,
time than merely revolving the turret.
Turret-drills
designed especially for sewing-machine details will
an
The author
almost
incredible amount of work in a day.
accomplish
has on his desk the illustration of a machine made by the National
DRILLING-MACHINES
103
Automatic Tool Company which is represented to drill 19,000 holes
every ten hours. We have space only for a general statement of the
The manufacturers make also
possibilities in this class of machinery.
a somewhat different machine which "drills, reams, faces, and counterall the holes in a sewing-machine arm, including the shaft-holes,
without taking the work from the jig."
High-speed Attachment. The large drilling-machines run entirely
too slow for holes less than l /" diameter. When one has a common
bores
upright
drill
or
any
large drilling-machine, but no sensitive
drill,
the
FIG. 138.
high-speed attachment shown in Fig. 139 is very handy. It will be
seen that the shank of this device is an exact counterpart of a drill-
shank, and
be used in the spindle of the drilling-machine in the
Within the casing of this device
drill is used.
is a system of gears quite similar to the back gears on the upright drill.
There is this difference, however, that in this device gears increase
the speed of the drill, while the back gears decrease the speed of the
The drill is driven by the small chuck shown, and the
drill-spindle.
casing is held stationary either by hand or by a stop-pin inserted hi
it
may
same manner that a
drilling-machine table.
104
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
WORK AND METHODS OF CLAMPING THE WORK TO
DRILLING-MACHINE
THE TABLE
Character of the Work.
is,
of course, drilling
The principal work of the drilling-machine
and boring.* It is also used for machining the
FIG. 139.
bosses on framework, etc., and sometimes for turning the periphery
of bosses and hubs.
When made for both forward and reverse motions,
as
many
drills are,
the drilling-machine
may
be used for tapping holes
also.
Starting the Hole. To drill a hole we first indent the metal with
the center-punch, and then draw a circle with compasses concentric
to the center.
This indentation is designed to direct the point of
the drill, but from various causes the drill does not always follow concentrically with
*
The term
the
circle.
It
is
necessary,
boring, as used in the machine-shop,
therefore,
in
starting a
means enlarging a
hole.
DRILLING-MACHINES
hole to
the
lift
ascertain
drill
the hole
if
before
is
105
has drilled any considerable
depth, and
following, as intended.
// the hole has started
it
a small groove musfle cut on the
long side of the eccentric
order to cause the drill to incline in
the direction of the
groove
It
is sometimes
necessary to repeat this process two or three times
before
the drill ,s
properly started. It should be
observed, however that
the work of
correcting the drill should be completed
before the hole is the
full
diamond-point chisel or cape-chisel, or even a centerdimeter.
will answer for
punch,
correcting eccentricity in starting a hole
The
groove should be cut clear to the center
eccentrically,
Holding Work by Bolts and Straps.-As
drilling-machine tables
are always made with slots for
bolts, one of the first methods of
securing
work that suggests itself is
by means of bolts and straps Fig 140
shows a piece of work thus
JH
The
clamped.
made
steel
and
of
flat
from
from
straps S may be
bars of machine-
3
i/2 to
/4 inch
l/4
to 2 3 /4
thick
inches
wide, according to the character
of the work.
Some workmen
prefer
make
to
the
straps
U--
FlG J 40.
shaped. A piece of steel 8 /s to
Vs inch thick and about 1 inch wide makes a
good strap
SHOWS frm
<iria-o ^f U^^-U
_:_ j
e
shows
top views of both kinds of straps.
-
Fie
&
'
141
FIG. 141.
The bolts may be
2 to
/ 4 inch diameter, the holes or
opening
"
the straps
about
being
i/ 16
Most bolts for the above
larger.
purpose are /" diameter, and for all but
exceptionally heavy work /"
diameter for the bolts and about
the average of the above sizes for
straps should be adopted as the standard.
Fig. 142 shows a planery be lnserted
al
the
T slot (without startS
? f u
infa^l,
tUmed ab Ut 90 to
* bolthead a
When the drill has the same kind of slots
these bolts
driI1- taWe alSO
the Sl ts are mer
Angular
and pass
ough the table, a bolt made square or
rectangular under
m
.
Td
^^
^
^
^
^
"
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
106
the head would be better.
kinds of
The machine shown
in Fig. 118 has
both
slots.
In Fig. 143
D7
shown a piece of work secured to a drill- table by a
strap and a screw-clamp. The clamp is used merely
to show another and very convenient method of hold-
is
For blocking under the ends of the
blocks
of wood with grain in direction
straps simple
of pressure, or stepped cast-iron blocks as in Fig.
ing
the work.
may be used.
Method. In Fig. 145 we show a strap
with the block end much higher than the work.
This is incorrect for two reasons: first, it puts more
pressure on the block than on the work; second, it
damages the head and thread of the bolt.
144, or small jack-screws,
A Wrong
Protecting Finished
FIG. 142
Work.
When
the straps or
clamps would come in contact with the finished work
surfaces the work should be protected by a strip of
sheet brass or copper.
Pasteboard or lead would be
better for highly polished work.
In clamping work having a base parallel
Use of Angle-plates.
to the required holes, a device called angle-plate or knee-plate may
The
be used.
piece of work of this character is shown in Fig. 146.
FIG. 144.
FIG. 143.
angle-plate is held by bolts and straps or
the work is secured to the angle-plate.
by clamps
to the table,
and
Holding Work in the Drill-vise. In Fig. 147 we show a drill-vise
The vise is
which is used in connection with the drilling-machine.
in
the vise.
held
work
held on the table by straps or clamps, and the
once
clamped,
Fig. 148 shows a vise in which the work, having been
may be drilled at different angles this is called a universal vise.
;
DRILLING-MACHINES
Holding Round Work. A shaft or similar
but in some cases V blocks are used for
shows an end view of a shaft
ing in a V block. Two or
blocks may be required,~the shaft
a
vise.,
being held
down by
case three blocks
may
straps.
are
used,
107
detail
may
be held in
this purpose.
Fig.
149
In
two
be placed directly under the
straps,
and the third block so
placed as to support the shaft
under the pressure of the drill.
The dotted lines in Fig. 149 show a method of setting the shaft
central by a try-square.
Having established the center by a center-
FIG. 146.
punch, the shaft
is
rotated in the
V blocks
until the center
from the two positions of the square-blade.
is
equidistant
hermaphrodite caliper
FIG. 147.
set to the radius of the shaft is a convenient tool to use in
adjustingthe shaft. However, a common steel rule will answer. Various methods
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
108
of clamping
work are shown
in the chapter
on milling-machines and
elsewhere in this work.
Oil-holes in pulleys, gears, etc.,
Drilling Oil-holes in Pulley-hubs.
are often drilled at some inconvenient angle.
The attempts to drill
work
of this character without substantial apparatus for clamping has
probably caused more disasters than any other work done at the drill.
FIG. 149
FIG. 148.
a time the author has seen a pulley break loose from its moorings
and swing around at a high rate, while oil-cans, monkey-wrenches,
"Oh, where was he?"
etc., were flying in every direction. But the boy
Nothing better for holding such work could be devised than the tilting-
Many
chuck shown in Fig. 150.* The plate P in this has a V lug to receive
the pulley-rim, and the lower edge of the plate is hinged to lugs secured
to the edge of the drill-table.
The brace B passes through a slot in
the table, and
of holes drilled
supported by a rod passing through one of a number
through the brace. The angle may be changed by placing
is
the rod in a different hole.
Turning Hubs, etc. In Fig. 151 is shown a cutter-head for turning
hubs and bosses on large framework and in some other cases. The head
is secured to the drill-spindle by the key M.
Another key, K, passes
through the arbor F. The latter serves to steady the device, but when
27,
*Cut taken from
page 127.
article
by Cornell Ridderhof
in
"American Machinist,"
vol.
DRILLING-MACHIN
the hub
by
is
solid the arbor
set-screws as shown.
109
The cutters DD are held
was first used in connection
"American Machinist/' vol. 27, p. 90.
cannot be used.
(This illustration
with an article by T. B. Burnita in
The author has made and used a cutter-head similar to the above
'
&
FIG. 150.
except that it was a plain cylindrical shell screwed on the drill-spindle,
with cutters in the lower end held by set-screws. In addition to the
set-screws, each cutter was radially adjustable by a screw having a
collar at its outer end to
engage with a recess made in the edge of the
cutter.
This was a very satisfactory device, and it is but little trouble
to cut thread on the drill-spindle for this and other heads or chucks.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
110
The
tool
shown
in Fig. 152
may be
used to face bosses, and by making
it could be used to turn the
the cutter with a downward projection
periphery of shallow bosses and hubs.
Adjusting Work in Drilling-machine. Some workmen who are carechuck work very accurately in the lathe seem to understand no
ful to
FIG. 151
to set the work by the eye
"good enough" for common
of this character, but for reamed shaft-bearings, holes for studs for cut gears, etc., it is better to use the method
described below. In marking out work to be drilled it is well to have,
better
way
for drilling-machine
and the point of the drill.
bolt-holes and other work
in addition to
what
work
is
work than
This method
circle of the
is
diameter of the hole, another
circle
some-
The larger circle would be used to test the
larger than the hole.
after the hole had been drilled.
For the larger sizes of holes it
desirable
also to
have a third
circle smaller
than the
drill
to test
DRILLING-MACHINES
111
We
the work before drilling to full diameter.
might say, by way
of parenthesis, that in drilling large holes, on account of the pressure
required to make the large drill cut, it will be advantageous to precede
the large drill by a smaller drill. Having marked off the work from
a fine center, it may be very accusately adjusted under the drill-spindle
by the use of a tram. (In the case of a cored hole the hole may be filled
with a wooden block and the
circle
marked
fastened near the center of the block.)
FIG. 152.
wood
stick
off
from a lead or zinc tag
To make
the tram, take a hard-
FIG. 153.
about 9" long and shape one end like a drill-shank to fit
3
Closely fit a wooden pin in a /s" hole in the other end,
The pointer in the end of the wooden pin may be made
the drill-spindle.
as in Fig. 153.
of
a Vie"
drill-rod or of
drill-spindle,
common
and while revolving
The tram is now placed in the
slowly the work is adjusted until
wire.
it
the tram-point follows the larger circle, the pin being adjusted radially
For adjusting the face of the work
to suit the diameter of the circle.
for
with
the
or
testing the top surface of the drilldrill-spindle,
square
table,
much
larger
tram may be made on the same
principle.
If
the revolving tram touch the surface being tested at three or four points,
Work
it proves that the surface is at right angles to the drill-spindle.
which requires the degree of accuracy indicated, whether cored or
drilled from the solid, should generally have the hole trued up by one
or more cuts with cutters in a boring-bar, the bar being guided at its
lower end in a bushing fitted to the drill-table. The finishing cut may
be made with a reamer.
CHAPTER
VIII
DRILLS AND DRILLING
A drill (in the primary acceptation
a tool for originating and enlarging holes in metal. We
use the term "originate" to distinguish the drill from the reamer and
Definition and Classification.
of the term)
is
boring-bar, which can be used only in enlarging holes.
Drills may be classified as follows twist-drills, Farmer
:
drills, flat drills,
pin-drills, tit-drills, bottoming-drills and slotting-drills.
The Twist-drill.
Fig. 154 shows the typical form of taper-shank
twist-drill.
This drill derives its name from the fact that it was originally
FIG. 154.
The present method is to
its helical shape in the forge-shop.
cut the flutes or grooves in a milling-machine. The helical form of the
flutes affords free cutting lips at the same time they tend to lift the chips
twisted to
from the
hole.
To avoid weakening the
drill
too
much
the flutes are
made
of gradually decreasing depth from the point of the drill to the
shank. This would lessen the chip room were it not for the fact that the
pitch of the spiral is increased sufficiently to compensate for the decrease
Some manufacturers, however, preserve the
in depth of the flutes.
uniform cross-sectional area of the flutes by making them of gradually
increasing width, while the spiral is kept constant as to pitch.
Drills in general consist of two parts.
Twist-drill Nomenclature.
drill is driven is called the shank, and that part
between the shank and the cutting end is the body of the
or the drill proper. The nomenclature of the twist-drill, however,
The end by which the
of the drill
drill,
is
more complicated.
Referring again to Fig. 154,
is
the web,
LL
112
the
DRILLS AND DRILLING
lands,
GG
the
lips,
S the
shank, and
the tang.
113
Similar letters refer to
similar parts in Figs. 155" and 156.
Clearance of the Twist-drill. The twist-drill, as well as other drills,
is made largest in diameter at the cutting end, and tapers slightly toward
the shank.
The amount
of this
tper
varies in different drills according
It will
to their size or use from' .00025" to .0015" per inch of length.
in
smaller
diameter
is
when
seen
that
a
worn
twist-drill
thus be
slightly
short than
when new.
ance and prevent
its
This taper
binding as
it
is
to give the
The
drill is also
longitudinal clearhole.
FIG. 156.
FIG. 155.
in Fig. 155
drill
advances through the
given clearance in another way; this is illustrated
circle and the body of the
by the space C between the outer
drill.
This clearance is called body clearance. It begins at B and increases
toward the back edge of the drill, the distance AB being concentric.
Lacking body clearance a drill would bind and heat, and it would take
more power to drive it.
And finally a drill must have lipjdeaxance, or heel clearance as it is
sometimes called. Referring to Figs. 155 and 156, lip clearance is made
lower than the lip or cutting edge. This gives
by grinding the heel
prominence to the cutting edges and enables them to bite or take hold
The Cleveland Twist Drill Company recommend an
of the metal.
angle of lip clearance of 12 for the average rate of feed, and 15 for
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
114
heavier feeds. The line E, joining the two cutting edges should be,
according to their practice, 135 with the cutting edges. When this
"
there is danger of the drill splitting up the
angle is much less than 135
"
Some twist-drills are made with a fine mark running lengthwise of
web.
flutes.
When thus made the line E should join these marks.
Grinding the Drill. It is essential in correct grinding that the cutting
edges be of equal length and form equal angles with the axis of the drill.
The proper angle is 59, the included angle being 118. It requires con-
each of the
to grind a drill correctly, and indeed it is a matter of
controversy as to what is the correct form of that part of the drill which
Some mechanics think this
comes in contact with the emery-wheel.
siderable
skill
surface should be that of a segment of a cylinder, as shown by dotted
lines in Fig. 157.
Others contend that the surface should correspond to
b
FIG. 157.
a segment of a cone, as indicated by the dotted lines of Fig. 158. The
consensus of "opinion favors the latter method, because it increases the
clearance at the center, where most clearance is needed, and because less
power
is
required to drive the
drill
when thus formed.
used it will pay to use a machine
There are several good designs of machines for this
purpose (see chapter on Grinding-machines), but if necessary to grind
the drills by hand, the following instructions taken from the catalog of
the Morse Twist-drill and Machine Company will be of value:
"Prof. Sweet suggests that the rear of the lip of a drill be removed,
In a shop where
for grinding them.
as
shown by
many
twist-drills are
Fig. 159; this
Drills properly
made have
makes the cutting edge much
their cutting edges straight
like
flat drill.
when gound
to a
DRILLS AND DRILLING
115
Grinding to less angle leaves the lip hooking,
and is likely to produce a crooked and irregular hole. The grinding
lines of a drill are placed slightly above the center, to allow for the
FIG. 158.
proper angle of point, which is an important factor. This angle is
an index to the clearance. If the angle is too much, the drill cuts
Fig. 160 shows a
rank; if not enough, the drill may not cut.
FIG. 160.
FIG. 159.
proper angle. In Fig. 161 the angle is too sharp. In Fig. 162 the
angle runs backward, and shows the want of clearance. An effective
method of determining the clearance is to set the point of the drill on
FIG. 161.
FIG. 162.
a plane surface, holding a scale as shown in Fig. 163; by revolving
the drill its clearance is shown, as well as the height of the cutting lips,
which should be equal; also the cutting edges should be of exactly equal
length
any inequality
of lengths doubles itself in work.
To strengthen
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
116
the
drill,
the center
is
made
As the
thicker toward the shank.
drill is
shortened through use the center shows thicker, and will work hard
in drilling.
To overcome this the center should be thinned, care being
taken to remove an equal amount of stock on each side, and so keep
the point central."
In connection with the above it may be suggested that a graduated
try-square is often used instead of the scale, and it is more convenient
163.
than the
latter.
sheet-metal gage could be cheaply made and used,
This gage should have a bearing along the
of about 5", and should be applied in the same man-
instead of the protractor.
body
of the drill
ner as the protractor.
Its angle should be 121.
applying a protractor is shown in Fig. 164.
The method
of
FIG. 164.
Effect of Errors in Grinding a Drill.
drill
having a conical point,
or some equivalent thereof,
guided by the point in "drilling a hole
the
If
from the solid."
point be "out of center," that is out of the
the
drill will make a hole larger than its own
axial line of the drill,
is
diameter.
somewhat
similar effect will be produced
ting edges are not of the same angle. It
that these are satisfactory methods of
must
if
the two cut-
not, however, be inferred
making a
drill
cut larger.
It
DRILLS AND DRILLING
117
be permissible in an emergency to slightly enlarge a hole by grindthe
point eccentric, but the result is generally disappointing, as
ing
the hole is very likely to be irregular and rough.
Straight-shank Twist-drills. The drill shown in Fig. 154 has a
may
taper shank designed to fit into a taper hole in the end of the drillFig. 165 differs from the latter only in the form of the shank,
spindle.
FIG,
165.
which is straight. The straight shank is designed to be driven by a
chuck which screws on the drill-spindle.
These are
Twist-drills are also made with "taper-square shanks."
designed to be used with a ratchet.
Three-groove and Four-groove Drills. Figs. 166 and 167 show
These drills
respectively a three-groove and a four-groove twist-drill.
FIG. 166.
FIG. 167.
cannot be used to
drill
holes from the solid.
In
very large
a two-groove
followed by a three-
holes
many mechanics
The
drill,
makes
is
prefer to use two drills.
the hole about half the size. This
drilling
first,
groove or four-groove drill. The latter are also used to enlarge cored
holes.
It is not considered advisable to use the two-groove drill in
cored holes. When used in the lathe to slightly enlarge a hole the
drill tends to "draw in."
Straightway or Farmer Drills. The twist-drill is by far the most
important drill used in the machine-shop; we are, therefore, giving
it the most space, and shall refer to it again in connection with the
two-groove
The Farmer drill (Fig. 168) differs from
subject of "deep drilling."
in
that the grooves are straight and parallel with the
the twist-drill
The twist-drill presents an inclined
axis of the drill rather than helical.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
118
cutting edge to the metal, and peels the metal very much the same
as a plow turns over the soil; and, as was stated, the helical form
tends to screw the chips out of the hole. The Farmer drill lacks this
and while it will not cut so rapidly and freely as the twistdrill, it has some advantages in drilling holes for slots and in drilling
sheet metal and brass. In drilling brass the twist-drill tends to advance
faster than the rate of feed, and thus sometimes gouges into the metal.
principle,
FIG. 168.
This tendency
is
particularly noticeable
when the
emerging through the bottom of the hole.
point of the
drill is
No
such difficulty occurs
in the use of the Farmer drill.
When drilling sheet metal the Farmer
drill does not tend to lift the sheet as does the twist-drill, and in drilling
holes, to save excessive chipping in making slots, the holes may be
somewhat closer, leaving less work for the chisel than would be
necessary if the twist drill were used. Notwithstanding the advantages
of the Farmer drill in certain kinds of work, it is not so efficient a tool
drilled
The instructions for grinding the twist-drill apply
equally well to the straightway drill.
The Flat Drill. Some one has said that the flat drill "has the faculty
as the twist-drill.
round nor straight, and whose diameter
seems to bear no relation to the diameter of the drill." This is a rather
strong statement of the fact that the flat drill, as ordinarily made, cannot be relied on for accurate work. Fig. 169 shows the typical form
of drilling holes that are neither
FIG. 169.
In its crudest shape it may be made altogether in the forgeat
very small expense. It consists of a bar of steel flattened
shop
out and made V-shaped at the cutting end, which end is ground for clearance the same as a twist-drill. The bar is tapered on the shank end
of flat drill.
a square tapered socket. The flat drill was formerly
used for all general work, but it has now been almost entirely superseded
by the twist-drill. If one needs a special size of drill in an emergency, a
The flat drill
flat drill could be very quickly made for the purpose.
generally to
fit
DRILLS AND DRILLING
is
also used to
some extent
119
in connection with the small drilling device
By machining the flat drill, giving it nearly parallel
and a round shank, it may "be made to do fairly good work but
called ratchet-drill.
sides
even in
The
best shape it will not gpmpare favorably with the twist-drill.
Most of the drills above described
Pin-drill, or Counterbore.
its
are designed to originate holes, that is, to drill holes from the solid.
Its
pin-drill, illustrated in Fig. 170, is never used for this purpose.
The
FIG. 170.
principal use
is
For
be used also for
that of counterboring holes for round-head screws.
this reason it is often called a counterbore.
may
It
enlarging holes previously drilled, and for facing small bosses to make
a true bearing for nuts and heads of bolts. It is sometimes made with
bevel cutting edges, as in Fig. 171, for countersinking holes for bevel-
FIG. 171.
head screws.
is
In using the
pin-drill the pin
end G,
Fig. 170, fits in,
and
guided by, the hole.
The form shown in Fig. 171 can be used for one size of hole only,
and for one size of counterbore, but a pin-drill may be made with both
Fig. 172 shows such
pin and cutter adjustable for different sizes of holes.
FIG. 172.
a tool.
is
is
The
cutter
is
detachable, and the different sizes are held
more appropriately called a counterbore.
method
of
The pin or guide P
the screw S. This tool
held in a slot in the bar.
making a counterbore.
by
Fig. 173
shows another
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
120
Form and Use
of the Tit-drill.
If we wish to
Bottoming-drills.
does
not pass through the metal, the bottom of the hole
that
drill a hole
will be conical in shape if made by any of the drills previously described.
FIG. 173.
If
we wish
shown
the bottom of the hole approximately flat, we use the tit-drill
This drill is in principle the same as the flat drill,
in Fig. 174.
the difference being that in the tit-drill the beveled point is reduced to
a minimum. If we wish to make the bottom of the hole perfectly flat,
we use a
drill
without the
bottoming-drill, see Fig. 175.
little
The
beveled point, which
tit-drill will
drill is called
originate a hole, but the
FIG. 175.
FIG. 174.
must be preceded by some other form of drill; or the hole
must be at least started, so as to form a guide for the drill on its sides.
The lips or cutting edges of the tit- and bottoming-drills are ground
on the same general principles as the twist-drill.
As indicated
This drill is illustrated in Fig. 176.
Slotting-drills.
bottoming-drill
by
its
name,
it
is
designed for slots or oblong holes.
FIG.
It will
make a
176.
in
independently of chisel or file, but to use the drill the machine
the
either
of
means
with
which it is used must be provided
feeding
It is well to drill a hole equal
drill or the work lengthwise of the slot.
slot
DRILLS AND DRILLING
to width of slot with twist-drill or
tit-drill,
121
to give the slotting-drill a
start.
may then be fed lengthwise of the slot, and downward about
J
to
/4 mcn a t each end, until the slot is the required length and
Vie
The slot will be semicircular at each end, which is all
depth.
It
right hi many cases; but if required to be square,
This method of making slots
so with chisel and file.
any great extent, and the
to
is
is
may be made
not employed
largely superseded
by the end
(See under Milling-machines.)
mill.
Oil-tube Drills.
say
drill
it
4 inches,
1 to
Deep
if
Drilling.
a lubricant
is
In drilling holes of ordinary depth,
it may be applied by a com-
needed
mon
But for holes more than about
oil-can.
4" an oil-tube drill will be advantageous.
This may be made in the form of a common
having grooves milled into the
of the body into which
twist-drill
surface
clearance
small tubes are soldered.
These tubes ex-
tend the whole length of the drill proper,
and open into a kind of collar near the
shank end of the
drill.
Connected with
this
a pipe (sometimes a flexible tube)
to
the source of oil-supply, which is
leading
a
pump. The collar is a running
frequently
collar
fit
is
on the
and
drill,
the latter turns.
when
the
drill is
is
held stationary while
This description holds good
used in an upright drilling-
Such a machine is shown in Fig.
which C is the collar and E the pipe
or hose leading to the oil-pump. The Morse
Twist-drill and Machine Company drill oilholes in drills less than 2 1 /2 " diameter, and
machine.
177, in
use the
oil- tubes
178 shows
holes
are
in
drill
drilled
the larger
with
in
sizes.
Fig.
These
which are
FIG. 177,
oil-holes.
blanks
afterward
twisted
and
milled.
For deep
drilling in the lathe the drill
or the oil-hole
drill
made
may
be made
like Fig. 179,
pass through the shank at its end, as in Fig. 180.
like Fig. 180 is shown in operation hi Fig. 181.
The oil-
may
pump is worked automatically by mechanism attached to
The pump is connected with an oil-tank into which the waste
through a strainer.
the lathe.
oil
returns
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
122
In extra-deep drilling sometimes a steel-tube extension is secured
the end of a short oil-hole drill. This combination is probably
cheaper than a drill of the required length.
to
FIG. 178.
It is essential in
deep
drilling that the hole
be made the required
is started.
This
diameter, several inches deep, before the special drill
FIG. 179
preliminary work may be done with a regular twist-drill and boringtool, the latter being used to "true up" the hole.
FIG. 180.
The
holes.
twist-drill is
by no means the only form
Indeed, some mechanics think
it is
of drill used for deep
not equal to a one-lip
drill
FliXlBLE TUIN<5 TO PUMP
FIG. 181.
when the most accurate work
is
rather slow hi operation.
is
needed.
The
one-lip
drill,
however,
DRILLS AND DRILLING
123
For a more comprehensive discussion of the subject of deep drilling,
and of tools for the purpose, the reader is referred to articles in
"Machinery," published in December 1901 and January 1904.
Lubricants Used in Drillingji*-Cast iron, brass, and Babbitt metal
be drilled without any lubricant. In drilling steel, oil should
be used; in drilling soft steel and wrought iron we use either oil or a
mixture made of sal-soda and water. A drilling compound may be
purchased for this purpose. It is economical to use the mixture when
may
considerable drilling to be done, but for a few holes a common
more convenient. If required to drill glass, we use kerosene
or turpentine, the latter being preferable.
there
is
oil-can
oil
is
Speed of
Drills.
ing the speed of
There
drills.
is
The
considerable variation in practice respectfollowing formulas are suggested as an
approximation to average practice:
100
for cast
for machine steel R.P.M. =
-JT-;
125
225
for brass =
rron=-^r-;
-7p
equals diameter of drill in inches and R.P.M. the number of
revolutions per minute. The peripheral speeds corresponding to the above
are (nearly) 26, 33, and 60 feet per minute. The formulas assume the
where
same peripheral speed
for large
and small
drills.
This rule
is
in accord-
ance with the practice of one of the leading drill-manufacturers, and it
will answer for 90 per cent of the drills used.
But for the exceptionally
it may be necessary to run somewhat slower.
As indicating
the allowable difference in speeds of large and small drills, the following is taken from the table of speeds given by one of the oldest drill-
large drills
R.P.M. for 74" =565; f or i/2 "=267; for 3 /4 // = 168, and
These speeds are for cast iron, and it will be seen that
makers:
for
1" = 115.
the speed of the V*" drill is nearly five times that of the 1" drill.
It is the usual practice in turret-machine work
excepting cast iron
to keep the drill flooded with oil. Under such conditions the speed may
be
much
higher.
rules should be used with discrimination
The above
and good judgbe
the drill heat
hard
or
any
exceptionally
too much, a slower speed may be necessary. It may be remarked in
this connection that a drill will heat with moderate speed when the
ment.
If
of the materials
body clearance near the
"
lips
" for
has,
by improper
usage, been destroyed.
few years a new
steel,
general
high-speed steel," has been placed
the
market.
There
are
a
number
of different varieties, varying
upon
in
chemical
the
composition,
slightly
price being from three to five
High-speed
Steel
known by the
Drills.
name
of
Within the
"
last
124
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
times that of ordinary steel. This steel is scarcely out of the experimental stage, and it does not seem to have met with the same degree of success in drills that
made
it
above
for
when made into lathe-tools. Nevertheless a drill
be run about twice as fast as the speeds indicated
has
may
common steel.
of this steel
Drill-feeds.
The Morse
Twist-drill
and Machine Company recommend
feeds of .005", .007", and .010" for 1/4", i/ 2 ", and 3/V' drills respectively.
As in the speeds, so also in respect to the feeds good judgment on
the part of the operator is necessary. In drilling soft materials, such
as Babbitt metal, brass, and extra-soft cast iron the above feeds may be
materially increased. In this connection the attention of the reader
is
called to
what was
said respecting feeds in the chapter
on
Drilling-
machines.
Drilling
Hard Metal.
hard metal, the surface
In drilling exceptionally hard steel or other
sometimes glaze under the pressure of the
will
Oil as ordinarily used aggravates this difficulty, and the cutting
of
the drill should be barely moistened with oil. As often as the
edges
surface glazes it should be roughed up by indenting it with a narrowdrill.
pointed chisel. This is of more value than oil.
"
If a twist-drill chip off" at the cutting edges when drilling hard metal,
the fronts of the cutting edges may be flattened slightly by grinding.
This
is
sometimes done when
drilling brass.
The
object in this case
is
not to prevent chipping off, but to overcome the tendency of the drill
to "hog in." It will be explained under Lathe-tools that a tool with
front or top rake is more likely to dig in when cutting brass than in
cutting any other metal. Flattening the
parallel with its axis neutralizes the rake
drill
cutting edge in a plane
CHAPTER IX
DRILL-SOCKETS, DRILL-CHUCKS,
AND ACCESSORIES
THE spindles of most drilling-machines have a tapering hole in one
end to receive the tapering shank of the drill. At the bottom of the
tapering hole is a slot with which the tang (or tongue) of the drill engages.
This is the most common method of driving drills. The proportions of
the tapers for this purpose usually conform to the Morse standard,
which is approximately 5 / 8 " per foot. There are six sizes of shanks in
the Morse system. The various dimensions for these are given in a
table in connection with Fig. 189 at the end of this chapter.
Drill-sockets.
As the drill-spindle can be made to fit only one size
of shank, the smaller sizes of drills are driven by sockets.
One end of
the socket fits the spindle, and the other end fits the drill-shank.
Fig. 182
shows the ordinary
drill-socket,
and
Fig. 183 a
key used for
FIG. 182.
driving out the drill and also for driving the socket out of the spindle.
The key enters the socket through the slot shown.
Abuse of Drill-sockets. Positive " Grip-sockets." The drill-shank
fit a socket like the one described so accurately that it would
be driven partly by friction. But in the hands of careless workmen
the socket, and often the shank, are damaged so that the fit of the
should
taper
is
disturbed.
when the key
The barbarous
practice of
hammering the socket
misplaced causes most of this damage.
When the socket has been pounded out of shape the drill-shank
fails to go into the socket the full depth, and the tang works at a disoff
is
advantage. The drill runs out of true, also. If now the drill hang
in a blow-hole, or catch while its point is emerging through the bottom
125
126
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
of the drilled
hole, the framework of the machine may be
sprung to
such an extent as to cause the socket to lift and
"ride" the tang of the
FIG. 183
drill.
some
This destroys both the
tang and the slot in the socket. In
is twisted off.
When one has a number of drills
cases the tang
FIG. 184.
with broken tangs
it
may pay
that shown in Fig. 184.
to purchase one or
more sockets
like
DRILL-SOCKETS, DRILL-CHUCKS,
AND ACCESSORIES
127
be used in this socket must have a groove milled in its
The shank of the socket has a similar groove,
in order that it may be driven in a .similar manner. The collar C on the
end of the socket is counterbored eccentrically. When turned forward
drill to
shank as in
it
forces the
Fig. 185.
key
into ihe
groo^
of the drill-shank.
the opposite direction releases the drill.
Cheap Device for Driving Broken-tang Drills.
though not so convenient a device may be
iron or steel collar about 3" long and bore
end of the drill-socket shown
in Fig.
screws near each end of the collar.
be pointed to
The other two
the shank.
fit
made
it
182.
The
Turning
A much
as follows
out to closely
Drill
and tap
for
in
cheaper
Get a
fit
it
cast-
the large
two
set-
set-screws at one end should
conical seats drilled about
set-screws drive the drill
Vie" deep in the socket.
by gripping in the flutes near
For
drill-press work headless set-screws, which do not
If the collar
project beyond the periphery of the collar, should be used.
be held stationary in lathe work, square-head set-screws may be used
without endangering the workman. A driving device of this kind does
not require that the drill-shank be grooved, as the set-screws drive
by the grooves already made in the drill.
If the socket to be used with this device has been
damaged by
"
hammer-blows, it should be carefully trued up" before the collar is
fitted.
The
drill-shanks also
may
need attention.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
128
Drill-chucks.
186 shows a drill-chuck designed for driving
by friction. The jaws J are caused to grip or
Fig.
drills
straight-shank
release the drill by the right- and left-threaded screw S.
which fits the square hole in its end.
is operated by a key
This screw
FIG. 186.
The chuck
is
usually fitted to an arbor which has a taper shank
fitting the drill-spindle.
Fig. 187 shows a chuck in which the grip of the jaws is assisted by
a special tang on the drill fitting the rectangular opening at T. This
chuck, also, drives straight-shank drills only. The chuck method is well
adapted to the smaller
Lathe Drill-sockets.
sizes of drills.
Drills are
sometimes driven in the lathe by
a chuck on the revolving spindle, but the ordinary method is to hold
the drill stationary while the work revolves. In this case the shank
end of the drill is supported by the tail-spindle center, the other end
DRILL-SOCKETS, DRILL-CHUCKS, AND ACCESSORIES
129
To keep the drill from
being supported by the hole in the work.
"
"
drill-holder" is used.
lathe-socket'' also called a
turning a
Fig.
.
188 shows such a
tool.
The taper shank
MADE BY
PRATT CHUCK
of the drill
fits
the socket of
CP-
FRANKFORT
FIG. 187.
FIG. 188.
the holder, while the long arm rests on the lathe as shown, or on a tool
In the latter case the tool-post is sometimes
in the lathe tool-post.
brought up against the arm in such a manner that the pressure required
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
130
moves the lathe-carriage in the same direction. The
to prevent the drill from drawing in ahead of the feed,
as it is likely to do under some conditions.
The steady rest
shown in the illustration is not essential in such
to feed the drill
object of this
is
work.
however, advantageous where a large quantity of work
to be drilled.
The ordinary method is to start the drill
of
It
is,
one kind
is
in a conical center cut in the work.
tool held in the tool-post.
This center
(See Fig. 376.)
MORSE TAPER SHANKS
'
is
made by a V-pointed
DRILL-SOCKETS, DRILL-CHUCKS,
AND ACCESSORIES
131
would answer the purpose very well. The set-screw of the lathe-dog
would cause the collar to tightly grip the drill-shank without injuring it.
A thin steel sleeve cut through on one side is often used on the taper
shank of a broken-tang drill which is to be driven by a drill-chuck;
The sleeve
otherwise straight-shank drills onl^ are driven in chucks.
in
the
hole
and
on
makes
the taper
the
outside,
being tapering
straight
shank in
effect the
same
as a straight shank.
Another way of adapting
the taper shank to the chuck is to turn it straight in the lathe.
A Hazardous Practice. Some workmen get into the habit of taking
the drill out and putting it back while the lathe is running. This is
taking chances of the unsupported
the drill and the workman's fingers.
drill
hanging and smashing both
CHAPTER X
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
Drills and Reamers Compared.
The twist-drill, which is reliable
enough for most bolt-holes, clearance-holes, etc., cannot be depended
upon to make holes sufficiently smooth and accurate for such work as
There are two
shaft-bearings, gears, and many other machine details.
reasons for this: first, it is difficult to so grind the drill as to make it
cut exactly its own size; second, the drill being tapering, its diameter
is a variable quantity, as has already been explained under the subject
"
The construction of the reamer, however,
Drills and Drilling."
of
is
such as to obviate in a large measure these
irregularities.
The
prin-
reamer doing better work than the drill is that it
is not used to originate holes, and its action is, therefore, not dependent
upon a somewhat uncertain guiding-point. Other reasons are that it
nearly always has more than two cutting edges, and when properly used
should have very little metal to remove. Those tools called roughingreamers and some chucking-reamers, which do remove a much larger
quantity of stock, should, in the judgment of the author, be called bits.
Definition and Classification of Reamers. It would be difficult to
give a concise definition of reamer were we to include all of the nonProperly
descript tools that mechanics have crowded under that head.
speaking, a reamer may be defined as a tool for perfecting holes previously drilled or bored. Fig. 190 shows a standard famd-reamer. This
cipal reason for the
FIG. 190.
reamer should never be used to remove any considerable quantity of
stock, but merely to eliminate minute imperfections left by other tools,
and to bring the hole to some exact and definite diameter. In some
132
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
cases the hole
may
be made to within .001" before the reamer
133
is
applied;
but generally an allowance of .002" to .010", according to the diameter
of the hole, may be left for the standard reamer to cut.
If given too
much metal to remove, the cutting edges of the reamer will wear too
and its reliability as a sizer will be too quickly destroyed.
Reamers may be divided into the two general classes of side-cutting
or fluted reamers, and end-cutting reamers or bits.
Each of these
clases are subdivided into solid and adjustable reamers.
The Solid Fluted Reamer. This reamer is made with slight modifications suiting the two different cases for both hand and machine use.
The hand-reamer of Fig. 190 belongs to the " short " set. Reamers of the
same general design are, also, made longer in regular sets, and will be
made to order of special lengths. The cutting edges of fluted reamers
fast,
are made tapering in diameter for about one fourth their length from A
toB, being about .01" smaller at A than at B. From B to C the taper is
reversed, the diameter decreasing toward C at about .0002" per inch of
That part of the shank between D and E is usually made about
length.
.001 smaller than the largest diameter at B.
When the cutting edges
are worn to such an extent that this blank part when free from bruises
will not pass through the reamed hole, the reamer is too small for standard
holes.
As will be seen, the hand-reamer has a square end, upon which a
wrench is used to turn the reamer. This is the main distinguishing
feature between this reamer and the machine-reamer of the fluted form.
The latter is made with taper and parallel shanks the same as a drill.
It may also have a shank of any special shape to fit a special holder.
The machine-reamer is generally, though not always, made straight or
Fig. 191 shows a taper-shank reamer of the above
parallel from A to B.
class.
FIG. 191.
Reamers having the flutes parallel with
Spirally Fluted Reamers.
the axis have a slight tendency to "draw in." To overcome this,
some mechanics
prefer, for
both hand and machine work, reamers having
The angle of the spiral or helix
spiral.
4
be
from
to
8
The
of this book makes spiral
author
may
degrees.
reamers of 6 angle, but within reasonable limits the degree of angularity
flutes in
the form of a left-hand
is of little
importance.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
134
Rose-reamers.
Rose and Fluted Reamers Compared.
The
rose-
reamer, or rose-bit, derives its name from the slight resemblance of its
It is essentially an end-cutting tool, and is
cutting end to a rose.
rarely used for other than machine-work.
Fig. 192 shows a rose-reamer
FIG. 192.
of typical form.
It has chip- and oil-grooves on the sides, and is made
with any shank required in machine-work. This reamer is largest in
diameter at its cutting end, and tapers back at about the same rate as
the hand-fluted reamer, viz., .0002" per inch of length.
The object of the taper (i.e., the taper toward the shank) on the
fluted reamer is to counteract the tendency of all such reamers to ream
the hole larger at the entrance end. In the rose-reamer the taper is
given for the same reason
we
give
taper to the twist-drill,
viz., for
clearance.
As compared with the fluted reamer, the rose-reamer has the advanwhen new it will make holes more uniform in size and more
nearly straight; but it has the disadvantage that when it becomes
worn on the cutting lips it will bind on the sides and " rough up" the
If the fluted reamer become slightly worn at the end, it will
holes.
still cut on the sides; but because of its cutting on the sides it is more
tage that
likely to
its
be
nominal
deflected
by imperfections
in the hole, or to cut larger than
size.
As previously
stated, the standard fluted
reamer should be used
for
finishing cuts only, but the rose-reamer is used for both finishing and
roughing cuts. However, when the same reamer is used for both
purposes it soon becomes unreliable as a standard finishing-tool.
Shell-reamers. Figs. 193 and 194 show respectively a fluted shell-
FIG.
193
FIG.
194.
reamer and a rose shell-reamer, and Fig. 195 shows the arbor for these
The arbor drives the shell by the engagement of its key with
reamers.
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
the rectangular slot cut across the end of the shell.
either straight or spiral flutes.
135
These reamers are
made with
be understood that
he object of making the reamers in the
of material.
One arbor of machineco|f
serve for several shells of tool-steel. It should be noted, how-
It will
shell
form
steel will
is
economy
in the
due to cheap material
ever, that the saving
in the arbors is partly offset
FIG. 195.
by the expense incident to boring the shell and fitting the end of the
arbor to it.
The
shells as ordinarily
made
are rather short for
hand-reaming,
The taper begins at the
being designed mainly
cutting end, and the diameter decreases toward the opposite end in
for
machine- work.
about the same ratio as the reamers previously described.
Resetting Fluted and Rose Reamers. When these reamers wear
.0003 to .001 inch below standard size it is necessary to reset them, or
them to a smaller size. Resetting consists in enlarging the
diameter of the reamer by hammer-blows in connection with a kind
of set or calking-tool. The latter, which may be made by grinding a
regrind
common
chisel flat
on the end,
is
held against the front of the cutting
reamer for resetting,
and each cutting edge must be treated until the diameter is about Vw"
larger than standard.
Having completed this work the reamer is now
and
retempered
brought to final size in the universal grinder.
Reamer-centers.
Before grinding the reamer its centers
Lapping
should be carefully cleaned of any grit or other foreign matter that
may have adhered to them in the forge. A pointed scraper made from
edges for this purpose.
a three-cornered
file
It is necessary to anneal the
answers well for
this.
After scraping the centers
usually necessary to lap them. For this process we chuck a short
brass rod in the lathe, and turn the end to the shape of the lathe-centers.
it is
Having smeared this conical end with fine emery and oil, the reamer
placed on the centers and the lathe started on the fastest speed. The
reamer-center is lapped by alternately forcing it against and releasing
is
from the revolving brass.
This is done by light pressure with the
and for each time that the reamer is pressed against the
brass it should be revolved slightly.
By thus revolving it we distribute
the emery and counteract the tendency of the lap to scratch rings in the
it
tail-spindle,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
136
sometimes necessary to re-turn the lap before finishing
skillful workman can do this in ten minutes or less.
Instead of having to chuck the lap each time it is used, it would be
It is
center.
one reamer; but a
make one to fit the hole in lathe-spindle.
Adjustable Reamers. From a consideration
better to
of the difficulties of
resetting or upsetting the solid reamers the advantages of the adjustWhile some reamers of this class will
able reamer will be apparent.
admit of as much as
is
not so
much
//
enlargement the object of the adjustment
/32
to make different sizes of holes as to compensate for wear
and thereby maintain standard
sizes.
Figs. 196
and 197 show
sectional
Blades
^Clamping nut
P= Adjusting plug
FIG.
193.
= Adjusting plug
FIG.
197.
FIG.
198,
views of two designs of adjustable reamers, and Fig. 198 is a perspective
In Fig. 196
view of an expansion-reamer similar in principle to Fig. 197.
blades.
detachable
the
receive
to
the shank part of the reamer is slotted
and
are
undercut,
the
of
end
The ends of the slots and one
clamp-nut
the
when
that
so
the ends of the blades are correspondingly angling,
the
inward
blades
tapering
the
against
clamp-nut is tightened it forces
To enlarge the reamer the clamp-nut is slackened and the
plug P.
The nut is then tightout.
plug P screwed inward, forcing the blades
in
ened to hold the blades firmly
place.
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
137
In Fig. 197 the blades, instead of being detachable, are formed inThese
tegral with the body of the reamer by milling slots into the latter.
the
outward
are
also
forced
or
by
plug P, but
blades,
cutting edges,
own tension when the plug P is slackened. Obviously
the cutting edges in this reamer wj|ll not be forced out parallel as in Fig.
However, as the adjustment is very
196, but will be slightly" convex.
contract by their
and as the reamer is generally passed clear through the hole,
the convexity of the cutting edges does not seriously affect the accuracy
of the work.
slight,
be noticed that this reamer has a fixed collar E on the end.
of this collar is very nearly the diameter of the hole to be
reamed, being .005" smaller, and it is designed to prevent careless workmen from allowing too much for the reamer to cut. These tools are
It will
The diameter
used mostly in hand-reaming, being preceded by a machine-reamer
which is within a few thousandths of an inch of the final size of the hole.
The chucking-reamer is so called from the fact
work for which it is used is held in a chuck. It is a
machine-reamer, and includes in its class two kinds of reamers which
have already been described, viz., fluted reamers and rose-reamers.
Chucking-reamers.
that most of the
Fig.
199 shows a three-groove chucking-reamer.
It
is
much
like the
FIG. 199.
twist-drill,
but cannot be used to
drill
a hole from the
solid.
Its special
purpose is to enlarge cored holes. It is sometimes used in connection
with the twist-drill to prepare a hole for the finishing-reamer.
The
three-groove chucking-reamer is essentially a roughing-reamer, and it is
furnished with any of the shanks mentioned in connection with twistIt is also made with or without oil-tubes.
This reamer differs
from the three-groove twist-drill mainly in the body-clearance, the
character of which may be understood from the cut.
drills.
Wood
wood and
metal.
steel a little
The wood
used in the machine-shop is made of
say 4" or smaller we use a flat bar of
wider at the cutting end than the diameter of the required
Bits.
For a
bit as
size
and from l /4 to l / 2 inch thick, as shown in Fig. 200. On the
cutting end we fasten by wood-screws two pieces of wood from 2 to 4
hole
inches long, which, with the steel, are turned in the lathe to the size
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
138
of the hole.
The wood
is
then taken
off
and the clearance
filed,
as
in a drill or other tool of this character.
Far
than Jf" we use, instead of the flat bar of steel, a round
end of which is secured a cast-iron head slotted to receive
The cutters are held
and wooden blocks, as in Fig. 201.
or
and
the
slots
for
the wooden blocks,
set-screws
wedges,
by
bits larger
bar, to the
the cutters
in the slots
being of dovetail shape, hold the blocks firmly without wedges.
G - Guide
B
Blocks of Hard
The
Wood
Blade of Steel
-Clearance for Borings
FIG. 200.
H = Cutter Head
G = Guide Blocks
C = Cutter
FIG 201.
cast-iron
head
is
always
made somewhat
smaller than the hole to be
bored, leaving the cutters and blocks projecting radially beyond the
periphery of the cast-iron head. Having secured the cutters and blocks
in the head, the
whole
is
placed in a lathe and turned to the required
out, the clearance filed, and cutters
The cutters are then taken
tempered and replaced, when the bit
diameter.
is
ready for use.
For small holes
these bits have been largely superseded by forms of bits and reamer-;
previously described, but for very large holes they are still used to some
extent.
The
object of the
wooden blocks
is
to help steady the bar
and
to
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
139
When the wooden blocks become worn they
partially polish the hole.
are set out by packing under them with paper.
It is essential, in order
to get satisfactory results, to have the ivood fit tightly in the hole.
The
objection to this form of bit is>tnat the holes made with it are not so
uniform in diameter as in the casfc of the rose-reamer, but the cost of the
bits is less.
Wood Bits. When made from a flat bar of steel the
prevented from turning by a kind of U-shaped holder havThe long limb is held in the lathe tooling one long and one short limb.
The larger sizes of bits, in which the cutters are secured in a castpost.
iron head keyed to a round bar, may be held by a lathe-dog; or if the
Holders for
wood
bit
is
shank ends be made square, they
a
common
The wood
wrench.
work and the
may
bit
tail-stock center, the
is
be prevented from turning by
supported in the lathe by the
same
as a reamer.
Tapering-reamers. For tapering holes it is necessary to use some
form of reamer that cuts on sides only. The rose-reamer, therefore,
cannot be used in tapering holes. The tapering-reamer may be made
in the fluted form or expansion form, and for rough work it could be
made as a half-round reamer. Fig. 202 shows a fluted taper-reamer.
FIG 202.
When
the work
done in the drill-press, the reamer revolves and
In this case, if a roughing taper-reamer is
not available, the reamer must be preceded by several drills varying
the work
is
is
stationary.
in size according to the taper of the reamer.
The smallest drill will
be smaller in diameter than the small end of the taper, the largest drill
smaller than the large end of the taper, etc. The hole, as left by the
drills, will
When
tions,
on the
be in steps, which steps are to be cut out by the reamer.
is done in the lathe the reamer is, with few
excep-
the work
stationary and the work revolves. The reamer is supported
tail-stock center and prevented from turning by a drill-holder
or lathe-dog.
use one drill
We may
use several
drills
as in the previous case, or
and rough out the hole with the
boring-tool.
// the taper
attachment be used in connection with the latter process, only one taperreamer will be required. In many cases the taper attachment will give
satisfactory results without using the reamer at
all.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
140
A roughing taper-reamer will do the
Roughing Taper-reamer.
preparatory work much quicker than the drills. It may be used both
in the drill-press and in the lathe.
It
Fig. 203 shows such a reamer.
FIG. 203.
differs from the taper-reamer in having its cutting edges notched.
These notches are cut with a square-nose tool (of which the corners are
The tool
slightly rounded) in the form of a left-hand square thread.
I
3
may be /IQ to / 32 inch wide, and the teeth may be cut from l / 32 to
The lead of the thread is not
/ 32 inch deep, according to diameter.
important.
Notching the cutting edges gives the reamer a very decided advanIt relieves the broad bearing, giving the reamer a bettei "bite."
tage.
3
Considerations Governing the Number of Cutting Edges in a
Reamer. The cutting edges in a reamer may be any number from six
to two dozen, according to size and design of reamer. The last operation on the reamer previous to oil-stoning it is to "back it off," or give
This is done by a small revolving emery-wheel,
it
body-clearance.
and it is necessary that the cutting edges be far enough apart, so that
when
grinding one edge the wheel will miss the other edge. For this
reason the cutting edges should not be much closer together than 3/ 8 of
an inch, except on very small sizes. Another reason for keeping cut-
ting edges a reasonable distance apart is that when too close together
they clog up with the borings and make a rough hole.
Figs. 204, 205, and 206 show cross-sections
reamer cutting edges. Fig. 205 is the
of
various
shapes
indicating
form most commonly used. In this figure is indicated also the method
Shapes of Cutting Edges.
of grinding the edges. The reamer with edges like Fig. 206 should
cut freer than any of the others, but in some cases the teeth seem to
spring outward and cut larger than the nominal diameter of the reamer.
is due to the undercut of the teeth indicated by the dotted lines.
This
207 and 208 show end views of two of the forms of reamers
which the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company furnish milling-
Figs.
for
cutters.
Accompanying each
of these cuts
is
a table giving the numand the number cf
bers of teeth fpr the various sizes of the reamers
-the milling-cutter to be used in each case.
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
FIG. 205.
FIG. 206.
141
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
142
Fig. 207 is the same shape as Fig. 205, the face lines being radial
in both.
The shape of the teeth in Fig. 208 is such that they cannot
spring outward, but radial-face teeth give practically no trouble in
this respect, unless
they are cut too deep.
Reamer. Causes of Chattering. The space A
between the lands of the teeth and the dotted circle in Fig. 209 is called
Body-clearance of the
Eccentric Relief.
FIG. 209.
It should be just sufficient for free cutting.
It
to
observe
that excessive body-clearance causes chattervery important
The body clearance
ing, and a chattered hole is never a smooth hole.
the body-clearance.
is
it is not clearly shown in Figs. 204-8.
The teeth of the reamer illustrated in Fig. 209 are made with " eccentric
"
The faces are radial, but the lands are arcs of circles
relief or clearance.
is
so little that
the centers of these circular arcs being eccentric to the axial line of
the reamer. The Pratt & Whitney Company, who make these reamers,
"
reams a smoother
represent that this form of tooth "is stronger,"
chatter."
In
and
"does
not
order
to
hole,"
clearly show the differ-
relief and flat relief a few teeth of the latter
form are shown in Fig. 210, the scale being the same as in Fig. 209. It
should be noted that the body-clearance in both of the figures is too
It was purposely exaggerated for the sake of clearness.
great.
ence between eccentric
The body-clearance in fluted reamers (rose-reamers are not made
with this clearance) should not be milled to the extreme edge. A surace of .005 to .020 inch, according to the diameter of the reamer,
For reamers 5/ 8 to
should be left concentric with the center.
!
l / 4 inches diameter an allowance of .010" will be about right.
clearance is usually brought to the extreme edge by oil-stoning.
The
The
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF REAMERS AND BITS
143
stone should have a true face, and should never, for this purpose, be
used dry. Reamers are commonly made .0005" large to allow for wear
"
and stoning.
Spacing the Cutting Edges o^ Teeth. It is generally understood by
tool-makers that a reamer with an odd number of teeth will cut a truer
5
hole and chatter less than one with an even number.
It has been found,
however, that about as good results may be obtained by making the
reamer with an even number unequally spaced. Fig. 204 is unequally
spaced with this object in view. From 2 to 4 degrees will be enough
difference.
It
be well to note that three spaces of the 27-hole
angle in spiral heads as ordinarily geared.
may
circle will give
Fiat Relief.
FIG. 210.
A fluted
reamer having
less
than
five or six teeth is
not well adapted
Six teeth or flutes
to reaming castings in which there are blow-holes.
should be the minimum, and an even number will facilitate measuring
the diameter of the reamer. Spirally fluted reamers give best results
in reaming imperfect castings.
Miscellaneous Reamers.
Square, half-round, and one-lip reamers
An exception to the above
are seldom used in the machine-shop.
statement may be made in favor of the center-reamer, but this will
receive attention in connection with the subject of lathe-centers.
sometimes used in brasswork, and in excepIt is possible in an emergency to
make a cheap reamer by taking a square bar of steel of the required
dimensions and merely tempering and then grinding it on a common
The square reamer
tional cases
it is
is
used in other work.
emery-wheel. If the bar be slightly too large in cross-section,
be reduced by grinding two adjacent corners rounding.
it
may
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
144
Hardening Reamers. In the processes of manufacturing, a bar of
becomes decarbonized on its outer surface by contact with the
of
the air while hot.
This surface should therefore be turned
oxygen
tool-steel
off to
a depth of not
less
than
//
/64
Unless the bar be centered fairly
"~
1
true, the above requirement will necessitate an allowance of nearly / 8
in diameter for machining.
To lessen internal stress and the tendency
to curve,
it
is
considered best to turn a portion of this metal off, and
This is done
then heat and anneal the piece before taking the last cut.
whether the metal is soft enough or not in the rough.
If heated for hardening in a common forge, the reamer should be
For cooling, use water or brine (the
enclosed in a piece of gas-pipe.
latter being preferred) which has been warmed just enough to take off
the chill, and plunge the reamer (if of symmetrical section) vertically
in the water.
Holding the reamer over the fire a moment or two when
removed from the bath is supposed to lessen its tendency to fracture.
The temper of the fluted reamer may be drawn to straw-color. The
rose-reamer may be somewhat harder, or the temper not drawn at all.
hot tube, or other equivalent, may be used for drawing the temper,
the reamer being moved back and forth in the tube and rotated at the
same time.
Before grinding the reamer the centers should be carefully cleaned
according to instructions already given.
CHAPTER XI
LATHES
Classification of Lathes.
Primitive
Form
of the Lathe.
Lathes
may
be classified as hand-lathes, engine-lathes, turret-lathes, and special
The turret-lathe will be described in a separate chapter. In
lathes.
the great advancement of the mechanic arts during the Christian era
the lathe in one form or another has been an indispensable adjunct.
FIG. 211.
It
is
the oldest as well as the most important machine-tool
the engineering profession.
It
known
to
would be interesting to trace the lathe
from
its first conception to its present state of perfection, but the
space
available will not permit a thorough consideration of this matter.
have, however, prepared a sketch (Fig. 211) of the most primitive form
145
We
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
146
of lathe, that the reader may be able to observe the contrast between it
and the modern type. Referring to the sketch, A and
1 are two posts
answering respectively to the head-stock and tail-stock of our present
lathe, B and B 1 the centers and G the rest or support for the cuttingtool.
The treadle E is operated by foot-power as in a common sewingmachine. D is a rope extending from the treadle to the sapling above,
and wrapped one revolution around F;
is
the work to be turned.
F was made
was placed between the centers. The
action of the foot on the treadle imparted an oscillating motion to the
work, and the cutting-tool was pressed against the work during the
This lathe was
first
used for wood-turning, and the piece
approximately round before
it
downward movement
of the treadle.
During the upward stroke the
was withdrawn, allowing the sapling to reverse the motion of the
work. Obviously the first improvement likely to be suggested in connection with this lathe would be the substitution of a wooden frame
tool
FIG. 212.
two posts, and this was done. Also, a beam of suitable shape
and material took the place of the sapling. Lathes continued to be used
in a more or less crude form for centuries, the cutting-tool being held
by hand and supported on a rest substantially as in our present wood-
for the
lathe.
The
Slide-rest.
Hand-lathes.
One
of the
most important of
later
the slide-rest shown in Fig. 212. In this device the
improvements
of being held by hand, is rigidly secured by a setinstead
cutting-tool,
is
LATHES
147
screw, and accurately guided by planed ways.
for a hand-lathe and is not self-acting.
The hand-lathe
as a
common
shown
is
wood-lathe.
in t F!g. 213,
and
This rest
it is
In th^ illustration
is
is
designed
substantially the same
the bed,
the head-
the rest, P the""cone pulley, and C the counter-shaft. On most
hand-lathes the tool-rest used is similar to that used in wood-turning,
stock,
and the
tool
is
held
by hand
in the
same manner
as in
wood- turning.
FIG. 213.
But
in
above
some
is
of the better classes of hand-lathes the slide-rest
mentioned
used.
In the modern type of lathe, known as the engineis
traversed
tool
the
automatically parallel with, and at right
lathe,
the
of
axis
Such a lathe is also furnished
the
to
lathe-spindle.
angles
The Engine-lathe.
with a system of change-gears by which the ratio of tool traverse to
spindle revolution may be changed to cut different leads of screws.
Fig. 214 shows a good example of this lathe.
is
Referring to the figure, B is the bed, supported on legs as shown.
the head-stock, carrying the main spindle on which run the cone pulley
and its pinion G 9, and to which are keyed G 3 and G 8. T is the tail-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
148
made
adjustable lengthwise of the lathe, and having a spindle also
is the slide-rest, movable
adjustable by means of the hand- wheel HI.
stock,
on
C at
rest
right angles to the
1,
the tool.
main
carrying the tool-post
-R 1 is
is the compound
Swiveling on
spindle.
T 1, in which is secured, by a set-screw,
operative at any angle in a horizontal plane.
LATHES
The apron
is bolted to the carriage C.
Secured to the inner side
a system of gearing which, in connection with the gearing
and pulleys F 1, gives automatic movement to the carriage.
of the apron
149
is
When cutting threads (making the
grooves of a screw) a 4ery exact movement of the carriage is
*
required, and for this purpose the lead-screw S, operated by the gearing
The Screw-cutting Mechanism.
helical
This gearing is driven by means of the gear G 3 on main
which connects with gearing on the short shaft passing through
upper pulley F 1. The screw S revolves in a threaded box secured to
the apron A. This box is made in halves, which, by means of a handle
on the outside of the apron, may be closed upon or released from the
screw. The train of gearing G 1 may, by means of the lever L, be engaged
with or disengaged from the gear G 3 and also reversed. When engaged,
and the screw S is revolving, the closing of the threaded box upon the
screw causes the carriage C with apron A to traverse the lathe-bed at a
1
used.
is
spindle,
depending upon the lead of the required screw and the changeG 1 When the box is open the screw has no effect on the carriage.
The Feed Mechanism. In order to preserve the accuracy of screw S
ratio
gears at
is used for feeding.
for screw-cutting the feed-rod
This rod is operated
I.
On this rod, on the inner side of
by a belt connecting the pulleys
worm which
turned by the rod by means of a featherthe apron,
This
fits
the
worm
with
sufficient freedom to permit the worm
key
key.
The worm operates a train of gears, the first of
to slide upon the rod.
which is a worm-gear, and the last a pinion (small gear) working in a rack
is
is
R 4.
The latter is bolted to the lathe-bed, and when the pinion turns
causes the lathe-carriage to traverse the bed parallel with the main
By another system of mechanism, also operated by the feedspindle.
it
R is caused to traverse the carriage C at right angles to
the main spindle. These movements may be started or stopped by
handles on the outside of the apron. They may also be effected by hand
rod, the rest
by means
of the handles
H2
and
H 3.
Using the Screw as a Feed-rod.
In some lathes the screw is used
both screw-cutting and feeding, dispensing with pulley F 1 and
feed-rod F.
Fig. 215 shows the apron and accompanying mechanism
for such a lathe.
The threaded boxes B I are opened and closed upon
for
the screw
as before for screw-cutting; but for the ordinary feed the
is not used.
For this purpose the screw is used as
thread upon the screw
feed-rod.
The worm
revolves with the screw, and, engaging with
* The
long screw which moves the lathe for thread-cutting
the lead-screw.
is
commonly
called
LATHES
the worm-wheel
shaft with
with
R4
G 4.
151
Secured to the same
1, causes the latter to turn.
a small gear G 7, shown in Fig. 216, which engages
Cast integral with G 4 is G 5, which meshes with the rack
fixed to the
is
bed as in the previous
case.
FIG. 216.
Fig.
Fig.
217
215 shows only the mechanism for traversing the carriage.
is more complicated and shows both the carriage-feed, and the
cross-feed
mechanism
for rest R.
The
latter is effected
by gear G 6
meshing with a small gear on cross-feed screw.
Reverse Gears under Head-stock. In the system just described, which
is quite different from that shown in Fig. 214, the carriage is in some
lathes reversed by miter-gears under the head-stock.
The mechanism
for this purpose is shown in Figs. 218 and 219, and the lathe of which
In Figs. 218 and 219 a, b, c, and d are
it is a part is shown in Fig. 220.
part of a train of gears for operating the lead-screw c is not connected
directly to the shaft S 3, but is secured to the hub of the miter gear g,
;
LATHES
153
od
LATHES
155
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
156
through which shaft S 3 passes, g being journaled in the head-stock as
shown.
This gear meshes with the miter h, which in turn drives i.
Between the gears g and i, and driven by a feather-key in shaft S 3, is
clutch y. This clutch has two projecting lugs (one at each end), and the
gears g and i have similar lugs, which are designed to engage the lugs on
The clutch may be held in a neutral position, or may be engaged
y.
with either g or i by means of the levers k and I, which are connected
to a lever on the lathe-apron by means of the rod m.
The gears g, h, i
are running whenever c is, and if the clutch be moved to engage with
g, it (the clutch) will revolve with g ; if it engage with i, it will revolve
with
i,
which, from the nature of the connection,
is
in
an opposite
direc-
tion to that of g.
As the clutch j is secured by a feather-key to the shaft S 3, the latter
must turn when the clutch turns and, with the foregoing description,
there should be no difficulty in understanding how to obtain two opposite
motions of shaft S 3. The clutch and miter-gear mechanism above
referred to is more clearly shown in Fig. 221.
An Improved Gearing System. It remains to show the mechanism
connecting shaft S 3 with the apron-gearing. Figs. 218, 219, 220, and 222
show one of the modern gearing systems for this purpose. In using
lathes of the old type it is necessary to take off and put on change-gears
But in the lathe under confor each particular lead of thread to be cut.
sideration thirty-six different leads may be cut without detaching any
The construction provides also for the use of change-gears. This
gears.
last provision
makes
it
possible to cut, in addition to the thirty-six
other leads, the range being limited only
threads, many
by the
of extra change-gears supplied.
It may be well to give a detailed description of this system.
number
On
the
lead-screw S, Figs. 219, 220, and 222, we have a "cone of gears" which are
marked 1 to 12 in Fig. 22g) On shaft o of the last-mentioned figure is
the gear 13, which with its intermediate, 14, may be moved along and
-
rotated through a short arc on the shaft by the lever n (Fig. 218).
By
this means gears 13 and 14 may be brought into engagement with either
of the gears
marked
to 12,
and when
in position
they
may
be locked
by the spring lock p (Fig. 218) which engages with any of the holes shown
under the cone of gears in Fig. 219. Fig. 222; shows gears 13 and 14 in
If now these gears be set in motion (the ratio
position to drive gear 7.
to this point being assumed 1 to 1), the lead-screw S (Figs. 219 and
220) will revolve at a ratio with the lathe-spindle, depending upon the
And similarly, if the two
ratio of the diameter of gear 13 to gear 7.
up
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
158
sliding gears
be caused to engage with any other one of the gears 1 to
be changed, its value being shown on an index plate
12, the ratio will
secured to the lathe.
In the gear-box B 3 (Figs. 218 and 219) is a second nest of gears,
which are controlled by the lever n 1. These give three changes, the
three positions of the lever being indicated by the numbers 1, 2, and 3
on the gear-box. The gears in gear-box B 3 drive those in B 2 and the
combination of the two sets of gears provide for the thirty-six changes;
that
is
to say, that for each position of the lever
twelve different
threads are cut.
Connection is made between the gears in box B 3 and the "stud gear"
These are keyed to a quill shaft
d (Fig. 219) by two gears, e and /.
which runs freely on a stud secured to the sector S 4 (see Fig. 218).
The gear /, which is on the outer end of the quill, is one of the changegears referred to above, and the sector is slotted and locked at L 1 in the
usual manner to admit of the use of various sizes of change-gears.
Quite a number of speed-changing devices have been introduced
during the past 15 years, but they do not differ greatly from the one just
Some of these devices are shown in connection with other
described.
machines in this work, and most of them have been illustrated in " The
American Machinist," in " Machinery," and other technical journals.
The Feed-clutches. In the mechanism just described the feed, as
previously stated, is effected by the lead-screw which is, for this purpose, operated by gearing as a feed-rod, just as though there was no thread
on it. The means of disengaging the feed is shown in Fig. 216. Re1 is the worm-gear shown in Fig. 215, and F 2
ferring to this figure,
is the friction-clutch driven with the shaft S 1 by means of the featherkey. Near middle of shaft S 1 is tightly keyed the small gear G 7,
1 in Fig. 215.
which gear is hid behind
By means of the small
threaded shaft S 2, which passes through S 1, and its knob K, the clutch
F2 may be caused to engage with the beveled bearing of W 1.
now screw S revolve, the train of gearing will cause the carriage
traverse the lathe-bed.
When the clutch F2 is
S 1 and has no effect on
released, the
If
to
worm-
gear turns loosely on shaft
As
the other gears.
has been stated, this system requires neither feed-belt nor feed-
rod.
Bevel-gear Reverse in Apron. The apron mechanism in Fig. 223
but little from the common form. It is similar, however, to that
last described with respect to the lead-screw, which is used for both
differs
screw-cutting and feeding.
The lead-screw
passes through the bevel-
LATHES
20
G
G
161
x
/ 6o or /3 revolution, and G 10 will make the same. Suppose, again,
1
10 has 20 teeth and G 8 60 teeth; now when G 10 makes / 3 revolution
1
8 will make /3><20/60 =1 /9- I* other words, the ratio of revolutions
*
of
53
to
2
20
P=^rX^7-3- = /6o^ %o =1 /9.
With a
four-step
cone
four speeds in gear and four out of gear, making eight
and these speeds should be in geometrical progression.
we should have
speeds in
all,
FIG. 225.
In connection with Fig. 214,
Spur-gear Reversing-mechanism.
was stated that the train of gears G 1 could be disengaged from the
gear G 3 on the main spindle, or reversed. The means of effecting these
it
changes will
now be
explained.
Referring to Fig. 225, the three gears
marked G 1 are the same train of gears that are designated G 1 in Fig.
214.
The uppermost of these three gears is on the short shaft which
carries one of the feed-cones, and which passes through the head-stock.
Inside the head-stock and on this same shaft is a gear G 13 (Fig. 224),
which G 12 engages.
Meshing with G 12 is G 11, and G 12 and
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
162
Gil may be
by the
When
rotated through a short arc on the axis of the upper gear
and the train
lever
G1
lever L, both of these gears being supported on a swinging bracket.
lever L is raised it brings G 12 into mesh with G 3 (Fig. 224),
of gears
L is depressed G
12
are driven in a forward direction.
disengaged from
G 3, and G
11
When
brought into
mesh with the latter. We now have four gears in mesh, not including
those on the outside of the headstock. This is a very common method
is
is
>
FIG. 226.
of getting two opposite motions by spur-gears.
Gil runs idly when G 12 is in mesh with 3,
when the
latter is in
mesh with G
3.
It should
but that
be noted that
12 drives
Gil
placing the lever in an inter11 and G 12 are disengaged from
By
mediate or neutral position, both G
G 3, and the train of gearing becomes inoperative. The middle gear
G 1, which is known as the "intermediate" gear, turns freely on a stud
held in a slotted sector as shown.
The sector itself is also held to the
head-stock by one bolt passing through the slotted projection.
The
provide the adjustment necessary in
"change" gears. The student should observe
object of this arrangement
using different sizes of
is
to
the difference between this method of getting two opposite motions
referred to in connection with Fig. 219.
and that
*&
"
>
LATHES
163
Triple-gear Lathe. It should be understood that the object of the
back gearing in a lathe is to give a higher velocity ratio between the
belt and the lathe-spindle.
On the larger lathes this velocity ratio
is still further increased by the addition of another shaft carrying two
additional gears.
Fig. 226 shows&a rear side view of a lathe head-stock
with triple gears. The triple-gear shaft is seen directly under the regu-
back-gear shaft, and it is driven by a gear on the latter. This triplegear shaft drives the main spindle of the lathe by means of a pinion
lar
FIG. 227.
which engages with the annular gear shown on the back side of the
lathe face-plate.
Geared-head Lathes. In the chapter on Drilling-machines allusion
was made to the tendency to substitute tooth-gearing for the main
cone pulleys in machine-tools. Fig. 227 shows the new head-stock of
the Lodge and Shipley lathe, embodying this principle. Instead of
the cone pulley there is one wide-faced pulley. This pulley has no bearing on the main spindle, but is secured to a hollow shaft which is journaled in the two bearings shown. At the left side of the pulley and
keyed to the same hollow shaft are two gears G and G 1 of different
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
164
The main spindle of the lathe passes through the hollow shaft
mentioned, but does not touch it, being journaled in the two outer
Near the left end of the back-gear shaft are two sliding
bearings.
sizes.
which may be engaged with its mating gear on the hollow shaft to which the pulley is secured. When not in use these sliding gears are located between the two gears of the pulley-shaft. The
gears, either of
pairs of gears, in connection with the pinion on the right end of
the back-gear shaft and its mating gear G 2 on the spindle, give two
speeds to the spindle. The back-gear shaft is thrown out of mesh by
the usual eccentric arrangement, and when thus disengaged the pulley-
two
be locked by a clutch to the main spindle, the clutch being
operated by the lever L. This direct connection gives another speed,
making three speeds in all. There are three different speeds on the
counter-shaft, and thus the lathe is provided with nine speeds.
In Fig. 228 the main spindle with its gear G 2 is shown removed
shaft
may
from the bearings, exposing the clutch-teeth on the pulley-shaft.
FIG. 228.
of the belt-pressure, the durability and accuracy of the
spindle-bearings in this lathe are considerably increased.
Being relieved
Fig.
229 shows a lathe designed with special reference to the
re-
LATHES
165
In this lathe the geared head is
quirements of the "high-speed" steel.
not employed, but a cone pulley with three wide steps of large diameter
FIG. 229.
is
used.
This lathe
High-speed Lathe."
referred to
is
"geared-head lathe."
Raise-and-f all Rest.
is
in the catalog as the "American
of this lathe make also a
The manufacturers
The ordinary
slide-rest
of the
so constructed that the cross-feed slide cannot be raised.
engine-lathe
The means
adjusting the tool vertically requires that the set-screw holding
When the set-screw is slackened the point of
the tool be slackened.
the tool may be raised or lowered by slightly rotating a convex gib
for
in a concave washer.
Fig. 230
shows a
rest
which has the last-named
method of adjusting the tool, which method is clearly indicated in the
cut, and in addition thereto it has a means of adjusting the tool by
When adjusted the rest may be bolted firmly
raising the rest itself.
in position in connection with the bolt and slot shown.
Just above
this bolt is also seen a
The
handle for raising the
raise-and-fall rest
lathes, but
is
rest.
preferred by some mechanics
for the smaller
not well adapted to the heavier lathes.
The Plain Rest. The plain rest shown in Fig. 231 differs from the
rest on the lathe in Fig. 214, in that it lacks the upper slide of the com-
pound
rest.
it
is
Its cross-slide, therefore,
cannot be fed in any other direc-
tion than at right angles to the lathe axis. This is a disadvantage
on many kinds of work, but the extra rigidity possible in this kind of
rest compensates in part for the lack of the angular feed.
The Compound Rest.
The compound
rest
which has been referred
to in connection with Fig. 214 is shown in detail mounted upon the
lower slide-rest in Fig. 232.
Properly speaking the combination of
1C6
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
and
constitute the
compound
rest,
but the term
is
often used
FIG. 230
to refer to
1,
which swivels on R. The graduations for
setting the
and one of the bolts for clamping it, are
clearly
rest for angular feed,
FIG. 231.
shown
in the cut.
Many
manufacturers so design the lathe-carriage
compound rest may be used.
that either the plain rest or the
LATHES
The Elevating
Tool-rest.
167
There have been invented a great many
overcoming the difficulty referred
different tool-rests with the object of
FIG. 232.
to in connection with the ordinary slide-rest.
Fig. 233 shows one of
these designs. The rest is raised by the screw seen projecting just above
the tool.
FIG. 233.
The Open-side
is
Tool-rest.
held by one set-screw.
two
set-screws, as
screw shown
shown
It
In the ordinary tool-post the lathe-tool
be more rigidly held, however, by
may
in the tool-post in Fig. 234.
The
third set-
used for clamping the upper part of the block to the
next lower part. By slacking this third set-screw the tool may be
swung around to any angle and then clamped.
is
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
168
Three-tool Shafting-rest.
indicated
by
its
name,
This device
this rest
is
is
shown
in Fig. 235.
As
designed more particularly for turn-
FIG. 234.
ing long shafting. For this purpose two of the tools may be used for
roughing cuts and the third tool for smoothing cuts, the shaft being
FIG. 235.
While being turned,
finished at one traverse of the lathe-carriage.
is kept cool with water supplied from the tank shown.
The
the shaft
ring-shaped casting shown under the tank
which travels with the
pressure of the tools.
a kind of follower-rest
shaft against the
to
receive
bushings for different
designed
carriage,
It is
is
and supports the
LATHES
sizes of shafts,
the casting.
lathe-carriage
169
which bushings are held by a set-screw on the top of
in the cut, this attachment is held to the
As indicated
by four
bolts,
the ordinary cross-slide.
and
it
may
be removed and replaced by
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
170
The
one of the distinguishing features of
is usually provided also with a
In
shafts.
other respects the shaftingfor
straightening
screw-press
lathe is not sufficiently different from the common lathe to justify a
three-tool shafting-rest
a special shafting-lathe.
full
is
Such a lathe
description here.
The taper attachment shown in Fig. 236
a device used for causing the tool to move to or from the work while
the lathe-carriage moves longitudinally, the object being to turn tapers.
This attachment is more particularly described in the chapter on Lathe
The Taper Attachment.
is
Work, as are
also the steady-rest
and
follower-rest.
FIG. 237.
The
The
shown
in Fig. 237 is designed especially
provided with two tool-rests so
that a roughing and a finishing cut, or two roughing cuts, may be taken
Pulley-lathe.
for turning pulleys.
lathe
This machine
is
As the two rests are on opposite sides of the lathe,
must be inverted. The arm shown at the left end of
the lathe is a kind of tail-stock which may be swung around on its axis
to admit of more convenient removal of the pulley.
The latter while
simultaneously.
one of the tools
LATHES
171
being turned is held on an arbor one end of which is supported by the
tail-stock, the other end being fitted to the hollow spindle of the lathe.
This makes the arbor more rigid than if held at both ends on centers.
The
pulley is rotated by two drive|s seen bolted to the face-plate of the
To
machine, which drivers engage with two of the arms of the pulley.
facilitate crowning the pulley, the rails supporting the two rests are
mounted upon a substantial bed-plate which may be swung upon a pivot
and clamped at the required angle.
The Pit-lathe (Fig. 238). This is a very heavy and powerfully geared
lathe.
It is designed for machining fly-wheels and other heavy work of
FIG. 238.
which the diameter
character
pit
is
large
and the length inconsiderable.
Work
of this
always bolted to the large face-plate, which swings in the
as shown.
The head-stock and other framework of the lathe are
is
supported upon a foundation of heavy masonry. This machine has
two tool-rests. One of these has a movement parallel to the face-plate,
movement of the other being at right angles to the face-plate.
of these rests has also another shorter movement.
the
Each
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
172
A
and
Lathe for Turning Driving-wheels. In railway machine-shops
which build locomotives a special lathe is used for turning
in shops
locomotive driving-wheels.
This lathe has two face-plates, two spindles,
two lathes on one bed, the object
to
turn
the
two
of
wheels
the
locomotive
being
driving-shaft simultaneThese lathes are generally so designed that either of the faceously.
When so designed the lathes
plates may be operated independently.
and two
tool-rests.
It
is
in reality
be used for boring, the work being bolted to the face-plate.
Increasing the Swing of a Lathe. The gap-lathe
a lathe having a kind of gap made in the bed near the head-stock;
may
The Gap -lathe.
is
in other respects it is similar to the common engine-lathe.
The object
of the gap is to admit of boring large pulleys, etc., in a small lathe. This
expedient is adopted to a greater extent in England than in America.
A lathe has recently been designed in the United States with auxiliary
head and
tail spindles,
the gap-lathe.
the object being in the main similar to that of
These auxiliary spindles are raised above the regular
spindles.
The common method
cast-iron blocks
of increasing the swing of a lathe is to use
under the head-stock and tail-stock and extend the
tool-post.
The Tool-room Lathe. This is a small engine-lathe made with special
accuracy, and with draw-in collets and some other attachments not
usually found on the ordinary lathe.
Cutting Speeds for the Engine-lathe.
There are so
many
considera-
tions entering into the problem that it is difficult to give a specific rule
for the speed at which a lathe should run for any given diameter of
work.
should run faster for soft material
than for hard, and
than for heavy cutting. One authority
gives 20 feet per minute as an average cutting speed for cast iron and
steel, but the tendency is toward much faster speeds. For roughing cuts
on wrought iron and soft steel the speed may be from 30 to 45 feet per
minute. Cast iron may usually be cut at somewhat higher speed. The
speed for brass may be from 80 to 100 feet, and extra-soft brass may
When
sometimes be cut at a speed of more than 100 feet per minute.
the tool becomes excessively hot and wears away too rapidly, it is an
When it cuts freely and remains
indication that the speed is too high.
In cutting very hard material,
cool the speed may usually be increased.
such as chilled iron, for instance, it is sometimes necessary to run as slowly
It
generally faster for light cutting
as 8 to 10 feet per minute.
The
cutting speed
is
always taken on the circumference, and in feet
LATHES
per minute.
Thus, to turn a 3"
173
steel shaft at
12 X30
feet per minute would require 5
o X 5~jTTA
= 38.22
a cutting speed of 30
revolutions of the lathe-
oj.
spindle per minute. The lathe seldom has the exact speed required, so
that we take the nearest -speed.
High-speed Steel. The above assumes the use of ordinary steel tools,
but the new steel previously mentioned will stand a very much greater
speed and heavier cutting, and
older steel in the near future.
it
will doubtless
largely supersede the
now on the market
"Novo," "Blue Chip/' and "Capitol." The makers of some of
these brands of steels guarantee them to stand a cutting speed of 150
Among
the brands
are
The heat generated by such speed does not
as it does the ordinary steels.
In estimating
the
steels
injure
high-speed
the saving due to the use of the high-speed steel it should be borne in
mind that doubling the cutting speed does not double the product of
to 200 feet per minute.
The reason for this is that a considerable percentage of the
consumed in adjusting the work in the lathe, grinding tools, etc.
It should be the object, however, of the intelligent foreman to adopt
such methods as shall reduce this "dead time" to a minimum.
Feeds. The Rotary Measure. There is as much difficulty in giving
a rule for the rate of feeding as for the cutting speed. The feed may
About
vary between Y^s" per revolution and 1" per .revolution.
for
would
in
most
cuts
on
revolution
be
cases
Yso" per
right
roughing
steel shafts of moderate diameters, and about Ys2" for cast iron.
Machinists generally use very fine feeds for finishing cuts on small steel
shafts
say Yi25 to Yioo inch per revolution. Both the roughing and
On large castfinishing cuts may be somewhat faster in heavier work.
iron work, where the fine finish is not required, it is sometimes practithe lathe.
time
is
cable to take the smoothing cut at the rate of 1 / 2 to 1 inch per revolu
When a large number of pieces of one kind are to be made, the
tion.
most economical speed and feed for the work should be determined
by the superintendent or an expert; otherwise the output may vary
with different workmen from 25 to 100 per cent. Fig. 239 shows a
rotary measure adapted to measuring the speed of lathe work. In
measuring the speed of a shaft, for instance, the graduated wheel is
brought into contact with the revolving shaft and, in connection with a
stop-watch, the speed and feet per minute may be read directly from
the dial of the instrument.
"
Meaning of the Word Swing," etc. The planed
a lathe-bed upon which the lathe-carriage is guided is called the
Miscellaneous.
top of
174
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
ways or shears. Some manufacturers guide the lathe-carriage on flat
shears, but the prevailing form is that of an inverted V, two of these
V's being (generally) used to guide the carriage and two to guide the
FIG. 239.
The V's are usually cast integral with the lathe-bed, but
240 shows a departure from the common design. This illustration shows the V's, which are made of drawn tool-steel, mortised into
tail-stock.
Fig.
the lathe-bed.
This method of making lathe-guides
is
worth
investi-
gating.
The author has observed some confusion among mechanics as to
"
swing." The word "swing" means the diam-
the meaning of the word
LATHES
eter of
175
work which, held concentric with the spindle
axis, will clear the
important to observe that a lathe will always swing less
ways.
over the carriage or rest than over the ways. It should also be understood that the terms used in designating the length of the lathe do not
It
is
For instance, a
indicate the capacity of the lafke between centers.
16" X 6' lathe means that the lathe swings 16" over the ways and
FIG. 240.
has a bed 6 feet long, but such a lathe will swing only about 10" over
the carriage, and take between centers a shaft only about 30" in length.
This lathe might be used to turn a pulley 16" in diameter and 3 or 4
inches face, because the lathe-carriage would not need to pass under
the pulley. But a pulley of the same diameter and having a 12" face
could not be turned in a 16" lathe.
It
might be added that
it is
not
considered economical to turn even a narrow-faced pulley in a lathe
the nominal swing of which is not greater than the diameter of the
The reason is that lathes are not ordinarily built stiff enough,
Howor with sufficient power, to turn their full swing advantageously.
more
is
the
toward
lathes.
tendency
ever,
powerful
pulley.
One very important consideration in pura
is
new
lathe
that
the diameter of the spindle should be amply
chasing
In
for
the
work.
the
large
Michigan Agricultural College there are several
Purchasing a Lathe.
which the front spindle-bearings are 2 7 /$" diameter,
the back bearings being proportionally large. These lathe-spindles are
14"x6
lathes, of
be the hole being l 9 /ie" diameter.
This large hole through the spindle is a very great advantage in turning
short pieces on the end of a long bar. Having a large hollow spindle,
hollow
as
all
lathe- spindles should
such work can, in
many
cases,
be passed through the spindle and driven
moved back out of the way.
in the lathe-chuck, the tail-stock being
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
176
The left end of a bar being operated upon
by any convenient means.
in this
way may be supported
have a bed of ample proporand torsion, and it should be supported on a foundaBeds of box form, with openings at intervals to
lathe, to give the best results, should
tions to resist flexure
tion of masonry.
allow the chips to drop through, are very strong to resist the stresses
mentioned. The metal around the openings in the webs should be
reinforced by vertical ribs to compensate for the metal cut out.
Some
years ago the class in machine design of which the author is instructor
designed a lathe having a bed of this form. The carriage of this lathe
is guided by one V of ample proportions on the front side, and by a
way on
way on the
flat
The tail-stock is guided by a flat
guide on the rear side. This is benot original with the author. With
the rear side of the bed.
and by a
lieved to be a good design, but it
front side,
V
is
respect to the stiffness of the lathe-bed,
it
may
be observed that the
average bed may be sprung perceptibly by merely prying up at one
This may be easily proved in conneccorner by a lever under the legs.
tion with a
Bath
indicator.
To make the
test,
the indicator should
be held in the tool-post with its finger in connection with the lathe
In purchasing a high-priced lathe a guarantee as to the
face-plate.
limit of error in boring and facing should be required of the manufacturers.
It should be observed, however, that the most accurate lathe
be twisted out of shape by unskillful adjustment on the foundation.
lathe having a compound rest should also have an offset tail-stock
somewhat similar to that shown in Fig. 214. 'The object of offsetting
may
Any
the tail-stock
is
to allow the
compound
rest a
maximum
arc of
move-
ment.
The counter-shaft of a lathe should also receive some consideration.
The pulleys and hangers should preferably be self-oiling, and the cheaper
forms of trappy clutch-pulleys should be avoided. Tight and loose
pulleys with shifting belts give better satisfaction than a poor clutchpulley; but a good, simple, durable clutch-pulley is more convenient
and
it
is
better for the belts.
Testing the Lathe -spindle. After a lathe has been used a few years
may be found that the spindle is slightly out of line, so that it will not
bore a parallel hole. Fig. 241 illustrates a method of testing the spindle,
a and b are two trams bolted to the face-plate of the lathe, a being
made of metal, and B, for the sake of lightness, being made of wood.
The center in the main spindle should be removed and tram a should
be so made as to project about l /z" beyond the face-plate,
b should
LATHES
177
To test the spindle move the tail-stock until
project not less than 24",
its center comes within reach of the first tram, and, with tail-stock and
tail-spindle tightly clamped, turn the face-plate and note whether the
tram revolves concentrically wfth the center in the tail-spindle. If not
in line horizontally, adjust the flail-stock by the set-over screws until
the tram clears equally at two points horizontally opposite around the
FIG. 241.
center.
tram.
Move
the tail-stock back and clamp as before, testing by long
be in line horizontally, -the tram will clear the center
If the spindle
equally at each side.
If
not in
line, it
may be
possible to
make
the cor-
paper between the V grooves of the headstock and the V's of the lathe. The trams will usually indicate that the
main spindle is also too low and the shims will raise it. If the spindleboxes are square or some shape other than round, it may be preferable to
rection
by placing
strips of
by shimming under the boxes. If the
up the spindle and making new boxes will
adjust the spindle vertically
boxes be cylindrical, truing
bring the
shims.
spindle to
its
original
alinement without
the
use of the
The cylindrical part of a lathe-center is sometimes eccentric to
the conical point.
In such a case the trams must be applied to the
conical part of the center.
The tail-stock spindle may be tested in
its
two extreme positions in connection with the long tram.
CHAPTER
XII
WORK
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
The slow processes
some kinds of work, have
Distinguishing Features of the Turret -machine.
of the engine-lathe, while
still
necessary in
proved inadequate to meet the demands in many lines of manufacturing.
In special work, including short cylindrical pieces of which a great
many are to be made from one drawing, the turret-machine is far more
The
economical.
essential principle of a turret-machine
is
a tool-holder,
may
any one of a number of tools
into
(usually six)
operation.
Having only one tool-post, the enginelathe necessitates much loss of time when various operations are to be
which
be revolved upon
its
axis to bring
performed on the same detail. In the turret-lathe the tools for any given
piece of work, having been once adjusted, may be successively and
quickly brought into action until a large number of pieces are finished.
The turret-lathe was originally limited in its adaptation, but it has
been modified and improved to such an extent that now the best class
of these machines will cover nearly as wide a range of work as the engineIn machining wrought iron, steel, etc., on the turret-machine
lathe.
the work
is
supplied with a stream of
for this purpose.
used for the same
oil,
a tank and
pump
being used
The cutting speed is, therefore, higher than would
work in the engine-lathe.
b?
Description of a Plain Screw-machine. Fig. 242 shows a B. & S.
screw-machine in which the turret principle is employed. This machine
is designed to make screws, studs, and various small pieces from a bar.
The spindle is hollow and the bar is passed through the spindle and
T is the turret, having seven holes for different
gripped by a chuck.
kinds of tools, and R is the cross-slide in which either one or two tools may
be used.
stile
The
lever L,
turret
may
be moved longitudinally by hand by the turn-
and automatically by the feed-cones
gearing on the rear
side of the machine.
and feed-rod and
In this particular machine
there are eight changes of the automatic feed, varying from .005 to .030
inch to one revolution of spindle. The feed-cones have only four steps,
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
179
but for each step there are two speeds, the change being made from fast
to slow by a lever which operates mechanism on the rear side of the
machine.
The
longitudinal
movements
of the turret are controlled
by
FIG. 242.
independent stops, which
are
adjusted for the vanous operations on
each piece of work.
FIG. 243.
As
indicated, the principal factor in the economical operations of
lies in the turret, which holds in correct adjustment a
turret-machines
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
180
be quickly brought into operation. Another
important factor, however, is that the work, being held in a universal
chuck, or a spring-chuck, and turned from a bar, requires no prelimi-
number
of tools
which
may
nary cutting off and centering.
The chucks used in many turret-machines are quite different from
those commonly used in the engine-lathe. There are various modifications of these chucks, but the general principle of chucking is clearly
shown in Figs. 243 and 244. These figures show respectively the headstock of a Pratt & Whitney bench-lathe and a chucking-collet belonging
The collet is split as shown to admit of its being closed
to the latter.
FIG. 244.
upon the
The
stock.
conical shoulder of the collet
fits
the conical seat
in the right end of the lathe-spindle shown in Fig. 243.
The threaded
end of the collet engages with the internal thread of the hollow shaft
passing through the lathe-spindle. Turning this shaft by means of the
hand-wheel shown on the left draws the collet into its seat, causing it
to grip the stock.
245 shows samples of work done on a screw-machine.
Making Filister-head Screws in a Screw-machine. If required to
make a large number of, say, l /J' filister-head screws, a bar of machineFig.
steel of suitable
diameter would be passed through the spindle and
In passing the bar through the chuck the distance
the chuck.
gripped by
that it projects
is
When
regulated
by an adjustable stop held
in one of the tur-
adjusted to any given length of work, this stop regulates the projection of each succeeding piece to be made, the stop being
moved out of the way by the motion of the turret after each chucking.
ret-holes.
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
1*1
The adjustment of the stock may be considered the first operation.
The stop being properly s&, the turnstile lever is operated to bring
the turret-slide to the right, and in this movement certain mechanism is
FIG. 245.
l
brought into operation which rotates the turret /^ of a revolution,
into
alinement.
tool
second
the
bringing
Probably the next operation would be to bevel the end of the bar
by a tool held in one of the tool-posts. This is very rapidly done by
a quick-acting handle or lever connected with the cross-slide.
The third operation is to feed the turret, bearing a roughing-tool
to the revolving bar.
The
travel of this tool
controlled
is
by a stop
previously adjusted for the purpose.
Having taken a roughing cut, the turret-slide
and rotated as before to bring in line the next
is
quickly
tool,
moved back
which
is
sizer.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
182
The sizer is then fed up to the stock, cutting the
to the right diameter for the thread.
body
of the
screw
For the fifth operation the turret-slide is moved back and rotated,
bringing a threading-die in line, the forward traverse of the turret-slide
for this operation being also controlled by a stop.
Sometimes two
dies are used,
one
for
The
roughing and the next for sizing the thread.
This
sixth operation is to chamfer the end of the screw.
often effected by the tool in the front tool-post.
is
remains in the seventh operation to cut the screw off to length.
This may be accomplished by an. inverted tool in the rear tool-post.
Sometimes this tool is so shaped as to round the end of the screw at
It
the same time that
it is being cut off.
that the above method
inferred
be
It must not
is the
only method
the
turret-machine.
on
Different workof making
men perform the same work in different ways. In some kinds of work,
especially work of irregularly curved outline, forming-tools are largely
used.
Samples of such work and the. methods connected therewith
are shown elsewhere in this chapter.
filister-head screws
FIG. 246.
Automatic Screw-machine. Fig. 246 shows an automatic screwIn this machine the turret is placed on the side of the turret-
machine.
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
183
The operations of the
face revolves in a vertical plane.
chuck, the feeding of the bar stock, the reversing of the spindle, the
movements of the turret-slide, are all controlled by quick-acting cams.
slide
and
its
FIG. 247.
The manufacturers
of the
machine furnish with each machine
instruc-
tions for laying out the cams.
Full instructions for earning this machine
are also given in the September 1903 issue of ''Machinery/' page 6.
Monitor Lathe.
The monitor
lathe
shown
in Fig. 247
to small gears, collars, hand-wheels, brasswork, etc.
the turret it has a vertical forming attachment which
is adapted
In addition to
is seen mounted
on the cross-slide. Tools of various shapes may be secured to the slide
and fed to the work by the vertical lever shown.
Gisholt Turret Chucking-lathe.
As indicated in the beginning of
this chapter, turret-machines have been modified and improved to
such an extent that the best modern types cover almost as wide a range
184
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
of work as the engine-lathe. Figs. 248 and 249 show a machine which,
while designed primarily for multiple and broad cutting and heavy chuck-
FIG. 248.
ing-work, will also handle a
.stock
and thread-cutting.
in operation
upon a cone
medium grade
The
first
pulley,
of
work, including bar
shows a machine
of these figures
and the piece
of
work shown
in con-
nection with the second illustration resembles a compression coupling.
To better adapt this machine to the heavy stresses to which it is
subjected, the head-stock, bed, and other important
framework are made in one casting.
The
members
of the
which slides directly on the ways of the bed, is made
massive and rigid. In common with other turrets it is provided with
holes for the reception of reamers, bars, etc., and in addition thereto
turret,
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
it
WORK
185
has six broad surfaces to which may be bolted a great variety of special
and fixtures. This machine, is provided with a carriage bearing
tools
turret tool-post in
which four
'tools
be used.
may
Any one
tools may be instantly brought irito action.
The machine is so designed that the tools of the
main
of these
turret
and
those of the carriage may be in operation at the same time. Thus,
in machining a pulley, for instance, the periphery of the pulley could
be turned by tools in the carriage tool-post at the same time that the
pulley was being bored by the tools in the main turret. When boring
with a boring-bar in the turret, one end of the bar is supported by a bushing in the main spindle of the machine.
rigidity to the boring-bar.
The Hollow Hexagon Turret-lathe.
known
as the hollow
hexagon
This arrangement gives extra
Fig.
turret-lathe.
250 shows a machine
As indicated by
its
title
FIG. 250.
the turret in this machine
is
the outer faces of the turret.
fixtures being bolted
hexagonal, the tools being clamped to
The open top admits of the tools and
from the inside of the
any room on the outside
turret, without taking
for the bolt-heads, etc.
This machine
is
up
pro-
vided with roller feed, independent stops, automatic chucks, etc.
Fig. 251 shows the spindle projecting through the front bearing.
The head for holding the chuck-collets is forged on the end of the spindle,
giving
minimum
of
overhang to the gripping mechanism.
The
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
186
arrangement is such that the collets may be conveniently removed
from the outer end of the spindle without disturbing the chuck. This
machine has a capacity of turning from bar stock work not greater
FIG. 251.
than 2" diameter by 24" long. It swings over the bed 16", thus
admitting of the machining larger work of short length.
The Flat Turret-lathe. Fig. 252 shows the machine known as the
flat turret-lathe.
This machine is of the same capacity as that last
described. The names of the leading parts are given in connection
with the
The
illustration.
turret which
to that of
from the
is
shown
in Fig. 253 bears but little resemblance
common
latter.
form, and it is called a flat turret to distinguish it
The turret is mounted on a low carriage, being held
to the carriage by an annular gib. The carriage slides on V's on top
of the bed and is gibbed to the outer edges of same.
The tool-holders
have
and the whole design of the turret is such
The automatic traverse of the carriage is
operated by a worm-wheel and worm. The worm, which is held in
mesh with the worm-wheel by a latch, is automatically disengaged
by the feed-stops. The stops are shown projecting beyond the right
little
or no overhang,
as to afford great rigidity.
end
of the machine.
of the turret,
There
is
one of these stops for each tool-holder
By automatic
and they are independently adjustable.
mechanism the
turret
operation as soon as
it
is
rotated to bring the next required tool into
clears the
work
in
its
backward
traverse.
The
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
187
190
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
pin which locks the turret in position is placed at a maximum distance
from the center of the turret, the arrangement being such as to reduce
the lost motion to practically zero.
The Cross-slide. Fig. 254 shows a cross-slide used in connection
with the turret. In addition to the cutting-off tool commonly used in
one side of the cross-slide, various forming-tools and other special tools
may be held on the opposite side. The tools are brought in contact
with the work by the long lever shown.
The apparatus furnished with the flat turret-machine admits of a
wide range of operations, but it is sometimes advantageous to make
Several of these machines are in
special fixtures for special work.
in
a
a
within
walk of the office where this book
minute's
plant
operation
was written, and the officials of the Omega Separator Company kindly
permitted the author to observe the operations of these and other turretmachines. He noticed a special cross-slide which was made at the plant
and used in connection with separator bowls. This slide has two toolholders.
The first tool-holder carries a formed cutter and a cutting-off
tool which rough-turns the piece and cuts off a projecting end.
When
roughing is completed the cross-slide is fed in the opposite direction,
fringing the finishing- tool in contact with the work.
this
CLOSED
OPEN
FIG. 255.
Automatic Chuck and Roller Feed. Sectional views of the automatic chuck are shown in Figs. 255 and 256. This chuck grips round,
hexagon, and other shapes usually handled in a turret-machine. The
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
191
shows the chuck closed, and the second shows it
the roller-feed mechanism.
257
shows
When the chuck
open. Fig.
is open the feed mechanism advances the stock through the spindle
first
of these figures
FIG. 257.
and chuck until it comes in contact with a stop attached to the front of
the carriage. It is set in motion by the same lever that controls the
chuck. The rollers are held in contact with the stock by stiff springs
which admit of slippage when the bar meets the stop.
The Die -carriage.
on the
In addition to the pro vision for holding threading-
machine is furnished with a die-carriage in which
thread-dies of any kind may be held. This carriage is mounted on a
sliding bar, as shown at D in Fig. 258, and may be swung into working
dies
turret, the
by means
Improvements
position
of the lever at its top.
in the Flat Turret-lathe.
recently redesigned, a side view of the
This machine has been
new machine being shown
in
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
194
Fig. 259.
The
latest construction
admits of such a close approximation
to the processes of the engine-lathe that in many kinds of work the
tools of the engine-lathe may be used.
This makes it possible in many
FIG. 260.
machine single pieces as cheaply as, or more cheaply than, in an
The alterations in the machine are such as to adapt the
engine-lathe.
machine also to common chuck work. The head-stock, which was fixed
cases to
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
rigidly to the bed, has
tion with this
WORK
been given a crosswise movement, and
movement a
195
in connec-
series, of stops similar in principle to
those
FIG. 261.
The stops are seen projecting from the
the machine in Fig. 260.
The crosswise movement of the
used in the turret are used.
left side of
head-stock
movement
is
is
effected
by the
turnstile lever
wholly on one side of the center
shown
line,
in Fig. 259.
This
the head-stock being
196
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG. 263.
FIG. 264.
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE WORK
197
returned to a fixed stop when reamers and other tools of this character
Both head-stock and "turret-slide are provided with power
are used.
FIG. 265.
FIG. 266.
used to operate the power feed, the rate
of feed being adjusted by a graduated hand-wheel shown under the
feed.
Friction
mechanism
is
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
198
head-stock turnstile lever.
ment
of the turret
The combination
of the longitudinal moveof the head-stock, in
and the crosswise movement
connection with the stops for both, admits of machining with the same
two surfaces which meet in a corner.
tool
The Geared Head. Instead of the cone-pulley drive for the main
spindle a system of gears giving the various spindle speeds is employed,
the changes being made by levers. This gearing is operated by a singleface pulley, as shown in Fig. 259. The machine may be driven with
equal facility either by a counter-shaft or an electric motor.
Examples
of
Work Done on
the Improved Machine.
Figs. 261, 262,
263, 264, 265, and 266 show various operations indicating the adaptability
of the new machine to chuck work, the long cross-bar shown in the last
three figures being particularly noticeable. Fig. 264 shows three cuts
being taken simultaneously with the cross-bar, and Fig. 265 shows the
cross-bar facing both edges of a pulley in one operation.
Turrets as Used on Engine-lathes.
so advantageous that
many
The turret-machine has proved
engine-lathes are
now
furnished with turrets.
FIG. 267.
shows a turret engine-lathe.
The turret of this machine has
crosswise and longitudinal feeds, these being effected automatically by
the regular carriage-feed mechanism.
Fig. 267
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
Fig.
WORK
199
268 shows a turret adapted for use on the ways of an engine-
lathe.
The
turret
shown in Fig. 269 isklesigned to be held on top of the toolsame as a tool-post is held. The turrets illustrated in
rest of a lathe the
Figs. 267, 268, and 269 may be detached,
as an ordinary engine-lathe.
when
the lathe
may
be used
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
200
TOOLS USED IN THE TURRET-MACHINE
Box
box
One
Tools.
tools.
Fig.
characteristic of the turret-machine is its use of
270 shows a simple design of box tool which was
FIG. 269.
"
American Machinist/' vol. 27, page 61.
end of the tool-holder and is clamped as
shown. The back rest F, which supports the pressure of the cut, also
This holder
fits in a slot, and both cutter and back rest are adjustable.
is made from round stock, and the small end fits in one of the turretWith slightly more expense the back rest could be placed at
holes.
by
suggested
The
tool
H. Ramsey
C.
fits
in
in a slot in the
and this arrangement furnishes a better
In
using box tools on rough stock the
support to the cutting-tool.
The
cutting-tool is usually placed slightly in advance of the back rest.
for
This
cutter B in Fig. 270 is so placed.
arrangement provides
cutting
a true bearing for the rest. On smooth stock, such as round cold-rolled
an angle as shown
usually placed in advance of the tool.
tool having two cutters is shown in Fig. 272.
bars, the rest
box
in Fig. 271,
is
These cutters
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
201
may be adjusted for two different diameters, the forward tool making
the larger diameter and the rear -tool the smaller diameter.
FIG. 272.
In the roughing box tool shown in Fig. 273 the cutting-tool is held
in a tool-post similar to the tool-post of an engine-lathe, and it is so
adjusted in relation to the work as to take a shearing cut. The back
rest
is
made
in
two parts to admit
of
more accurate adjustment.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
202
The
on cast
shown
tool
in Fig.
274
is
called a Knee-tool.
It is used
mostly
iron.
FIG. 273.
FIG. 274.
FIG. 275.
Fig. 275
shows a Hollow Mill, which
roughing box tool in the turret-machine.
collar and set-screw shown.
is
sometimes used instead of a
It may be adjusted by the
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE WORK
FIG. 279.
FIG. 280.
203
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
204
Drills
may
be held
in
a plain holder one end of which fits the
turret, or they may be held in a
and the other end a hole in the
chuck like that of Fig. 276.
drill
drill-
FIG. 281.
Thread-cutting in the Turret-lathe. Thread is usually cut in the
turret-machine with a die. Figs. 277 and 278 show respectively a die
and a releasing die-holder.
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
in Fig. 279 may be adjusted
also held in the holder of Fig. 278.
The Spring-die shown
collar.
This die
is
The Geometric Screw-cutting Die-head
self-opening and adjustable.
hole of the turret
is
Ae
illustrated
by the
in
Fig.
hollow and admits
machine upon which
it is
used.
Stopping the travel of the turretIt is
slide automatically opens the die.
closed again by the handle shown, or
automatic connection.
Forming-tools.
In Fig. 281
is
by
shown
a forming-tool T secured to the crossslide of a Garvin Universal screw-machine.
One end
of the piece to
be turned
ported in a center-rest held in
An
turret-holes.
is
sup-
FIG. 282.
one of the
adjustable center-rest
is
shown
vvvvwvw,
.Vww.vwJL
------ ,
split
280
is
small end or shank which enters a
length of screw within the
of cutting any
capacity of the
205
in Fig. 282.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
206
used in connection with the
Fig. 284 shows one of the ''turners"
of this turner is held in a
cutter
The
flat
turret-lathe.
of
the
turret
FIG. 284.
FIG. 285.
pivoted tool-block the frame of which
means
of
an adjusting-screw, work from
is
By
may be
secured to the turret.
to 2 inches diameter
TURRET-MACHINES AND TURRET-MACHINE
WORK
207
turned after the tool has been clamped.
To prevent the work from
being marked, when the turret-slide is moved back, the tool may, by
means of the spherical end lever, shown, be withdrawn.
is
A Taper Turner and Former used on the machine last
shown in Fig. 285. The cutting-tool and back rest are
referred to
controlled
by the former or template, which is planed tapering in thickness and
width, thus forming two wedges, one of which controls the cutting-tool
This turner turns tapers and other forms,
and the other the back rest.
a different template being used for each different form.
CHAPTER
XIII
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
A Standard Set of Lathe-tools. The term machine-tool refers to the
machine proper, as, for instance, the lathe or the planer.
The terms
lathe-tool and planer-tool have reference to the steel tools used to cut
FIG. 28G.
the metal.
These
tools,
which do not include those
ot the turret-lathe,
are, with rare exceptions, held in the tool-post or tool-block of the common lathe or planer. In Figs. 286 and 287 we show a standard set of
lathe-tools, the
No.
names
which are as follows: No.. 1, left-hand side tool
No. 3, bent right-hand side tool; No. 4,
finishing-tool; No. 6, diamond-point tool; No. 7,
of
2, right-hand side tool;
roughing-tool
No.
5,
208
209
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
round-nose tool; No.
bent thread-tool; No.
8,
cutting-off tool;
No.
11, inside -thread-tool
9,
No.
thread-tool;
No. 10,
12, boring- tool.
FIG. 287.
is
The above list of tools is referred to as a standard set; but there
no standard that is generally recognized, and we show in Fig. 288
FIG. 288.
twelve lathe-tools which are regarded as a regular set by other authorities.
These are named as follows: No. 1, left-hand side tool; No. 2,
right-hand side tool; No. 3, right-hand bent; No. 4, right-hand diamond-point; No. 5, left-hand diamond-point; No. 6, round-nose; No. 7,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
210
No. 9, bent threading; No. 10, roughNo.
Of the latter Nos. 1,
11, boring;
12, inside-threading.
12
and
are
to
be
of
the
same
intended
11,
shape respectively
utting-off;
No.
8,
threading;
Ing; No.
.2,
3, 7,
as Nos.
both
1,
2, 3, 8,
sets are the
U.
11,
S.
and 12
in the first set.
Uses of Various Lathe-tools.
Fig. 288, No. 1
The
threading-tools in
standard.
Respecting the use of the tools in
suitable for facing or turning the left side of a collar,
as shown in the plan at (1) in Fig. 289, while No. 2 is used for facing
the right side of same, or the right end of a shaft. These tools may
also be used for facing at other angles than those shown.
Tool No. 3
is
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
211
designed for facing on the right side close to the lathe face plate. It
bent in order to permit the to"bl -rest to clear the lathe-dog, as at (3).
The diamond-point tools (4) andjj,5)* are used to take roughing cuts, the
is
is
top face of No. 4 being inclined toward the right, making it cut more
The cutting directions of these tools are
freely on the left of the shoulder.
shown at
(4)
and
The diamond-point tool may be used,
(5) in Fig. 289.
also,
smoothing or finishing cuts (small cuts, about .01" deep) by adjusting
so that one side will have nearly flat contact with the work, as at (5a).
for
it
The tool
should touch near the point, as indicated by the arrow.
and
for
similar
be
for
out
a
used
fillet,
rounding
may
pur(6)
poses": see (6) in Fig. 289. No. 7, as its name indicates, is used for cutting
It
marked
a shaft, this operation being shown at (7). For ordinary work it
should be 1 /ie to 1 /g inch wide. It may also be used for smoothing cuts
and for squaring a corner under a collar. For these purposes it is usually
made about 3/ie" wide. By grinding No. 7 with proper side clearance it
may be used to cut square threads. No. 8 is designed for thread-cutting,
off
is near the face-plate end of the work No. 9 should
These two tools are held in the tool-post like Nos. 7 and 3
No. 10 is used by some mechanics for rough cuts, instead
respectively.
of Nos. 4 and 5; it may also be used for cutting on the end of a shaft, or
other such work, when there is too much metal for one of the side tools
shown. The side tools described are used mainly for the light smoothing
cuts. For internal work we use No. 11 for boring and No. 12 for threading,
For squaring
as shown at (11) and (12) in the illustrations of Fig. 289.
but when the thread
be used.
up a shoulder the boring-tool
is
shaped
like (lla).
The angle A
of this
to insure reaching the extreme corner, and
also to lessen the tendency to chatter.
By grinding this tool with the
proper clearance, it may be used, also, for internal square threads. Some
tool should
be
less
than 90
mechanics prefer the tool shown at (13) to the diamond-point tool for
heavy work. This is a very strong and otherwise efficient tool. For
smoothing cuts and very fast feeds (14) shows a good design.
Of the tools shown in Figs. 288 and 289, Nos. 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 13, and 14 are also used on the planer in the same manner
For roughing down vertical faces the
that they are used in the lathe.
Planer-tools.
Various special tools are
stocking -tool, No, 15, Fig. 289, is a good form.
have
these
and
both
made for
lathe;
special shapes to suit the
planer
requirements of each case.
Tools for Brass work.
metals in
common
* This
shape
is
The
tools in Fig.
use except brass.
somewhat
difficult to forge
288 are adapted to all the
may be used
Nos. 7 to 12 inclusive
and
is
not as
much used
as formerly.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
212
for brass if the top cutting face be kept flat and horizontal.
In addition
to these, the tool illustrated, Fig. 290, may be used on brass for longitudinal and crosswise roughing and finishing cuts.
For squaring under
FIG. 291.
FIG. 290.
a shoulder the cutting edges of this tool should be ground to a point,
and somewhat less than 90.
Fig. 291 shows the top view of a brass tool which is used by some
mechanics for longitudinal and cross feeds. This tool should be flat
on top and have clearance on the front end and on the concave side.
Tool -holder Plan. The foregoing system, in which the tools are forged
from bar stock, is being superseded to a considerable extent by the toolholder plan.
In this system a number of tool
changeably in one holder, the latter being
FIG. 292.
cutters are
made
of tool-steel
by
of sizes
steel cutters are
made
used inter-
of cheaper metal.
These
FIG. 293.
and shapes which are kept in stock in all grades
The cutters require no forging, being ground
the dealers.
on the emery-wheel to any ordinary shape. Self-hardening steel is
generally used for the cutters, and this requires no tempering.
The cutters are held by a
Fig. 292 shows a tool holder and cutter.
set-screw at an angle which is considered about right for average requirements.
Generally
it
is
not necessary to grind the top faces of these
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
213
may be ground to give negative or zero rake for brasswork, or be changed for any o>ther special case. The uses of these tools
cutters, but they
FIG. 296.
FIG. 295.
FIG. 294.
in various ways, both for lathe
294, 295, and 296.
and planer work, are shown
Boring-tool Attachment for Lathes
in Figs. 293,
Boring Deep Holes.
very
In this device A
substantial boring device is shown in Fig. 297.
is a kind of clamping fixture, which takes the place of the ordinary
Cutter-bar attachment for lathes
FIG. 297.
The tools or
tool-post, being held on the lathe-rest by the bolts B.
cutters are secured in either end of the bar or tool-holder, as shown
f)
Cutter-bar
FIG. 298.
in Fig. 298.
are clamped
The
by the
fixture
set-screws
will
hold different
S and movable jaw
sizes
J.
of
bars,
which
The overhang
may be gaged to suit the length of hole.
When boring extra long holes with a common boring-tool,
of
the bars
of the tool
makes the hole
tapering.
To compensate
the springing
for this error the
experienced mechanic feeds the lathe-carriage both forward and backward, and takes very light cuts to bring the hole to the finished size.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
214
reamer would, of course, save time, but such a tool is not always
The device shown in Fig. 297 is much
available for special sizes.
to
the
ordinary boring-tool. By making the cutter with two
superior
cutting edges (one on each end), and taking a double cut, the bar is
braced against deflection and parallel boring is made easy. The author
has sometimes used double cutters instead of a reamer. For this purpose
the cutter should be turned in its bar between centers. To prevent
chattering
and make a smooth
hole, the cutter should
be
filed
with mini-
mum
heel clearance, and after being tempered it should be carefully
If the cutter be held with a taper-pin fitting a notch near
oilstoned.
the center of the cutter, it may be very quickly adjusted in the bar.
Cold-rolled steel or tool steel, used without being machined, will answer
for the bars.
Planer-tool with Angular Adjustment. Any of these tools, exceptmay be used on the planer; but the tool shown in
ing the boring-tool,
FIG. 299.
FIG. 300.
adapted to planer work.
Fig. 300 indicates how
be adjusted to different angles in the latter work.
Gang Planer-tool. This tool, which is illustrated in Fig. 301, is
Fig. 299
this tool
is
specially
may
The tool-head,
especially for planing broad fiat surfaces.
carrying several cutters, is adjustable on the shank. By properly
adjusting the head a coarser feed as compared with a single cutter
designed
may
be used.
This
is
accomplished by dividing the cut as shown in
With a given feed, say Vg", the head should be so adFig. 302.
justed as to divide the cut equally between the number of cutters used.
cutters should be ground to uniform shape, and should be so set
as to bring the lower ends in the same horizontal plane, a flat plate or
The
surface being used for this purpose.
Figs. 303
and 304 show a
side tool
and a
cutting-off tool respec-
may be used for both planer and lathe work.
tively.
offset
holders are
they are better adapted to lathe work.
These
When
the
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
215
Thread-tool and Holder. In Fig. 305 is shown a good design of
tool for thread-cutting.
The cutter, which is held by the two set-screws
as shown, is shaped to the angle .of the U. S. standard thread
(60) and
FIG. 303.
STRAIGHT CUT OFF TOOL
is
to be
FIG. 304.
FIG. 302.
FIG. 301.
ground on the top face only.
The
cutter should be so ground
and
top face would pass through the axis
of the central clamping-screw and be parallel with the bottom of the
The same line should pass through the axis of the work.
holder.
set that a line coincident
with
its
The Rivett-Dock Thread -tool.
In cutting threads with one single-
pointed tool, or even with one roughing and one finishing tool, considerable
time is expended in grinding the tools
to a
lathe,
gage, adjusting
and
in
them
gaging
The thread- tool shown
the
in
the
work.
in Fig.
306
designed to overcome, in a great
measure, these difficulties. For each
is
FIG. 305.
pitch of thread a disk cutter, having a number of teeth of the corThese disks are interchangeable and may be
is furnished.
rect angle,
secured to a holder which, when in use, is mounted on the tool-block cf
the lathe as shown. Each tooth traverses the thread once, the first
cut being made by tooth No. 1, the second by No. 2, and so on, until
the teeth in the disk have been brought into contact with the thread.
all
The
last tooth, which is the only one that conforms to the final shape
of the thread (the others being broader at the point) cuts the thread to,
the required shape and diameter.
Each tooth is brought into position in turn,
by the
lever shown.
FIG. 306.
216
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
By means
217
and its ingenious connections, the disk
the work, and locked "for each cut.
of this lever
is
rotated,
advanced to
For extra-accurate threading, ^uch as is necessary in making taps,
and for fine finish, it may be necessary to divide the last cut into two
or
more
finer cuts.
this purpose.
and
left
The
tool
is
provided with micrometer adjustment for
with side-rake adjustment for right
It is furnished, also,
threads.
Multiple -edge Tools. The tool above described might be called a
turret thread-tool, the principle of action being that of the turretmachine. In the chaser-edge cutter, Fig. 307, the holder of which
FIG. 308.
is
shown
in Fig. 308, all of the teeth are in contact with the thread at
the same time.
This reduces the wear on each tooth and accomplishes
some of the purposes of the tool shown in Fig. 306.
The possibilities of multiple-edge tools are not fully appreciated.
.
may be used for lathe, planer, shaper work, etc. If, for
instance, three grooves were required to be cut in a shaft, a cutter and
tool-holder could easily be made (and, indeed, is sometimes made) to
These tools
tool could as easily be made
all the grooves in one operation.
to cut several grooves simultaneously in the planer or shaper.
Fig. 309 shows a piston-ring being turned on the inside and outside
cut
one operation. Two boring-bars, each carrying an adjustable cutter,
forked tool-holder with cutters held by setare used in this case.
in
sometimes used for work of this character. Fig. 310 shows
such a holder, but the adjustable cutters are held by a plate and one
screw. Fig. 301 might be classed with multiple-edge tools.
screws
is
Advantage of Backward Offset
* Cut
first
ist," vol. 27,
in Planer-tools.
*
Fig. 311
shows a
used to illustrate an article by "Theodore" in "American Machin-
page 290.
218
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
When the cutting
for planing lathe Vs.
backward offset
this
on
work
the
a
broad
bearing
edge of the tool has
tool-holder
and cutter designed
FIG. 309.
has an important advantage.
to a slight degree, but when
The
it
is
strongest tool-holder must spring
as above it springs from the
made
Wtf-
ni
'
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
and
it
cutters
is
by one bolt and a dowel-pin as shown.
be used separately in" the same holder.
held
may
219
Any number
of
FIG. 311.
Spring-tools for Lathe -work. The principle of the above tool is
sometimes employed in a lathe-tool. For lathe work, however, the tool
shaped as shown in Fig. 312,
which represents a spring threadis
tool.
Rake and Clearance of Lathe One of the most impor-
tools.
tant considerations in connection
with lathe- and planer-tools
is
the
proper inclination of the cutting
For most purface to the work.
poses the tools should be so shaped
as to peel the metal off,
as a plow turns the soil.
somewhat
When
so shaped as to produce this
effect it is said to have "rake."
tool
is
FIG. 312.
more
precise explanation of the
use of the term rake is given in connection with the illustrations in Figs.
313, 314, and 315.
Referring to these figures, Fig. 313 is a side view of a
cylinder or shaft as held between lathe-centers, and in connection with
is seen a vertical section through CD, Fig. 314, of a side tool.
same
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
220
Fig.
315
is
a cross-section of a cylinder with a longitudinal vertical
Assuming in all cases that the point of the
section of a lathe-tool.
tool
is
set
on a
level
with the axis of the lathe-spindle, in Fig. 313 the
FIG. 313.
angle A, formed
FIG. 314.
by the
horizontal line
and
face
of the tool, will,
in this work, be called right rake, while the angle
1, between the verThe similar
and side S, will be called right clearance.*
tical line
angle and clearance on the opposite side (not shown) will be called
In Fig. 315 the angle A 2, formed by the
left rake and left clearance.
horizontal line H passing through center of the shaft, and by the top
face F 1 of the tool, will be called front rake; the angle A 3, between
the vertical line V 1 and the front side of the tool S 1, will be called
heel-clearance, and the angle between front side S 1 and the top face
F 1 will be called the cutting angle. The above explanations refer
The rake and clearance on planer-tools are measto the lathe- tools.
ured from vertical and horizontal planes in practically the same way,
and may be called by the same names.
Changing Height of Tool Changes Angle of Rake. As stated, it is
assumed in the above that the points of the lathe-tools are to be set
FIG. 316.
on the
FIG. 317.
level of the lathe-spindle axis.
effect of deviating
* Left
and
rake, sometimes
from
this position.
We
will
now
In Fig. 316,
investigate the
let
represent
The term
right clearance means left and right side clearance.
applied to the angle of clearance, is not so used in this work.
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
221
a cross-section through a cylinder as before, T the lathe-tool set above
the center, and T 1, on the opposite side, a similar lathe-tool set below
H is a horizon tal fine.
the center.
front rake
is
much
greater in
It
T^han
is
in
easily seeti that the "effective"
1.
Again, in Fig. 317 let T 2
be tipped * in the tool-post to bring the point to the center, and the
effective front rake is again changed.
Joshua
Side Clearance Varies with Change in Diameter and Feed.
"
a fact
attention
to
called
has
in
Modern
Machine-shop Practice,"
Rose,
respecting side clearance which is
In Fig. 318 let
often overlooked.
3 represent a section of a tool the
as in Fig. 313, excepting that
same
being traversed in the direction
it is
of the arrow, at the rate of
an inch
shaft.
/IQQ of
each revolution of the
In Fig. 319 let T 4 have the
for
same nominal
side clearance,
traverse in the
side
clearance for
It differs also with every
Clearance and
318
FlG 319
same direction at l /^ f per revolution. The effective
the two cases differs considerably, as shown in the
let it
illustrations.
FlG
and
change in diameter of work.
From the above
for Average Requirements.
from the fact that different densities of metals
Rake
considerations, and
require different angles of rake,
it will appear that it is impracticable,
not impossible, to maintain constant effective angles of rake and
Nevertheless it is desirable to settle upon such angles
clearance.
if
as
will
best answer average requirements,
making
special
tools
for
special cases.
to the angle f for average requirements, Hart, a German authority
quoted by Professor Robert Smith in his work on cutting-tools, gives
51 as the best cutting angle for wrought iron and cast iron, and 3
As
and 4
respectively as the proper heel clearance.
This gives 36
and
Hart's experiments were made for the purpose of
best
the
angles for the least power; but with such
cutting
determining
would not hold its edge well, and the
the
tool
he
as
proposes,
angles
35 for the front rake.
saving in driving power would probably be overbalanced by the time
*
New
tools, before
tipped in this
below center.
has been ground from the top face, are sometimes
sometimes above and sometimes
slightly
A valuable article on "Speeds, Feeds, and Angles of Metal-cutting Tools"
"
be found in American Machinist," March 5, 1903, page 329.
may
way;
much
tools are also set
222
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
and readjusting the tools.
20 rake. For finishing
dost in regrinding
cuts
may have about
tool used for roughing
cuts,
when
regular finish-
about 8 should be sufficient for the front rake. If
the corners are slightly rounded on such tools they work fairly well
with little side rake.
Tools which traverse to the right or left should
have about 8 side clearance and 6 heel clearance.
This heel clearance
ing-tools are used^
is
288 except the threading-tools.
the Standard Set of Tools. Brass Tools
right for all the tools in Fig.
Rake and Clearance of
without Rake.
Referring to Fig. 288,
all
these tools have heel clear-
ance and either right or left clearance.
No. 1 has left rake; Nos. 2
and 3, right rake; No. 4, front and right rake; No. 5, front and left
No. 7 should have front rake except
rake; Nos. 6 and 10, front rake.
when used on brass, and No. 11 should have both front and right rake
except for brass. Thread-tools are made without any rake, but when
used on other metal than brass the thread-tool could have front rake
The reason for not giving rake to tools used
for the roughing cuts.
on brass is that when made with
Some mechanics, however, use
rake they tend to gouge into the metal.
having rake on brass. In this
tools
case the gib-screws of the carriage should be snugly adjusted.
For light cuts, in which some machinists prefer to traverse the carriage both right
and
left
without change of
tool,
the tools for longi-
tudinal cutting, such as roughing-tools, diamond-point tools, etc., may
have front rake only. If made with right or left rake, they work at a
disadvantage in traversing in right and left directions respectively.
For heavy work these tools should be made with both front and right
rake when they are to traverse to the left, and with left and front rake
when they are to traverse to the right. Most machinists make the tools
in the latter forms,
even for
Rake and Clearance
light
work.
Cases.
Less Clearance for
For exceptionally hard metals, such as chilled iron,
the clearance should be reduced to a minimum, and the angle of
rake should also be very much less than above proposed. The keen
edge ordinarily used on wrought iron and machine-steel would be very
quickly destroyed cutting chilled iron. The cutting-off tool and other
tools which cut in front only, and do not traverse lengthwise the work,
for Exceptional
Planer-tools.
require very
these tools.
little
side clearance.
From
2 to 3 degrees
is
sufficient for
All that has been said respecting the rake of lathe-tools will apply
equally well to planer-tools. The clearance, however, of planer-tools
may be less. From 3 to 6 degrees will be about right for both side
LATHE- AND PLANER-TOOLS
and heel
clearance.
One reason why
223
planer-tools require less clearance
because they are not, or at least should not be, fed to the work during
the time that the tool is cutting. The feeding should be done at either
is
end
of the stroke.
If_the difference in the case of the planer is not
understood, read again the discussion respecting Figs. 318 and 319.
Lubricants Used in Turning, Drilling, etc. All operations on cast
such as turning, drilling, reaming, etc., are usually performed dry,
but some mechanics tap cast iron with oil, and others advocate the use
All the above operations on wrought iron
of water in turning cast iron.
and steel may be performed in connection with oil or some cheaper mixiron,
To avoid the
ture, except that lard-oil should be used in reaming.
dirty condition of the lathe which results from the use of oil or sodawater we frequently turn wrought iron and steel dry. All operations
on brass may be performed dry, except that some machinists prefer to
use oil in tapping brass. Copper should be machined dry, except that
In turning, drilling, etc., in Babbitt
in reaming lard-oil should be used.
In drilling glass use turpentine or
metal no lubricant is required.
kerosene
oil.
cheap compound
cooling cutting-tools.
purpose.
may
The
be purchased for use in lubricating and
is sometimes used for the latter
air blast
CHAPTER XIV
LATHE-CENTERS, WORK-CENTERS, ETC.
The proper
Ideal Condition for Lathe -centers.
and work-centers
is
of such
importance that
care of lathe-centers
seems well to emphasize
In grinding work between
it
by devoting a chapter to the subject.
on the universal grinder, both centers are stationary, while the
work revolves. The centers cannot, under these conditions, affect
it
centers
the concentricity of the work. This is the principle upon which lathes
doubtless would be constructed if there were not serious practical difficulties in
the way.
center in the
may
Nevertheless, as lathes are
now
constructed, the
main spindle
be in this center
is
revolves, and any eccentricity that there
transferred to the work. The prevention of
extreme care, as will be explained below.
Taper of Lathe -centers Angle of Point, etc. In the wood-turning
lathe there is one spur-center and one center with cup point, the former
being of such a shape as to cut into and drive the work. In the metalturning lathe both centers have conical points, as in Fig. 320, and the
this eccentricity requires
FIG. 320.
There is no standard for the taper of
is driven by the lathe-dog.
"
5
the lathe-centers, but they are seldom made more than /8 nor less
l
than /2* taper per foot. The Morse taper, given elsewhere in this book,
work
is
approximately /s" per
foot,
and
this taper
is
sometimes used on lathe-
centers.
There is a tendency toward the adoption of standards for all regular
machine details, and doubtless manufacturers will at some future day
In anticipation of this time Oscar
adopt a standard for lathe-centers.
Beale has proposed a system in which the dimensions of a taper are indicated by its mimber. In Mr. Beale s system the number designating
J
224
LATHE-CENTERS, WORK-CENTERS, ETC.
225
a certain size of taper expresses the number of tenths of an inch at the
small end of the taper, the number of eighths at the large end, and the
number of halves of an inch of its .length. Thus number 10 taper would
1
/ 4 -at the large end, and 5" in length.
the
conical
point of the center there is less variation
Respecting
in practice; nearly all machinists use 60 as the standard angle of centers
be I" at small end,
work, though some prefer a greater angle for heavy work. It
has been demonstrated, however, that 60 makes a center sufficiently
strong for the heaviest work, and this should be adopted as the standard.
for small
The standard 60 gage for
testing the point of a lathe-center can be bought
from machinery supply stores.
It is very Important to keep the Centers True, and previous to the
introduction of center-grinding machines the best mechanics would leave
the live center (the center which revolves) soft, and turn it and re-turn
as often as necessary. The difficulty in this method is that in heavy
work the center may, without the knowledge of the workman, be strained
slightly out of true, and this would cause eccentricity in the work to be
turned.
A better plan is to harden both centers, and keep them in good
condition by grinding them as often as necessary. The machines designed
for this purpose are usually fastened in the tool-post like an ordinary lathetool, and the emery-wheel is generally driven either by a belt or by
it
frictional contact of a small pulley
One
the lathe.
so designed that
of the
it
with the cone pulley or face-plate of
most convenient machines
may be adjusted
for correct angle
for this purpose
is
by merely supporting
between the lathe-centers and tightening the tool-post in the usual
manner. This machine is shown in Fig. 321 in position on the centers as
it
The adjustment in the tool-post should be such that this
alinement of the grinder will not be disturbed when the tail-spindle of
the lathe is withdrawn. When the grinder is thus adjusted, the lathe
indicated.
tail-stock
is
moved out
of the
way, the emery-wheel advanced to the
by the knob E, and the wheel brought into contact with the center
by the combined movement of cross-slide and carriage. The rubber
left
pulley D is next pressed against the revolving cone pulley, which should
run backwards at its highest speed, when the grinding may be commenced.
For each traverse of the emery-wheel over the surface of the center
(which traverse is effected by the knob E) the cross-slide of the lathe
fed inward a small fraction, this process being repeated until the grinding is done.
is
The small emery-wheel should be
often as
it
becomes
glazed.
"
touched up" with a diamond as
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
226
A center-grinder has recently been introduced, which is so constructed
that
it
may
be driven by merely making connection with an
electric
drop-cord.
To
lessen the
work
of grinding the centers, they are frequently turned
with a shoulder as in Fig. 322.
When the point of the center breaks it must be annealed and re-turned,
as the grinder is not intended for removing any considerable amount
227
LATHE-CENTERS, WORK-CENTERS, ETC.
Before inserting the center in the spindle, any grit that may
have adhered to the body of the .center should be carefully removed.
of metal.
FIG. 322.
Further Precautions as to Centers. It is impossible to exaggerate
the importance of keeping the centers true. If a shaft be turned half
its length with the live center eccentric, and then reversed and the
other end turned, the two ends of the shaft will be eccentric with each
other.
The smallest speck of grit between the body of the center and
the hole in the spindle, or between the point of the center and the center
mil cause an appreciable eccentricity in the work. To avoid
this eccentricity, first, the centers should be carefully wiped; second,
in the work,
the spindle-socket should be carefully cleaned.
This
is
best effected
dry waste around a stick and swabbing the socket
while the spindle is in motion. Third, the center should have a witnessline matching a similar line on the end of the spindle, and these lines
by wrapping
clean,
should correspond when the center is in place. Fourth, the point of
the lathe-center and the center in the work should fit and be free from
dirt.
As a
further precaution the
centers
when removed from
the
lathe-spindle should be placed in wooden brackets fastened to the lathe,
or otherwise kept from contact with other tools; also clean waste should be
If mixed
placed in the spindle-socket when the center is removed.
promiscuously with other tools, the centers will be marred or scratched,
which will cause eccentricity in the work.
slight error in the
tail-center cannot cause eccentricity in
the
work, but it may affect the parallelism of the work and a speck of grit
or a scratch might cause looseness of the center, which would cause chatBoth of these difficulties are to be avoided by keeping this
tering.
;
center, also, free from dirt and scratches.
tapering work, especially in old lathes, it
As another safeguard against
is
well to have witness-marks
for the tail-center also.
In metal-turning lathes (except when a chuck
the
This is
used)
lathe-dog is commonly used to drive the work.
almost an invariable rule; but there is one exception: On very small
Square Centers.
is
brasswork, especially when it is desirable to turn the full length of the
work without reversing it in the lathe, a square center may be used.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
228
This center
is
shown
The
in Fig. 323.
center in the
work must obviously
be made with a punch having a point of a shape corresponding to the
FIG. 323.
diameters greater than, say, about 3 //'
the resistance of the cut will generally be greater than the driving power
shape of the lathe-center.
On
of the square work-center; for this reason the square center cannot be
used on large diameters.
The Female Center has
its
outer end shaped the reverse of the conicalThis form of center may be
point center, as illustrated in Fig. 324.
FIG. 324.
used on small work, in which case the end of the work next to the head
If the center in the
spindle of the lathe requires no work-center.
of
that
end
the work could also
made
of
the
be
same
form,
tail-spindle
be used without a work-center.
The
difficulty in this case,
-would be that the extreme ends of the
The female
center
is
seldom used, but when
of truing the
however,
work could not be machined.
it
is
used
it
has the
work automatically.
advantage
It is sometimes necessary to thread or otherwise
Pipe -centers.
machine common pipe. When the ordinary lathe-centers are large enough,
such work may be machined on these centers; but for the larger sizes
These pipe-centers are
of pipe it is necessary to have special centers.
The arbor part of
parts, as illustrated in Fig. 325.
the lathe-spindle in the usual manner. The conical end
of the center in the tail-spindle is detachable, and revolves upon the
These centers may be made to take pipes as large as 6" diamearbor.
best
made
the metal
ter,
in
two
fits
or larger.
Proportions of Centers. Tools for and Methods of Centering Work.
In centering a shaft or other similar detail, it is first necessary to locate
LATHE-CENTERS, WORK-CENTERS, ETC.
229
the position for the center. This may be done by means of the centersquare or compass-caliper for ttye "larger shafts, and a bell-punch for the
FIG. 325
smaller sizes, as explained in a subsequent paragraph. In using the
In using
latter the center is located and indented at the same time.
the center-square or compass-caliper we merely mark a position for the
and then indent this position with the center-punch and hammer.
Having located and indented the center, we next drill and ream it.
The depth of the drilled center should be such that the extreme point
of the lathe-center shall clear the bottom of the hole Vie" or more.
The diameter of the drill may be Vie" for 1 / 4r to Vs-mch shafts, 3 / 32 "
above 1 / 2 - to ! 1 /4-inch, and Vs" for sizes larger than lV4-hich. The
countersink should be 60
angle, and the largest diameter of the
countersink in the work should equal the diameter of the shaft X 3/ie
" in diameter.
l
For shafts 1 / 2 " and less it will
for sizes above / 2
be sufficient to just ream away the sharp corners of the drilled center.
Shafts and other work turned on centers should generally be faced on
the ends before the longitudinal turning is started, and the drilling
and reaming should be enough deeper than the above proportions to
center,
allow for the facing.
The Center-square, referred to in the preceding paragraph, is so
constructed that if pressed against a shaft, as in Fig. 326, one edge of
its blade will pass through the center of the shaft end.
The center may
be thus located by marking two intersectiong lines with the scriber.
The Use of the Bell Center-punch is illustrated in Fig. 327. The
punch should be held as nearly true with the axis of the shaft as may
be readily determined with the eye. If there are lumps or irregularities
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
230
on the edge where the instrument touches, these should be removed
There would
with a file, or the center would not be accurately located.
FIG. 326.
be an error,
shaft were
also, in
much
The Use
FIG. 328.
FIG. 327.
the location of the center in case the end of the
out of square with
its axis.
Hermaphrodite Caliper for centering a shaft is shown
For centering set the calipers to the radius of the shaft, and
with the caliper leg against the periphery of the shaft describe an arc
with the other leg. Describe two other arcs in a similar way. The
center will thus be indicated.
of the
in Fig. 328.
Center-drills
nary
twist-drill
and Center-reamers.
may
be used for
Centering-machines.
drilling centers,
FIG. 329.
An
ordi-
and they may be reamed
FIG. 330.
with a reamer like that shown in Fig. 329. Some prefer a drill and
reamer combined, as shown in Fig. 330. The above tools may be used
for centering work in a sensitive drill similar to Fig. 116, or they may
be used in a lathe, preferably a speed-l&ihe.
generally revolves.
In either case the
drill
LATHE-CENTERS, WORK-CENTERS, ETC.
When
231
done in the lathe the work is supported at
if small, the work is held
by the hand on
the opposite end. More accurate, drilling will result if the work be
given a half-revolution back and forth several times during the drilling.
Heavy work should be securely supported at both ends; and when
the centering
is
one end on the tail-center, and,
any
heavy or light, is to be centered with special accube driven by a chuck and guided on the right-hand end
by
cylindrical work,
racy,
it
may
FIG. 331.
a steady rest, as will be explained in another
chapter.
the work revolves.
In such cases
331 shows a machine designed
In
especially for centering.
work in this machine it is unnecessary to indent the center.
The work is gripped in the universal chuck and held central with the
Fig.
centering
revolving
drill.
The
latter
is
supported in a socket with so
little
pro-
232
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
jection that there is but little chance for deflection. These drills and
sockets are shown in Fig. 332. The machine is driven by the counter-
FIG. 332.
shaft shown,
head-stock.
and the
drill is
fed
by the handle
at the right end of the
CHAPTER XV
METHODS OF DRIVING WORK
IN
THE LATHE. DOGS AND CHUCKS
Driving Work by a Common Lathe -dog. When work of the character
is to be turned on centers it is in most cases driven
by a lathedog. To drive a shaft, for instance, the dog is placed on the end of the
of a shaft
and
It is then placed on the lathe-centers
the dog engages with a slot in the lathe
face-plate, as shown in Fig. 333, or with a stud projecting from the face-
shaft
in
its
set-screw tightened.
such a manner that the
tail of
FIG. 333.
plate.
and
In both of these methods there is a slight tendency to cramp
work, but with ordinary care either of the methods will
deflect the
answer passably
The
well.
the dog should fit freely between the sides of the slot,
and it must have clearance in the bottom of the slot. The latter is of
special importance in turning work with the tail-stock set over, which
In using the lathe-dog for
is one method of turning tapering work.
this
tail of
work the
tail of
the dog moves back and forth in the
slot,
and
it
therefore, necessary to turn the lathe around slowly and see that
the dog clears the slot throughout one revolution.
Otherwise the work
is,
off the lathe centers.
a
Double-end
Dog. To overcome the cramping tendency
Using
the double-end dog shown in Fig. 334 is sometimes used. Unless special
care is exercised to see that this dog has contact at both ends its value
may
be forced
233
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
234
in effect, become a single-end dog.
To
well to have screw-adjustment in one of
the drivers for such a dog, as illustrated in Fig. 335.
be neutralized, and
insure accurate contact
will
it will,
it
is
FIG. 334.
FIG. 335.
FIG. 336.
Protecting Finished Work. When the lathe-dog is to be used on
work the latter should be protected by placing a bit of sheet
brass between the set-screw and the work.
As a further protection,
finished
in particular cases, a sleeve
the work
may
made
and
of sheet brass
fitting nearly
around
be used.
Taper Work. Fig. 336 shows a clamp dog which grips the
work by two screws, neither of which touches the work. This dog
is made with and without the swivel
joint, but when made as shown
it will grip tapering work
and
hold well. With or without
squarely
the swivel it will drive "straight" work. It will mar the work much
less than the dog first described, but it should, nevertheless, be used
Dog
for
in connection with the brass sleeve for polished work.
Dogs for Threaded Work. When threaded work is to be turned
on centers a special dog made like Fig. 337 * is desirable. This dog
is split
on one
side,
and by means
nally to
each
fit
size of
one
screw.
grips the screw which
*Cut taken from an
27,
page 153.
of the screw
it
may
be tightened to
also split.
The bushing is threaded intersize of screw, a different bushing being required for
grip the bushing B, which
is
Tightening the screw
is to be driven.
by "Cherry Red"
in
article
closes the
bushing and
"American Machinist,' vol
METHODS OF DRIVING WORK
IN
THE LATHE
235
Another method consists in using the ordinary dog in connection with
a nut which fits the thread. .This nut is sawed through on one side.
Tightening the set screw of the .dog on the nut causes the latter to grip
the thread of the screw:
If two nuts be used, one being tightly jammed against the other,
and the dog tightened on the outer nut, neither of the nuts will need
to be
split.
Some workmen
sleeve
try to protect the thread
under the set-screw of the
common
by merely using a brass
same as when turning
dog, the
FIG. 337.
plain work. This is unsatisfactory, except, perhaps, with square threads,
but even here it is not good practice. Inasmuch as a common nut sawed
through on one side costs but a trifle, it is generally inexcusable to use
the
common dog and
brass sleeve
on
either a
thread or U.
S.
standard
thread.
The Bolt-dog. Square sections, hexagonal sections, etc., may be
driven by an ordinary lathe-dog, but when there is much of this work
a special dog bolted to the face-plate as shown in Fig. 338 is preferable.
This dog will drive either square or hexagonal stock, or, indeed, any
two parallel flat sides. It saves time in machining
section which has
bolts
when
these are to be
made by the slow
engine-lathe process.
236
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
Driving Work on Centers without a Dog. In the chapter on lathe
method of driving work by a square center has already
been mentioned. A more accurate method is that illustrated in Fig. 339.
centers the
FIG. 338.
-DRIVER
FIG. 339.
This figure shows a conical center with a groove milled in one side to receive
a driver which is held by a set-screw. The work has a notch milled in
its end to engage with the driver.
CHUCKS
Definition and Classification. A chuck is a kind of vise designed
to screw on the lathe-spindle and grip work, causing it to revolve with
the spindle. Chucks are made in the independent type, in which the
METHODS OF DRIVING WORK IN THE LATHE
237
gripping jaws are moved separately; in the universal type, in which all
the jaws are moved simultaneously; and in the combination design, in
which the jaws may be
separately or together.
moveo^
Independent Chucfcs. These chucks are made for general work
with either three or four jaws, which are usually reversible. For special
work they are sometimes made with two jaws, and for very large work
with more than four jaws. Fig. 340 shows a perspective view of a four-
Each jaw has three shoulders or "bites,",
The jaws are moved by a key or socket wrench,
jaw independent chuck.
besides the outer bite.
the square ends of the screws seen just under the jaws, being
in
accurately fitting radial ways. When the jaws are placed
guided
as shown in the illustration, three different large diameters may be
which
fits
FIG. 341.
gripped on the outside and one on the inside. The jaws will, of course,
close up for smaller diameters.
When reversed the jaws have one
outside bite and three internal bites.
Fig. 341
shows a sectional view with one jaw and one screw removed.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
238
To remove
until the
necessary only to revolve the screw
radially beyond the screw-thread; it may then
sliding it into the ways again, with or without
or reverse a jaw,
jaw
is
be withdrawn.
it
is
moved
On
reversing, and turning the screw
in the right direction the threads of
the screw will again engage those on the under side of the jaw.
Machining the Back Plate for a Chuck. A chuck does not screw
directly
is
made
on the lathe-spindle; but a plate which screws on the spindle,
In Fig. 342 is shown
fit the recess on the back of the chuck.
to
FIG. 343.
FIG. 342.
FIG. 344.
such a plate screwed on a lathe-spindle, the chuck being bolted to it
the usual manner. This figure shows also a similar plate Z),
in
gripped in the chuck, ready to be bored and threaded. This work is
usually done by the purchaser, rather than the manufacturer of the
chuck.
The
plate should be bored about
diameter of the thread on lathe-spindle.
bored as at c to fit a blank place about
.01" larger than the root
be counter-
It should also
3
/8" long next to the thrust-
on the lathe-spindle. The collar referred to is lettered C 1 in
the illustration. With an inside thread tool of the proper shape, and
a wire rod filed * to a length equal to the outside diameter of the lathespindle thread, and tapered at the point as shown in Fig. 343, the
thread may be cut and measured. The rod can be measured by common calipers, which should be set to the diameter of the thread, measured
collar
* If filed too short the rod
with a
hammer
may
be stretched by
while held over a block of metal.
peenmg
it
near the middle
METHODS OF DRIVING WORK
on an angle as shown
IN
THE LATHE
239
The rod need not be made
in Fig. 344.
to
fit
the sides of the thread, but should touch on ends only. When the
thread has been cut deep enough to admit of the rod or gage being
screwed through, or nearly through, the chuck and plate together should
be removed from the spindle and tried on the spindle for which the
Before trying it, however, the chips should be
plate is being made.
cleaned out of the thread (preferably by a small hand-bellows), and
the spindle thread should be wiped with clean waste which has been
moistened with a few drops of oil. For want of oil the writer has
known a
chuck-plate to seize the spindle so firmly as to necessitate
two parts before it could be removed. No lubri-
splitting the plate in
cant is needed in cutting thread with a single point tool in cast iron.
In the case of the chuck casting, oil will cause the fine chips to stick in
the thread, and will thus do harm rather than good.
If the casting will
not screw on the spindle
it
may
be threaded a
and tried again. Had the plate been removed from the
chuck it would have been difficult to grip it concentrically again. Before
removing the plate the hub H and face F may be machined. When
this is done the plate should be removed and screwed on the spindle
of its lathe, with large face out.
This face may now be machined, and
little
larger
the edge or periphery E may be turned so as to
without shake) the recess in the back of the chuck.
be placed in the recess and marked
for a free
fit
of the bolts
off
fit
(not too tightly but
The
plate should next
with a scriber, and then drilled
accompanying the chuck.
If the bolt-holes in
the chuck are not drilled entirely through, smear the face of the plate
with red lead mixed with oil to the consistency of paste, and on pounding the plate into the recess, the holes will be marked.
The Universal Chuck. A typical universal chuck is
The jaws
shown
in Fig.
by a socket-wrench the same as the chuck
but
when
one screw is turned the other screws
previously described,
are forced to turn with it by mechanism which will now be described.
345.
In Fig. 346
is
are operated
shown a bevel-gear
or, as
the makers call
it,
"
circular
Engaging with this gear are three pinions (or as many as there
are jaws) made integral with the screws which move the jaws, as shown
rack."
The circular rack turns freely in the casing of the chuck,
divided in two parts, as can be seen in Fig. 345, and held
together by bolts. It is obvious that with jaw-screws of the same
It is equally cleai
pitch, all the jaws must move the same distance.
in Fig. 347.
which
is
from the construction, that the jaws must move simultaneously.
This chuck is made also with modifications which admit of
dis-
240
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
engaging and reengaging the circular rack and pinions, thus converting
it into a combination chuck.
Fig. 348 shows the combination chuck with
FIG. 345.
FIG. 346.
back plate removed. It is changed from universal to
independent and
vice versa, by moving the steel shoes
(which are attached to the
thumb-nuts) backward or forward around the inclined plane on the
loose ring.
FIG. 347.
Combination Chuck Operated by a
known
it
is
as
the scroll
is
much used
employed very successfully
Scroll.
The form
of gearing
in connection with chucks, and
in the chuck shown in Fig. 349.
METHODS OF DRIVING WORK
The
IN
THE LATHE
241
It fits
in section at DD and in full in Fig. 350.
chuck as shown;" being held in place by the threaded
The sliding-box C hafe teeth which engage the scroll teeth,
scroll is
shown
closely in the
collar E.
when
so that
screws
B
C
the scrollls turned the sliding-boxes move radially. The
by the sliding-boxes, as are also the jaws A, whose
are carried
FIG. 350.
FIG. 349.
threads engage with the threads of the screws. We thus have a universal chuck.
But the screws may be operated separately, and independently with respect to the scroll, and this feature makes an inde-
The combination
pendent chuck.
of these
two
features, as previously
stated, constitutes the combination chuck.
Neither the universal chuck, nor the combination
when used
as a
universal chuck, is reliable, when old, for work requiring a high degree
of accuracy.
These chucks, nevertheless, are very satisfactory for a
large portion of the work for which they are designed.
Chucks with
chuck
is
Slip jaws.
made with
For some
work a special form of
In these chucks the "bites"
lines of
the jaws in two parts.
may be easily removed, and replaced by other slipjaws
to
adapted
grip special shapes.
Fig. 351 shows a two-jaw independent
chuck of this character. The slipjaws are dovetailed into the main
or slip jaws
jaws,
and are held by
This chuck
in which case
is
made
it is
pins.
also
with one screw having right and
a universal chuck.
left
threads,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
242
Valve -chucks.
The chuck
illustrated in Fig.
cially for valves, faucets, fittings, etc.,
jaws.
One
on
axis
and a valve
352
is
is
designed espe-
shown between the
having been machined, the valve may be turned
90,
any angle, without being removed from the chuck.
The angle is indicated by an index plate.
its
of its faces
or
FIG. 351.
Face-plate Jaws. Large work is sometimes held by chuck- jaws
These jaws are bolted to the large
secured to the ordinary face-plate.
FIG. 352.
face-plate of a lathe, but
removing the plate.
when not needed they may be detached without
METHODS OF DRIVING WORK
"
Home-made
" Chucks.
IN
THE LATHE
243
Chuck-making is a specialty, and the chucks
described in the preceding pa^es are sold
by factories having special
be
made
in the ordinary machinecaji
of
a
Nevertheless
simple chucking devices which
great variety
shop.
made
are
tools
no
special
require
in the shops in which they are
equipment cheaper than they
353, which was deA. Houghton in
H.
by
American Machinist/' vol. 27,
page 83, shows a chuck used for
packing rings and other similar
The main part A, which
work.
used.
Fig.
scribed
"
screws on the lathe-spindle, has a
number
of
cylindrical
to
steps
take different diameters.
When
turning the outside diameter of a
ring the latter is held by a clamp
and
stud, as
*
Fig. 354
shown
at B.
shows an expansionThe part a screws on
chuck.
,,
,,
FIG. 353.
the lathe-spindle as in the previous
case, and the clamp c forces the split bushing against the taper seat.
FIG. 354.
Being
which
split
the bushing expands, gripping any cylindrical
ring or collar
may
approximately
* Cut taken from article
page 353.
fit its
periphery.
by Oral B. French
in
"American Machinist,"
vol. 27,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
244
In some cases, instead of being screwed on the spindle, the small
chuck is made to fit an arbor which is held by friction in the spindleSuch chucks, because of the limited friction of the socket, cansocket.
be used on small work only.
Wood Chucks. Once when a certain instructor was talking to his
class about chucks a farmer student had the hardihood to propose the
wood chuck as a subject for discussion. This led the instructor to expatiate on the advantages of the wood chuck as a mechanical device, and
to show how a simple block of wood could be bolted to the face-plate, and
bored or turned to receive a frail piece of work which might be sprung
out of shape if held in the common chuck. The work should be driven
on or in the chuck with a wooden mallet or with a block of wood and
hammer.
light frail pieces in the ordinary chuck it is generally
the jaws after the roughing cuts have been taken
to
slacken
necessary
in order to allow the work to assume its natural shape before the final
In gripping
cuts are made.
After loosening the screws they should be tightened
again just enough to take up the lost motion. Otherwise the work
may be pulled out of the chuck by the cut.
Testing the Concentricity of Chuck Work. Rough castings, etc., may
be tested by chalk held in the fingers, or by a tool in the tool-post. The
point where the chalk or tool touches indicates which chuck jaws are to
Work which has been machined can be more accurately
be moved.
adjusted in connection with an indicator.
Fig. 355
shows a gear held
hi
METHODS OF DRIVING WORK IN THE LATHE
245
This instrument
a chuck and being tested with a Bath indicator.
constructed that a movement of .001" on the testing finger
so
show either 1 /i2 or I /Q" movement of the dial finger.
Other chucks and chucking methods are discussed elsewhere in
is
is
multiplied to
work.
this
CHAPTER XVI
LATHE-ARBORS, OR MANDRELS, AND ARBOR-PRESSES
Definition
and
Classification of Arbors.
metal designed to drive work
bar of
An
in the lathe
arbor, or mandrel,
by
friction of the
is
work
FIG. 356.
Arbors may be classified as follows: First, plain arbor
(Fig. 356); second, the self-tightening arbor (Fig. 357); third, expansion-
on the
arbor.
/Tighteriing.Ro'ller
FIG. 357.
arbors (Figs. 358 and 359); fourth, arbor for tapering work (Fig. 360);
and 363).
fifth, nut-arbors (Figs. 361, 362,
steel
bar
of
is
a
or iron turned slightly tapering with
The Plain Arbor
flat
place at each end.
Arbors are usually driven in the lathe by a
FIG. 358.
lathe-dog,
and the
of the lathe-dog.
place on each end is the bearing for the set-screw
They are made tapering to compensate for slight
246
flat
LATHE-ARBORS, OR MANDRELS, AND ARBOR-PRESSES
variation of sizes of holes in the work.
The amount
247
of taper is generally
The host" plain arbors are made of tool steel,
about .01" per foot.
hardened and ground.
&
In hardening the arbor it is somewhat distorted, and to compensate
for this it must be turned about .02" larger than the finished size.
The remainder of the material is ground off in the universal grinder,
and being tapering, the middle of the arbor is the nominal size. Before
grinding the arbor the centers should be carefully lapped.
Self-tightening Arbor is made in two parts, the main part being
similar to the plain arbor, with the exception that it is parallel in diameter
and has a groove cut in one side. Inserted in this groove is a small
The
MffifififffiiiH
FIG. 359.
marked T
The groove is so shaped, and the roller
work start to turn on the arbor,
the roller would be forced into the space between the work and the
arbor, thus forming a kind of wedge to tighten the work on the arbor.
This arbor is open to the objection that the means for tightening the
work tends to make the work eccentric. The amount of eccentricity,
however, will, if the work fit the arbor fairly snug, be so small as to be
roller,
is
in the figure.
of such a diameter, that should the
of little importance, except in high-grade work.
If
the self-tightening
arbor be used in turning a gear or other detail which is to be held on
its shaft by set-screw or key, the line of contact of the tightening roller
in the bore of the detail should be marked and the set-screw or key should
be located on this line.
The work
run more nearly true than
if
will thus,
when placed upon
turned on the plain arbor.
its shaft,
This suggests
248
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
the most accurate way of turning a detail held by key or set-screw,
viz., turning it on its own shaft with the set-screw or key tightened.
The Expansion -arbor, illustrated in Fig. 358, is made in two parts,
and B. Part A is like the plain arbor, except that the taper is very
much greater. The part B has a taper corresponding to the taper of A
and has three longitudinal slots, two of which are cut nearly through,
and the third cut entirely through, the bushing B. To use this arbor,
part A is driven out of B and B placed in the work. A is then driven
B is always made parinto B, causing B to expand and grip the work.
allel on the outside.
In Fig. 359 is shown an expansion-arbor which has recently been
placed upon the market. The outer part of this arbor is a spiral spring
and this spring is bored tapering to fit the inner part, which is similar
to that of the preceding paragraph. The outer part or bushing is made
of spring steel and the inner part or plug of tool steel, both being hardened
and ground.
The Arbor for Tapering Work, shown in Fig. 360, is made in three
The main part of the arbor A is cone shaped at one end, and
parts.
Work
.Cone'
FIG. 360.
the other end carries a freely fitting cone which
first cone by means of the thread and nut.
the
I-IG.
may
3ol.
be adjusted toward
The work to be turned
is placed upon the arbor with the
large end of the hole toward the fixed
cone; the movable cone is then forced into the small end of the hole,
thus gripping the work concentric with the axis of the arbor. In using
such an arbor as this on frail work care should be taken to avoid strain-
ing the work
movable cone too tightly into the hole.
be driven by a single
tapering arbor made of one piece, without nut and movable cone. The
arbor shown in Fig. 360 could be used for work with a parallel hole,
but it is not well adapted to such work.
by
forcing the
Work having a taper of say 3 /4" per foot, or less, may
Nut-arbors. Fig. 361 illustrates the simplest form of nut-arbor. It is
The nut to be
essentially a plain arbor with thread cut on one end.
LATHE-ARBORS, OR MANDRELS, AND ARBOR-PRESSES
249
faced is screwed on the threaded end of the arbor, the whole placed
between the lathe-centers and one end of the nut faced off with a common
The arbor is then take,n out of the lathe, the nut reversed,
side-tool.
and the other side faced." This form of arbor answers fairly well when
the nut fits the arbor tightly, but when it fits freely, as it often does,
the base of the nut, which in the rough is not at right angles with its
axis, will be forced to coincide with the shoulder on the arbor and thus
the nut -will be forced "out of true." This form of arbor, while cheap
unsatisfactory in operation.
shown in Fig. 362. This arbor carries a loosely
The
washer
end
one
of which is flat and the other end concave.
fitting
concave end fits a correspondingly convex shoulder on the arbor. When
in construction,
is
better form
is
Lathe Spindle
asher
Washer
FIG. 362.
FIG. 363.
the nut
is screwed against this
washer, the washer revolves around the
curved shoulder of the arbor, and thus accommodates any irregularity
that there may be in the base of the nut. The axis of the threaded hole
this
means allowed
to conform to the axis of the arbor.
is
by
is
necessary for correct results.
There
is
one
difficulty
common
This
to both Figs. 361 and 362, viz., the
This
arbor must be taken from the lathe in order to reverse the nut.
difficulty
that
it
is
may
obviated in Fig. 363, which shows an arbor so designed
be screwed on
the lathe-spindle.
In this case
it is
only neces-
sary to stop the lathe and unscrew the nut and reverse it without taking
the arbor from the lathe. This form of arbor has the additional advan-
tage that
it
does not require any lathe-dog to drive
it.
FIG. 364.
Some mechanics make
as
shown
in Fig. 364.
nut-arbors with slots cut in the threaded end,
In using this arbor the tail spindle of the lathe
250
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
screwed up somewhat tighter than usual, thus expanding the arbor
The nut should not be screwed against
and tightly gripping the nut.
the shoulder until it has been gripped by the expanding arbor, and
is
then it should barely touch the shoulder. This arbor could be made
without the shoulder.
Arbors in Large Work. It is found that on very large work (say 24"
and larger) with a comparatively small hole, the friction between the
work and the arbor (not nut arbor) is insufficient to drive ,the work
such work admits of being clamped directly to the face-plate of the
may be dispensed with and the work driven by means
In the case of a pulley, as
of bolts securing the work to the face-plate.
illustrated in Fig. 365, the arbor may be used to support the pulley
If
lathe, the arbor
FIG. 365.
and the pulley may be driven by means of two studs secured to the
Should the
face-plate and engaging with the arms of the pulley.
fit
near
the
than
the
middle
the
arbor
rather
on
of
end, we could
pulley
use two latne-dogs to drive it. One of these lathe-dogs would be driven
by the face-plate of the lathe or a stud projecting from the latter;
the tail of the second dog would engage with one of the arms of the
This method is not quite so satisfactory as the first described.
pulley.
Methods of Forcing Arbors into the Work. The simplest method
of forcing an arbor into the work is by means of a block of hardwood
and a hammer. A better method is to dispense with the block of wood
and use one of the forms of soft hammers previously described. A
still better method is to use some form of arbor-press.
Two different
of
these
machines
are
below.
shown
designs
In using a common hammer to force the arbor into the work we should
never strike the arbor directly with the hammer.
Striking the arbor with a
LATHE- ARBORS, OR MANDRELS, AND ARBOR-PRESSES
common
steel
hammer
injures the center in the arbor
251
and thus causes
the arbor to revolve eccentrically." For this reason greater care is taken
In making
in making the centers in lathe arbors than in ordinary work.
the lathe-arbor
it
is
first
centered in the usual manner, and then the
FIG. 366.
countersink of the center
drill of
is
beveled on
its
outer edge with a counter-
This leaves the vital part of the center
greater angle.
slightly below the end of the arbor, and thus it is protected to some
extent from the abuse of careless workmen.
sinking
252
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG.
3f>7.
LATHE-ARBORS, OR MANDRELS, AND ARBOR-PRESSES
The diameter
of the countersink in a lathe-arbor should be
253
about
twenty-five per cent larger than given for ordinary work in the chapter
on Lathe-centers, etc. As stated,, the centers should be lapped.
The
instructions given in Chapter
well to arbor-centers.
X for lapping reamer- centers apply equally
Work.
Special Arbors for Large
are used
for
work
of ordinary size,
The arbors previously described
it is necessary to use an
but when
arbor for extra-large work we have to make a special arbor. This may
be done by shrinking on, or otherwise securing cast-iron rings or collars
to a small shaft.
The
shaft
sufficient rigidity, the extra
may
be of any convenient
size
to
give
diameter being provided for by the cast-
iron collars.
When
a great many pieces are to be machined, it may be desirable
the arbor of cast iron, with the enlarged part cast on rather
than shrunk on. When thus "constructed it is well to have steel plugs
to
make
inserted in the ends of the arbor to receive the
work
centers.
On
ac-
count of the great weight and friction, oil-holes should be drilled from
the outer diameter of the shaft through shaft and plug. This arrangement will facilitate oiling the centers.
In Fig. 366 is shown an arbor-press designed to
Arbor-presses.
be operated by hand. In using this machine the work is placed on
the plate P, and the arbor is forced into the work by the ram R which
The connection between the lever and the
is operated by the lever L.
ram is made by means of a train of spur-gears, the last of which engages the rack teeth on the ram. The lever has a ratchet connection
admits of quick return
with its shaft, which with the hand-wheel
of the ram.
chines are
Both ram and
made
These malever are counterweighted.
in smaller sizes also, some of which are designed to be
secured to the bed of the lathe.
The arbor-press illustrated in Fig. 367 was designed in connection
with a class in machine design at the Michigan Agricultural College.
The operation of the machine by means of the hand-wheel H, wormwheel
W, and rack and
pinion will be understood from the cut.
CHAPTER XVII
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
Two Examples. This chapter contains defew examples in lathe work, the exercises chosen
being such as involve principles admitting of general application. The
first two examples are a plain cylinder or shaft, and a collar, both of
The collar is to be
which are to be finished all over and polished.
Character of the First
tailed instructions for a
finished to dimensions in connection with standard gages; but, supposing the work to form the basis for actual exercises in a college shop, it
might be well to use common calipers in fitting the shaft to the collar.
exercises would then give practice in both methods of accurate
measurement. The shaft is supposed to be machine steel, and it is to
//
be finished to ! 1 /2 diameter by 6" long. The collar is cast iron, the finished dimensions being 3" diameter by I 3//' long, and it is to be a tight
Both details have the usual stock allowances for
fit on the shaft.
The
finish.
Machining the
Collar.
(1) Grip the collar in the independent chuck
outer face shall project beyond the chuck jaws as in Fig. 368.
This gives clearance for the facing-tools. The boring-tools must clear
so that
its
the spindle and chuck-plate on the rear end of the collar.
(2) Rough-face the collar with a roughing-tool, as shown at
in
with the diamond-point tool D in Fig. 369. Slightly
chamfer the corner at C, to protect the finishing-tool from the foundry
same
figure, or
scale.
(3)
Bore the
sion, as the
with a boring-tool as shown, to within about .008"
not waste time by boring to any exact dimen-
collar
of final diameter.
reamer
Do
is
designed for this purpose.
of reamers, to avoid boring even to the
Some
use two sizes
approximate dimensions
indi-
cated.
Ream to size with a fluted or rose reamer, using no lubricant.
Test with plug-gage or caliper-gage. If the gage cannot be
pushed through with the forefinger, run the lathe at a high speed and
smooth the bore with emery-paper wrapped around a stick, as shown
(4)
(5)
254
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
255
In using the emery-paper it will
in Fig. 369, or held in the fingers.
the hole at each end.
If the hole is
require care to avoid
enlarging
found to be smaller at the back end apply the emery most at that end.
If the gage will not passr through the bore after a few minutes' application of the emery-cloth, the reamer should be enlarged. Or, if available,
an expanding reamer would be advantageous for use in following the
previous reamer when the latter is worn below size.
If no reamers are to be used, regrind and oil-stone the boring- tool
and finish to final size, taking care to feed the carriage back and forth
FIG. 369.
FIG. 368.
FIG. 370.
to compensate for the spring of the tool; or, finish with a second boringtool kept for finishing cuts, which tool may have a somewhat broader
Test with gage as before.
cutting-edge.
(6) Finish the outer face of the collar with a bent side-tool as at C,
Fig. 370, or with a diamond-point as at D, or with a diamond-point
tool as at
M. The advancing
corner of the tool should be slightly rounded
giving either of these tools small contact with
the work, and running the lathe from 50 to 100 per cent faster than
for the roughing cuts, a surface may be made which will require only
with the oil-stone.
By
the final polishing with emery-cloth. But some workmen never learn
how to grind and oil-stone, and set the tool so as to get this nice scraping effect without chattering.* These men prefer to run the lathe but
* The
chattering may sometimes be overcome by careful adjustment (a) of
the spindle end-thrust, (6) of the spindle bearings, (c) of the cross slide-gibs, (d) of
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
256
for the finishing cut than for roughing cuts, and to use a
To get the best results in finishing cuts,
or scraper for smoothing.
corner E, Fig. 370, should clear about .001" while the point of the tool is
little faster
file
cutting.
Having smoothed the face of the collar, it may next be polished
and, say, Nos. /2 and 00 emery-cloth, the 00 being used last.
Run at highest speed and, with emery-cloth wrapped around a flat
stick or around a file, move it slowly back and forth over the face
of the work; or, hold the cloth between the end of stick and work,
(7)
with
oil
the stick being fulcrumed over a tool in tool-post.
Some would prefer to do this polishing after all the turning is completed, which is all right if the face of the collar overhangs the end of
the arbor or a shoulder on same. Otherwise it is difficult to polish the
whole face equally without wearing the arbor with emery.
* so that its
(8) Place the collar on an expansion arbor
rough end
shall overhang the right end of the arbor bushing about l / 4 ".
Roughturn the periphery, using a right-hand diamond-point tool, as at A in Fig.
371, or a roughing-tool,
FIG. 371,
and leaving about .01"
FIG. 372.
for the finishing cut.
FIG. 373.
Rough-face the right end of the collar with same tools used in
operation No. 2, leaving not more than .01" for the finishing or smooth(9)
ing cut.
the carriage-gibs. In other cases the tool contact must be reduced or its clearance and rake lessened. Merely changing the direction of the feed may sometimes stop the chattering. When turning work on centers, a bit of leather or waste
between the
tail of
the dog and the driver
may
cause the trouble to cease.
The
causes of chattering are referred to in other connections in this work.
* If the solid or
plain arbor be used the work will generally fit near the middle, necessitating special care to avoid injuring the arbor with the tools and emery,
and leaving the edge of the bore in such shape as to require the use of file and
emery-paper by hand after removing the collar. The plain arbor is, nevertheless,
often used for such work.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
(10)
No.
6,
257
Smooth-face this end according to instructions for operation
except that a straight side- tool may be used if preferred. If
t
the end
is
as
to be filed or scraped,
ajlow
paragraph; but if emery-cloth only
more than .001" should be made.
is
nmi S>
numbered
an allowance of not
e ^c., in next
to be used,
Smooth-turn the periphery with a square-nose tool, or with
in Fig. 371, and having its point
diamond-point tool set as at
of this tool should just clear the work
The part
slightly rounded.
(11)
left
The periphery of
very likely to need filing, and for the file and emery-cloth
an allowance of from .001" to .005" should be left after the finishing
cut.* The beginner is here cautioned against leaving too much work
\\hile the tool is fed in the direction of the arrow.
the collar
for the
is
file,
(12)
as filing tends to destroy the truth of cylindrical surfaces.
and face also if necessary, leaving about .0005"
File periphery,
Polish periphery and right end according to previous
for polishing.
Work of
instructions, testing diameter and length by standard gages.
this character is not to have round corners unless so shown on drawing
or specified, but it is a sign of poor workmanship when the corners are
Dull the corners with emery-cloth
so sharp as to cut the hand.
left
and remove the
collar from the arbor.
" bar of
9
5
- (1) Saw from a ! /ie" or ! / 8
Machining the Shaft.
l
l
machine steel, a piece
/\s" to 6 /s" long, and center according to
instructions in Chapter XIV.
If there is as much
(2) The next operation is to face the ends.
as Vie" to cut off, face off all but about .01" with the roughing-tool,
which will leave the end as shown in Fig. 372. Cut off the projection P
with a side-tool, moving the latter parallel with the axis of the shaft
and at the same time feeding in. Next run the lathe faster and take
one or two light smoothing cuts. For this purpose, as well as for cut-
away the
ting
projection left
by the
roughing-tool, the side-tool should
point about 45 angle, as in Fig. 373, and it should be set
In this work the tool should
as
so
to touch at A and barely clear at B.
have
its
be fed at right angles to the shaft-axis. Next, change the lathe-dog
and finish the other end in the same manner. Measurement with the
steel rule is in
most cases
sufficiently accurate for shaft lengths.
Most mechanics make these small allowances by merely setting the calipers
but the tendency is toward more systematic methods. Micrometer or Vernier calipers may be used, either for direct measurement or for setting
the common calipers. In some such cases limit-gages would be advantageous.
"a
trifle" larger;
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
258
ends
If after facing the
it is
found that the depth of the center has
been too much reduced,
(3)
As a general
drill and ream it again.
rule a shaft or other detail which
is
to be
machined
should be roughed out all over to approximately the final dimensions
before any part (ends excepted) is finished. In the case of a shaft this
gives both centers time to wear to a bearing, and they are not likely to
the shaft be finished half-way and then reversed
probably result. Another reason for roughing out the
change afterward; but
eccentricity will
work
that there are initial stresses in the outer fibers of the metal.
is
When
if
removed by cutting away the metal the detail
usually changes
shape. In heavy stocky details the change is sometimes inappreciable, and is therefore often neglected; but in pieces of
which the diameter or thickness is small as compared with the length,
these stresses are
its
changes are expected.
With the above in view turn the shaft about half its length to within
.02" to .03" of final diameter, using the same tools as used for the
roughing cut on the collar. Change the lathe-dog and turn the opposite
end in a similar manner.
(4)
The
finishing cuts
may now
be taken.
With the point
of the
in Fig. 371,
diamond-point tool slightly rounded and the tool set as at
turn the shaft to within .01" of final size. With another tool of same
shape reserved for finishing cuts on steel, or with the same tool nicely
oil-stoned, take the final cut, leaving about .0015" for file and emerycloth.
with
Reverse and
finer feed *
Common calipers
for fitting the shaft.
and use
finish opposite end.
The
last cuts
and higher speed than the preceding
should be taken
cuts.
are to be used according to instructions in Chapter I
Most workmen would fit one end for a short distance
a guide for filing and polishing the remainder of the shaft.
and polish the whole length of the shaft, using the arbor-press
hammer in testing its fit in the collar. The shaft must not be
"
"
too tightly, and it should be oiled to prevent seizing.
this as
(5) File
or a soft
forced in
Examples of Taper-turning, etc. The uses of the ordinary facing-,
turning-, and boring-tools which have been considered somewhat in detail
in connection with the two examples of work just given, will be referred
* For instruction on
cutting speeds and rates of feeding the reader is referred
As to the number of cuts required, it is difficult to give a rule.
With the ordinary stock allowance, one or two roughing cuts will generally be suffito Chapter XI.
It may require as many or more finishing cuts. With
same stock allowance, the workman should aim to make one roughing and one or
two finishing cuts answer for peripheral turning and for facing.
cient in boring a cored hole.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
to
more
briefly in the
the bevel-gear blank
Chuck
distributed.
in Fig. 375
in fig. 374,
and
as
if
The next example is
and the operations are as follows:
there is sufficient stock and how
shown
finish* at F.
Work in which a small hole
(2)
is
remainder of this chapter.
shown
Measure blank to ascertain
(1)
it is
259
wanted
often
is
left
In a case
the moulder.
solid
by
like the
one in hand the
first thing toward
the
hole
is to cut a center
making
for the drill.
For this purpose we
do not use a center-punch, but a
centering-tool like that shown in
Fig. 376. The cutting-end of this
tool
exactly like a flat drill,
is that of a com-
is
but the shank
mon
lathe tool,
and
it
is
held in
the tool-post in the same manner.
This tool is adjusted in the toolpost as nearly in line with the
center as may be done by the eye,
FIG. 374.
and then moved against the revolving work by the hand-feed handle of
the lathe-carriage. If it makes a circle larger in diameter than its extreme point, it must be readjusted to strike the center of this circle,
and then pressed against the work
diameter of which
bore
may
until
3
be about
larger, as it is in this gear.
is
it
cuts a conical hole the largest
5
/s"> provided the required
/8" to
If the tool cuts eccentrically,
and cross-slide gibs should be looked
and the tool should be fed outward so as
carriage
loose,
the eccentricity is corrected.
next be
(3) The hole should
drilled.
the
and tightened if
cut on one side until
after
to
twist-drill
/ 1Q
" to
/8
"
smaller than the final bore, and held in the holder shown in Fig. 188,
or in the tail-spindle socket, or in a holder made to clamp on the end
of the tail-spindle, may be used.
Only small drills should be held in the
tail-spindle socket, as .the slipping of the larger drills would injure the
When the common
socket and disturb the fit of the lathe-center.
holder
*
cuts.
is
used,
The word
it
requires care to keep the drill from drawing in
finish,
and
used in a general sense, includes both rough and smooth
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
260
leaving the tail-center, especially when the point of the drill is emerging
through the bottom of the hole. For safeguards against this trouble
see Chapter IX.
to within a few thousandths
(4) Enlarge the hole with boring-tool
of an inch of the final diameter and then finish with a fluted or rose
<
FIG. 376.
reamer; or, bore somewhat smaller and use a rose reamer, followed
by a fluted reamer. Test, and if too small follow instructions given
for a similar case near the beginning of this chapter.
on arbor and turn largest diameter to size. This
leave a cylindrical surface upon which to mark a line for the edge
Establish this line with respect to the face F. The exact position of
(5) Place
will
E*
this
generally not very important.
/ to the required angle, starting at the above edge line
(6) Turn face
the
and using
1, a cut of which is shown in Fig. 232.
compound rest
face
is
Use a gage if the lathe has no compound rest. In using the compound
rest, the workman is apt to make a mistake if the angle on the drawing
Thus
is not given the same way that the compound rest is graduated.
compound rest is at zero when set to cut parallel with the crossThe angles on beveled work should be given from the same
starting-point, but if given from the axis, as in Fig. 374, the compound
the
feed.
* The
position of this edge should be given on the drawing.
the author in "American Machinist," vol. 27, page 967.
See article by
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE
must be
WORK
261
complement of the angle given. The complement
the angle itself subtracted from 90. If, for instance,
the angle with axis be 47, as i^ is in this case, the rest should be set
to 90 -47 = 43.
rest
of the angle
set to the
is
Turn
surface G, starting from the edge line, and then turn
to
the proper length.
(8) Finish hub end and back face, and then finish hub diameter.
The horizontal distance between end of hub and edge line E must usually
(7)
give face
be quite accurate.
If required to turn the bevel-gear in a lathe having plain rest only,
a gage could be used as shown in Fig. 377 and after rough-turning the
;
CUTTING BEVZL BY
STEPS
GAGE
SET BY GAGE'
FIG. 378.
FIG. 377.
could be finished with a side-tool, or in steps with squarenose tool as in Fig. 378. Either of these tools could be set by the gage.
In using the square-nose tool the width of each step should be about
face, it
three fourths the width of the tool-edge.
In this way the depth of each
step will be indicated by the preceding cut. The steps should be started
at the large diameter.
The
The
face
may
be smoothed with a
file.
included angle, is often turned by the
above method. When turning the center by compound-rest method,
the rest should be turned to the left 60. Thus the angle with axis is
lathe-center,
half of 60
= 30 and
which
90
is
60
-30 -60.
Turning and Knurling a Center-punch. To make a center-punch
like Fig. 379 in an engine-lathe, the following order of operations may
be observed:
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
262
a piece of 5/g" round tool steel 5 3 /s" long.
"
9
diameter.
(2) Center, face ends and turn body to /i 6
not be particularly smooth.
(1)
Saw
off
It
need
FIG. 379.
380 shows a knurling-tool. With this tool in tool-post and
pressed tightly against stock, both knurls being in contact with latter,
(3) Fig.
FIG. 380
feed the lathe-carriage lengthwise by power.
Let the knurler traverse
the work as many times as may be necessary to make it appear like
3
"
longer than the
drawing, the extra length being cut away in succeeding operations.
(4) Using a lathe having a compound rest, chuck stock, allowing
about 2 3 / 8" to project, and using a brass sleeve to protect knurling. A
draw-in chuck like that shown in Figs. 243 and 244 would be best for
Fig. 381.
this
The knurled
surface
may
extend about
/8
work.
(5)
(6)
(7)
With side-tool face off end until drilled center disappears.
Turn D, adjusting compound rest to cut angle given on drawing.
Readjust rest and turn point E, which is of the same angle as
the lathe-center previously referred to.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
263
and polish with emery-cloth and oil.
points F and fr* and chuck, allowing end H to project
(9)
about I 3//' and using brass sleeye as before. Face off end to mark G.
(8) Finish
Mark
with
file
off
FIG. 381.
With compound
(10)
rest
properly adjusted, turn
to angle of
drawing.
(11) Crown the end approximately with roughing-tool, finishing
with scraper or special curved tool. File and polish as in previous
case.
Temper both ends about the same
(12)
as for cold-chisels.
FIG. 382.
Fig. 382
tool
was
vol. 26,
shows a knurling-tool specially adapted to frail work.
This
"
by the cut here used in American Machinist,"
illustrated
page 1257.
Turning Tapers by Taper Attachment and by Tail-stock Adjustment.
The short, abrupt tapers, to which the compound-rest method is
adapted, are generally designated in degrees, but when acute angles
are referred to in the machine-shop, they are ordinarily designated
264
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
by the amount of taper in diameter per foot. These tapers may be
either by setting the tail-stock over or by using the taper attachment. The latter is the better way, but many lathes lack the attachment.
The tail-stock method will be described first. Thus, suppose
we require a piece like Fig. 383. It will be seen that the taper part
made
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
which the attachment
is set,
and crosswise adjustment
265
without interfering with the carriage-travel
This method of making tapers is
of tool.
simpler than the tail-stock method, but there are some practical
diffi-
due to necessary freedom of movement in the
machine-slides, etc. To get the best results the cut should be started
The carriage will thus travel
about Y2 " beyond the end of the work.
a short distance before the tool begins to cut, and in so doing the lost
motion due to the freedom of movement above mentioned will be taken
culties in its operations,
up.
If
we
neglect this precaution the tool is very likely to cut irreguIf the diameter of the work is much smaller
larly a short distance.
than the lathe-center, the clearance may be given by starting the feed
with the tool clearing the center and feeding it in as it approaches the
work.
Errors in Taper-attachment Graduations. In this connection it
may be proper to call attention to an error in the graduation of taper
attachments.
Topers are measured at right angles to their axes.
The graduations of the taper attachments, however, are made on the
arc of a circle concentric with the pin upon which the guide swivels.
These graduations should be such as would be projected from equal
divisions of a line
drawn tangent
to the axis of the lathe.
and perpendicular
the subdivisions on the
to the graduated arc
This would
make
graduated arc farther apart for the greater tapers than for the smaller
But in most taper attachments the graduated arc is laid out
tapers.
in equal divisions. This introduces an error which is scarcely noticeable in small tapers, but which is quite appreciable on the greatest
tapers for which these attachments are designed. However, it is usumore important to have the inner part of the work fit the outer
part than to have the exact taper per foot.
ally
For a more comprehensive treatment of taper-attachment gradua"
is referred to
Machinery," page 238, January, 1904.
are
attachments
usually designed to turn tapers not greater
Taper
than 4" per foot. The maximum length of the taper is about 24" to
one adjustment of the attachment.
Before giving instructions for this
Fitting a Taper-shaft to a Collar.
work the attention of the student should be called to some further precautions necessary in taper-turning. In any work turned on the lathecenters, the work-centers are more likely to wear concentrically if the
ends are faced square with the axis. On account of the abnormal contions the reader
tact of the centers this
with the tail-stock
is
set over.
of special
importance in turning taper work
tapers with the taper attach-
When making
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
266
ment the tail-stock is kept in its normal position, and the centers are not
more likely to wear out of true than when turning straight work. In
either of these methods of taper-turning it is necessary that the two
lathe-centers be of the same height, otherwise the sides of the taper
The point of the tool should be set to the
will not be straight lines.
same height as the point of the center.
As stated in Chapter XV, the workman should turn the lathe through
one revolution and be sure that the tail of the dog clears the sides and
bottom of the slot in the face-plate. The tail of the dog should be oiled,
as should also the points of both centers.
In
fitting
venience
we
a taper-shaft to
its
enveloping element, which for conis usually finished first.
There-
shall call a collar, the collar
chuck and bore the collar, using either the compound rest or the
taper attachment for roughing it out. If the lathe has no taper attachment, the compound rest may be used when the depth of the hole is not
greater than 3 to 4 inches. The angle corresponding to any given taper
per foot may be computed, or the rest may be adjusted by a gage, or it
may be set by the cut-and-try method. For further instructions on
fore
taper-holes see Chapter X.
taper the shaft by setting the tail-stock over, the latter may be
adjusted approximately in accordance with the principles already outTo make the slight correction necessary, proceed as follows:
lined.
making
To
with the square-nose tool turn a place at each end of the taper about
//
1
Vie" wide and about /32 larger than the final diameter. Feed the
square-nose tool outward about an inch, and then feed it toward
the work again until a 6" scale will just enter between the point of
Move the carriage to bring the
the tool and the last turned place.
If
tool in line with the first turned place and test in a similar manner.
not correctly alined, readjust the tail-stock and proceed in the same
manner until the 6" scale will fit equally well between the point of the
and the work at the two grooves. The shaft may be* next turned to
the diameter of these grooves and tried in the collar. If it shakes perThe next time
ceptibly, readjust the tail-stock and take another cut.
it is tried it should very nearly fit, and before placing the collar on
the shaft this time, the shaft should be given three marks with chalk
(Prussian blue would be better) the full length of the taper, and about
tool
equally divided around the periphery. By moving the collar around on
the shaft its contact will be indicated by the rubbing off of the chalk.
The shaft should be rotated in the lathe and filed where the chalk is
rubbed
off until
the bearing
is
satisfactory.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
267
It should be unnecessary to give any further instructions respecting
the use of the taper attachment. The method of testing the fit of the
work may be exactly the same as when turning tapers by setting over
the tail-stock.
ment
It
may
be welito explain that the provision for adjustadmit of turning a taper of as great a
of the tail-stock will not
degree of angularity as
may
be turned with the taper attachment.
etc.
The steady rest is shown at R 2
used for supporting a slender shaft near the
middle to prevent the shaft from springing away from the cutting-tool.
It is also used to support a shaft at the end when it is necessary to per-
The Steady Rest, Cathead,
in Fig. 214.
This device
is
form some operation on the end of the shaft that cannot be done with the
In the latter case the tail-stock is moved to the
right, and while the work is supported on one end by the steady rest, the
other end is held either by the chuck, or by a strap which holds the work
in contact with the lathe-center.
Fig. 385, which is taken from "Machintail-stock in position.
FIG. 385.
ery," shows a lathe-spindle supported as last described.
In this case
the spindle is driven by the lathe-dog in the usual manner, and it is
"
held to the center by bolts and a strap called a hold-back," the pressure
which
is sustained by the dog.
Whether the steady rest be placed at the end of the work or near the
middle, there must be a true bearing on the shaft where it revolves in
of
the
If the shaft is not too slender, the bearing near the middle
be turned on the centers in the usual manner by taking very light
rest.
may
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
268
generally better, however, to use a cathead. The latter is
kind of cylindrical shell having a truly turned bearing designed to run
cuts.
It
is
in the steady rest. It
each end of the shell.
is
held on the shaft
by three
or four set-screws at
Fig. 386 shows a cathead held on a shaft as indi-
FIG. 386.
cated. The cathead is adjusted by the set-screws until it runs "true,"
on the same principle that work is adjusted in a chuck. The illustration
shows the Bath indicator as used for this purpose. In the absence of
such an instrument, the cathead may be adjusted in connection with
a common lathe tool held in the tool-post. The lathe could be turned
backwards to avoid having the cathead cut by the tool. Or, better still,
a piece of hardwood could be shaped to take the place of the tool.
Some prefer to set the cathead by
and marking the revolving head by a
giving it a light coat of red lead
pencil held in the hand.
Special
care is required in adjusting the steady rest, either with or without the
cathead, as it is very easy, by screwing one of the lugs up too far, to
deflect the work.
is
It
is
usually best to adjust the lugs while the
work
revolving.
The cathead should be made quite strong,
be sprung out of shape while it is being adjusted on
For this purpose
the shaft. It should also be turned very carefully.
After
it may be placed on a stout arbor and adjusted by set-screws.
taking a roughing cut, the pressure of the set-screws should be relieved
before the finishing cut is taken. The cathead need not be finished
Turning a Cathead.
otherwise
it
will
on the inside.
The Follower-rest.
In some cases the work
is
so frail that
it
is
necessary to support the pressure of the cut by a device bolted to the
This device, which is shown in Fig. 387, is placed nearly
carriage.
opposite the tool and travels with it. In using the follower-rest the
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
269
turned a few inches at the end to give a true bearing for
rest is next placed in position and its lugs adjusted in
contact with the shaft, when jjjie cut may be continued. Sometimes
the shaft is turned to fhe finished size at the end and two tools are used
shaft
is first
the rest.
The
FIG. 388.
FIG. 387.
in
advance of the
follower-rest, the
the rear one a finishing- tool.
the tools finishes the shaft.
The
With
made
forward being a roughing-tool and
this arrangement one traverse of
form which requires a bushing
for each size of shaft.
Fig. 388 shows the Reed follower-rest, which
is so designed that either bushings or adjustable lugs may be used.
follower-rest
is
often
in a
The
illustration shows a bushing secured to the rest.
Machining a Small Cast-iron Crank. For machining a cast-iron
crank of the dimensions given in Figs. 389 and 390, the crank might be
cast with flanges as in Fig. 391, and the machine operations could
be as follows:
(1)
Center at
and
and face ends
to length.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
270
(2)
Turn the four
(3)
Draw a
line
disks to 2 l / 4 ".
on flanges with key-seat rule as in
Fig. 392.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
271
Machining a Paper-weight. Fig. 393 shows a paper-weight the
is brass and the stem steel.
Figs. 394 and 395 show
base of which
FIG. 393.
FIG. 395.
FIG. 394.
the two parts in detail.
To make this paper-weight, we would commence with a rough casting of Fig. 394 and proceed as follows:
(1) Chuck casting and rough off face A with the tool shown in
and polishing at A.
Bore
out
the
cored hole to within a few thousandths of an inch
(2)
with a common boring-tool, which must not have rake, and finish with
With lathe rotating, remove the sharp outer corner of the
reamer.
Fig. 290, finishing
hole with a scraper or otherwise.
(3) Place on arbor and machine B, C,
A semicircular scraper
Figs. 290 and 291.
shown in Figs. 97 and
smoothed by a square-end
as
98,
to dimensions, using tools
may
be used for the
fillet
and the exterior curved surface may be
scraper.
'
then fine emery-cloth, and finally rougecloth or clean dry waste and fine emery.
See also methods of polish(4)
Polish, first using
file,
ing in Chapter XXIX.
For Fig. 395 proceed as follows:
(5)
(6)
Saw
off
a piece of
Center, face ends,
15
r/
/i6
round machine
steel 3 l
/"
long.
to 29 /32"
and rough
diameter.
smaller than G.
end (including H), making
(7) Machine tail-stock
must be made .0005" larger than the hole
in Fig. 394 for a force
fit.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
272
(8)
Reverse and machine other end to
r/
/i6
Turn K, M, N using preferably a forming-tool * for the spherical
Finish and polish with file and emery-cloth and knurl as shown.
part.
ff
l
across flats).
(10) File and polish hexagon ( /2
and P, and finish and polish extreme end of N. The
(11) Cut off
piece may be held in a chuck (preferably a draw-in chuck) when finishing the extreme end of N', and a concave side-tool or a scraper may be
(9)
',
used to precede the emery-cloth.
(12) Press stem into base, protecting ends with Babbitt metal or
An arbor-press or strong drill-press may be used to press
otherwise.
in the stem.
Method
Machining a Cone Pulley. As indicated in the
chapter on turret-lathes, when work is machined in the engine-lathe
Special
of
FIG. 396.
without special tools and fixtures the processes are comparatively slow.
In contrast with these slow processes the attention of the reader is
called to the method of machining a cone pulley, illustrated in Figs. 396
and 397. In the first figure several tools are shown in operation on
the steps of a cone pulley, these tools being held in a special tool-holder.
A good article on making forming-tools was published in the shop edition
'Machinery/' June, 1904, page 339.
*
of
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE
The
sizes for the various steps are
to the stepped gage held
on the
WORK
273
determined by adjusting the tools
In Fig. 397 the internal
.tail-spindle.
FIG. 397.
diameters of the cone pulley are bored simultaneously by the multiple
cutter-head shown.
The construction
of the split
chuck used
for gripping the pulley
is
worthy
Special chucks secured in this manner to the face-plate
are usually centered by having a tongue or ledge on the chuck fit a
corresponding recess turned in the face-plate. In some cases dowelof note.
pins passing through the face-plate and chuck-ears are used instead.
Any machining that is required in the inside of the chuck is always
In
reserved until after the chuck has been fitted to the face-plate.
screw
cases
it
is
on
make
such
chucks
to
to
directly
many
preferable
the lathe-spindle.
In machining a cone pulley the casting must pass through a number
processes before it is completed. The two illustrations
are
from
an article by C. F. Pease in the " American Machinist/'
given
of
different
vol.
27,
Lodge
&
pages 613 and 614, showing the method followed by the
The reader is referred to this article for
Shipley Company.
further information on the subject.
Turning Curved Shapes. Figs. 398 and 399 show two views
ball-turning rest which is used interchangeably with an ordinary
of
tool-
274
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
In using this rest the lower slide
rest.
the cross-feed mechanism set in motion.
is
locked to the carriage and
cross-feed screw passes
As the
FIG. 398.
through the nut seen secured to the rack in the inverted view, the
rotation of the screw causes longitudinal motion of the rack, and this in
turn causes rotation of the rest by the gearing shown.
FIG. 399.
400 and 401 show respectively a side view and an end view
of a ball-turning attachment which may be bolted on top of a tool-rest
Figs.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
275
This device consists of the main casting
journaled a "shaft having at its left end a slotted
in place of the tool-post.
shown, in
which
is
FIG. 400.
arm and a tool-post. The tool-post is held in the slotted arm by the
top screw, the tool being held in the tool-post, as will be clearly under-
FIG. 401.
The disk-shaped casting, secured to the
by a key and the nut, may be either a spur-gear,
stood from the illustration.
right
end
of the shaft
driven by the gearing in the lathe-apron, or
operated by
means
worm and
handle.
The
it
may
be a worm-gear
illustration does not
show the
for operating the device.
Ball-turning attachments
may
be used for turning work between
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
276
centers, such as the ball handles used on lathes.
They may also be
used for turning a ball on the end of a bar held in the chuck.
Other Methods of Turning Balls. In the absence of any special
attachment, balls are sometimes roughed out approximately right with
a lathe-tool, and finished to a tem-
plate by a common scraper. Fig. 402
shows a special scraper consisting of
a bar of tool steel having a hole
drilled in the end, and having its
corner beveled to form a cuttingFIG. 402.
In using the scraper the ball
edge.
is first
out
with
a
The
lathe-tool.
roughed
scraper is then pressed
the
it
its
when
own
center and gives the
finds
against
revolving ball,
FIG. 403.
ball the
spherical shape, regardless (within limits) of the diameter of
hole in the tool. Balls may also be shaped by a lathe-tool, the end
of
which
is
made
to the same form as the ball.
SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGINE-LATHE WORK
Turning Curved Shapes with Guiding Forms.
277
great variety of
may be turned in connection with forms. Fig. 403 * shows,
secured to the face-plate, a piece, of work which is to be turned to a
radius of 20". A form B of the required shape is secured to a common
curved shapes
angle plate, the latter being bolted to the lathe-bed. With a guiding
E, journaled in a bracket on the rest, and a spring or weight
tending to hold the roller in contact with the form, the cross-feed of
roller
the lathe is set in motion, when the tool will be forced to follow the
required path. If a weight be used, it may be suspended by a rope
attached to the lathe-carriage and running over a roller secured to
the lathe-bed. When doing this work the feed-screw of the upper rest
must be removed, and the carriage should be clamped to the lathe-bed.
Sometimes the work is of such a character as to require that the
guiding form be held on the back side of the lathe-bed. In this case
the guiding roller and rope are attached to the cross-slide, and the weight
is suspended over a roller at the back side of the lathe.
In shaping
such work the cross-feed screw, or the nut for the same, must be removed
and the carriage be fed longitudinally. Irregularly curved handles
may be formed in this way. It should be understood that the shape
turned with a pointed tool is not an exact duplicate of the form.
In accordance with the principle outlined, cams may be made in
the engine-lathe. In doing such work, the cam blank and form are
usually secured on an arbor, the latter being driven between lathe-centers
in the usual manner.
revolving milling-cutter of the same diameter
as the roller gives better results than a pointed tool. This arrangement,
however, is more elaborate, as it requires a counter-shaft or other means
for rotating the milling-cutter.
The milling-cutter could be secured to
a spindle running in a bracket held on the tool-rest.
Further instructions respecting lathe work are given in connection
with the next chapter, and in the chapters on boring bars, etc.
* Cut first used in connection with an article
by J. Wheeler in "American
Machinist," vol. 27, page 557.
CHAPTER XVIII
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
of the
Meaning
Terms " Pitch," " Lead,"
etc.
In transmitting power
belting there is generally a slight irregularity due to the slip of the
belt.
This is of no consequence in the ordinary feeding of the lathe-
by
and the belt and pulleys are sufficiently accurate; but as stated
on Lathes, the mechanism used in moving the carriage
thread-cutting must be positive and accurate. In the chapter referred
In this
brief allusion was made to the method of cutting threads.
carriage,
hi the chapter
for
to,
chapter the subject will be further considered.
Imagine a rod held between the lathe-centers and caused to revolve
with the spindle. If now a pointed tool held in the tool-post of the
lathe be fed against the revolving rod, and the lathe-carriage be caused
by the gearing to traverse the lathe-bed, the tool will cut a helical
The coarseness of a
This operation is called thread-cutting.
thread, or the distance that the carriage advances for each revolution of
the rod, may be changed by changing the ratio of the gears which move
groove.
the carriage.
There
is
some confusion respecting the terms used
to
denote the coarseness of a thread, and it will be necessary to define
these terms before proceeding further. The term lead, as used in the
machine-shop, means the distance that a screw turning in a nut will
"
advance in one revolution, or (as applied to a lead-screw ") the distance that the lathe-carriage is moved by one revolution of the leadThe term pitch is used variously to indicate, first, the lead;
second, the number of threads per inch, and third, the distance between
screw.
the centers of two adjacent threads.
The
latter definition will
be the
one used in this work. If we wind a bit of sewing-thread helically
around a rod so that the thread advances l /" in going once around >
we shall have a good illustration of a single-thread screw of l /" lead.
The pitch
is
also
thread screw.
its
/4
Now
if
Thus the pitch and lead are equal in a singlewe wind another thread around the rod so that
helix shall describe a line centrally
between the
helical lines of the
278
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
first
279
thread, the two threads together will illustrate a double-thread screw.
of the screw is changed to 1 8 ", while the lead remains
/
But the pitch
1
//
/4
at
as before.
the
right
screw of
In Fig. 404
we
start
with
P^/g",
a -single-thread
and then cut an-
when P = l / 4 ".
We
may have any number of threads,
but we seldom cut other than single,
other
thread,
double, triple, and quadruple screws.
The expressions " threads per
inch" and " turns per inch" are also
used in connection with screw-cutting.
lathe lead-screws have double
As some
threads the first term is misleading,
FlG 404
and as a substitute for the latter we
"
shall coin the more convenient word
inch-turns," meaning the number
of turns a screw makes in a nut while advancing 1", or while moving
-
the nut 1".
Computing the Change-gears. The diagram in Fig. 405 will be
used with the formulas for screw-cutting.
In this figure c is the gear
on spindle, or gear on stud, as it is sometimes called, d the intermediate,
and / the gear on lead-screw. The number of the teeth in the intermediate does not affect the ratio, and this gear is not considered. In
the formulas let c equal the number of teeth in stud-gear, / the teeth
in lead-screw gear, L the inch-turns of lead-screw, and
the inch-turns
of the required screw.
that
the
which
transmit
motion
Assuming
gears
to the stud have equal numbers of teeth, as is the case in most lathes,
For convenience we
these gears will not affect the ratio.
shall
speak
Assume also that we have
40 teeth, 46, 48, 80, 100.
/" lead, or 4 inch- turns, and
of such a lathe as being geared one to one.
the following list of change-gears: 20 teeth,
Now let it be required to cut a screw of l
let
the lead-screw also be
/"
lead.
The proportions
of the gears will
be indicated by the following expression:
number teeth in stud-gear
number teeth in lead-screw gear'
Number inch-turns on lead-screw
Number inch-turns on required screw
Then by formula
= -T = T'
-B
t\i
4
i
~r
then
is
the ratio of teeth in
stud-gear to teeth in lead-screw gear. Now if we have no gears with
than 20 teeth we multiply both numerator and denominator by 5
and we have 20 teeth in each of these gears for 4 inch-turns, or 1 /4 // lead.
less
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
280
The
greater the
number
of teeth in the lead-screw gear, or the smaller
the number of teeth in the stud-gear, the greater will be the number
of revolutions of the required screw to 1" travel of the thread-tool.
"
l
Therefore, if we wish to cut a thread of / 8 lead or 8 inch-turns, other
conditions remaining the same, all we need to do is to place a 40-tooth
Thus by formula
gear on the lead-screw.
(1)
o =^-.
4U
In other
words gears of equal numbers of teeth cut screws of same lead as the
while
number
lead-screw gear
doubles the inch-turns of required screw, etc.
In some lathes the gears are not one to one, and in such a case we
lead-screw,
doubling the
of
teeth in
ascertain the ratio of these gears and use this ratio in the formula.
may find the ratio of the gears by marking the stud-gear and lathe
must
We
face-plate in relation to fixed points, and then turning the lathe-spindle
and noting revolutions of stud-gear to one of face-plate. Assuming b
to have 10 teeth
and a 20
teeth,
and lead-screw same as
required to cut screws of 4 inch-turns or
4X
Multiplying both terms
by 5
40
20
S
20
as before,
" lead.
4
12
Compound
\\ l / 2
Gearing.
'
/2
48
46
The system
be
(2)
-..-'
we have
stud-gear teeth
screw-gear teeth
it
a
8
'
Again, assume a lead-screw of 6 inch-turns and
to cut a screw of \\ l /2 inch-turns, then
before, let
Then by formula
let it
be required
teeth in stud-gear
teeth in lead-screw gear'
of gearing
shown
in Fig.
405
is
called simple or single gearing, because there is only one gear on the
intermediate shaft, and as has been intimated, this does not affect the
Some lathes have several
velocity ratio of the stud- and screw-gears.
intermediate gears in the same vertical plane, the stud-gear being placed
on the outer end of the main spindle. This arrangement gives the
same results as the one intermediate. But when there are two inter-
commediates of different diameters on the same shaft, then we have
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
pound gearing, and the intermediate gears
in the calculation.
must be taken
281
into account
Some lathes are so designed that a wide range of inch-turns cannot
be obtained by single gearing. j,n such a lathe both
single and comFIG. 405
T^
= Inch-turns on required screw.
L = Same on
FIG. 405.
lead screw.
FIG. 406.
pound gearing are used. Fig. 406 shows a diagram applicable to compound gearing, and formula (3) has been prepared for use with this
diagram. Formula (3):
ce
x
ace
+=
or
OT
Let it be required to cut a screw of say 40 inch-turns in a lathe
l
having a lead-screw of /" lead, or 4 inch-turns, and having gears a
and b 1 to 1. If we compute by formula (1) we shall have,
L _c
__
20
R ~f ~40~200*
These are the proportions of the gears that could be used by single
we have no gear of 200 teeth. If we select 40 and 80 for c
gearing, but
and d respectively, the proportions of the mating gears at
be found as indicated hi formula
20
200
10
__
(3)
by dividing
__ __
80
2'
10' 2 ~10
v>/
~10
and
by oU
<iUU
,40111122
X
f\ -r\/~i
may
Thus
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
282
In looking through our
list
of gears
we
find 20
and
100,
which
may
be
used for the proportion
Substituting these values in the formula
we have,
4X^
11^40
40
80
20
100
= 1_1JL
25
10'
Metric and Fractional Threads. It sometimes happens that we
have to cut a metric screw on an ordinary American la,the. For this
purpose we need one gear having 127 teeth; this is called a "translating"
It is found as follows: 1000 millimetres = 1 metre =39.37" in
gear.
Therefore to cut a
lOOO-i-39.37 =25.40005= millimetres in I".
length.
screw of 1 millimetre lead ( =25.4 inch-turns) in a lathe geared 1 to 1 and
with lead-screw = 4 inch-turns,
we have by formula
(1)
H^-rX^ZO.4 o
=r^
iZt =-7-.
f
We
is
cannot use any smaller gear than 127 because no smaller number
The gear on stud will, of
divisible by 25.4 without a remainder.
depend on the inch-turns of lead-screw, but whatever number
it may have we should multiply that number by 2 for a screw
having 2 millimetres lead, by 4 for 4 millimetres lead, etc. This can
be proved by the formula as follows.
Assuming a lead-screw of 4
inch-turns, let it be required to compute change-gears for 1, 2, and 4
course,
of teeth
millimetres.
r l millimetre lead '
L
R
25.4-210
127
_l_v^=-52.
25.4-4
20
127
The simple formulas and methods here
common
to all gearing computation in
outlined involve the principles
ratios are con-
which velocity
The methods used in computing change-gears for metric threads
apply equally well to fractional threads. By substituting diameters
for numbers of teeth in the formulas, they may also be applied to belt
and pulley transmission. The student should study these principles
cerned.
will
in connection with the
stands them.
machines in the shop until he thoroughly under-
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
283
Cutting a Fractional Thread with Change-gears of Approximately
Correct Proportions. It is possible to cut a fractional thread on a
parallel shaft with gears which* vary slightly from correct proportions.
may be effected by getting life tail-stock over to give the necessary
variation from the formula results, and then adjusting the taper attachment to make the tool follow the parallel side of the shaft. The amount
This
can be computed very closely. Special care,
required to so arrange the contact between the lathe-dog
and face-plate as to prevent a variable motion being imparted to the
work. This method is sometimes employed in threading taps to com-
to set the tail-stock over
however,
is
pensate for the change in lead caused in the tempering process. For
"
American Machinist" of April 3,
a full discussion of this method see
"
1902 page 479, and the January, 1904, number of Machinery," page
273, regular edition.
Methods of Setting Thread-tools.
V-thread tools should be so
The United
set, in relation to
States standard
and
the work, that a line bisect-
_i
FIG. 407.
ing the angle formed by the two cutting-edges of the tool shall be at
right angles to the axis of the work.
Figs. 407, 408, and 409 show the
methods of setting these tools. Fig. 407 is the simplest case. In this
we have a
cylinder of uniform diameter upon which it is required
threads. The cylinder is, of course, adjusted with its axis
parallel to the lathe-shears, and the gage C has the 60
groove so
formed in relation to its parallel sides as to conform to the conditions
figure
to cut
above expressed respecting the point of the lathe-tool.
It is obvious
then that, if the tool be adjusted to correspond with the groove in C,
the latter being held against the side of the cylinder as shown, the tool
will be properly adjusted in relation to the work.
Fig. 408, which
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
284
shows the same principle applied
to internal work, will
be sufficiently
clear without further explanation.
111
C= Centre Gauge
A
FIG. 408.
Fig.
In
409 shows the method of setting the tool for a tapering screw.
it will not do to use the gage against the side of the blank,
this case
Axis of lathe spindle
~Axfs~6f blan'k
FIG. 409.
because the sides are not parallel with the axis. But if the side of the
gage be pressed against the true end of the blank, and the tool be adjusted
so that one of its edges coincides with the side of the gage as shown,
the thread will be normal to the axis of the screw, as required. This
will apply whether the taper of the thread be made by the
method
taper attachment or by setting the
more accurate method.
tail-stock over.
The former
is the
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
The
lead of
all
285
threads, including taper threads, should be measured
parallel with the axis of the screw.
The gage C will
answer fer other threads than
and the United
not^
States standard, but simple gages
may be made on the same principle
for other threads.
Some Precautions and Principles in Connection with
Thread-cutting.
410 shows a short shaft upon which three different leads of
U. S.
Fig.
FIG. 410.
standard threads are required.
the conventional method, are
the
V2
The
threads, which are represented
by
and 10 inch-turns respectively
for
13, 11,
3
/8 -, and / 4 -inch diameters.
We shall not give in detail the
order of operations for this
work, except to state that the blank is turned
completely to the dimensions of the drawing before the
thread-cutting is
begun. The numbered paragraphs state
principles applicable to Fig.
410 and to thread-cutting in general. It is more
difficult to do smooth
-,
thread-cutting than smooth turning on a plain cylinder. To insure
good
careful attention must be
given to the following instructions.
(1) It is preferable to have one tool for
roughing and one for finishing
the thread.
The finishing-tool should be
and
work
ground
oil-stoned with
special care.
(2) To get the most accurate shape of
thread, the top of the tools
should be ground flat and set
even, horizontally, with the point of the
lathe-center, as shown in Fig. 411.
in ordinary
work, to make
However,
the
tool
the
metal more
peel
smoothly, it may be permissible
to give the
roughing-tool a slight
degree of top rake.
The
tool must be so
ground
have approximately equal
clearance on each side in the thread.
(3)
as
FlG
to
When
thus ground
it
will
(in
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
286
left in right-hand thread, and toward the right
This side clearance of the tool must extend to the
toward the
effect) lean
in left-hand thread.
Beginners are very likely to leave about */64 or
at
the
inch
/32
top edge without side clearance and then wonder why
the tool does not cut.
extreme top edge.
l
(4)
post,
The
must not project farther than necessary from the tooltail-spindle must not be screwed out from the tail-stock
tool
and the
more than
ample clearance of lathe-carriage. This
be provided for before starting to cut the thread;
otherwise, in reversing the lathe the carriage may be forced against
sufficient to give
latter point should
mechanism in the lathe-apron.
the finished surface, leave the blank about
than drawing until the thread-cutting is done. To
the tail-stock and strain the
(5)
To avoid marring
Vie" larger at
a special screw-dog as in Fig. 337, or screw a 1 /2 " nut,
on B and drive the blank by a lathe-dog on the nut.
finish this end, use
split
on one
(6)
If
side,
the lathe
turned about 30
has a compound
rest,
the upper slide should be
If then the tool be
in the direction of the tail-stock.
it may be adjusted to the thread by movement
a lathe having no compound rest be used, the
tool may be adjusted laterally by disengaging the reversing gears, pulling
the spindle around by hand until the thread is in line with the tool and
taken out for grinding,
of the upper rest.
If
Some mechanics, in
compound rest at 30 and
then reengaging the gears.
prefer to set the upper or
cutting 60 thread,
feed the tools toward
roughing thread-tool and then two
one for each side of the thread. These tools are given
rake and, when cutting on one side only, they cut without gouging. See
the thread
by
this rest, using first a
finishing-tools,
Fig. 412.*
The
gibs of the rests must be snugly adjusted when cutting thread.
In taking the final smoothing cuts on the thread, if the tool
does not respond to light pressure, it is an indication that it is either
dull, or has insufficient clearance, or is defective in some other way.
(7)
Under such conditions the
cut,
tool will either
making a rough thread, or
it
will
gouge into and take a heavy
not cut at
all.
When
all
other
conditions are right the failure may be caused by a low temper in the
To avoid spoiling the thread the difficulty should be remedied
tool.
before proceeding further.
Use of the Thread Stop -gage.
plete each of the
in
Several cuts will be required to comabove threads, the greatest number of cuts being
*
Fig. 412 was copied from a cut illustrating an article by
" American
Machinist," July 31, 1890, page 10.
"A
Mechanic"
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
287
required on the coarsest lead. The depth of the cut is determined by
the judgment of the workman,' but the roughing cuts are, of course,
FIG. 412.
much
deeper than the finishing cuts. Most lathes are provided with a
thread stop-gage like that shown in Fig. 231.
In cutting short threads
like those in Fig. 410, when the tool reaches the end of the thread it
is
quickly withdrawn
lathe
by the cross-feed handle and the motion of the
During the backward traverse of the lathe-carriage,
reversed.
is
S of the stop-gage is adjusted for the next cut.
Cutting Square Threads.
Fig. 413 shows a square-thread screw
and nut to which the following instructions apply.
the screw
Chuck the nut and
(1)
with
Turn
(2)
of
face outer end with roughing-tool, finishing
side-tool.
A (Fig. 414) with centering-tool (see Fig. 376) for entry
with 13 /i6" twist-drill, finishing to 7/8" with boring-tool
Counter-bore as at B (Fig. 415) as a guide for gaging depth
as at
Drill
drill.
and reamer.
of thread.
Rough out thread with
(3)
width
like Fig. 417.
a gage.
tap
is
It
must
tool like Fig. 416, finishing with tool full
a nut-arbor, which may also answer for
fit
sometimes used to
size the nut-thread.
(4) To turn the outside, screw nut on arbor and proceed to finish
hi the same manner as with collar referred to in the first example of
lathe work, Chapter XVII.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
288
(5)
For the screw, cut
off 1
Center and face ends to length.
leaving
it
Vie" round machine steel 7 Vie" longTurn blank to 1 Vs" diameter for thread,
larger at C.
(6) Before cutting the thread, read again the instructions given in
connection with Fig. 410.
(7) Rough out thread with outside thread-tool having point like
Fig. 416,
and
finish
with tool having point
full
width
like Fig. 417,
testing
289
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
lean to
by a gage or by the nut. The thread-tool must (in effect)
418.
at
as
clearance
E, Fig.
the left and have
to^extreme edge
Screw thread
oil and
(8) Polish with
emejy on soft-pine stick.
C.
end
and
turn
and
driver
end into threaded
polish
fit
Round
Corners
About
r*-3"
1
"32
7'/
or 64
FIG. 417.
FIG. 416.
(9) In connection with this exercise the student should learn to
"catch the thread" without reversing the lathe. To do this stop the
lathe just before the tool reaches the end of the thread and turn it the
remainder of the way by hand, bringing it to rest in a definite position,
which should be noted by making a witness-mark on the face-plate in
Now disengage
line with some fixed point or mark about the lathe.
the lead-screw nut and move the carriage back for the next cut a distance
which must be divisble without a remainder by the lead of both the screw
This position of the carriage should be
being cut and the lead-screw.
noted by chalking the lathe-bed or by measuring the distance between
the thread-tool and the end of the tail-stock spindle. Having carefully
followed the above instructions the lead-screw nut may now be reengaged
and the lathe
started,
when
the tool will follow the thread as accurately
though the lathe had been reversed.
By marking the face-plate, lead-screw gear, and carriage positions,
and starting and stopping with these in same positions for each traverse,
as
any thread
will
"
catch."
When the number
of inch-turns of the thread being cut
is
a multiple
on the lead-screw, the carriage
may be
engaged in any position without changing the alinement of thread-tool
with thread.
of the inch-turns of the threads
always permissible to cut a groove for the exit of the threaddone in Fig. 413. Another way is to drill a shallow hole, equal
in diameter to the width of the thread, where the thread is to stop.
The thread-tool must be adjusted so as to have the thread follow centrally
with the hole.
It is not
tool, as
is
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
290
Cutting a Left-hand Worm-thread.
worm- thread screw
is
used
Such gearing is commonly used in some designs
to operate a worm-gear.
It is also used in some lathes (see apron mechanism in
of elevators.
chapter on Lathes).
shown
in Fig.
Cut
Center and
(1)
(2)
419
off
The order
may
of operations
be as follows:
machine-steel stock
1 9 /16"
for
diameter
cutting the
worm
by SVie"
long.
finish the ends.
Rough out blank
all
over, leaving
it
about Vie" larger than
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
291
Theoretical Difficulties in Thread-cutting. There are certain theoretrefinements connected with" thread-cutting which are generally
neglected in ordinary practice. ^The shape or angle of a thread should
ical
be measured in a plane' parallel with the axis of the screw. But if a
V-thread tool, for instance, be ground to fit the 60 gage and adjusted
to bring its top face normal to the sides of the thread helix (as it should
be adjusted to make both edges of the tool cut equally free) the thread
will not be 60 when measured as indicated above.
This may be easily
V point of the thread-gage between
top face in a plane passing through the
incline the gage, bringing its face to an angle
demonstrated as follows: Place the
the sides of the thread with
axis of the screw.
Now
its
It will be seen that the edges of the gage
position.
no longer fit the thread.
There are also certain difficulties in connection with square and
other shapes of threads, but these difficulties are of little importance
In cutting threads of coarse leads, each side of
in threads of fine lead.
the thread may be cut independently and tested by a gage somewhat
similar to that shown in Fig. 422, the latter being applied in a plane
of 45
with the
first
thread. This
passing through the axis of the screw as hi the
has the advantage that the tool may be ground with side rake.
method
Geometrical Method of Determining the Side Clearance of SquareIn cutting threads of coarse leads, special attention
thread Tools.
FIG. 423
FIG. 423.
to the side clearance.
The following method, referring
taken from a pamphlet published by the Gisholt Machine
must be given
to Fig. 423,
Company
"On
is
descriptive of their universal tool-grinder:
the line EO lay off
equal to the circumference of the
OH
screw at the bottom of the thread, and
EO
equal to the circumference
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
292
At
and
at the top of the thread.
equal to the pitch of the screw.
EL
angle
EOF
erect perpendiculars
Draw OF and OL, then
EF
and
will the
be equal to the angle of the thread at the outside of the
and EOL will equal the angle at the bottom of the thread.
Lay
Draw CA and CB. Draw AB at right
off CAL and CEO equal to 5.
angles to the center line CD. Then AB will be the top of the tool and
AC and BC the sides. By this construction there will be equal angles
of clearance on each side."
The top face of the tool should be normal to the side of the thread
at its mean diameter, as at AB, Fig. 424, and the front edge should be
screw,
FIG. 424
FIG. 424.
concave.
slightly
These
threads 4 pitch and
considerations
are
generally
neglected
on
finer.
Spacing Multiple Threads. In cutting multiple threads, the thread
may be spaced by using the face-plate of the lathe as an index. For
this purpose the slots in the face-plate should be machined in the millingThus, let it be required
that
we
have two slots in the
assuming
all
that
we
need
to do after cutting
face-plate diametrically opposite,
'the first thread is to take the work out without unscrewing the dog and
place it back again with the tail of the dog in the opposite slot.
machine
to cut
in connection
with the dividing head.
a double thread.
Now
THREAD-CUTTING IN THE ENGINE-LATHE
293
If the lathe be geared one to one, and the gear on the stud have an
even number of teeth, the double, thread may be spaced by marking a
tooth on the stud-gear to coincide with a mark on the intermediate
gear, and then disengaging the intermediate gear and turning the lathe
one half revolution, to bring the tooth diametrically opposite in mesh at
the mark on the intermediate gear.
CHAPTER XIX
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES BOLT- AND NUT-THREADING
MACHINES
Standard and V Thread. The subject of screw-threads is treated
in most books on machine design; it is also briefly discussed in this
work in connection with the subject of screw-cutting. It will be necesU.
sary
S.
however, to refer to certain practical considerations in this conThe simplest form of thread is known as the V thread. This
nection.
form an angle of 60. The
generally so made that the sides of the
that
to
this
thread
is
the
objection
sharp edges are easily bruised, and
also too quickly wear smaller than the nominal size;
is
Improvements Affecting Durability of Thread.
of these objections the thread
D=Px
known
D=H D =P
.866
THREAD
U.S.
FIG. 425.
introduced.
the
thread
To overcome both
as the U. S. standard has been
ST'D
.6495
THREAD
FIG. 427.
FIG. 426.
its sides at an angle of 60, but unlike
bottom of the V and cut off at the top,
The length of these flats equals l /% the
This thread also has
it is filled
in at the
flat tops and bottoms.
distance from center of one thread to the center of the next.
forming
come the
difficulties
connected with the
of England, originated the
at top
and bottom and
its
"
V thread,
Whitworth thread."
sides are 55
Sir
To
over-
Joseph Whitworth,
is rounded
This thread
included angle.
294
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES
295
V Thread.
425 and 426 show full-size views of V-thread and U. S. standard
The center lines
screws, both being of the same outside diameter.
passing through the sectioned ba&s show that there is considerable difference in the effective diameters of the two screws. This difference
may also be seen in Fig. 427, in which the full lines show the U. S. standard
Difference in Effective Diameters of U. S. Standard and
Figs.
and the dotted lines, the V thread.
Square and Acme Thread. Other threads in common use are the
The square thread, as is implied
square thread and the acme thread.
its
sides
at
has
its
right angles with the axis, and is flat on top
name,
by
and bottom. The width of the thread at top and bottom is usually made
equal to its depth. As a rule this thread is used in places where a long
screw and short nut are required. In such a case, if it is desirable to have
2J23x>. of threads per in.
1
d
T
Dia. of Tap =0-1- .020
FIG. 428.
last approximately as long as the screw, the spaces between the
threads on the screw should be wider than the flat top of the thread.
This leaves the thread in the nut thicker than in the screw.
For some purposes, as for instance the lead-screws on lathes, a
compromise between the square thread and the U. S. standard
For these purposes a thread having flat tops and bottoms
is desirable.
and angling sides has been used, but until recently there has been no
standard for this thread. A few years ago Messrs. Handy & Powell
proposed a standard for this thread, the proportions of which are given
sort of
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
29o
with Fig. 428.
in connection
catalogs
of
thread has
These formulas are also published
in the
Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company. This
sides at an angle of 29 (included angle) and is known as
"acme" thread.
the
its
the Powell or
Pipe-threads.
pipe-threads are similar to the 60
ing that the tops and bottoms are slightly rounded,
4
only / 5 of the pitch instead of equal to the pitch.
threads, except-
making the depth
Considerations Governing the System of Threads to be Adopted in
Starting a New Plant. In starting a machine-shop it is necessary in
the outset to determine the system of threads to be used. The proper
thing to do is to adopt the U. S. standard for general purposes, the acme
thread for work of the character of lathe lead-screws, etc., and the square
thread (seldom used) as occasion may require. But this is not the
universal practice.
Some still use the old V thread, and, even when
supplying U. S. standard, some screw-makers unless otherwise ordered
//
will send 1 / 2 screws with twelve threads per inch, when the U. S. standard
is
thirteen for this size.
Variation from the U. S. Standard.
For screws below
/"
very
little
paid to the U. S. standard. The diameter of these screws
generally conforms to a screw-gage having decimal dimensions, and
In some special lines
there is considerable variation respecting the pitch.
attention
is
is a very material
departure
from U. S. standard. Some bicycle-makers use twenty threads per inch
on the l /2 f pedal-shaft where it screws into the crank, and when the
threads wear out in the crank, the repairer retaps it with a 5/ 8 " tap having
of machinery, bicycles for instance, there
twenty-four threads per inch, using a bushing between. It is doubtful
S. standard is adapted to work of this character.
whether the U.
Nominal and Actual Diameter of Pipe. Extra Strong, Double
etc.
The method of designating wrought-iron pipe
When we speak of a given size
is somewhat confusing to the novice.
Thus 1" pipe means pipe
pipe we refer to the diameter of the hole.
Extra Strong,
with 1" internal diameter; but the actual diameter varies considerably
some sizes from the nominal. 1" pipe is 1.048" internal diameter
and 2 l /<2 " pipe is 2.468", the outside diameters being 1.315 and 2.875
inches respectively. Thus far there is no special difficulty, but we
in
have, in addition to the above, extra-strong and double-extra-strong
In both the extra metal is added to the inside, while the pipe
pipe.
retains the same designation as though no change had been made in the
Accordingly 1" extra-strong pipe is .951" actual inside
diameter, and 1" double-extra-strong is .58" inside diameter. The
thickness.
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES
outside diameter remains
297
1.315" as in the thin pipe. Interchangeuniformity in the outside diameters.
t,h
ability in the fittings necessitates
a kind of steel j^crew tempered and having grooves,
There are various
forming cutting-edges, cul lengthwise the screw.
Taps.
tap
is
FIG. 429.
Among the taps in most common use are handand
There are also
taps
machine-taps, pulley-taps and pipe-taps.
various special taps. A standard set of machinists' hand-taps is shown
in Fig. 429; these are called taper, plug, and bottoming taps in the
order in which they are shown in the cut. The taper tap is made tapering on the thread end to facilitate starting it in the work. The hole to
be tapped is drilled the same diameter as the tap at the bottom of the
thread, or a little larger. The tap is screwed into the hole (forming
thread as it goes) by means of a tap-lever or wrench applied at the shank
end. If the piece to be tapped is only an inch or so thick and the hole
kinds of taps in use.
be screwed entirely through the
does not pass through
be used to finish the thread near the bottom.
passes quite through, the taper tap
hole and the thread thus finished.
the work, the plug tap
may
may
If the hole
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
298
be noticed that the plug tap has a short bevel on the end, and
that the last two or three threads are imperfect. If threads are wanted
It will
at the extreme
the thread.
bottom of the hole the bottoming tap
is
used to
finish
All the threads of this tap are "full."
Nuts are usually tapped by machinery, a tap somewhat resembling
the taper hand-tap being used for this work. Such a tap is shown in
Fig. 430;
When
it is
called a machine-tap.
hub of a pulley to secure it to the
the
is
used.
This tap is shown in Fig. 431.
shaft,
pulley-tap
generally
In most cases the hole is drilled through both the rim and hub, the hole
in the
tap.
set-screws are used in the
rim being
drilled slightly larger
The shank part
than the largest diameter of the
of the pulley-tap
that the square end
is
always made quite long, so
Manufacturers
may project through the pulley-rim.
pulley-taps in lengths to suit the customer.
make
The Pipe-tap
will
is
a short tap having a taper on the thread part of 3/4"
It is used in connection with steam- and
(in diameter) per foot of length.
gas-fittings, etc. (see Fig. 432).
the
drill
The pipe-tap
is
sometimes made with
on the end, so that the hole
may be drilled and tapped in one
illustrated in Fig. 433, in which D is the drill
operation. This design is
and S the shank. The shank
is
made
tapering to
fit
in the spindle of
a ratchet-drill, by which the tap is operated.
The tap used for tapping dies is called a hob.
There is a kind of bolt used to hold together the inner and outer
The holes for these bolts are tapped with a
plates on boiler fire-boxes.
tool called a stay-bolt tap.
As ordinarily made, this is a tap and reamer
combined. It is clearly shown in Fig. 434. The special taps for other
purposes do not differ greatly from those described.
Thread-dies. The moulds or forms used in connection with presses
making hollow ware, etc., are called dies. To distinguish the device
used for forming threads on screws from the latter, it should be called a
thread-die.
Nevertheless a thread-die is commonly called a die, and
for
we
shall use the
same term
in this chapter.
In cutting thread with
screwed on the rod, cutting the thread as it goes.
shows
a
435
"solid"
The
die, so called because it is not adjustable.
Fig.
solid die can be used for one size of screw only, and when used to make
a
die, the die
full
is
threads in one passage over the screw, it soon wears larger than
When used to take a fine finishing cut only, being preceded
standard.
by a roughing-die,
it is
more
reliable.
Fig. 436 shows a sectional view and a bottom view of a square die
similar to that represented
by
ig.
435.
The openings
are
made
to
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES
FIG
430.
FIG. 431.
FIG. 432.
299
FIG. 433.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
300
lessen the bearing and friction, and at the same time they serve as outlets
for the chips.
are referred to as the lands. The advancing
The parts
edge of the land
is
the cutting-edge and the remaining part, the
THREAD
TAPER
j STRAIGHT!
REAMER
heel.
SHANK
FIG. 434.
Making a Solid Die. The general principles employed in making
a square solid die are very much the same as for other dies, and it may
be well to describe a method of making this die. In factories where
FIG. 436.
FIG. 435.
taps and dies are
made
as a specialty the best facilities must, of course,
"
homeshall describe is a kind of
be employed; but the method that we
made "
The short diameter
plan, applying to the making of a single die.
of the square die may be 2 x / 4 times the diameter of the bolt to be cut,
and its thickness may be about I 1 / 4 times the diameter of the bolt. When
a number of different sizes of dies are to fit one stock, the dimensions
of some of them would be greater than above indicated.
Having forged and machined the die blank to the proper dimensions,
the next thing in order is to drill it. The center of the blank may be
established by drawing intersecting lines diagonally across its face, and
one the diameter of the
be drawn on the blank.
should
larger,
be covered with blue vitriol to take clearly
after prick-punching the center,
drill
The
and the other somewhat
surface of the blank
may
two
circles,
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES
301
The drilling is usually done in the lathe, the blank being
held in the chuck or strapped to the face-plate. The blank may be
adjusted by the circles in connection with a scriber held in the tool-
defined lines.
The tang of an old file ground to a point is sometimes used for
post.
this purpose.
Again, some prefer to use an indicator. The hole for
the thread in the solid die should be
made equal
thread of the bolt to be cut.
be
It
may
drilled
to the bottom of the
and bored according to
instructions given elsewhere for such operations.
Having made the hole of the required size, the thread must next be
The threading may be done by an inside thread-tool, using good
cut.
The finishing cuts should be very light, and the
thread-tool for this purpose should be in the best possible condition.
If
a good tap of the right size be available, it would be well to take the
lard-oil as a lubricant.
finishing cut with this tap; but as the pitch of taps is sometimes slightly
altered in the hardening process, the thread must not be cut too near
the final size with the thread- tool, lest the tool-marks be seen after the
hole has been tapped.
Before taking the die out of the chuck, the hole should be chamfered
back a distance equal to about one third the thickness of the die, as
at C in Fig. 436.
The largest diameter of the chamfer should
be slightly greater than the diameter of the bolt. It will be understood
that the object cf chamfering the die is to facilitate starting the thread
on the bolt.
After cutting the thread the next operation is to drill the clearance
shown
holes lettered A.
The
These should not be
less
than half the diameter of
be located on the diagonal
lines previously made, at the intersection of a circle I 1 / 4 times the diameter of the bolt.
This circle will, of course, be drawn from the center
the bolt.
centers for these holes
may
of the threaded hole.
To prevent the drill from "running" toward the threaded hole, it is
customary among some mechanics to plug the hole with a screw tightly
Others
fitting the thread and filed flush with the surface of the die.
prefer to dispense with the plug and drill small holes first, enlarging
same with counterbore. These clearance holes may be drilled in the
drill-press.
When this work is done, the die is ready to be filed. For general
work, including brass, the front of the cutting-edge may be filed radial,
though some prefer to give the cutting-edges rake, for wrought iron.
For a die having four cutting-edges, the width or thickness of the lands
3
x
may be about /ie to / 4 the diameter of the bolt. The chamfered part
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
302
must also be filed to give the heel clearance. Great care is
required in this work to keep the file from cutting the extreme points
The filing should be begun at the
of the teeth at the advancing edge.
Some file
heel and barely brought up to the edge without touching it.
of the die
or
"back off" the heel beyond the chamfered part
full
length or thickness of the die.
The size of the die should be stamped on
hardened.
its
that
is
through the
face before the die
is
Adjustable Dies. Adjustable dies are made in a great variety of
forms, and the die-stocks differ as much as the dies.
Fig. 437 shows
the die in two parts;
one design, in which S is the die-stock and
DD
the adjustment
by means of the screw A. Grooves are cut on the
shown in Fig. 438, to fit over the guides G. The
the
as
die,
edges of
in
the stock and are swung outward to remove the
latter are pivoted
are usually drilled and tapped larger than
of
construction
Dies
this
die.
is
the diameter of the bolt they are to cut. Sometimes the drill used is
equal to the outside diameter of the bolt, the tap or hob being the diameter of the bolt plus twice the depth of the thread.
thread a full bearing on the bolt when first started
"drunken" or
irregular thread.
sometimes taken to
make
full
This gives the
and prevents a
In using these dies several cuts are
thread, and by tapping the die out
large as above indicated, the bearing in the thread and the relative
degree of friction are decreased at the time when the hardest work is
being done, viz., when the thread is approaching full depth. The adjustment of the die is sufficient to allow the two parts of the die to be separated
enough to be quickly withdrawn from the bolt without reversing the
die
when
Pratt
the end of the thread
& Whitney Adjustable
is
Die.
reached.
In the die illustrated in Fig. 439,
four detachable "chasers" are used, the limit of adjustment being
//
1
The chasers are held in a head somewhat similar to that shown
/32
-
The latter, however, is designed more particularly for
The head represented by Fig. 439 may be held in a stock
It may also be held in a turret-head.
like that shown in Fig. 441.
The Solid Pipe-die differs so little in general construction from
in
Fig.
440.
brasswork.
the solid bolt-die as to need no description.
in adjustable form.
Retapping Old Dies.
Pipe-dies are
made
also
J. Meyer in "American Machinist,"
that
the retapping of old dies may be
vol. 26, page 1293, suggests
facilitated by filling the clearance holes with babbitt.
To prevent
Mr. Geo.
the babbitt from running into the thread, he plugs the hole.
After the
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES
303
been retapped the babbitt is, of course, driven out, a punch
being used for this purpose. Mr. Meyer recommends filling up the flutes
die has
FIG. 438.
FIG. 439.
FIG. 437.
of taps also when these are to be recut.
the babbitt adhere.
Making the Taper Tap of the Set
making taps should be of high grade
The
flutes are tinned to
make
of Hand-taps.
The steel used for
such as is recommended by steel
manufacturers for this purpose. In order to insure the removal of the
decarbonized surface of the metal, stock should be selected of a diameter
not less than 3 /32" larger than the diameter of the tap. In this connection read in Chapter
the paragraph on Hardening Reamers.
For
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
304
some mechanics prefer the "water anneal." This
the steel to a low red, holding it in a dark
in
consists
heating
process
softening the steel
FIG
440
place until the color leaves the steel, and then plunging it into soap?/ water.
Oil is used by some mechanics for the bath. The "water anneal" is
preferred to the softer annealing, because
when
too soft the thread seems
c
FIG. 441.
inclined to tear, and it is difficult to make the tool cut smoothly.
Other
mechanics, however, adhere to the slower method of annealing.
Mr. E. R. Markham, whose articles on tool-making in machinery have
been consulted by the author in connection with this work, heats the
tap-blank to a low red, places it between two pieces of board and buries
in a box of ashes.
Mr. Markham says respecting this method: "The
steel cooled below a red very quickly, but the boards, which were charred
it
from contact with the red-hot
steel, kept the piece of steel hot for a long
says further, referring to the tap-blank, "It should not
remain red-hot any longer than is necessary to insure its not being
chilled, yet it should cool very slowly from a point just below red heat.
time."
Much
He
of the steel that
is
annealed
is
subjected to heats that are too high.
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES
This opens the grain and weakens the
when cut with a threading-rtool."
steel,
and
it
305
crumbles
off
and
tears
tap-blank,, which we shall assume to be of a diam"
/ 4 frap, and of a length six times the tap diameter
plus about Vie", the blank should now be centered and its ends faced
//
to 4 1 /2 long. Next rough out the blank all over and turn the shank end
Now mill the ends square for the tap-wrench and
as shown in Fig. 442.
Having annealed the
eter suitable for a
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
306
lathe gearing be dispensed with altogether, the lead of tap or die is likely
to be slightly too long.
Nevertheless the results are satisfactory for
most purposes.
Grooving the Tap. For this purpose a cutter like that represented
by Fig. 443, making four grooves as shown in Fig. 444, may be used.
The lands may be of the same
width as in the die, viz., 3/ 16 to
CUTTER J
/4 the tap diameter, the cutter
being fed a depth which will leave
this width.
Cutters for the above
purpose are carried in machinery
supply stores.
Taps are generally grooved in
the
miller, but if such a machine
FlG. 444.
FlG. 443.
is not available a
simple fixture
be
and
used
the
lathe-rest
in
on
connection
with a
may
improvised
FORM OF TAP
revolving cutter, the latter being driven by an arbor. The fixture may
be constructed as follows: make a casting with two standards or lugs,*
and a center in each lug. One of these lugs could be made adjustable
and the center in this lug could be threaded
The other center should be so arranged as
to admit of being rotated, and should carry a small face-plate having a
slot for the tail of the dog.
Four or more notches equally spaced around
the periphery of the plate and a spring pawl to engage these notches
longitudinally in a slot,
for lengthwise adjustment.
complete this pair of centers.
Backing Off the Tap. The tapered part of the tap-lands must be
backed off or filed for the same reason that the chamfered part of the
die was filed, and with the same precaution respecting the cutting-edges.
The amount of this clearance must be determined by observation and
good judgment. To remove any roughness left by the cutter, the face
of the cutting-edge and back face of the land should be smoothed with
emery-wheel or
file.
Relieving the Tap. Taps, especially taper taps, cut much more
threeeasily when relieved or given clearance between the teeth.
cornered or half-round
file
may
be used for this work.
Here again
must be exercised to protect the cutting-edges. Some workmen
object to this clearance on the ground that it causes chips to wedge
between the teeth when the tap is reversed.
care
* If the fixture be bolted
a downward
on top
of the rest, one
offset for clearance of dog.
end of the casting
may
need
SCREW-THREADS, TAPS, AND DIES
307.
Relieving Taps by Etching-fluid. Taps of abrupt taper do not cut
freely, because the threads are greater in diameter at the heel of the land
The 'threads may be relieved by etching-fluid
same manner that steel t$bls are marked.
Tempering Taps and Dies. The paragraph on hardening reamers
referred to above will apply to taps and dies.
Additional care, how-
than at the cutting-edge.
in the
be necessary to protect the points of the
The cutting parts of both tap and die may
be drawn to a straw color, but the die will be stronger
ever,
may
tap-teeth.
if
the outside edges are somewhat softer. To insure
circulation of water between the cutting-edges,
free
move the
die
back and forth in the bath.
After hardening the tap, it may be polished on a
buffing-wheel or with emery-cloth. The inexperienced
workman is cautioned against rounding the points of
the teeth and spoiling the tap in this operation.
scarcely necessary to polish the die.
It is
The plug and bottoming taps need differ from the
taper tap only in the turning, the threading being the
same. However, to avoid tapping a hole slightly larger
at the
entrance end, plug
and bottoming taps are
w
FIG. 445.
FIG
446.
sometimes made to taper smaller towards the shank. When this expedient is used, the amount of the taper should be so little as to be scarcely
A fraction of a thousandth of an inch smaller will be quite
appreciable.
sufficient.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
308
The Tap-lever. In tapping holes beginners will
Tapping Holes.
the
on
hole
to
guide the tap, but this is generally disappointing,
depend
the tap will not always follow square.
The proper way is to apply
a square to the tap as soon as it takes hold if the tap incline to the left
apply pressure on the right side. It is generally necessary to test the tap
as
it is properly started.
Fig. 445 shows a method
a tap and applying the square.
Great care is required in
small
as
are
to
using
taps,
they
apt
snap off, especially when applying
several times before
of starting
greater pressure
on one
side to square the tap.
In tapping
steel, wrought iron, etc., it is usually necessary for every
one half to three fourths revolution, to rotate the tap backward a fraction
of a revolution in order to dislodge the chips.
This is sometimes advan-
tageous also in tapping cast iron.
a mixture of lard-oil and graphite.
Tool steel can best be tapped with
The tap-lever may be of some adjustable form, as that shown in Fig.
446, for instance ; or a simple lever with a square hole in the center may
be used. Adjustable levers for taps and reamers are made in many designs.
The one shown
is
so simple that no explanation will be necessary.
is sometimes necessary to thread
Threading Large Work. It
special casting in which the hole
the casting
is
is
some
too large for any tap on hand, while
too large to be threaded in any available lathe. Fig. 447
The work is bolted to a planer-bed and
illustrates a case of this kind.
a special boring bar B, supported in a guide bracket G,
is
used
first
to
BOLT-CUTTING AND NUT-f APPING MACHINES
309
and next to cut the thread as shown. The bushing B I
be
made
with
fine thread for feeding the bar when boring out the
may
with
the
and
one
hole,
required thread must be made for threading the
B
2
hole.
Bushing
requires no thread.
Having adjusted the guide
bracket and cutters in the bar to the work, the bar is turned by a wrench
on the square end P. If much of this work is required the bar could
finish the hole,
be operated by power.
When the bar is turned the thread on B forces
the bar to advance a distance equal to the lead of its thread for each
revolution.
Several cuts are .required to complete the thread.
Tables of tap-drill sizes are given on pages 516 to 518.
BOLT-CUTTING AND NUT-TAPPING MACHINES
Bolt-cutter.
and simplest
The machine shown in Fig. 448 is one of the smallest
by the makers. The bolt is held
bolt-cutters supplied
LI
in the vise V, being clamped by the lever L.
the vise is fed to the die
by the lever LI.
The
By
carriage carrying
the contact of the
310
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
ADJUSTING
SCREW
FIG. 450.
BOLT-CUTTING AND NUT-TAPPING MACHINES
FIG. 453.
311
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
312
with the adjustable stop S the die is automatically opened to
when the thread is cut the required length. The carriage is then quickly withdrawn while the die-head continues to run
The multiple-spindle machines are more
in the forward direction.
bracket
release the bolt
elaborate and turn out a great quantity of work.
Die-head. One of the most important features of these machines
is
the die-head.
The
front view of this head
the sectional view being shown in Fig. 450.
view.
first
The names
two
is
illustrated in Fig. 449,
Fig. 451
shows a perspective
of the various parts are given in connection with the
As will be seen, the die-chasers are guided in
illustrations.
radial slots at the front
end of the head.
The movement
of the chasers
BOLT-CUTTING AND NUT-TAPPING MACHINES
313
is controlled by the die-ring.
The latter is in turn operated
which
it
to
is
connected
the
by a rocking lever and
clutch-ring,
by
or
all
of
the
are
tool
steel or have tool-steel
Most
sliding surfaces
toggle.
in
and out
linings.
One
shown in detail in Figs. 452 and 453, the latter
to indicate how the dies are chamfered.
reamer
figure showing
Six-spindle Nut-tapper (Fig. 454). In this machine, the taps are
connected to the lower end of the spindles, the nuts being held under
the taps in adjustable holders. Each spindle is lifted by either a lever
of the chasers
is
also a
or a treadle as indicated.
"The
spindles are counterbalanced to pre-
vent breaking the taps," and each spindle may be stopped independently of the others. The taps can be removed while the machine
is
in operation.
The
lubricant
is
automatically
pumped
to the tap.
CHAPTER XX
THE BORING-BAR AND
Definition
and
ITS
Classification of Boring-bars.
more cutters for enlarging
of metal bearing one or
Boring-bars
may
USE
be
directly secured to
classified as follows:
same
(Fig. 455);
is
a bar
and correcting
holes.
boring-bar
the plain bar with cutter
second, the bar having a fixed
first,
FIG. 455.
cutter-head with cutters secured to the head (Fig. 456) ; third, the slidingis adapted to be fed along by a screw and
head bar, the head of which
FIG. 456.
star-shaped wheel, as in Fig. 457.
This feeding device
is
called the star
feed.
Securing the Cutters in the Bars.
securing the cutters in the bars.
The
There are various methods for
by Fig. 455 is of
cutter represented
314
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
315
rectangular cross-section, and is held in a rectangular slot in the bar by
means of a set-screw; the rectangular slot shown in Fig. 458 is made
^f
r to
keep head A
from turning
PIG. 457.
longer than the width of the cutter in order to receive a key which
secures the cutter to the bar; the cutter illustrated in
Fig. 459 is held
by a threaded
collar
which screws on the bar.
Boring a Steam-engine Cylinder.
As indicated in the definition, a
never used to originate a hole, but always to
enlarge a hole.
As will be presently shown, the boring-bar is used in various
A
ways.
boring-bar
is
clear conception of the boring-bar
may be had by the consideration of one
that
of boring steam-engine cylinders.
uses, viz.,
In
boring a single cylinder in the lathe, the cylinder is generally secured to
the lathe-carriage by common
machine-shop bolts and straps, the cylinder
being raised to the correct height by blocks, wedges, etc. If a large
number of cylinders are to be bored a special fixture is made to
support
the cylinders on the lathe-carriage. To adjust the
cylinder in alinement
with the lathe-spindle a testing-rod is
commonly used in connection
of its
most common
with the boring-bar, though some mechanics
prefer to aline the cylinder
calipering from the cylinder-flange to the bar.
Fig. 460 shows a
by
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
316
cylinder bolted to a lathe-carriage and illustrates the method of using
the testing-rod. The latter, which is shown at R, may be made of
Adjusting Nut
Washer
FIG. 459.
//
/4
round or square
steel
and held
in the slot of the bar
by a wooden
wedge.
To
test the
alinement of the cylinder, the boring-bar is slowly revolved
(or the lathe, driving the bar by a dog or
on the lathe-centers by hand
METHOD OF ADJUSTING A CYLINDER
FIG. 460.
rod, is slowly revolved)
the revolving rod noted.
the cylinder
by
and the position of the cylinder
in relation to
point of the testing-rod does not clear
the same amount at three of four points around the
If the
and the cylinder is moved in the
rod, this process being continued
cylinder-flange, the bolts are slackened
direction indicated
for
by the revolving
each end of the cylinder until
the bar.
If
now
it
is
found to be
in
alinement with
the tail-stock of the lathe be axially true with the
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
317
lathe-spindle, the cylinder will also be in alinement with the lathe-spindle
as required.
When the adjusting and clamping is completed the cylinder may be
bored by feeding the carriage bearing the cylinder toward the revolving
cutters; or, if a sliding-head bar be used, the carriage is held stationary
and the head while revolving is fed through the cylinder. It will requireat least two cuts. The first cut rough-bores the cylinder; the second
cut, which requires cutters having broader edges, smooths the bore
and brings it to the final diameter.
A method of "truing-up" cylinders by the end flanges has been
referred to; if a cylinder has not these flanges, the method of adjustment must be determined to suit the design of the cylinder. Further
instructions respecting fixtures for holding and adjusting cylinders are
given in connection with Figs. 480 and 481. When one of these special
fixtures
is
used very
little
adjusting
is
necessary.
Single and Double Cutters Compared.
The number
a boring-bar varies with the size of the bar.
dozen, or even
two dozen
There
for very large bores.
may
When a
of cutters in
be one or a
single cutter
be made with one or two cutting-edges.
If made
with one cutting-edge it cuts on only one side of the bar.
In this
case the cutter is unsupported on the opposite side of the bar, except
is
used
it
may
supported by the bar itself. In very small holes the
and does not adequately support the pressure of the
quite
cutter
the
is, therefore, not well adapted to long holes of
cut;
single
small diameter. In using the cutter which has cutting-edges on both
in so far as
it is
bar
frail
is
on one side of the bar is supported by a corresponding cut
on the opposite side, and thus the bar is under a torsional stress only.
ends, the cut
If a cutter with one cutting-edge be used, the bar
both torsion and flexure.
will
be subjected to
single cutter has the advantage that it may be adjusted for different sizes of holes, while the double cutter, as originally made, may
be used for one size only.
However, the double cutter may be made
With this construction we
parts, as illustrated in Fig. 461.
have the advantages of both the single and double cutter, excepting
in
two
that the double cutter
The above
458.
is not self-adjusting, as
refers to the plain bar.
Fixed-head Bar.
it
is
represented in Fig.
The second boring-bar mentioned
in the classifica-
in principle similar to the first that is to say, the cutters are held
in a fixed position respecting the bar. The head is used on the bar
tion
is
merely to provide for boring large holes without enlarging the bar
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
318
throughout
its
The head may be secured to the bar
length.
is the head,
as shown in Fig. 456, in which
common key
of a
the key, and
the cutters, or the head
may
by means
B the
bar,
be held by set-screws.
Spindle of
Drilling
Machine
FlG. 461.
This figure shows also one method of holding the cutters, but some
prefer to hold them by set-screws.
The design shown
gests itself
in Fig. 462, in which round cutters are used, sugThe illustration is a sectional view of
in this connection.
Two methods of
a cutter-head held on the bar by two set-screws.
set-screws
are
shown.
the
cutters
The cutter
and
holding
adjusting
by
adjusted by a small rod in connection with the screw S, which
The cutter C 2 is forced
engages directly with the end of the cutter.
out by contact of the conical point of the screw S I with the beveled
at
end
1 is
of the cutter.
It will, of course,
be understood that the two methods
of adjusting the cutters are not to be used in the same head.
cutter-head might be made of such a design that all the cutters
could be forced out simultaneously. Thus the beveled edges of the
cutters could be seated on the beveled edge of a ring, the ring being
forced against the cutters by a nut screwed on the bar.
The holes or slots for the cutters should in nearly all cases be made
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
319
bar stock, or so nearly to bar-stock size that a few touches of
will reduce the rough stock to the size of the holes.
When round cutters are used* a flat seat should be filed on the side
of each cutter to receive the sefciecrew which binds it. Cutters should
to
fit
the
file
-ct
TWO METHODS OF
ADJUSTING CUTTERS
FIG. 462.
be of square or rectangular cross-section, however, when they are adby a wedge.
The enlarged collar, which we have called the cutter-head, is some-
justed
times
made integral with the bar; but this arrangement is disadvanwhen we wish to use one bar for different sizes of heads.
tageous
The Sliding-head Bar.
The
third bar mentioned in the classifica-
a radical departure from the other two designs. It is shown in
We have called this the sliding-head bar because, instead
Fig. 457.
of being fixed to the bar, the head slides lengthwise the bar by automatic
tion
is
mechanism. This mechanism consists of the long screw lengthwise the
bar which engages with a threaded hole in the head. On the tail-stock
end of the bar is a small lug which serves as the bearing for the screw
and
also sustains the
end thrust
of the screw.
bar and on the extreme end of the screw
is
At the same end
of the
a small star-shaped device
the bar revolves, engage
(marked Star) the points of which, when
with a fixed projection on the tail-stock. The effect of this arrangement
is to cause an
intermittently revolving movement of the screw, which
in turn causes a lengthwise movement of the head. The head is prevented from revolving on the bar by means of a feather-key the full
length of the bar, which key engages with a corresponding keyway in the
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
320
head. The head, of course, has the motion due to the revolutions of
the bar, excepting some special cases in which the work instead of the
bar revolves.
It is not essential
device be placed
on
to the successful operation of the bar that the star
end of the machine, nor is the shape or
the tail-stock
position of the trip that revolves the star device of any special importance.
small rod clamped to the shears of the lathe will serve the
purpose of the trip as well as the more convenient device shown in the
sketch.
A better design of sliding-head bar has a continuous rather
than intermittent feed. This makes a more expensive device, but it
In the illustration we show the bar arranged for
does better work.
boring a tapering hole, but the description applies equally well when
boring a parallel hole.
The sliding-head bar, while more expensive in construction than
either of the other bars, has one important advantage.
If required to
bore a long hole, or indeed any hole, with the fixed-head bar, the bar
at least twice the length of the bore if the sliding-head bar be
used, the bar need be only the length of the bore plus a small addition
must be
This is a very important consideration; for if the work
be as long as our longest lathe will admit, the -bar with fixed head can
not be used.
for clearance.
Considerations Governing the
Number
of Cutters.
The
single
and
double cutters described above are used mainly in small bores; when the
hole is large enough to use a fixed-head bar or a sliding-head bar, we
then generally use two or more cutters.
We use a number of cutters,
not because two, or even one, would be impracticable, but because a
If we have
larger number of cutters is more economical for a large hole.
to bore cylinders 3' in diameter, the work done by each cutter will be
about proportional to the number of cutters; and if one cutter be used, it
may wear so much as to require nearly twice as long to do the work as
compared with, say, a dozen cutters. On the other hand, the first cost
We
of the cutter-head will be greater for the larger number of cutters.
would rarely attempt, however, to bore so large a cylinder with one or
two
cutters,
and
if
we had a number
of such cylinders to bore, the final
saving would be more than sufficient to pay for the extra expense in
cutter-head and cutters.
of Driving Boring-bar in Lathe and in Boring-machine.
have already briefly referred to the method of driving boring-bars in
the lathe. It may be added that any kind of clamp, rod, stud, or lathedog secured to the end of the bar and engaging with the face-plate of
Methods
We
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
321
the lathe, or a stud projecting from same, will answer the purpose. It is
well, however, especially in case of large bores and heavy cutting, to
have the bar driven from opposite sides. This may be readily effected
by having a rod pass through the bal* equally on opposite sides of the bar,
We
in contact with two studs or other projections on the face-plate.
shall thus get a balanced drive, which does not tend to force the bar from
its
center.
In the drilling-machine and horizontal borer, the boring-bar is ordiby a key, by a tang on the end of the bar, or by a threaded
In the first case the bar may have a tapering end which fits
coupling.
a corresponding taper in the end of the spindle of machine, and which
is held by a key passing through the spindle and the tapering end of the
narily driven
In the second case also, the end of the bar is tapering and fits the
tapering hole in spindle, but instead of being held by a key the bar is
held by its flattened end or tang fitting a corresponding recess in the bottom
This bar is illustrated in Fig. 455.
of the tapering hole in spindle.
bar.
In this method we use
a threaded coupling or sleeve, one end of which screws onto the end of the
This
spindle and the other end onto the threaded end of the boring-bar.
The
third
method
is
illustrated in Fig. 461.
plate shows also a means of securing work and the arrangement for
guiding the end of the boring-bar. The method illustrated in Fig. 455
is
not well adapted to large bars, the other two methods being better
for this purpose.
In boring a large hole with a radial drilling-machine the lathe method
For this purpose we use
of driving a boring-bar is sometimes employed.
on
must
be
which
the sliding-head bar,
centers, the same as in
supported
the lathe.
One
of these centers
is
held in the tapering hole of the
drill-
may be held directly in the base-plate of the machine,
spindle
or in a supplementary plate made for the purpose.
Any bar other than
;
the other
the sliding-head bar cannot be used in this way in the drilling-machine.
Feeding Methods Used in Connection with Boring-bars. In describing the boring-bar in general it has been necessary to mention some of
the ways of effecting the feed, and the star feed has been described in
detail.
We
shall
used in the lathe
now
is
the
describe other methods.
common
The means ordinarily
moves the carriage.
feed gearing which
In this case the work is generally, though not invariably, fastened to the
carriage and travels with the carriage, and the bar with fixed cutters is
The carriage-feed is used also in a case like that illustrated in
In this sketch the work is shown clamped to the face-plate
463.
Fig.
of the lathe, and a modified form of sliding head is used, but neither the
used.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
322
head nor the bar revolves. A key may be used to keep the head from
turning, and the bar may be held by a rod passing through its right end.
The star feed is not used in connection with this head, the feed of
the head being effected by means which will now be described. The
FIG. 463.
sleeve
bar.
fits
S screws into the head H and with the head slides freely on the
Two slip collars lettered K are secured on the sleeve S; the yoke C
,
between these
collars
and has a U-shaped opening through which the
sleeve passes.
As the carriage moves, the yoke, being held in the toolpost in the ordinary manner, engages with one of the slip collars and thus
the head
This sketch, which represents
is fed lengthwise of the bar.
a horizontal section through the work and lathe face-plate, shows an
arrangement for boring a tapering hole, but the same mechanism could
be used in boring a parallel hole. For this purpose it would be necessary
to move the tail-stock, which is shown set off, to its normal position.
When boring in the radial drill and horizontal boring machine, the bar
generally fed to the work. The feeding mechanism used for this
purpose is nearly similar to that used in the lathe, and it is more
is
particularly described in connection with descriptions of the machines
mentioned.
Feeding Laterally with Star Feed. As used in boring, the star feed
has been sufficiently described; it is only necessary to refer to its use in
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
323
This is clearly illustrated in Fig. 464, which shows a bar
and cutter-head arranged for facing the flanges of an engine cylinder.
Instead of the head having direct connection with the bar, it slides hi a
dove-tail groove planed ki the fa$e of an arm projecting from the bar.
Passing through the head is the screw with star fastened on its extreme
lateral feeding.
FIG. 465.
FIG. 464.
As the bar revolves the star engages with some fixed projection,
which gives an intermittently revolving motion to the screw, and thus
feeds the head bearing the cutter radially to or from the bar.
The part here referred to as the head is sometimes called the toolblock; when thus designated, the arm and tool-block together constitute
the head. This arm is generally bored out to fit the bar, and is held fast
to the latter by a key or by set-screws. Some prefer to make the arm with
a square rather than with a round hole, and have it parted through the
center of the hole as shown in Fig. 465. This not only admits of the arm
being easily detached from the bar, but also makes it adjustable, within
The arm which has a round hole
certain limits, to different sizes of bars.
end.
should also be
The sketch
to be
by
clamped
made
to part through the center of the hole.
in Fig. 464 shows an engine-cylinder which is assumed
to the carriage of the lathe, and to have been bored out
either a fixed-head bar or a sliding-head bar.
The cutter-head which
has just been described is used for machining the flanges of the cylinder.
Having machined the faces of the cylinder-flanges, the cutter shown in the
is removed and a cutter similar to that shown on the opposite
end of the cylinder is used for turning the edges of the flanges. When
tool-block
turning these edges the trip that operates the star feed is dispensed with,
is effected by the movement of the lathe-carriage, as previ-
and the feed
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
324
The cutter-head must,
ously described.
end of the bar
of course,
be moved to the other
machining the opposite end of the cylinder.
for
Boring Tapering Holes with Boring-bar.
When
boring a tapering
hole with the boring-bar it is necessary to have the bar arranged at an
angle to the axis of the bore. Fig. 457 illustrates one of the methods
This view shows a vertical section through face-plate of lathe
The bar
latter being secured to the lathe-carriage.
used.
and work, the
is supported at the tail-stock end in the ordinary manner, but at the
head-stock end it is supported by an auxiliary center held in the faceThe distance between this auxiliary center and the center of
plate.
the lathe-spindle is determined by the taper of the hole to be bored.
In boring a tapering hole with work clamped to carriage as shown in
Means of feedthis plate, the sliding-head bar is the right bar to use.
It is sufficient
ing the cutters of this bar have already been described.
to observe that in this particular case, the cutter or cutters must be
on one
side of the bar only.
to the one
Any
cutters that might be placed opposite
shown would have no contact with the work, and would,
therefore, be inoperative.
may be made with a boring-bar by angling the bar
end of the lathe; but in this case both lathe-centers
are used in their normal position, the angularity of the bar being effected
by securing an arm to the bar and making a work-center in this arm.
tapering hole
at the tail-stock
In this method, as well as in the
ing holes with the bar, the work
first
is
method described
for boring taper-
supposed to be clamped to the lathe-
carriage, the latter being held in a stationary position, and the feed
As in the previous cases,
effected by movement of the sliding head.
the taper of the hole is determined by the distance between the normal
and the new work-center in the arm.
of Feeding Methods, an arrangement for boring taperwith the boring-bar and with work clamped to the face-plate
center in the bar
Under the head
ing holes
has already been described.
This arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 463.
be unnecessary to further describe this method, but the student
should observe that in this case the taper is effected by setting off the
It will
tail-stock.
In Fig. 466 * is shown a cutter-head with which a tapering hole may
be bored without offsetting the tail-stock. In this case the head itself
is tapering, and a dovetailed tool-block, sliding in a similarly shaped
The latter is fed by the star-feed mechanism.
shown broken off at both ends, is carried on the lathe-
groove, carries the tool.
The
bar,
*
which
is
Cut taken from an
article in
"American Machinist,"
vol. 27,
page 529.
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
325
and is driven by a lathe-dog or
on the bar, being tightly secured to
centers in line with the lathe-spindle,
otherwise.
The head does not
slide
the latter.
Reboring Engine-cylinders Without Removing Same from Engine.
In repairing an old engine, it is sometimes cheaper to rebore the cylinder
r\g
Tool Holder
Ajnerieav. Machinist
FIG. 466.
in its place
tools furnish
device
may
than to take it to the shop.
Manufacturers of machine
an elaborate apparatus for this purpose; but a satisfactory
be improvised as follows: Remove the piston, one or both
and sometimes the guides from the engine, and adjust
a sliding-head bar in the cylinder, concentric with the counterbore. One
end of this bar may be held in the stuffing-box a bushing being used
cylinder-heads,
necessary the other end being supported by a guide bolted across
the end of the cylinder by means of the studs.
The reason we adjust the bar by the counterbore is that this part of
if
the cylinder, being beyond the travel of the piston, and larger in diameter
than the normal bore of the cylinder, cannot wear out of true. When
thus bored, the original alinement of the cylinder will be preserved,
which is essential to the smooth working of the engine.
The bar may be operated by hand in connection with crank and
if convenient to any revolving shaft, it may be operated
gearing, or,
by power. It would be necessary to support the end thrust of the cut
by means of a shoulder or slip-collar on the bar. In the more elaborate
apparatus mentioned above, the means for supporting the bar and the
arrangement for holding the cutters admit of adjustment to various
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
326
The gearing is also more complicated, a continuous
sizes of cylinders.
In some designs there is
feed being used instead of the intermittent.
provision for more than one rate of feed, but this can also be effected
by using one or more trips.
Precautions Necessary in Smooth-boring. Causes of Chattering.
in the star-feed device
To
insure smooth-boring the boring-bar should be as short and as rigid as
If the
practicable, and the cutters should be held rigidly in the bar.
feed be effected
by the movement
of the carriage, there should be
no
If the
unnecessary looseness in the adjustment in the carriage-gibs.
sliding-head bar be used the head should fit the bar, and the feather or
key which prevents the head from turning on the bar should be as
a
close
as practicable.
The instructions
fit
which have been given respecting rates of feed in
Chapter XI will apply to boring-bar work.
For taking a finishing cut the cutter should generally have a broad
bearing in the bore and be fed faster than when taking the roughing cut.
But when the broad bearing
when a
of the cutter causes chattering, as
it
sometimes
used, it may be necessary to reduce the bearing.
One of the principal causes of chattering is too much heel clearance in
the cutter. This should be thoroughly understood. Failing to appre-
does
slender bar
is
and giving the cutter too much heel clearance, will result
not only in rough work but in noisy operation. The heel clearance
should never be more than sufficient for smooth-cutting. Reducing
ciate this,
the heel clearance will sometimes enable us to increase the breadth of
and rate of feed.
Shapes of Cutters. Fig. 467 is a diagram showing cutters placed
at various angles with respect to radial lines through the axis of the
boring-bar. This figure also shows respectively at (1) and (2) the face
views of roughing and finishing cutters, and at (3) a form of cutter sometimes used when the slots in the cutter-head are parallel with the axis
rather than at right angles. No. 1 is about right for finishing cuts also in
such metals as wrought iron and steel. It will be seen that the distance
between the heel of each cutter and the circle is very small, and that
the curve of the heel is eccentric. Sometimes cutters are made with
no clearance at this point, or only so much as may be given with an oilstone.
Such cutters cut on the advancing end or corner, at which points
they must have clearance. The corner of the cutters should be well
rounded, as shown at A. To get the best results, especially with cutters
which have little or no peripheral clearance, the cutter after being fitted
to the head or to the bar should be turned in the lathe.
cutter contact
THE BORING-BAR AND
ITS
USE
327
The cutter at C, if well fitted and supported in, a heavy bar, will
cut wrought iron or steel very well. Under similar circumstances it
will also cut cast iron, although it is not usually considered necessary
to have so much rake for -this metal. But, if the bar be of small diameter
in proportion to its length, or the cutters project far
beyond
their sup-
ROUGHING CUTTER
FINISHING
CUTTER
FIG. 467.
C would be likely to cause jar and chatter.
Under the unfavorable conditions referred to, and indeed under average
conditions, the cutter is likely to do smoother work when made with little
In boring brass, and in some cases of
rake, as at C 1, or with no rake.
boring cast iron when it seems difficult to overcome the chatter in any
port, cutters placed as at
other way, the tool may be given negative rake, as in C 2.
The causes of chattering are various, and only the leading causes
have been mentioned. Sometimes the difficulty may be overcome
piece of leather or waste between the tail of the dog and the
face-plate or stud by which it is driven.
The wear of the boring-bar centers may, by causing looseness of
by placing a
the boring-bar between the lathe centers, cause chattering. Boringbar centers should therefore have ample bearing. Large cast-iron boring-bars should be made with steel plugs for the centers and oil-holes
should be provided for oiling the center without loosening the tail-spindle.
Boring-bar cutters should be tempered about the same as other
lathe-tools.
CHAPTER XXI
HORIZONTAL BORING- AND DRILLING-MACHINES AND WORK.
CRANK-BORING MACHINE
Description of Typical Machines.
The
horizontal boring-machine
and finish holes, as, for
designed mainly
of
the
It will also
bracket-boxes, pillow-blocks, etc.
boring
example,
The bed B, head-stock H, table-support T 1,
drill holes from the solid.
and yoke Y comprise the main framework of the machine. The spindle
shown
in Fig.
468
to enlarge
is
driven by pulley P and back-gearing G as in a lathe. It is fed
lengthwise by cone pulleys P 2 and other mechanism not shown in the
is
cut.
The hand-wheel
HI
gives the hand-feed.
The
table
is
adjusted
and lengthwise by the shaft S 2 and crank H 2. The vertical
movement is effected by means of gearing and shafts S 3 and S 4, which
operate the screws S 1 and S 5. The power for this purpose is applied
by a hand-crank. The longitudinal movement of the table is 26". The
traverse of the spindle in a machine of this (medium) size is sufficient to
bore a hole 20" long.
The work is bolted to the table T, and is adjusted in line with S
crosswise
by the movement
of the table as described.
The boring-bar
is
placed. in position in the yoke and secured to the spindle by a key,
end of the bar being shaped to fit the hole in end of spindle S.
then
one
(In
some work the spindle S is used as a boring-bar.) The cutters in the
bar are next adjusted and the bar fed through the work by the feed
mechanism above described.
This is a very convenient machine for boring cylinders, hangers,
small framework, etc. By using a suitable attachment for guiding the
end of the bar much of the work done on this machine could be done
though not so conveniently and quickly.
"
"
machine of this class. It will be seen
the Binsse
469
shows
Fig.
that the cone pulley is not placed on the main spindle in this machine.
on a
radial drill,
The speed changes
driving-gear.
are
made by
motion to the
a lever
left
L shown
behind the large
gives the quick-speed series,
328
330
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
contrary movement engages the slow or back-gear speeds, and the
mediate position of the lever stops the rotation of the bar.
inter-
FIG. 469.
The Feeds. These machines are made in both gear- and friction-feeds.
The illustration shows the machine having friction-feed. Motion is trans-
,,
FIG. 470.
mitted to the friction-disks F, F 1, and F2 by the gears G. On the
worm-shaft S 1 is a worm engaging with a worm-wheel.
The shaft
of the latter gives a traversing motion to S
not
shown.
mechanism
by
HORIZONTAL BORING- AND DRILLING-MACHINES
This mechanism
may
The Work.
two bevel-gears operating a screw
or
a rack and pinion, the rack beAC,
The feed may be changed by raising
consist of either
passing through a threaded nut in
ing bolted to the under side of N.
or lowering the disks
331
F l.-r
Fig. 470 shows a casting in one of these machines
secured to an angle-plate and ready to be roughed out with a three-lip
drill.
When the drilling is completed the hole may be reamed to final
More accurate work, however, may be done by " truing" up
size.
the hole with a boring-bar before using the reamer.
Fig. 471
at each end.
shows a casting in which three small holes are to be bored
For this purpose a small bar is inserted in the socket of
FIG. 471.
main spindle and a reducing bushing is used in the yoke. Havthe upper holes, the bar is removed and the table adjusted to
bored
ing
the
The screws
work into alinement for the next two holes.
bring
the
controlling the table movements in these machines are furnished with
index-dials reading to thousandths of an inch. These dials are of
value in work
of
the
above character or
in
any other work where
accurate spacing of the holes is required. For work requiring a higher
degree of accuracy, such as fine jig-work, etc., a precision cross- feed screw
is
furnished.
The Facing Attachment shown
in Fig. 472
is
parted in the middle
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
332
and it may be readily secured by the two bolts and a key
any position lengthwise of the bar. The cutter is held at C, being
clamped by the nut N 1, and it is fed radially by the star feed shown.
of its bore,
in
'
Nl
FIG. 472.
In Fig. 473 a slightly different facing attachment is shown in operaIn this particular case the bar and yoke cannot be used, and the
tion.
FIG. 473.
on the end of the spindle. Ordinarily the bar
may pass through the work, and when necessary the attachment may
be reversed and the opposite end of the work faced.
attachment
is
carried
HORIZONTAL BORING- AND DRILLING-MACHINES
Miscellaneous
this
Work
333
with the Facing Attachment. The author of
in a horizontal boring-machine for a
work has used a facing-head
FIG. 474.
great variety of interior and exterior turning. With a tool similar to
the boring-tool used in the tool-post of a lathe, shallow holes may be
"
bored to size or merely trued up" preparatory to the use of the reamer,
and with a thread-tool
interior threads
may
be cut.
Also with suit-
able tools various shapes of turning
may be performed on hubs, includ-
ing thread-cutting.
Fig.
474 shows a boring-head
for large holes.
This
is
secured to
'
the bar by a key or bolted to a
The cutters
face-plate on the bar.
are adjusted by the screws and
held by the straps as shgwn.
Rotary Tables. These tables
provide a means by which holes
radiating from a common center
may
be drilled or bored.
They
carriage as shown in Fig. 475.
180 of movement.
FIG. 475.
are fitted to
The one
the cross-feed table or
in the figure
is
graduated for
Milling in the Horizontal Borer. When supplied with either hand
or power cross-feed the horizontal boring-machine may be used as a
miller.
Fig. 476
shows a large drum mounted on indexing
centers.
It is
334
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
required to mill four deep slots in the drum. Having milled the first
shown, the drum is turned through 90 by the indexing mechan-
slot as
FIG. 476.
ism and the next slot milled, etc.
This illustration shows only one
method, but it is obvious that face-mills, end-mills, and other millingcutters may be secured to the end of the spindle or on the bar and
used on any work to which the cutters are adapted.
Base-boring and Drilling Machines. In Figs. 477 to 480 inclusive
is described a class of machines which, in order to distinguish them
from the foregoing, we shall call base-boring machines.
These
machines are especially adapted to heavy framework, and this work
is usually secured to the low base-plate of the boring-machine.
There
is considerable variation in the design of these machines, and in some
of them tapping and milling may be done as well as drilling and boring.
Fig. 477 is a perspective view of one of these machines and Fig. 478
shows the machine engaged in boring two large frame castings. These
castings are bolted together in connection with their cross-girts, and
in boring the two together more accurate alinement may be obtained
than if they were bored separately.
In Fig. 479 is shown the same machine milling T slots in the table
,;
HORIZONTAL BORING- AND DRILLING-MACHINES
FIG. 477.
FIG. 478.
335
336
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG. 479.
FIG. 480.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
338
of some machine. For this work two milling-cutters are required. First
a rectangular slot of the full depth is cut with an end-mill. The under
cutting is next done with a mill of the required shape.
FIG. 482.
The usual method of securing a
to
a
is clearly shown in Fig. 480.
In
table
machine-tool
plain cylinder
this case the flanges of the cylinder are to be faced, drilled, and tapped
Machining a Flanged Cylinder.
at one chucking.
Two
stout timbers
upon which the cylinder
is
to
Two shorter pieces are similarly
shaped to fit the cylinder.
as
hold
the
In some cases
to
used
and
straps
cylinder down.
shaped
the timbers, having been cut out to the approximate shape, are bored
rest are
out to
fit
the cylinder while
strapped to the
boring-machine base-
FIG
4X3.
339
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
340
plate, or table.
This method facilitates the accurate alinement of the
cylinder in the boring-machine. The use of a wooden fixture is very
desirable in clamping frail cylinders, the elasticity of the wood compensating for any irregularity there may be in the periphery of the
When a large number of cylinders are to be machined, a
cylinder.
cast-iron
fixture is generally used; but in the case of frail work
special
the fixture must be adjusted with delicacy and skill to avoid distorting
the cylinder.
The latter precaution
is
of especial
importance in boring a
cylinder.
The machines described
in
connection with the three preceding
work. Both heads are
illustrations are designed for a large variety of
adjustable vertically on the standards, and both standards are adjustaThe left standard is also adjustable to
ble lengthwise on the base.
These machines have the usual
and from the right-hand standard.
automatic and hand feeds.
and Facing-machine. In Fig. 481 we show a machine
designed especially for boring and facing gun-hoops. It is evident,
however, that other cylindrical work can be bored as well. In addition to various sizes of interchangeable cutter-heads the machine has
two facing-heads. These facing-heads are carried on revolving-sleeves
The driving mechanism consists of
in the head-stock and tail-stock.
the cone pulley and gearing on the left. The machine has the usual
hand and automatic feed, the latter consisting of the cone pulleys and
gearing shown at the right.
The special fixtures used for holding cylinders are constructed on
In
practically the same principle as a steady rest used in the lathe.
this machine two steady rests are used instead of a special fixture.
Portable Boring-, Drilling-, and Milling-machines. These machines,
one of which is shown in Fig. 482, are designed to be used in connection
with a large base-plate and bolted in different positions on the plate
Special Boring-
instead of
moving the work.
This
is
advantageous in very heavy work.
Being electrically driven, these machines are independent of the main
The column swivels on a graduated base and the whole machine
shaft.
may be fed along a short distance on its sub-base without slackening
the bolts which secure it to the floor-plate.
Boring-machines somewhat similar to the above are made with a
head which swivels in a vertical plane in addition to the swiveling base.
These are Universal boring-,
drilling-,
and milling-machines.
CRANK-BORING MACHINE
341
CRANK-BORING MACHINE
A
As
is
good example of the crank-boring machine is shown in Fig. 483.
be seen the spindle is vertical. On the lower end of the spindle
will
a cutter-head carrying three cutters. The cutters bore the shaft-holes
in large crank-arms by making a circular groove
and crank-pin holes
which releases the
making chips
central
core.
This
is
of all the material removed.
very much
When
facing
the head on the spindle is replaced by the one on the
Holes as small as 2" in diameter are sometimes
quicker than
to be done
is
floor.
made with
cutters
arranged somewhat similar to the method described above. There is,
3
however, this difference: a hole about /V' diameter is first drilled and
the small cutter-head
is
made with
a central pin or pilot which
is
guided
this
same manner that a pin-drill is guided. With
device the core removed is in the form of a hollow cylinder or ring.
The
tool
by the small
is
hole in the
not adapted to drilling deep holes, but large holes
drilled deeper because the cutters
may
may
be
be stronger.
Large cylinders for vertical engines are usually bored in a vertical
If bored in a horizontal
boring-mill designed especially for such work.
machine the deflection of the cylinder-walls might cause the cylinder to
be "out of round" when
set
on
its
permanent foundation.
In 1882 the
cylinder for the steamer Pilgrim was bored at the Morgan Iron
New York, where the writer was then employed. This cylinder
diameter by 14' stroke.
sliding-head bar.
It
was bored
in a vertical
Works
in
was 110"
machine with a
CHAPTER XXII
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS, TOOLS AND
WORK
Advantage of the Machine in Turning Heavy Work. In the horizontal boring- and drilling-machine and in the upright drill the tool
In the
(with rare exceptions) revolves and the work is stationary.
work
revolves
while
the
tool is
vertical boring- and turning-mill the
stationary at least the tool does not revolve. The last-named machine
is in reality a lathe, and could with propriety be called a vertical-spindle
lathe.
It is designed to do about the same class of work as is done on
some short chucking-lathes, and is better adapted to such work, as we
shall presently show.
Fig. 484 shows a 37" Bullard boring- and turningT
The table
serves the same purpose as the face-plate of a lathe,
mill.
the work being secured to the table by straps and bolts, as shown in Fig.
In the first figure the machine
484, or by a chuck, as shown in Fig. 485.
saddle
and
is shown facing a boring-mill
turning the edge, both tools
being used, while in the second illustration the operation is that of
turning the inner and outer diameters of a cylindrical shell. The machines
shown
in these
two
illustrations are designed for
comparatively small
work, but when we
handle work
consider that the larger machines of this class will
of many tons weight, the advantage of the horizontal table
Thus, in securing an engine fly-wheel
ten
to
the
vertical
tons,
weighing, say,
face-plate of a lathe, it is necessary
to support this weight independently of the face-plate during the time
or face-plate will be apparent.
If the same fly-wheel were turned in a vertical
and
its
turning-mill
boringweight would be supported by the horizontal
and
for
this
it
reason
cpuld be more quickly adjusted concentric
table,
of adjusting the work.
with the spindle of the machine.
Another advantage of the
latter
that the weight of the revolving mass does not tend to wear
the spindle out of correct alinement, as it does in the ordinary lathe.
Fig. 486 shows a sectional view of the table and spindle of the machine
machine
is
The weight is supported on the angular bearing
held to its bearing by the adjusting-nut N.
342
illustrated in Fig. 484.
B> and the spindle
is
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS
343
In Fig. 487 is shown a rear view of the same machine as arranged
Power is transmitted from the
to be driven by a constant-speed motor.
FIG. 484.
motor
by
We
to the cone-pulley shaft by a Renold silent chain.
may say
way of parenthesis that this chain furnishes a very efficient and
344
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
satisfactory drive.
bv a leather belt.
The lower cone-pulley P is connected to the upper
On the same shaft with the lower cone pulley is a
1'iG.
485.
bevel-gear G meshing with the bevel-gear G 1. The latter drives the
table through the reducing gears shown, the last gear in this train being
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS
345
the bevel-gear G2, which meshes with a large gear on the under side
of the table.
FIG. 486.
Fig. 488 shows a complete front view of the 37" machine. The
two side-castings H, called the housing, are bolted to the bed B and
346
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
the whole is supported on a foundation of masonry. Movable
on the housing is the cross-rail R carrying the two heads H 1.
vertically
Both
of
FIG. 487.
these
have
move on R, and each carries a tool-holder T. The vertical slides
vertical movement and angular movement in a vertical plane.
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS
347
They are fed automatically by the feed-gearing G 3, screw S, and rod R I.
They may also be operated by hand-cranks shown. The table T, to
FIG. 488.
which the work
is bolted, is operated
described in connection with Fig. 487.
by cone
pulleys
and gearing
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
348
Each of the two tool-heads may be moved to a central position over
the table, the vertical slides being bored to receive boring-bars in this
FIG. 489.
position.
of bars.
The
By
bored to receive bushings to fit different sizes
at each
arrangement a boring-bar may be supported
table
this
is
also
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS
end, and this
reamers,
makes
drills, etc.,
it
349
a great deal stiffer for taking heavy cuts.
Large
also be heki in the vertical slide.
To receive
may
FIG. 490.
small
drills and
reamers, the tool-post is bored to the Morse taper, and
these smaller tools may be used without
removing the tool-post from the
350
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
drilling and reaming each of the heads may be moved
up
fixed
a
This stop brings the drill or reamer into
against
stop.
exact
alinement with the center of the table.
slide.
In
FIG. 491.
This machine appears to have some one of the
modern "cone-ofgears" feeding systems. The feed has ten changes
ranging from i/32
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS
to
/4
inch horizontally, and from
/ 50 to
/ 2 inch
in
351
angular and
vertical directions.
FIG. 492.
In Fig. 489 we show some of the tools used in a vertical
Tools.
The names of these tools are as follows: No. 1,
and
turning-mill.
boring-
The
352
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
No. 2, boring-bar; No. 3, hog-nose turning-tool; No. 4,
wide finishing-tool; No. 5, round-nose tool; No. 6, side finishing-tool;
No. 7 boring-tool; No. 8, cutters for boring-bar.
tool-holder;
FIG. 493.
In Fig. 490 is shown a method of bracing a high casting,
Fig. 491 we show how the angle-plate may be used in holding work
a face at right angles to the surface to be machined.
and
in
having
In roughing-out a casting with a broad tool it is often advantageous
to notch the cutting-edge of the tool as was explained in connection
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS
with Fig. 203.
vertical boring-
In Fig. 492 we show the principle as used on work in a
and turning-mill, a notched tool being shown at the
and a plain tool at the left.
The boring-mills described irfthis chapter
right
are of small size.
The
FIG. 494.
same manufacturers, however, make them also in large
machines are made smaller and with only one tool-head.
sizes.
Some
Special Boring-mills for Car-wheels.
boring-mill designed especar-wheels is shown in Fig. 493.
This machine carries a
cially for
universal chuck in connection with the table.
The jaws of this chuck
under the flange of the wheel in such a manner that by one movement
of the chuck-wrench the car-wheels are chucked true.
Attached to the
machine is a hoisting device for lifting the car-wheels on and off. The
fit
boring-bar is counterbalanced, as boring-bars are in all vertical boringThis machine is for boring and facing the hubs only.
mills.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
354
Turret-heads on Vertical Boring- and Turning-mills. The turret
which has been described in connection with other machines
principle,
FIG. 495.
used also on vertical boring- and turning-mills. In
shown a five-tool turret as applied to machines of this class.
in this book,
Fig. 494
is
is
VERTICAL BORING- AND TURNING-MILLS
355
In machining a pulley, for instance, all the tools for this work, including
the reamer for the bore, could be held in the turret-head. In Fig. 495
we show several tools used in connection with the turret-head, the names
which are as follows* No. 1, four-lip drill; No. 2, boring-bar; No. 3,
sectional view of adjustable reamer with floating shank; * No. 4, perspective view of same reamer, and No. 5, limit-gage.
of
and turning-mills can be furnished with gearing
The turret-machine shown in Fig. 494 is provided
with thread-cutting mechanism, and the driving- and feeding-gears,
Vertical boringfor cutting thread.
which are of novel design, are
of
fully described in vol. 27, pages 116-118,
the "American Machinist."
* The shank end of the floating-shank reamer is so constructed as to admit of
a small degree of looseness or freedom, the object being to compensate for a possible error in the
alinement of the machine.
CHAPTER XXIII
PLANERS AND SHAPERS AND PLANER AND SHAPER
The Metal Planer.
WORK
In Fig. 496, which shows a typical metal planer,
T the work-table, R
S and tool-block T
the cross-rail, C the cross-head carryI the housing, and P, PI,
1,
2,
ing tool-slide
1
3 tight and loose pulleys on driving-shaft. The housing castings
Cross-rail R is movable vertically
are bolted on either side of the bed B.
is
the bed,
on the housing by a crank on shaft H, which shaft operates, through
the gears G 2, two screws passing through threaded lugs on R.
Crosshead C has automatic movement on R by feed-disk Z), feed-gearing F
and rack F 1. The slide S may be clamped on C at any angle in the vertical plane, and when so clamped may be fed automatically by the
feed mechanism noted.
Feed-disk. Fig. 497 shows a sectional view of a feed-disk similar
A side elevation of the disk
in principle to the one on this machine.
its
is
shown in Fig. 498. The shaft
and
accompanying mechanism
is
its motion is reversed when
in
and
S3
driven by gearing,
Fig. 497
the planer-bed reverses. Integral with S 3 is flange F 2. The disk D
is in two parts, D and D 1, and these are held together on F 2 by the
screws S 4. Between F 2 and the disc are the two leather washers
y
shown. Now when S 3 revolves, D is caused to revolve with it by friction between the leather and the disks.
Being driven by friction, which
be increased or diminished by the screws S 4, the disk D may be
stopped independently of S 3. While S 3 makes a number of revolu-
may
depending upon the length of table-stroke, D always makes less
than one revolution. The motion of D is limited by S 5 operating
between two fixed projections on the side of the housing. Referring
back to Fig. 496, while D always moves the same, the feed may be
varied by moving B I nearer to or farther from the center of the disk.
For this purpose knob K, in connection with the screw S, shown in Fig.
tions,
498,
is
used.
Feed-gearing in Cross-head.
mechanism with
C and S
is
The immediate connection of the
1 and feed-rod
made by the screw S
356
feed
F 3.
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
357
This will be more clearly understood by reference to the sectional view,
This figure shows a vertical section through center of C, S,
Fig. 499.
.,.
and T
on C.
permits
be seen that S 1 passes through a threaded lug fastened
drives the miter gear G 3 by means of a feather key, which
3 to slide on
3.
Meshing with G 3 is the miter gear G 4,
It will
F3
G
operating the screw
by means
of gears
G5
and
G 6. When S 2
is
358
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
D1
C1
FIG. 498.
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
in operation
it
causes the slide
whether the pawl
its
ratchet-wheel
P4
F 4.
to
(Fig. 498) is^in
Cross-head
359
move up or down, depending on
forward or reverse connection with
(Fig. 499) may be fed independ-
FIG. 499.
as
S and vice
versa, and by placing the pawl in a neutral position,
in Fig. 498, both feeds may be disengaged.
Table Movement, etc. The table T (Fig. 496) traverses the bed
ently of
shown
backward and forward, being guided in the V-shaped ways V.
work is secured to the table, and for each stroke of the table the
The
cross-
head C, carrying the cutting-tool, is fed a distance of from about 1 /64
to l /2 inch, depending upon the nature of the work.
The movement of
the table toward the tool is effected by an open belt which runs on the
The first of these pulleys runs loosely
pulleys P and P 1 (Fig. 500)
4.
and the other is tight on shaft
On the same shaft are two other
.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
360
pulleys, tight
and
the end of
stroke the
its
loose,
with a crossed
belts
belt.
When
the table reaches
are automatically shifted, so that the belts
FIG. 500.
which were on the tight and loose pulleys P 1 and P 2 are now on P
and P 3. In other words, when the open belt is driving the table for-
uui
Rack
G11
FIG. 501.
ward the
running
Keyed
cross-belt
the
to
S4
table
is
is running idly on P2. and when the
backward the open belt is running
pinion
G 8.
This gear, with
its
cross-belt
idly
is
on P.
connecting-gears
G9
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
361
and G 10, gives motion to the large gear Gil, which meshes with a
rack on the under side of the table. A side view of this larger gear,
with a section of the table, is shown in Fig. 501.
Referring again to Fig. 496, the belts are caused to shift by the
L is connected to the
dogs or tappets D I engaging with lever L.
of
levers
not
a
shown.
As
the tool does not cut
belts by
system
clearly
on the reverse stroke the table traverses several times faster on the
reverse stroke than on the forward.
" Second-belt Planer-drive."
Fig. 502 shows a planer the drivingfrom
of
which
is
a
ordinary construction. It will be
departure
gear
FIG. 502.
noticed that in place of the two gears usually seen on the rear side of
the planer, this machine has a short open belt. The connection of this
belt with the other elements of the driving-gear
is
clearly
shown
in
From
the three driving-pulleys K, upon which the usual
Fig.
narrow shifting belts are employed, it is easy to follow the driving
mechanism up to the pinion J which engages directly with the bed503.
rack.
The
tension of the belt
E is maintained by the weight B as shown.
principal claim of the manufacturers is softness of action, due to
the substitution of a belt in place of high-speed gears. This softness
The
of action they say "assists greatly in turning off smooth, finely finished
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
362
work," and at the same time admits of higher cutting and return speeds.
Since the introduction of high-speed steel there has been a growing
demand
for higher planer speeds, but the difficulty is due in a considerable measure to the reciprocating movement of the heavy table.
Fi3.
533
Designers are beginning to see the necessity of providing some means
for cushioning this
made with
mass
of metal,
and some
efforts
have been recently
this in view.
Open -side Planer.
vey open-side planer.
Fig.
As
504 shows a rear view of the Detrick & Harbe seen this machine has but one housing
will
The object of this design is to provide for wider work than
casting.
would pass between two castings. The overhang necessitates a very
heavy cross-rail and housing casting, and one rear view of the machine
In
is presented in order to better show the proportions of these parts.
these machines the pulley-shaft is parallel to the planer-table, spiral
gears being used to operate the latter. The tables are reversed "at a
ratio of from three to four, to one, depending upon the size of the
planer." In this respect the open-side planer is about the same as
other planers.
For work extending much beyond the end of the cross-rail a supplemental rolling table is furnished with the open-side planer. This supplemental table is shown in connection with Fig. 505, which is a front
view of the planer.
Extension -heads. In the absence of a planer of the above descripshown
tion, wide work may be planed by the use of the extension-arm
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
in Fig. 506.
This extension
is
fastened to the tool-slide
which ordinarily hold the tool-block, the
bolts
363
latter
by the same
being secured
*
.
FIG. 504.
on the outer end of the arm.
This device
factory as the open-side planer.
Extra Heads on Large Planers.
Some
is,
of course, not so satis-
of the larger size planers
have two cross-heads or tool-heads and take two cuts at once; and
the largest planers have, in addition to the above, one head on each
of the housing castings,
505 has three tool-heads.
making four heads.
The planer shown
in Fig.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
364
Difference Between the Shaper and Planer.
Different Designs of
Shapers. The shaper is a kind of small planer. One essential difference between the two machines is that in the typical planer the work
moves
to the tool, while in the shaper the tool moves to the work.
made in two leading designs respecting the ram movement,
Shapers are
namely, crank-shapers and geared shapers. In the crank-shaper the ram
In the geared shaper
is driven directly or indirectly by a crank movement.
the ram is driven by a gear meshing in a rack on the under side of the ram.
General Description of a Crank-shaper. Fig. 507 is a perspective
"
view of a Cincinnati" back-geared crank-shaper, and Figs. 508, 509,
FIG. 505.
and 510 are
sectional views.
the views.
ram
Similar letters refer to similar parts in all
A is the box frame or column; B the
Referring to Fig. 507,
in
sliding
guides on top of A,
graduated swiveling-plate, which
tical plane;
the tool-slide;
and carrying the
cutting-tool;
the
may be locked in any angle in a verthe apron or tool-block on D; F the
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
FIG. 506.
FIG. 507.
365
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
366
cross-rail;
the table and
The work may be held by
a vise detachably secured to the table.
T slots on either of the three faces
bolts in
FIG. 508.
The table may be removed
it may be held in the vise.
from the saddle / and certain kinds of work may be bolted to the latter.
of the table, or
The saddle is fed along the rail F by means of the
ratchet and pawl device shown. The latter operates
a screw passing through a threaded nut on the saddle. The crossrail is moved vertically on the planed face of the column by a crank
on the lower square-end shaft.
Driving-gear. The ram B is driven primarily by the cone pulley X 1.
The sectional view, Fig. 509, shows that this pulley is secured to the
On this same shaft is keyed a pinion-clutch u, which by means
shaft y.
Feed-gearing.
slotted crank
J and
z' (Fig. 508) may be engaged with the clutch-teeth on gear w
turns
In
freely on y), or brought into mesh with the gear v.
(which
the former case the train of gears w, x, and k would be set in motion
of the lever
and the machine would be running in single gear. In the latter case
the gears u, v, x, and k would be caused to revolve and the machine (or
ram) would run slower, being in back-gear.
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
The ram
367
motion from its connection at g with the
and the operation of this link is as follows:
Secured to the gear k is an adjustable crank-pin, I, shown in Figs. 508 and
This pin is journated in a Octangular block m. When k rotates
510.
oscillating
beam
receives its
or "link"
i,
X1
FIG. 509.
FIG. 510.
with it, and as
is a sliding fit in the slot in the link, the
caused
to
oscillate
latter
by
through an angle depending upon the
radial distance of the crank-pin from the axis of the gear k.
Quick Return. During the time that the crank-pin is moving in the
upper part of its circular path the ram is moving forward. In the lower
it
carries
is
portion of its path the crank-pin approaches closer to the pivot
the link, and the motion of the ram is reversed at a higher velocity.
Stroke Adjustment.
The length
of ram-stroke
is
X2
of
adjusted by moving
(Fig. 510) toward or from the center of the gear k, the
movement of I being effected by the screw n, gears o, p, and a crankhandle at q'. The square end of shaft q to which the crank-handle is
applied is seen just above the cone pulley in Fig. 507. The length-
the crank-pin
wise position of the ram is changed by moving the lever c (Fig. 508) and
turning the hand-wheel /. The connection of the latter with gears e and
screw d is clearly shown.
is in motion.
The ram may be adjusted while the machine
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
368
Geared Shapers. The general construction of the geared shaper with
respect to the framework, table, cross-rail, and feed mechanism is much
the same as that of the crank-shaper. The quick return, however, is
ment.
by making a difference in the diameters of the drivingAs previously stated, the ram is driven by a rack and gear moveThe driving mechanism of a geared shaper does not differ suffi-
ciently
from that of a planer to justify a detailed description here.
generally effected
pulleys.
The Traverse Shaper. In the ordinary shaper the ram has only one
movement the reciprocating movement the work being fed by the
intermittent movement of the table on the cross-rail at right angles to
The traverse shaper illustrated in Fig. 511 is so
the ram movement.
called from the fact that the ram, in addition to its reciprocating movement, is given an intermittent traverse or feeding motion at right angles
to
reciprocating motion.
its
These machines are made either with two rams or one, bat they
nearly always have two tables. As indicated above, the tables do not
need any feed motion, but they may be independently adjusted in ver-
and Horizontal directions on the main frame. The driving mechof this machine consists of the pulley P, the gears operating
the crank-gear G, and the rod C connecting G with the ram. The
means of changing the length of stroke by moving the crank-pin
toward or from the center in the slot in G will be readily understood
from the engraving. The hidden end of the connecting-rod C is journaled on a stud or wrist-pin^ which is adjustable in a slot lengthwise of
the ram, and it is by this means that the position of the ram is changed.
The intermittent feed of the ram by means of gears, screw, etc., is but
little different from that of the table feed of the common shaper.
These
tical
anism
machines are especially adapted for very long work.
Ram Movement on Geared Shapers and Crank-shapers Compared.
In the geared shaper the motion of the ram is uniform as to velocity,
but not well controlled as to length of stroke; that is to say, when
adjusted for a given length it may travel a fraction more or a fracThis is due to a slight irregularity in the action of the
In the crank-shaper the motion is not uniform, but the length of
stroke is accurately controlled by the positive connections. In such
tion
less.
belts.
exceptional cases as necessitate planing to a line, the crank-shaper has
the advantage.
Variable -speed Shaper-gear.
The tendency to substitute tooth
for
cone
has
been
referred
to elsewhere in this work.
In
gearing
pulleys
512
and
513
illustrate
the
to
a
Figs.
variable-speed gearing adapted
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
369
Referring to Fig. 512, on the shaft d is a nest of gears which
shaper.
These in connection with the
serve the same purpose as a cone pulley.
back-gearing give a wide range* of speeds to the ram.
The
shaft a, to
which the long pinion b is keyed, is driven directly by the belt, or indirectly
by the back-gears. These are not shown in the engraving. The inner
end of the shaft a is journaled in the bracket as shown. Journaled in
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
370
is a short shaft to which is keyed a frame
For each gear in the cone-of-gears at c an
and a
the same bracket
spur-gear.
idler gear is
large
FIG. 512.
mounted on the frame e. By a pinion meshing into the large gear
referred to and the handle seen on the outside, the frame e may be
rotated to bring any one of the six idler gears in mesh with its mating
gear on the shaft d, and with the long pinion 6. Thus a number of
'American ,V<icn(rt)
FIG. 513.
ram are obtained, each depending on the ratio of the
long gear b to the one in mesh on the shaft d.
Swiveling the Tocrl-slide and the Tool-apron. The principles of swivelspeeds of the
ing the
compound rest for turning bevel-gears, as explained in Chapter
XVII, apply equally well to the tool-slide of the planer or shaper. As in
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
371
the previous case, tne workman is very apt to take the complement of
the angle for the required angle, .both in setting the tool-slide and in
If the angle on the drawing is
testing the work with the protractor.
given from the vertical, the tool-sttde may be swiveled directly to that
angle; but if an angle less than 90 be given from the horizontal, that
angle subtracted from 90 will give the angle at which the tool-slide is
to be clamped.
As indicated, the object of swiveling the tool-slide is to plane the
work at some angle other than a right angle with the table. The object
The tool-apron is
of swiveling the tool-apron is entirely different.
swiveled in
downward
cuts to relieve the friction of the tool against the
For this purpose the lower end of the toolapron should be inclined toward the work.
A Tool -lifter. In making an under cut parallel with the surface of
the planer-table, it is necessary in the absence of a special device to
work on the return-stroke.
L1
FIG. 514.
either strap the tool down so that it cannot lift at all or to lift it by hand
at the end of each cut. The first method is injurious to the tool; the
second plan, if forgotten for just one stroke, will result in disaster to the
* shows a
tool, or the work, or both.
Fig. 514
very simple device which
* The cut was made after an illustration
accompanying an article
"Workman," published in "American Machinist," Nov. 3, 1888, page 5.
signed
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
372
be used for both upper and under cutting. In this illustration T
is a front view of a tool shaped for under cutting a T slot, and L is a
front view of the lifter. The latter consists of a thin plate of metal
may
having two lugs bent as at L 1 to receive pointed set-screws which engage
with prick punch-marks in the sides of the tool. The operation of the
device needs but little explanation.
During the cutting-stroke, the
being pivoted at the rear of the tool, strikes the work and lifts
above it without disturbing the tool. On the return-stroke the lifter
lifter,
strikes the
work and swings upward on the pin
to
which the tool-apron
In using such a device the gibs
is
must
be
of the vertical tool-slide
snugly adjusted, otherwise the
drop of the tool and the tool-apron just before the beginning of the
pivoted, carrying the tool with
cutting-stroke
may
it.
cause the tool-slide to drop slightly.
Adjusting the Cross-rail. In raising the cross-rail, the last movement
If the rail be raised
just before clamping the rail should be upward.
and then lowered a
slight
amount,
its
parallelism with the table
may
be
disturbed.
Planer and Shaper Work. As to the work done on the planer and
shaper, it will be understood that both are designed mainly for plane
surfaces as distinguished from round work done on lathes. The short
stocky work can be more conveniently done on the shaper, while the
used for larger work.
shows a vise much used on planers and shapers. The
515
Fig.
method of clamping the work between the jaws will be readily underplaner
is
FIG. 515.
The vise swivels on its graduated base, thus providing for planwork at various angles with the jaws.
There is some difficulty in accurately clamping the work in a vise
like that of Fig. 515.
There is of necessity some freedom in the sliding
and
the
jaw,
pressure required to hold the work tends to slightly lift
the latter. Many different vises have been designed with the object of
stood.
ing
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
overcoming
this difficulty.
Fig. 516
373
shows one of these designs.
The
illustration represents a piece of work held by pins which are in contact
with the work at one end and* with the vise jaws at the other. When
FIG. 516.
the jaw is screwed up it tends to force the work down rather than
This arrangement admits of planing very thin work without
up.
blocking
By
it
up.
light firm taps of the
hammer,
in
which the hammer
is
not per-
mitted to rebound, the experienced workman can overcome the difficulty referred to in the use of the common vise.
By pulling strips of
tissue-paper placed under the ends of the work, he is enabled to ascertain
when the work is properly bedded. If the vise- jaws are not square it
may
be necessary to use paper or tin between the jaws and the work
to square the latter,
Holding
Work by
Pins and Stops. The principle employed in conis also used in clamping work without a vise.
shown a piece of work held to the planer-table in this
nection with Fig. 516
In Fig. 517 is
manner. The stops
S closely fit round holes drilled in the planer-table,
and by tightening the set-screws in connection with the pins P the
work is forced down against the table. These pins are usually made of
3
J
/s- to
/2-inch round tool steel, having hardened conical points at
each end. The set-screws are countersunk, the angle being greater
than the points of the pins. If the work be inclined to tip on one side,
lowering the point of contact between the work and the pins on that
side will tend to bring it down.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
374
These pins should not be relied upon to take the thrust of the cut.
For this purpose long and short planer stops like S 1 with or without
the set-screws are commonly used. These stops are sometimes made
with the set-screw holes parallel with the planer-table, two or three
FIG. 517.
holes being provided in the longest stops. When thus made they can
be used as adjustable stops to take the thrust of the cut, or by turning
them so as to bring the set-screw out of the way they may be used with-
out the adjustment. At A
connection with pins) in the
may
be made
(in
the round stops. These
about 7 /s" thick and about 3" long in the direction of
the planer length.
At
shown a device which may be used
is
slots instead of
It is well to
have both kinds.
shown a small angle-plate having a tongue to fit in the slots
In some cases work may be clamped with one edge against
of the table.
the angle-plate without any pins, the pins on the other edge of the work
is
holding it down. In this case the points of contact between the pins
and the work should be raised so that the points of pressure shall fall
approximately
The
with
ing
in
a line extending centrally along the base of the work.
and angle-plates, shown in connection
blocks, straps, bolts
drill-press
work, boring-machine work,
work on the
planer.
Special
etc.,
blocks are
may
shown
be used in clampin Figs. 581 and
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
375
and a very convenient strap is described in connection with Fig. 585.
blocks and special fixtures for the planer should usually have a tongue
fitting the central table slot, and the upper part of such fixtures should
592,
be planed while the fixture is clamped in the slot.
In planing light work on the planer, and, indeed, most work that
requires accuracy, it is necessary to rough-out the work all over before
The pressure of the straps or pins should be
work when the final cut is made, otherwise
the work may be warped. The work should be firmly held for the
roughing cuts and just before the final cuts are taken the pressure of
taking the finishing cuts.
barely sufficient to hold the
the straps should be relieved.
Blocking-up Under the Work.
In planing a rough casting or forging,
even when the base of the latter is nominally flat, it is usually necessary
Good judgment is
to block up under the work with tin, paper, etc.
necessary in doing this to avoid warping or springing the work.
Take,
say 12" wide by 24" long.
In blocking up this work two corners diagonally opposite should be taken
When these are properly leveled up with the " surface
care of first.
for instance, a piece of rectangular plate,
gage" (see Fig. 35), the other two corners may be blocked up in a simimanner. If, however, the casting is of such a design as to be appreciably sprung by its own weight, it may be necessary, in order to balance
lar
the weight, to put the first blocking some distance from the ends. After
this is done, the work may be blocked at intermediate points from about
4 to 16 inches apart, depending upon the length and shape of the
piece.
Some otherwise good workmen use very poor judgment in "bedding" work on the planer. They seem to think that anything that
This is a mistake. If the work
will fill up the cracks will answer.
be blocked or bedded with strips of tin which are bent out of shape,
these will "give" under the pressure of the straps, causing the work to
spring out of shape. To avoid the same difficulty any fine lumps of
sand or scale left on the casting by the foundryman should be "rasped "
off
with an old
true
file.
Small narrow strips
and having the ragged edges filed
of tin
off
and sheet iron hammered
should be used.
In addi-
tion to these, the workman should collect small blocks of cast iron,
Common bolts with one or two nuts on
parallel blocks and jacks.
may be used for jack-screws in the absence of a better device.
Adjustable parallel blocks like those shown in Fig. 518 are very useful
The cut was made after
in blocking up finished work on the planer.
the end
a design by Fred
I.
Getty, which was illustrated in "American
Ma-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
376
chinist,"
May
However, the author used a
above date.
6.
1886, page
8,
different design previous to the
slightly
The principles governing the shape of
main the same as those which apply to lathe-
Planer Tools and Work.
planer-tools being in the
'
'
I
|
50
55
60
FlG. 518.
the two
have been treated in one chapter.
methods of doing
certain kinds of planer work.
One principle which applies to the use of
tools having a broad bearing should be emphasized, namely, that such
tools if held on the tool-apron chatter less and work better otherwise,
when so made that the spring of the tool and freedom of the tool-apron
pin cause the tool to move from the work rather than toward it. This
principle requires that the tool have a backward offset, as show n in
tools,
classes
Figs. 300, 301, 302,
of
tools
and 311
in that chapter indicate
Fig. 311.
The capacity of the planer for doing work rapidly is not understood by the majority of mechanics. With a planer sufficiently rigid
and tools properly constructed, surprisingly wide cuts may be taken.
"
American Machinist," vol.
Fig. 519, which illustrates an article in the
27, page 41, shows a broad-edge tool planing the flat surface between the
V's on a lathe-bed.
This tool
is
held in a special holder which
is
gibbed
to the guides of the tool-slide in the same manner that the tool-slide
To make room on the guides the tool-slide is raised
itself is gibbed.
to
its
highest position, the holder being connected to the regular tool-
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
377
Thus connected, the tool-holder may be
apron by a link as shown.
down with the tool-slide screw.
Top and front views of the holder are shown respectively in Figs.
520 and 521. The broad tpol is heM by three bolts, and a slight adjustfed
FIG. 519
ment
provided by two set-screws. Being independent of the toolapron pin and set well back of the latter, the tool does not need to be
bent backward.
As will be seen, it is placed at an angle of about 30
is
with the
This arrangement,
cross-rail, thus giving it a shearing cut.
with
the
extra
secured
together
rigidity
by placing the tool nearer to
the cross-rail, overcomes the tendency toward chattering and contributes to general smoothness of action.
The above
was used on
cast iron, but steel is sometimes planed
the
tool
a shearing cut. However, the edge
very smoothly by giving
of the tool is only about 1" wide and is rounded so as to touch only
in the middle, a fine feed being used.
tool
Although the planer and shaper are
Planing Curved Work.
for
designed mainly
plane surfaces, round work, irregular forms, and
even gears may be cut on both machines.
Referring to Fig. 522,
These
T represents the planer-table and C and C 1 planer-centers.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
378
are something like the head- and tail-stock of a lathe. The hanger B,
which obviously cannot well be turned in the lathe, is driven on the
is,
and placed between centers. For each stroke of the planer,
by means of the handle H, caused to move around its axis a small
mandrel
FIG. 520.
FIG 521.
gives motion to the spindle in C by means
shown.
When the hanger is rotated the pin P
worm-gearing
must be withdrawn. This process of feeding the hanger to the tool
is continued for each successive stroke of the planer-table until the
fraction of a revolution.
of the
work
is-
finished,
v~*
This method can be used in the shaper also.
" The Concave Attachment." The
object of the attachment shown
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
The movement of the
in Fig. 523 is indicated by its title.
the lower lever to swing in an arc. This actuates the pawl
379
ram
causes
and ratchet
FIG. 522.
mechanism, which by means
gives the circular
on the
movement
of the spur- and worm-gearing shown
to the tool. This device cannot be used
planer.
FIG. 523
The Convex Attachment. Referring to Fig. 524, it will be seen that
is removed and a device having an arbor with
the table of the shaper
two cones is bolted in
its
round and convex surfaces.
place.
This
The work
is
is
a circular attachment for
held on the two cones just
the same as in the case of the arbor for tapering work shown in Fig. 359.
This attachment has automatic feed, which is operated substantially
same manner
table.
The principal difference is that
are used in place of the screw and nut.
Planing Irregular Forms. The attachments mentioned above are
designed more particularly for round work or regular curves. The
in the
the
as the
worm and worm-wheel
former principle, as was stated in the chapter on lathe work, may be
used in machining either regular or irregular curves. In Figs. 525 * and
*
25 and 526 were copied from cuts used in connection with an
Figs.
in "American Machinist," April 21, 1892, page 6.
"I.'W."
by
article
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
380
526
is
shown the end
of a
round rod which
is
widened and flattened at E,
The work in this
the two elements being joined by a curved surface.
case is to be machined on both sides of the flat end, and to facilitate the
operation the work
is
held between planer-centers.
As
in the case of
FIG. 524.
lathe work, the screw by which the tool is fed to the work is removed,
the movements of the tool being controlled by the former shown. To
force the tool to follow the curved form, the bracket
is
bolted to the
tool-box, and in the projecting arm of this bracket is a bolt D, on the
lower end of which is a roller, or some equivalent, in contact with the
bolt
down
To
adjust the tool for a deeper cut the set-screw holding the
loosened and the nut tightened. The tool-slide is weighted
at A. The weight at B is designed to balance the pressure and
former.
is
prevent the cramping of the tool-slide in its guide
The former principle may be applied also when the curved surface
In this case the former may be fixed to the
lies crosswise the planer.
cross-rail or to the housing.
It should be understood that the curve produced by the method
above outlined will not be a duplicate of that of the former. The difference
arises from the difference in shape between the point of the tool and the
This is well understood by mechanics who have had experience
roller.
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
381
For the benefit of the inexperienced, the following,
" American
Machinist," April 21, 1892, page 2, by
As
suggested by Mr. Miller the form in the
given.
in laying out cams.
from an
Fred J.
article in the
Miller, is
FIG. 525.
FIG. 526.
is of such abrupt curvature as would be
on
the
planer, but Mr. Miller takes an extreme
duplication
He says: " Having
case in order to show the principle more clearly.
accompanying
illustration
difficult of
FIG. 527.
of the exact form of the work will not reproduce
the question is how we shall determine the form of template to
produce a given form. To do this we have only to lay out the form of
the work, and having decided the size of the roller we are to use, draw
shown that a template
itself,
another line parallel to the first and at a distance from it equal to the
radius of the roller. Suppose, for instance, we wish to reproduce a
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
382
form corresponding to that of the template a, Fig. 527. We draw a
the desired form, and taking many points on this
line ab, Fig. 528, of
FIG. 528.
line as centers,
we
shown, the radius of these arcs being
strike arcs as
equal to the radius of the roller we are going to use. A line
tangent to all these arcs is the desired form of template."
in
a'b'
drawn
A number of different methods of planing irregular forms are shown
" American
Machinist," vol. 27, pages 512 and 544.
Cutting Gears in Planer and Shaper. Fig. 529 shows a method of
cutting teeth in gears.
For
this
purpose the index-plate
has several
FIG. 529.
answering to various numbers of gear-teeth. If we wish
P is adjusted to the circle of 20 holes. Having
tightened the cross-head to prevent lateral movement, the tool is next
We now stop the planer,
fed downward until the first space is cut.
circles of holes
to cut 20 teeth, the pin
1
pull the index-pin out and turn the index-plate (and gear) /2o revolution for the next space, continuing the process until the gear is finished.
Cutting
Rack -teeth.
Fig.
"American Machinist," March
cross-section of the toothed
Fig. 367.
S, parallel block
driven into the ram
illustrates
31, 1904.
an
article
by the author
in
Referring to the figure, R is a
to the arbor-press shown in
ram belonging
The ram was held
530
crosswise on the planer-table
(also strapped to table), and pin P.
to resist the tendency of the latter to
by the straps
The pin was
roll.
Having
firmly secured the ram, the teeth were next roughed out with a
common
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
383
square-nose tool, the straps being alternately changed when approached
by the tool in its movement across the table. To finish the teeth a B. & S.
four-pitch rack-cutter was bolted to a bar of steel, the latter being held in
the tool-post as shown.- The sicfe of this bar was planed by securing a
tool to the table and feeding the bar to the reciprocating tool.
America* JfacAtnim
FIG. 530.
The most important part of this apparatus is the disk D, by which the
rack-teeth were spaced. This was made for the job, but has since been
used hi cutting other racks. The periphery of the disk is divided by
250 lines. As the planer-screw is Va" lead, each division on the disk
represents .001", and .0005" can be measured by estimation. In spacing
the teeth, the tool had to be moved .7854" (practically .7855"). The
stopping-point on the disk for each spacing was indicated by making a light
line, in
a "touch" of red lead, corresponding to the zero-line on the
Thus .7855" was measured from a new starting-point for
cross-rail.
each tooth.
With a more expensive fixture the cutter could of course be made to
revolve, and thus mill the work.
One is justified in using the planer or shaper in cutting
when a milling-machine or gear-cutter is not available.
gears only
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
384
an
Grinding Attachments for Planer and Shaper. Fig. 531 shows
in
of
value
should
which
attachment for the planer
many
great
prove
The bracket
shops where a regular surface-grinder is not available.
on the toolcarrying the emery-wheel arbor is shown at B. It is held
block or tool-slide
by
four bolts, and the emery-wheel arbor
from an auxilhary countershaft as shown.
The
is
driven
latter is driven
from
FIG. 531.
the
mam countershaft of the machine.
To provide
for the crosswise feed
of the emery-wheel, a long pulley or drum is generally used on the auxiliary countershaft of such attachments when work of considerable width
is
to be ground.
The small
flanged pulley
shown keeps the lower part
of the belt in position.
The attachment shown
531* was designed to be used either
shows the same emery-wheel and bracket
secured to the compound rest of an engine-lathe. The work is that of
grinding a narrow-face wheel. In such work the drum on the counterin the planer or lathe.
shaft
in
is
in Fig.
Fig. 532
unnecessary.
*
Figs. 531 and 532 are from cuts accompanying an
"American Machinist," vol. 26, page 1121.
article
by
C.
H. Alexander
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
385
In Fig. 533 is shown a surface-grinding attachment * for the shaper,
and it is also held on the tool-apron. On account of the reciprocating
motion of the ram, it is necessary to use a tightener as shown at D.
This tightener automatically maintains the tension on the belt. Unless
the attachment is used on the traverse shaper, a narrow-faced pulley may
American Machinist
FIG. 532.
be used on the auxiliary countershaft instead of the long
to in connection with Fig. 531.
drum
referred
The planer-table is curved or peened by
the
too
hard, by letting heavy work fall on it, by
driving
stops
etc.
Not
hammer-blows,
only is the table curved by such usage, but
Care
of
Planer-table.
down
it which prevent planed work from resting solidly.
the beginner to see that the smallest bruise or scratch
or speck of grit may cause the last-mentioned difficulty.
Before clampsuch
it
is
file over
work
often
to
an
smooth
old
ing
sweep
advantageous
the table surface in such a manner as to scrape off fine lumps and show
lumps are raised on
It is difficult to get
Fig. 533 is taken from a cut which accompanied an article entitled "The
Shaper as a Surface Grinder," by S. Bliss, in "American Machinist," vol. 27, page
595.
386
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG. 533.
PLANERS AND SHAPERS
up the
large ones.
After using the brush, fine grit
off with the hand.
Testing the Bed.
sary.
The bed
also-
The
may
&
387
may be
planer-table should be planed
occasionally need attention.
&
best wiped
when
neces-
method
of
CHAPTER XXIV
SLOTTING-MACHINES AND THE
WORK TO WHICH THEY ARE
ADAPTED
General Description of the Slotting-machine.
The slotting-machine
Its ram, however, moves at right
similar in principle to the shaper.
in
the
while
the
to
shaper the ram moves parallel with the
table,
angles
is
table.
column
gear;
and
Referring to Fig. 535, B is the bed cast integral with the upper
C', T the table; R the ram; P the driving-pulley; G the driving1 the slotted crank connecting with R by the connecting-rod R 1 ;
the table-feed gears C 3 a cam on
the counterbalance for R.
gearing; and
Table and
for operating the feed-
Ram
Movement. The table has two movements at right
and also turns about its axis. These are
all automatic and intermittent movements effected by the feed mechanism
C 3, F, and F 1. The table may also be moved in all the directions by
hand by means of cranks on the several table-shafts. The ram movement
may be increased or diminished for different thicknesses of work by
the slotted crank. The cutting-tool is secured to the lower end of the
ram. The operation of the ram by means of the driving-pulley P, gear
angles in a horizontal plane,
G, etc., will be understood without further explanation.
Character of Work Done on the Slotting-machine. In machining a
piece of work which is required to have its sides at right angles, the
work is bolted to the table, and by means of the two right-angular
movements of the table the four sides of the work are finished with
but one adjustment of the work on the table. If the bolts which hold
the work on the ends, for instance, are in the way when machining
the ends, other bolts are placed on the two finished sides before removing
the bolts on the ends. More adjustments would be required if the same
piece of work were machined in the shaper or planer, and an offset-tool
would be needed
for the interior of a rectangular shape.
Much
on
of the short stocky work done on the shaper could be done
the slotter, but the slotter is specially adapted to cutting various
shaped
slots,
to finishing the interior
and
exterior of curved surfaces
38S
SLOTTING-MACHINES
etc.
389
Among the details which can be machined advantageously on
may be mentioned the fork-end connections for the reversing
the slotter
gear of a steam-engine, the engine connecting-rod straps, the half boxes
The slotting for locomotive driving*axles, ai$l many kinds of die work.
machine was formerly used to a great extent in cutting key-seats in pul-
FIG. 535.
leys, gears, etc.
by
For
this
purpose
it
has been superseded in a measure
special key-seating machines.
Portable Slotting-machines. In Fig. 536 we show a portable slotThis slotter is used on a large base-plate for very heavy
work in which it is more convenient to move the slotter than the work.
ting-machine.
The vertical movement
of the tool-head
is
effected
by pulleys, tooth-gear-
390
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
ing and a screw, but the machines are also made with a rack and pinion
movement. This machine has a limited traverse on its sub-base, and
FIG. 536
movement in the same direction on the cross-rail.
has the usual automatic and hand feeds.
The construction of the machine is such that it is not well adapted
the tool-block has a
It
39 1
SLOTTING-MACHINES
and interior surfaces. Indeed, the machine couid
with propriety be called a vertical planer.
Slotting-machine Tools. The tool used in machining narrow slots,
bar of steel in a similar
etc., cuts on its end and is forged #n the end of a
to machining slots
FIG. 537.
manner to a common planer-tool. The cutting angle and clearance
these and all other slotting-tools should be about the same as those
planer-tools, excepting that the direction of these
determined with respect to a vertical plane rather
angles
of
of
should be
than a horizontal.
FIG. 538.
Fig. 537
shows the front and side views
of a slotter-tool such as has
been
tool must, of course, be forged down small enough
to enter the slot, and in very narrow slots the tool is sometimes made
to cut on both the front and rear side, one cut serving to brace the other.
mentioned.
The
In Fig. 538 is shown a square-end finishing-tool which is sometimes
used as last described. Having taken the finishing cut on both sides
of the slot the ends of the slot are finished separately with the same
When the slots are so narrow as to require the tools to be used
tools.
in this manner the work could usually be done more advantageously
in the milling-machine.
Some mechanics make slotter-tools for fillets
The shapes of the cutting-
of circular cross-section at the cutting-end.
edges for the roughing-tools are determined on the same general prin-
which apply to lathe- and planer-tools.
In Figs. 539 and 540 is shown a rotary tool-holder which we shall
presently describe. The lower part of this tool, which is shown broken
ciples
from the upper part, represents the
slotter-tool
exterior slotting, and also for interior when
to admit such a tool.
The tool T is held by
commonly used
the opening
is
large
two set-screws
for
enough
in a block
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
392
which
is
pivoted to the bar at P.
The
in proper relation with the bar, but
spring
tends to hold the block
on the return-stroke
this spring
American Michinvtt
FIG. 539.
FIG. 540.
permits the tool to rock slightly on the pivot P, and thus relieve the
wear that would otherwise occur. If the tool be secured directly to
it sometimes is, there must be considerable
pressure and
wear
the
return-stroke.
consequent
during
the bar, as
SLOTTING-MACHINES
The
slotting-tool
end of the
tool
shown
just
in Fig. 541
described,.
is
somewhat
393
similar to the lower
The
cutting
helol in the block
part of the tool, however, is
at an angle, giving it the proper rake for free
cutting.
A Rotating Tool -holder. Some slottingmachines are made without provision for
rotating the table. In such a machine the toolholder shown in Figs. 539 and 540 could be
used for curved surfaces of small radii. Refer-
ring to the illustrations, the boxes
are held to the slotter-head or ram
studs
is
as
and B
by four
The upper part of the bar
the boxes and also to fit the
shown.
turned to
fit
worm-wheel C. The bar is rotated
hand-wheel D, which operates the
meshing with C.
by the
worm E
This tool, however, was primarily designed
and other curved surfaces
for finishing fillets
on large framework, which cannot be rotated
on an ordinary slotting-machine. It is fully
"
described by T. B. Burnite in
American
Machinist/' vol. 27, page 125.
FIG. 541.
CHAPTER XXV
KEY-SEATING MACHINES AND KEYS
Key-seats and Key-fitting. Before describing the key-seating
machine it will be necessary for the benefit of the younger student to
In Figs. 542 and 543, which show a pulley
explain what a key is.
FIG. 542.
FIG. 543.
is the key.
The rectangular grooves cut into
shaft,
the pulley and shaft are called key-seats or keyways.
In this connection it may be well to consider the method of fitting
keyed to a
keys.
Some machinists think a key should
fit
best at top
and bottom
others prefer to have it fit best on the sides, as at S.
In
on
cases
the
should
fit
well
both
and
at
and
sides,
key
important
top
bottom. Sometimes set-screws are placed in the hub of the pulley
(T and B)
so as to press on the top of the key; this obviates the necessity of closefitting at this point.
key should not be filed so as to have a tight
at
and
on one end and miss on the other end. Such
bottom
bearing
top
fitting is likely to force the pulley slightly
Keys which are to
fit
at the top
out of square with the shaft.
and bottom are usually tapered on the
394
KEY-SEATING MACHINES AND KEYS
1
395
/ie inch per foot.
They are never tapered on the
held
set-screws
are
when
not tapered on top.
and
by
sides,
In shops where very little key-seating is required the work is sometimes done with the chisel and file? but where a great deal of key-seating
top from
/8 to
FIG. 544.
required it pays to purchase a key-seating machine. Key-seats in
the shaft may be cut on the milling-machine, planer, or shaper.
There has recently been introduced a system of keys of the shape
is
of a sector of a circle, the top of the
as those shown in the illustration.
key being of exactly the same shape
The
key-seats in the shaft for such
cannot
be
in by a revolving cutter.
but
sunk
must
be
keys
planed,
The key-seats in the pulley may be made by the ordinary process.
Key-seating Machines. Fig. 544 shows a key-seating machine of
modern type. In accordance with the most advanced ideas in machinetool design the
column
is
of hollow or
box form.
Working
in guides
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
396
on top of
this
column
is
the table
to which the
work
is
fastened.
The
(there is also a loose pulley not shown) is on the same
tight pulley
shaft with a pinion (not shown) which operates the gear G.
Keyed
is a crank C 1 which, by means of the connectingto the same shaft as
operates the cross-head C. The cutter-bar or ram R is secured
to the cross-head by a kind of ratchet-cam which is operated by the
T 1 is the cutting-tool held by a set-screw S. To support
lever L.
rod
C 2,
the bar against the pressure of the cutting, brace B 1 is provided. This
so constructed that it may be adjusted vertically and horizontally
1
by the levers L 1 and L 2, and may be swung around on the post
is
when work
is
to be removed.
In cutting a key-seat, the cutter is fed to the work by the handby the same hand-wheel the cut is relieved on the return
The knob K, which has micrometer adjustment, regulates the
stroke.
wheel
depth of the cut; and by means of this micrometer adjustment, any
number of key-seats may be cut to the same depth. Key-seats are often
made tapering, and for this purpose the table is tilted by the thumbscrew V.
The machine above described is one of the smallest and simplest
made, but it shows the principle better than the more elaborate designs.
Key-seating Attachments. Various small key-seating devices have
been designed for use in connection with the arbor-press, with the planer,
and with drilling-machines. In Fig. 545 is
shown a key-seating attachment for the
latter machine.
The shank at the upper
end is driven by the ordinary drill-chuck,
or when made to the Morse taper it is
driven in the socket of the drill-spindle. On
the end of the same shaft of which this shank
a part are a number of pins which serve
as gear-teeth, and which revolve the cutter
shown at the bottom of the device by enis
gagement with its teeth. The tool is guided
the
of
one
bushings shown, these being made to fit different sizes
by
of holes, and it is fed in the same manner as a drill.
For taper keys
the hole in the bushing is made at an angle with the outside.
While
the inner shaft and cutter revolve, the outer shell is prevented from
turning by the horizontal lever at the top.
For large fly-wheels, large gears,
etc.,
driven by power are sometimes used.
portable key-seating machines
CHAPTER XXVI
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
General Description.
name from the
WORK
The milling-machine probably
derives
fact that the operation of the milling-cutter
is
its
somewhat
suggestive of the old millstone processes.
Fig. 546 shows a Brown &
A is of the box form
The
frame
Universal
Sharpe
milling-machine.
common to machines of this class. Within the hollow frame are shelves
for the smaller accessories belonging to the
machine, there being a door
in the engraving. The head-stock
is cast integral with the frame.
Journaled in the head-stock is the spindle,
the end of which is shown at C. The spindle of this machine is not driven
on the
side opposite to that
by a cone
pulley,
shown
but by a system of gearing which we
shall presently
describe.
The bracket-shaped casting D is called the knee. It is movable verThis movement is effected
tically and guided by planed surfaces on A.
the
hand-wheel
means
of
E, which, by
by
bevel-gearing, operates the
screw
F.
The
the
construction
of
latter is such that no hole
telescopic
is required in the floor to receive the screw when the knee is in its lowest
position.
Supported on top of the knee are three members, of which G
is called the clamp-bed, H the saddle, and 7 the table.
G can be moved
on Dj
parallel
with the spindle C, by the hand-wheel /.
This hand-wheel
operates a screw working in a nut secured to G. The table I slides in
the saddle H, for most purposes at rigth angles to the spindle; but
inasmuch as
may be swiveled on its graduated base, 7 may be fed
at various angles with the spindle.
The dividing head
(otherwise
are bolted to the lathe.
called the spiral head) and the foot-stock
shaft M, together with its pendent arm N, is called the
arm.
The smaller cutters are carried on an arbor which has
overhanging
a tapered shank to engage with the tapered hole in the spindle, and the
object of the overhanging arm is to support the outer end of the arbor.
The long
When extra-heavy cutting is being done, the arm itself is tied to the clampbed by the slotted links 0, which are called harness, or braces. The work
398
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
secured either directly or indirectly to the table, and
revolving cutter by hand or by power.
is
is
fed to the
FIG. 546.
The Driving-gear. Fig. 547 is a sectional view showing the drivingand Fig. 548 is an end view showing the gears in dotted lines. The
gear,
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
399
400
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
gear in the system is a long pinion b. This runs at a constant speed,
being driven by the pulley a. Meshing with b is an intermediate c
first
(Fig. 548) which by levers h and i may be brought into mesh with d, e, f,
or g (Fig. 547), giving four different speeds to the shaft bearing these
four gears. By means of the lever k either j or Z may be brought into
mesh with one of the four gears, thus multiplying the number of speeds
by two and giving eight speeds. The levers k, h, and i are the upper,
middle, and lower levers shown at the left of the flanged pulley in Fig.
546.
Back -gearing. The design of the back-gearing is similar in principle
to that ordinarily used, but the details are quite different. The gears
Jmerieun MachiniH
549.
and
of Fig. 547 are keyed to the quill m, upon the left end of which
a pinion answering to the pinion commonly secured in the end of a
cone pulley. Integral with m at the right hand is a flange to which
is
the usual large gear of the main spindle is locked when the machine
The locking-pins are seen at d and e (Fig. 549). When
is in single gear.
by means of the lever /, the back gears are brought into mesh, a cam at
a on the back-gear shaft moves, through the lever b, a collar c, thus
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
401
When the back-gears are disengaged,
small springs pressing against the. locking-pins d and e are compressed ,
causing these pins to enter the* sockets in the flange during the first
withdrawing the locking-pins.
revolution of the spindle.
Thus^ the locking-pins are automatically
the
or
engaged
back-gear lever.
disengaged by
the back-gears the number of speeds
the
machine sixteen spindle speeds.
giving
By
Feed-gearing.
again multiplied by two r
is
Referring again to Fig. 546, just below and to the
^J
American Machinitt
FIG. 550.
left of
of
the driving-pulley
which
is
shown
is
seen the feed-box and gears, a sectional view
The sprocket a is driven from the pulley-
in Fig. 550.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
402
shaft through a "pitch chain."
On
the same shaft and driven by a
is
This pinion, through a shifting intermediate gear
(not shown), drives the cone of gears d, e, f, g, h, i, two of which alternately
and drive the universal- joint shaft.
engage with the shifting gears k and
the long pinion
6.
Thus ten different feeds are given, the mechanism being similar to the
main driving-gear with the back-gears omitted.
Motion is communicated from the feed-gearing to the work-table by
means of mechanism consisting principally of the telescopic shaft shown
FIG. 551.
inclined toward the feed-box in Fig. 546, suitable gearing, and a screw.
latter is shown in connection with the saddle in Fig. 551.
The
Plain
Milling-machine.
In one of
its
principal forms the plain
in general similar to the machine just described.
The main
difference is that the plain miller has no clamp-bed, the table being guided
miller
is
The
in ways in the saddle, which is clamped directly to the knee.
table of the plain miller, therefore, cannot be fed at any other angle
than a right-angle with the main spindle. Fig. 552 shows a plain miller
designed in 1897, in connection with a class in machine design, of which
the author was instructor. A knowledge of the friction mechanism employed in this machine may be of some value to the student. The frictiondisk shown at D, the driving-face of which is covered with leather, was
used to a greater extent in machine-tool construction when this machine
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
403
was designed than it is at present. This disk is driven by the gears G.
The small cast-iron pulley which is shown near the middle of D, and
which is driven by the latter, gives motion to a train of gears some of
which are seen inside the knee. "The last of these gears, a miter, by
meshing with two miter-gears on the table-feed screw, gives the table
a forward or reverse traverse, depending upon which gear is in engagement with the shifting clutch. This reversing mechanism is similar in
principle to that shown at
machines the table is driven
The small
on one side.
g,
h,
i,
j,
in Fig. 221.
rack.
friction-pulley runs in a sleeve
In some milling-
by pinion and
which has rack-teeth cut
is rotated by the hand-
pinion meshing with this rack
FIG. 552.
and thus the pulley is moved from the center, or zero position
of the disk, to the periphery, or position of maximum feed. This movement may be effected while the machine is in motion. The excessive
wheel
thrust on the bearings, which
is
one objection to the
friction-feed, is
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
404
overcome in this machine by the use
mechanism works quite satisfactorily.
largely
of' ball
bearings,
and the
In addition to the socket for taper-shank arbors the spindle in this
machine is threaded to receive large facing cutter-heads like that shown
In this respect the spindle of the machine
in the lower part of the cut.
in Fig. 546
is
similarly designed.
As indicated by its title, the
"Planer-type" Milling-machine.
machine shown in Fig. 553 is constructed on the same general plan as
FIG. 553
a planer. The table affords ample area for clamping large heavy work,
and the arbor, which is adjustable vertically on the uprights, is firmly
supported at both ends.
In Fig. 554 is illustrated an open-side milling-machine, which serves
the same purpose in miller work as the open-side planer serves in planer
work. Starting with the cone pulley seen projecting just above the
table, it is easy to follow the driving mechanism through the train of
gears to the vertical spindle. The feed of the spindle along the crossrail is effected by two pairs of cone pulleys, the first being shown to the
and the second pair near the overhanging end of
At the front end of the machine are seen two cone pulleys
which, through the worm-gearing shown on the outside, and other
mechanism on the inside of the frame, give the lengthwise feed of the
right of the spindle
the cross-rail.
table.
Planer-type milling-machines are sometimes made with as many
two of these being horizontal spindles supported on
as four spindles,
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
405
the uprights or housing castings, and the other two vertical spindles
in a cross-head sliding on a cross-rail as in Fig. 554.
which are journaled
FIG. 554.
Vertical Miller.
The
the former.
The
miller
between the vertical millingof course, the vertical spindle of
essential difference
macmTTe aUcPthe horizontal miller
shown
is,
in Fig. 555
The cone
is
driven from a counter-
pulley of the machine, howOn
ever, is not placed on the main spindle, but on a short shaft at P.
this same shaft is another pulley P 1, from which the power is conshaft having a cone pulley, etc.
406
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
veyed by a belt running over the idler-pulleys
at
P3.
The construction
of the knee
operating these parts, do
and the
P2
table,
to the spindle-pulley
and the mechanism
for
not necessarily differ in the vertical miller
FIG. 555.
from the same parts in the horizontal miller. The rotary table shown
in Fig. 555 is not an essential part of this machine.
It is detachably
connected to the main table, and with suitable feed connections could
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
407
be used on milling-machines of different construction. It is, however,,
a very desirable attachment for the vertical miller. In addition to
the vertical adjustment of the knee, the machine shown in the engravThe
ing is provided with a slight adjustment for the spindle-head.
means of feeding the head (and with it the spindle) is a large handwheel shown on the upper part of the frame.
designs and modifications in milling-machines,,
including hand-millers, but the foregoing represent some of the leading
There
are
many
types.
Milling-machine and Planer Compared. In the milling-machine
is connected to and revolves with the spindle.
This rotary
motion makes the cutting practically continuous, while the planer-tool
the cutter
(as planers are commonly constructed) cuts only during the forward
stroke of the table. Again, in the planer a single-edge tool is generally
used, which tool dulls quickly.
multiple-edge tool being used in the
The tool, therefore,,
miller, the work of each edge is greatly lessened.
holds its edge almost indefinitely and produces work more uniform
This
of great importance in connection with the interchangeable system of manufacturing, especially when curved shapes
are involved. From the above considerations it will be apparent that^-^
in shape.
is
the milling-machine should be a more economical tool than the planer.
Nevertheless, the improvements in the planer in the direction of making
the return-stroke quicker, and the introduction of multiple-edge toolscases, together with the use of two or more cross-heads on the
will still enable this machine to hold its ground in
machines,
larger
miller for many kinds of work.
For gear-cutting
with
the
competition
in
some
the miller
is,
of course,
much
superior to the planer.
MILLING-MACHINE CUTTERS, WORK, AND ATTACHMENTS
In
Figs.
556 to 576 inclusive are shown various milling-cutters
the names of which are given in connection with the cutters. The
methods of using some of these cutters will be indicated in succeeding paragraphs.
Figs. 577 to 584
performed on a
In connection with these illustrations the student should note not only the
show a number
of operations
machine made by the Cincinnati Milling Machine Company.
work, but also the shapes of the cutters, and the various fixtures and
clamping methods used to hold the work to the table.
Slab-milling.
Fig. 577 illustrates an operation called slab-milling.
cutter is of the inserted-tooth type, the teeth being arranged in
The
r^
408
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
helical lines.
While some distance apart, the teeth are so placed as
to cover the whole width of the work in one revolution.
The
principle
Milling-cutter with Nicked Teeth.
Milling-cutter.
FIG. 556.
FIG. 557.
Left-hand End-mill.
FIG. 558.
End-mill with Center Cut.
FIG. 560.
Interlocking
Side-milling
Cutter.
Side-milling Cutter.
FIG. 561.
FIG. 559.
Spiral End-mill.
FIG. 562.
Spiral Shell End-mill.
FIG. 563.
is
Face-milling Cutter with Inserted Teeth,
FIG. 564.
the same as that of the notched cutter of Fig. 492.
The advantage
of this form of cutting-edge has been referred to in connection with
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
409
Angular Cutters.
FIG. 565.
Involute Gear-cutter
Side-milling Cutter with Inserted Teeth
FIG. 566.
t^^
Metal-slitting Saw.
FIG. 568.
Twist-drill Cutter.
FIG. 569
^^%,
Screw-slotting Cutter.
FIG. 570.
410
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
The pieces, which are held in a
Fig. 203 and elsewhere in this work.
special chucking fixture, are cast iron with the scale on, and the mill
Epicycloidal Gear-cutter.
FIG. 571.
Stocking Cutter.
FIG. 572.
RADIAL
FORM
FIG. 575.
FIG. 576.
is represented as removing this scale at a
cutting speed of 40' per minute,
the cut being about l / &" deep by 8 1 / 4 // wide and the feed .252"
per
turn of cutter.
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
FIG. 577.
FIG.
578
WORK
411
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
412
The
made up of
Gang-milling.
Fig. 578
is
mill or milling-cutter shown in connection with
several cutters, and for this reason it is called
a gang-mill. The cutters, which are 5" and 3" diameter, make 31 revo//
1
1
lutions per minute, taking a cut /s deep by O /*" wide, with a feed
FIG. 579.
of .075" per turn.
down the
The 5"
cutters
machine the pieces a short distance
sides
The same pieces are inverted in Fig. 579, and the sides are being
cut down and upper edges milled in one operation. The large mills
are 13V2" diameter and make 12 1 / 2 turns per minute, the feed being
.100" per turn.
The double support for the outer end of the arbor in the last two
operations is worthy of notice.
The operation in Fig. 580 is that of milling a
Slot -milling, etc.
shaper illustrated in Figs. 508 to 510.
2 3/4 " diameter and takes a cut Vis" deep by 2 3/4 " wide
The same cutter is used for the end slot
at top and bottom of the slot.
and for the flat surfaces at top and bottom of the link.
slot in the oscillating link of the
The
cutter
Fig. 581
is
shows both sides
of the link being milled at the
same time
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
with face-mills.
fixture
is
The method
WORK
of squaring the link in a
special
413
block
instructive.
FIG. 580.
FIG. 581.
In milling the casting shown in Fig. 582
Milling a Gas-engine Frame.
the table is fed .102" per turn of cutter during the time that the large
cutter is entering the work. When all the cutters are in full contact
the feed
is
dropped to .080".
This method results in a saving of about
414
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG. 583
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
415
15 per cent. The wide range of feeds and modern quick feed-changing
mechanism makes this and greater results possible. With the old
cone-pulley feeds and narrow range, in some work there was no feed
even approximately right. The^number of spindle speeds was also
The consequence was a serious loss.
inadequate.
Milling Steel Castings.
In the foregoing examples the metal operated
Fig. 583 shows a gang-mill machining a number of steel castings, the latter being held in a special fixture. The
//
1
The mill makes
largest cutters are 5 /2 in diameter and the smallest 2"
56 revolutions per minute, giving the smallest cutters a cutting speed
upon has been
cast iron.
'.
The depth of cut is about 3 /32 /x the
being 5" and the feed .050" per turn.
of 30' per minute.
of milled surface
total width
FIG 584.
The work in this case is a
which
it
is
270-pound
required to cut from the solid dovel
tail slots l /s" deep by about l 5/g" wide at the outer edge.
^The end
Milling a Dovetail Slot (Fig. 584).
steel casting in
mill seen
on the table
is
first
used.
With
this tool a rectangular slot
416
iVs" deep by
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
l5
/s" wide
is
cut at a surface speed of 36', the feed being
.012" per turn. The cutter shown in the spindle finishes the slot. In
these operations the work is fed vertically, and in addition to the cut
the feed mechanism lifts the work and the heavy machine parts.
The student should note that
a lower cutting speed
the material.
is
is
used.
and the preceding example
due to the tougher nature of
in this
This
is
In milling steel, wrought iron, etc., oil or some cheaper lubricant
generally used and the piping seen just above the cutter is for this
purpose.
Milling Keyways. Methods of Holding the Shafts. When a keyway is to be milled the full length of a shaft, the clamps or straps which
hold the shaft must be so arranged as not to" interfere with the cutters.
FIG. 585.
Fig. 585 shows a fixture in which two shafts are simultaneously milled,
the clamps being properly arranged.
The side-straps are blocked up with adjustable studs screwed into
the clamps and held by a check-nut. This very convenient expedient
can be used in strapping work in any machine.
When two
opposite keyways are required in the
same
shaft the
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
417
may be quickly adjusted for the second keyway by using a guide
that shown under the right-hand shaft.
If short keyways near the middle of the shafts are wanted, the shafts
may be held by two straps with*a central bolt in each strap, the latter
being placed so as to clear the cutters. No blocking is needed in this
latter
like
case.
In
many
cases shafts
may
be held in the table
slots
by
straps with-
out any special fixtures.
Emergency
It
Milling.
is
occasionally necessary to mill
work
for
which no regular cutter is available. In such a case a fly-cutter made
on the principle of that shown in Fig. 586 may be used. The cutter
FIG. 586.
may
by
be made of rectangular or round steel and held in a miller arbor
shown or by a key. The shapes of cutters seen between
set-screws as
the perspective and end views are suggestive of what may be done in
These cutters are not economical, but they may be very
this way.
quickly made, and their use is justified in an emergency.
Boring in the Miller. Fig. 587 shows how a simple cutter and boringmay be used in the miller. The boring-cutter is shown at a. In
a collar at c are two cutters for
bar
facing the work.
It
is
obvious that
drilling
and reaming may
done
the miller.
in
Holding
Work Without
also
be
Special
In most of the examples
given above the work is held in special
Fixtures.
fixtures.
for
The use
of bolts
and straps
clamping work on the miller table
FIG. 587.
being substantially the same as in
the drilling-machine, boring-machine, and planer, it
necessary to give the methods in this connection.
seems scarcely
However, Fig.
588 shows three castings held by bolts and straps, the shape of the
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
418
It will be noticed thau
pieces being such as to facilitate this method.
with strips of metal
contact
of
in
the
outside
are
the
castings
edges
FIG. 588.
"
one of the table slots. This simple method of lining up" work
is also used in the planer.
In the above work the 8" face-mill is taking a cut about l / 8 " deep
by 6" wide on cast iron, the cutting speed being 40' per minute and
fitting
the feed .138" per turn. The pressure of the cut tends to hold the work
against the strips, but when there is heavy pressure lengthwise on the
The miller lacks the holes for stoptable, end-stops may be necessary.
pins provided in the planer-table, but in most cases simple straps firmly
bolted to the table will answer. Pasteboard under the straps will protect the table and at the same time cause the straps to hold more
However, when the point of contact between the strap and
work needs to be high, the strap may be held on wooden blocks, the
securely.
with the grain perpendicular to the table.
Vertical Miller Operations.
The methods of holding work by bolts
and straps is further illustrated in Pigs. 589, 590, and 591. These
latter being placed
illustrations
show
also
various
operations
in
the
Becker-Brainard
Vertical Miller.
Fig. 592
shows a good example of &>xet&ii
held on an arbor supported in
blocks.
milling, the work being
The blocks hold the arbor
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
parallel
WORK
419
with the table and the milled surfaces are therefore true with
the bore.
FIG. 589.
FIG. 591.
Fig. 593
is
FIG. 590.
FIG. 592.
suggestive of the possibilities of the rotary attachment.
Hand-wheels having a semicircular rim, worm-wheels, and much other
lathe work may be machined in this manner.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
420
Holding
Work
in the Vise.
Widths with Same Pair
Milling Parallel Pieces of Different
Much of the small work machined
of Cutters.
FIG. 593.
FIG. 594.
in the miller
may
be held in the
In this illustration we wish to
vise.
Fig. 594
call special
shows a piece thus held.
attention to the method of
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
421
The position of the latter on the arbor is deteradjusting the cutters.
mined by the number and lengfhs of the detachable collars. These
are
(preferably of tool stegl hardened and ground) in different
Collars and
in different diameters to suit the arbors.
made
and
lengths,
by the nut on the end of the arbor, the latter having a
When parallel pieces of different
to
fit the miller-spindle.
shank
taper
widths are to be milled the same pair of cutters may be used by merely
changing the length of the collar between the cutters. The illustration
Thin washers are useful in adjusting the cutters.
will make this clear.
The Universal vise shown in Fig. 595 can be so adjusted as to hold
cutters are held
work
at
any
angle.
The
angles
are
indicated
by the graduations.
FIG. 595.
are generally
are held to the table
Miller vises
They
made with
by
a tongue fitting the table-slots.
short bolts.
Wide-angle Spiral Attachment. As a rule an attachment for given
work is not so economical in its operation as a machine specially adapted
to that work.
Nevertheless, a considerable variety of attachments are
used in connection with the horizontal miller, and some of them are quite
A good idea of the general construction of most of these
satisfactory.
devices
may
be obtained by a study of the wide-angle spiral attachment,
is shown in Fig. 596.
In this illustration A is
a sectional view of which
the box frame, B an arbor fitting the miller-spindle, C a miter-gear keyed
to the arbor and journaled in A, D another miter-gear meshing with C
and operating E, and F the cutter-spindle driven by worm or spiral gears
as shown.
The perspective view,
but
it is
Fig. 597, is probably that of a smaller size,
a good representation of the outside appearance of this attach-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
422
The method of securing the attachment to the miller and swivelthe
cutter-spindle to any angle in a horizontal plane is clearly indiing
in
this view.
The figure illustrates the operation of cutting a
cated
ment.
spiral gear.
The Vertical Milling Attachment shown in Fig. 598 is simpler than
the spiral attachment. Its spindle and head may be swiveled in a ver-
FIG. 596.
"
The engraving represents a 4 /2
plane through a complete circle
cutter taking a light cut on cast-iron pieces which have been previously
roughed out. The surface speed of the cutter at its largest diameter is
1
tical
60' per minute, the feed .252" per turn,
Rack Attachment.
and the width of the cut 4 3/ 16 ".
599
shows
a
Fig.
rack-milling attachment. The
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
423
it is placed below the main spindle and at right
This
arrangement admits of cutting racks several
angles to the latter.
times longer than would be possjfcle with the main machine. The cut
spindle
is
horizontal, but
fixture holding a long rack which
represents a special
is
being milled.
FIG. 597.
For tool-making and die-sinking the attachSlotting Attachment.
is
a valuable addition to a miller outfit. The
600
ment shown in Fig.
mechanism of this attachment is quite different from that of
Fig. 596, and the lesson that it furnishes in machine design may justify
the addition of Figs. 601 and 602. The names given in connection with
the various parts render a lengthy description unnecessary. The attachment frame is secured to the miller and overhanging arm on the same
The " crank-disk," which operates
principle that the arm itself is held.
interior
the
slotting-tool,
and journaled
is
in the
cylindrical
shell
attachment frame.
keyed to the
On
miller-arbor
the outer face of the disk
which the crank-pin is adjusted for different lengths of
may be swiveled through a complete circle in a
horizontal plane, and the whole attachment may be swiveled through
is
throw.
slot in
The
tool-holder
20 in a vertical plane.
424
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
Among other milling attachments are the attachment for cutting
internal gears, the cam-cutting attachment, the rotary attachment, and
the high-speed attachment. The latter is a device by which very small
cutters are caused to run faster
than the main spindle
of the miller.
FIG. 598.
The rotary attachment is shown in Fig. 555 bolted to the table of the
vertical miller.
It is shown again in Fig. 593.
Dividing Head. If we wish to distinguish between milling attachments and miller attachments the dividing head should be classed among
This is the device used in the miller for indexing, i.e., making
accurate divisions of polygonal figures and dividing circles. It is a necessary adjunct of the Universal miller. Before considering the work done in
connection with the dividing head it is important to have a clear underthe latter.
standing of the construction of this attachment. In Fig. 603 is shown
an end view of the dividing head partly sectioned and Fig. 604 shows a
vertical section
through the center of the spindle-bearing.
These are
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
FIG. 599.
FIG. 600.
WORK
425
426
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG. 601.
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
FIG. 602.
WORK
427
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
428
cuts of an old design.
is clearly illustrated.
They
them the principle
Brown & Sharpe dividing
are used because in
later design of the
FIG. 603.
head in connection with the foot-stock is shown in Figs. 605, 606, 607,
and 608. Referring to Figs. 603 and 604, the worm-wheel G, which is
FIG. 604.
tightly keyed to the spindle S, has 40 teeth.
Meshing with G is the
worm , tightly secured to 0. Detachably secured to T (which turns
freely on 0) is
of these plates,
an index-plate R, Fig. 603.
and each plate has several
which various divisions
of circles
may
Each machine has
several
different circles of holes
be measured.
The crank J
by
is
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
slotted so that
with any
it
may
WORK
429
be moved radially on
to bring the pin P in line
on R. ^hen adjusted as required, J is held
circle of holes
&
the
nut
N.
The
or
other
work
be
rotated with
gear
by
may
tightly
the spindle S by revolving J independently of R. In this case the pin
on
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
430
withdrawn and inserted again for each tooth, and pin F 1 holds
This method is used in simple indexing. The work may
also be revolved by turning J and R together. At this time P is in one
of the holes in R and pin F 1 is withdrawn. The two methods comis
JR stationary.
bined are used in compound indexing.
In many kinds of work it is necessary to swivel the spindle S. It
may be swung around on the axis of the worm-shaft and clamped by a
bolt passing through the circular slot.
Dividing-heads have been much unproved since that of Fig. 603
was designed. The head illustrated in Fig. 605 has in addition to the
index-plate / a second index-plate. As shown at C in the sectional
is secured by screws to the spindle.
The
to provide for quick indexing in certain kinds of
grooving taps and reamers, for instance. In this direct indexing
view, Fig. 607, this plate
object of this plate
work
the
worm
by
hand.
is
disconnected from the worm-wheel and the plate is turned
Both plate and spindle may be locked by the pin D.
Simple Indexing. Referring again to Figs. 603 and 604, the gear (or
other work) being placed in position, one revolution of / causes G and
the gear to turn 1 /4 of a revolution. Now if 40 be the required number of
is
teeth in the gear, one turn of / will give the correct division for each
tooth. If 80 teeth are wanted, one half revolution of J is correct. It
is
a simple matter, therefore, to deduce the following rule: 40 + number of
= revolutions of J for each tooth. Let it be required to cut 19
teeth in gear
%9 equals 2 2/i9> equal revolutions of /.
In this
an index-plate with a 19-hole circle or some multiple of 19.
Using the 19-hole circle we turn the crank two complete revolutions
and then move it two spaces more.
teeth.
case
By the above rule
we
select
To obviate mistakes in registering the fraction, a sector is used in
connection with the index-plate. An end view of this sector is lettered
S l-S 2 in Fig. 603, but it is more clearly shown in a front view in conIn adjusting this
nection with an index-plate in Figs. 610 and 619.
sector to register 2 /i9 the two limbs S l-S 2 are swung around on the
shaft until just 2 spaces (equaling 3 holes) are enclosed between the
limbs fast. Now
limbs; a snrll screw is then tightened, holding the
for each of the 19 teeth in the gear the crank J must be turned two
revolutions plus the fraction enclosed by the sector.
The sector should always be pulled around by the advancing limb;
otherwise
its
adjustment
Compound
may be
Indexing.
igear with some number of
disturbed.
It sometimes
teeth that
happens that we wish to cut a
cannot be divided by simple indexing
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
431
with any plate on hand. We then have recourse to what is termed
compound indexing. Let it be required to cut 96 teeth by this method.
40
According to the rule the gear'' must be turned
/9 6 of a revolution
One of- the plates furnished with the machine has
for each tooth.
20 holes in the outside
pin
circle,
Fig. 603,
1,
circle
and 18
in the next.
The
the same distance from the axis of
is
and generally
in
now, we move the crank
1, and turn J with R
move the gear to be cut 5 /2o + 3 /is
one of these holes.
5 spaces of the 20-hole
circle,
we
3 spaces of the 18 circle,
= 40 / 96 of a revolution.
If,
withdraw pin
shall
position of the
as the 18-hole
be noticed that both of these movements were in the same
in some cases, however, we cannot get the right division in
way, but have to move the crank forward too much, and then
It will
direction;
this
make
by moving the index-plate with the crank backward. It so happens that the 96-tooth gear could be divided by both
the "plus and the minus methods" so to speak. We shall use the 18 and
20
previous case. Starting with the 18-hole circle it
take such a fraction of that circle that when
circles as in the
be
will
40
the correction
/ 96
necessary to
subtracted from
is
it
the remainder will be equivalent to some
fraction of the 20-hole circle.
the former case,
it
40
is
The
a tentative one.
process in this case, as well as in
we take 9 holes of the 18 circle
If
will equal 48 /96 revolutions of the index-plate.
Now, subtracting
8
48
/96 we have /96 left; but we find this is not equivalent
/ 96 from
to
any
fraction having 20 for a denominator.
Therefore, 9 spaces of
Let us now try 12 spaces of the 18 circle.
the 18 circle cannot be used.
12
/is equals
64
40
/96 of a revolution of the index-plate;
we have as a remainder 24 /96the number 20 circle. So we
24
/96 equals
find that
/96
subtracting
/2o, equals 5 spaces in
moving the index-plate
by
and crank together 12 spaces forward in number 18 circle and the
crank 5 spaces backward in the 20-hole circle we turn the gear 40 /96 of
a revolution, which was found by the rule to be the correct division
Thus 12 /i8- 5 /2o= 40 /96for the 96-tooth gear.
It should be borne in mind that the number of holes to be enclosed
with the sector must be one more than the required number of spaces.
Some
1 may
dividing heads are so constructed that the back-pin
With such an arrangement a wider range of divi-
be adjusted radially.
sions may be made.
Differential
B.
&
S.
Indexing.
The
latest
indexing-heacls
Manufacturing Company admit of a new
of indexing in addition to direct or plain indexing.
made
differential
By
by the
method
this differential
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
432
method any division from 1 to 332 may be quickly and accurately made.
When this method is used the index-plate and main spindle of the head
are connected by a train of gears. The effect of this arrangement is
to cause the plate to turn at the same time the crank is being rotated.
If
one
idler or intermediate, as at
in Fig. 609,
be used, the index-plate
lhe use of two idlers causes
turn in the direction of the crank.
Because
the plate to turn in the opposite direction to that of the crank.
of this rotation of the index-plate we cannot use 40 in the computations
tvill
the constant numerator, but must use some other numerator or
"spacing number." What this new numerator shall be for any given
combination of gearing will depend upon whether one or two idlers are
The index-crank makes 40
used and the proportions of the gears.
p,s
iurns to
and
of the spindle,
the index-plate will
and with equal numbers
make
turn to
of teeth in gears
of the spindle.
Hence the
following rules:
A
40
.
40 +
teeth in
7
-j
~= numerator when
teeth in
teeth in
teeth in
..
one
idler is used:
(D
two
idlers are used.
(2)
The manufacturers furnish with the dividing-head a table giving
the changes for both plain and differential indexing, including all diviThe gears and index-plates furnished with the
sions from 1 to 382.
machine cover
this range,
but extras can be supplied.
For 131 divisions
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
the table
and one
circle.
the
movement
Let us test these proportions.
new numerator.
Having
433
and 40 teeth for
and C respectively,
of index-crank being 6 spaces in the 20-hole
gears with 28
calls for
idler,
WORK
this
rule (1) 40
= 39 3/iQ=
-~;
new numerator, we proceed exactly
with the older design of dividing-head.
the 20-hole circle as required.
28
By
Thus
39.3
131
The equality
20
of these
=6
two
be quickly proved by reducing both to decimals.
In some cases it is necessary to use compound gearing.
spaces
as
fractions
may
shows the gears compounded and one
the
compound stud
idler
added.
Fig. 610
As the gears on
affect the direction of rotation of the index-plate,
a combination like that of Fig. 610
must be computed
for
two
idlers.
FIG. bid
The other
effect of
compounding must,
of course, be also considered.
Using the letters on the gears as symbols of the numbers of teeth, the
equations for the two cases are as follows:
40
77-
Or
40+
F\
X TT = numerator when one
C
~XV
C
56 teeth;
The
first
used ;
(3)
two
idlers are used.
(4)
,G
For 374 divisions the table
illustration.
idler is
calls for
the arrangement shown in the
gears required are the following: Gear
gear on stud
(F), 64 teeth;
on spindle
(E),
second gear on stud (G),
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
434
32 teeth; gear on
movement
(C), 72 teeth;
of the index-crank
The
circle.
worm
idler
is
idler-gear (D), 24 teeth.
KA
/* A \
and
9==2
Q>7
4
o
/18
Formula
does not affect the ratio.
(prf*
= movement
The
2
given as --^==two spaces in the 18-hole
lo
X^j=40 +
= 41 /9=new
5
(4) applies
numerator,
of index-crank as required.
Computing Change-gears for Cutting
Spirals.
In
the
common
the elements of the teeth are parallel to the axis of the
In the spiral gear the teeth form helical grooves around the gear-
spur-gear
gear.
all
The spur-gear is stationary under the cutting, except that it
fed in a straight line to the cutter. The spiral gear, in addition to
the feed, is given a rotary motion on its axis. The linear advance or feed
blank.
is
one revolution (although most spiral gears are too short to
revolution for each tooth) is termed the lead.
Fig. 611 shows an end view of an old dividing-head. The screw which
feeds the table is shown in cross-section marked S 2.
This feed-screw is
of the gear to
make a
operated by the regular feed mechanism, and the blank to be cut is
rotated by a train of gears the first of which is keyed to this screw,
the last being the miter-gear T referred to in connection with Fig. 603.
The other miter-gear having immediate connection with T is on the
inner end of shaft
in Fig. 611.
This plate shows the train of gears
connected ready to cut a spiral. The first of these gears, marked G 1, is
called gear on screw; the second, G2, is first gear on stud; the third,
G 3, is second gear on stud; and the fourth, G 4, is called gear on worm.
The
table (and of course the gear-blank with it) is set to an angle conforming to the angle of the spiral to be cut, and the combined rotary
motion and linear advance of the gear-blank give the helical curve to
the teeth. The principles involved are the same as in screw-cutting in
the lathe, and the change-gears are computed in practically the same
manner.
Now.
of
//
let it
lead.
be required to cut a spiral of 36" lead. The screw S is
have to make 4x36 = 144 revolutions
It will, therefore,
/4
to advance the
The wonn- wheel,
and gear-blank 36".
of the worm
one
turn
and
as
has
40
teeth,
already seen,
moves the worm-wheel only one tooth, the worm-shaft 0, Fig. 603, will
as
miller-table
we have
have to make 40 turns to 144 turns of the screw. With a worm-gear of
144 teeth and a gear of 40 teeth on the screw, or any two gears of this
proportion, we could cut the spiral; but we have not these gears. We
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
435
have to use such gears as are furnished with the machine.
the
latter
Among
gears are gears with 32, 40, 64, and 72 teeth. The
machine is designed to use compound gearing, and we may compute the
shall, therefore,
required gears by the following formula, in which
equals the lead of
FIG. 611.
the required spiral, 4 the revolutions of S 2 to 1" advance of table, 40
the teeth in the worm-wheel, G 1 number of teeth in gear on screw,
G 2 number
of teeth in first gear on stud, G 3 number of teeth in second
The positions of
stud, and G 4 number of teeth in worm-gear.
these various gears will be clearly understood by referring to Fig. 611.
gear on
The formula
is:
LX4_G3XG4
40
~GIXG2'
equals 36 in this case, so the formula becomes
G3XG4 36X4
G1XG2 40
Lead
10
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
436
If
we
40 and 64 for the
select
40
fraction 40 /i44
by
40
64
nave TJI x /m
144 4U
oTr-
as
its
two gears we must divide the
mating gears. Dividing thus we
first
/64 to find the
The worm-gear must then be
2 x /4 times as large
/4
mating gear.
l
Multiplying 32 by 2 /
we have 72
for
G4
or the
The
worm-gear.
gears complete, then, for cutting a 36" spiral are 40,
and
3,
64, 32,
72, answering to G 1,
2, and G 4 respectively.
One of
Milling Bolts and Nuts in Connection with Dividing-head.
the simplest operations in connection with the dividing-head is that of
In milling a bolt-head the bolt would
milling bolt-heads and nuts.
and foot-stock.
shown in Fig. 606, is used very much the same as the
a lathe. The bolt may also be driven by a lathe-dog, as in
generally be held between the centers of the dividing-head
The
latter,
which
tail-stock of
is
the lathe.
When
one time.
and held
a lot of nuts are to be milled, a number of them are milled at
For this purpose they are placed upon a special plain arbor
fast
between a shoulder on the arbor and a nut on
arbor being held between centers as in the previous case.
its
end, the
Figs. 612 to
614
FIG. 612.
FIG. 613.
show three
different cutters
FIG. 614.
and methods
for milling such work.
straddle-mill, Fig. 612, is of course the quickest for
The
shapes having an even
WORK
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
number
mill
is
of sides.
One method
of adjusting the
work
437
for the straddle-
knee high enqugh to bring the arbor between the two
and then make the spacgg between the arbor and the sides of
to raise the
cutters,
the cutters equal.
Grooving taps and reamers is another class of work generally
The proportions of the
milled in connection with the dividing-head.
in
this
book.
referred
to
elsewhere
The indexing for
have
been
grooves
such work
is
rather slow
40
4-groove tap requires
if
= 10
the regular index-plate be used.
Thus a
turns of the plate for each groove.
As has
been intimated, such spacing as is needed for nuts, reamers, etc., can be
done very quickly by the plate on the spindle.
Micrometer Measurements in the Miller. The micrometer-disks, or
dial-plates on the feed-screws of the miller afford a very convenient means
These disks are generally graduated to
of measuring depth of cut, etc.
Thus if rethousandths of an inch and sometimes to half thousandths.
quired to mill \" round stock to hexagonal shape, Vs" across flats, by
the method of Fig. 613, we would first raise the knee until the stock just
This may be called the zero position of the
touched the revolving cutter.
work.
To correspond with this we set the micrometer-disk (or pointer) to its
zero position.
Having made these adjustments the knee is next raised
until the pointer indicates 62 x /2 thousandths, when the milling may be
begun. The same principles will, of course, apply in adjusting the other
In all cases the backlash must be taken up before
feed movements.
adjusting the pointer.
In milling taper work between centers
Special Dog for Taper-milling.
the dividing-head may be rotated slightly to lower its center, or the center
in the foot-stock may be raised.
In either case the common lathe-dog,
on account
of the changing contact of its tail with the slot of the driver,
is
offset so that the
dog
may
dog made
like
cylindrical,
and
be so adjusted as to cause the center
line
causes irregular spacing and gives trouble otherwise.
that of Fig. 615 should be used. The tail of this dog
is
of the cylindrical part to pass through the center of contact between
the work-center and the dividing-head center.
It is important also
that the slot in the driver be parallel and adjustable.
The driver
in the illustration meets the requirements.
The upper illustration
shown
given merely to indicate the difficulty in using a common dog.
In some instances one end of the work is driven in a chuck screwed
on the end of the dividing-head spindle. In such a case special care
is
"
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
438
is
required to have the spindle in exact alinement with the foot-stock
The adjustment provided in the dividing-head and foot-stock
center.
is
sufficient for ordinary tapers.
FIG. 615.
Taper Attachment for the Miller.
When much
taper work
is
to
be done in the miller an attachment like that of Fig. 616 will be advantageous. The shank of the center seen at the left end of the attachthe taper socket of the dividing-head spindle. The other
held in the slotted knee-plate as shown. The attachment carries
own foot-stock, which is longitudinally adjustable. This device
ment
end
its
fits
is
FIG. 616.
may
be angled to the extent of 10, and the alinement of the centers
nowise be disturbed.
"
will in
In milling abrupt angles the foot-stock
Milling Abrupt Angles.
not used. In some cases angular work is held in the chuck; in other
cases it may be held On an arbor the shank of which fits the head
is
spindle.
The
latter
method
is
illustrated in Figs. 617
and 618.
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
439
The Use of Chucks in the Miller. As intimated the chuck is used to
some extent in connection with.. the dividing-head. The work gripped
in the chuck is principally of" small diameter and the Universal chuck
is
generally preferred.
FIG. 618.
FIG. 617.
The draw-in chuck
as used in the lathe has
been described elsewhere.
shows this chuck as adapted to the
Small rods, screws, etc., may be very
For
milled in connection with this chuck.
cut slots in a small number of screw-heads, the
Fig. 619
spindle of the dividing-
head.
quickly and accurately
instance, if required to
screws might be gripped
one at a time in this device by merely tightening the hand-wheel, the
slots being cut by feeding the knee vertically to the revolving cutter.
However, when a large number of screws are to be slotted the work
can be performed more economically in a special fixture which holds a
number of screws. Fig. 619 is taken from an article by A. L. Monrad
"
American Machinist,"
vol. 27, page 153.
In cutting a gear it is necessary to
Cutters.
Gear-tooth
Selecting
know the pitch and number of teeth in the gear in order to select the
The gear-tooth cutters generally used are made according
cutter.
in
to the
Brown & Sharpe
system.
are required for each pitch.
in the following table:
No.
will cut
In the involute system eight cutters
cutter is given
The range covered by each
wheels from 135 teeth to a rack
55
134 teeth
"
35
54
"
26
34
"
21
25
"
20
17
"
14
16
"
12
13
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
440
In the epicycloidal system there are twenty-four cutters to a set.
first cost of these cutters is, therefore, greater than that of the inGears cut with an involute cutter have the further advantage
volute.
The
American Machinist
FIG. 619.
that they do not necessarily require such an exact adjustment of the
For these
distance between shaft-centers as do epicycloidal gears.
reasons epicycloidal gears are in a large measure being superseded by
the involute.
The pitch of a gear is designated in two ways first,
distance between centers, measured on the pitch-circle, of
:
it means the
two adjacent
means the num-
This is termed the circular pitch. Second, it
ber of teeth in the gear to each inch of its pitch-diameter.
diametral pitch. We shall use the latter definition here.
teeth.
This
is
the
The cutter which is right for a spur-gear is too thick for a bevel-gear
same pitch. Cutters for bevel-gears are made on the assumption
of the
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
441
that the length of the tooth-face is not greater than one third the distance
from its outer end to the intersection of the axes of the two shafts.
Cutters for longer faces will be m*de to order. In selecting a cutter
for a bevel-gear we do not make use of the actual pitch-diameter, but a
diameter equal to twice the back-cone radius ab for the large gear, and
twice be for the small gear (see Fig. 620).
If be
equals 2" and the gear
FIG. 620.
to have 12-pitch teeth, we should select a cutter for 4X12 = 48 teeth.
By reference to the table it will be seen that a No. 3 cutter would be
is
required.
bevel cutter.
For
The depth
2 157
'
when
we would order a No. 3, 12-pitch
would
large gear
require a different number of cutter.
the tooth space must also be known. This equals
this gear, therefore,
The
of
The depth
equals the diametral pitch.
above gear would be
2.157
= .180".
12
It
larger end of the tooth.
in such gears being of equal
This
is
of space in the
the depth at the outer or
also the depth in a spur-gear, the space
depth at each end of the tooth.
Cutting a Spur-gear in the Universal Miller. The term "spur" is a
general term applied to a gear whose tooth elements are parallel to the
Gears shown in Figs. 621 and 622 are spuraxis of rotation of the gear.
There are two ways of holding the gear while cutting the teeth.
gears.
First, it may be driven tightly on an arbor and caused to revolve with
the dividing-head spindle by one end of the arbor fitting a taper-hole
in the dividing-head spindle.
Second, the gear may be driven on an
arbor which is supported between the dividing-head and foot-stock, as
In this case the tail of the dog engages with a slot in the
in a lathe.
or
driver, and the latter is provided with a set-screw which is
face-plate
is
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
442
so adjusted against the tail of the dog as to prevent any "play" or
shake of the dog and arbor.
Any looseness at this point will cause
irregular spacing of the gear- teeth.
As indicated elsewhere, the cutter
is
carried
the socket-hole in the end of the miller-spindle,
by an arbor
its
position
on
fitting in
this
arbor
being regulated by slip-collars. The gear-blank should be so placed in
relation to the cutter that a vertical plane at right angles to the axis
of the cutter-arbor shall pass through the centers of the cutter and gear
This is done by so adjusting the clamp-bed
axis, as shown in Fig. 626.
on the knee as to bring the cutter central with a center line on the
foot-stock, or with a mark on the dividing-head when the foot-stock is not
used. The knee is next adjusted vertically until the cutter, while reThis is the zero
volving, will just touch the top of the gear-blank.
The vertical travel of the knee is measured on
position of the cutter.
a dial-plate, as was explained, and the dial-pointer should now be set
at zero to agree with the position of the cutter. The table should next
be moved lengthwise to take the gear from under the cutter, and by
means
of the hand-wheel E, Fig. 546, the knee should be raised a distance corresponding to the depth the gear is to be cut. In adjusting
the knee its gib-screws should be slackened no more than necessary to
permit freedom of movement. If too loose the screws will, when tightened,
knee slightly and thus alter the previous setting.
raise the
In order to insure that the
and nut
shall
direction to raise the knee.
on the
last
motion between the vertical screw
movement of the crank should be in the
If this is
not properly attended to the reading
be downward, the
dial will
be unreliable.
lost
The
dial for vertical adjustment is graduated in thousandths, and a complete turn of the dial-finger generally
10
18
equals %ooo". The depth for cutting a 12-pitch gear is
oo"; the
movement
for this gear should, therefore,
be
I 80 /ioo
revolutions of the
dial-finger.
Having properly mounted the gear and having made the adjustment
we are ready to take the first cut. This is done by slowly
as indicated
feeding the gear against the revolving cutter a distance equal to the
face or thickness of the gear plus clearance at each end. The table is
now quickly returned to the starting-point and the gear indexed for
the next cut.
end
Care should be taken that the clearance on the entering
such that during the time the gear is being indexed or turned
for the next cut it will not come in contact with the cutter.
The above
is
for
in
each
tooth
the
and
while
gear,
operation
repeated
turning the
is
indexing crank, caution should be observed to prevent the pin
(Fig.
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
443
603) from striking and
moving the sector; otherwise an error in the
would
result.
It
indexing
should^tie noted also that the holes enclosed
between the limbs of the sector mu&t always be one more than indicated
by the fraction measured.
Cutting Large Gears.
Blocking up the Centers. It is sometimes
necessary to cut a gear of so large a diameter that the gear would strike
FIG. 621.
if carried on a horizontal arbor.
In such a case the footbe dispensed with and the gear be held on an arbor in the
dividing-head spindle as shown in Fig. 621.* In milling a gear by this
the miller-frame
stock
may
method the pressure
of the cut should be supported.
The support should
preferably be clamped to the table and its point of contact with the
work oiled, so that it will not be disturbed by the rotation of the gear.
* This cut illustrates
vol. 26,
page 1115.
an
article
by Geo.
J.
Meyer
in
"American
Machinist,'*
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
444
The
large back-gears
miller
on the miller shown
in Fig.
552 were cut on a small
the above method.
by
The long
lever and weight shown in connection with Fig. 621 were
used to counterbalance the weight of the miller knee, table, etc.
In this
Fig. 622 illustrates another method of cutting large gears.
case the gear
is
held between centers, but
it is
raised above the cutter.
FIG. 622.
The dividing-head and foot-stock shown are of simple construction,
and are called plain index centers.
The plan of blocking up the centers is suggestive of an expedient that
is often adopted when the centers are too low.
Gears of average pitch are commonly cut with one traverse of the
cutter for each space. The author has known gears as coarse as 3-pitch
to be cut in this way.
Many mechanics, however, prefer to take two
cuts.
The
cutters last longer
and do better work
if
kept sharp.
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
445
Fig. 623 shows a perspective view of a worm
the worm. It will be
which G is the- wheel and
seen that the teeth form an acute angle with the bore of the wheel, and
Cutting Worm-wheels.
and worm-wheel,
in
FIG. 623.
Worm
and Worm-wheel.
that they are made concave to conform to the thread on the worm. To cut
these teeth two cutters are commonly used, the first being a disk-cutter,
In selecting this cutter we do
as was used in cutting the spur-gear.
not consult the table, but use any cutter which will leave the right amount
for the hob.
The latter is a kind of screw with cutting-edges somewhat
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
446
like a
tap (see Fig. 624). The disk-cutter teeth must be thinner than
thread on the hob in order to leave some metal for finish-
.the teeth or
ing with the hob; and in using the
disk-cutter the table must be
swiveled to an angle which agrees
with the angle on the wormthread.
This angle
may
be determined
by drawing a
triangle the base of
equal to the lead of the
which is
worm-thread
and
the
altitude
equals the pitch circumference of
the worm. The angle formed by
the hypotenuse and the altitude is
the angle to which the table should
be swiveled. As the first cutter
FIG. 624.
merely roughs out the teeth a close approximation to the angle will answer.
Most of what was said in connection with spur-gears will apply equally
well to worm-wheels. The wheel, however, must be held on an arbor
between centers according to the second method described.
The relation of wheel and cutter is shown in Figs. 625 and 626, and having
made
these adjustments the next thing is to swivel the table to the
required angle and then raise the knee until the revolving cutter will
just touch the two corners of the wheel as shown at EE, Fig. 625.
Next,
the table gib-screws are locked and the dial-pointer set at zero, when the
teeth may be cut. In this operation we do not feed the table, but raise
and lower the knee the required distance for each tooth.
There
is
or should be a line
on the
face of the
column where the knee
when the
center of the dividing-head spindle is in the
same horizontal plane as the center of the miller-spindle. The depth of
the tooth-space is determined by raising the knee until the distance
between the measuring surface on the knee and the center line agrees
slides to indicate
with the distance between shaft-centers as given on the drawing. For
//
the roughing cut the wheel should be cut to within about 1 /64 of the
final depth.
Robbing the Teeth.
After cutting
all
the teeth in this manner
we
take the disk-cutter and arbor out of the miller-spindle and use the hob,
It is held on the arbor in the same manner that the disk-cutter is held.
As the threads on the hob are of the same angle as the worm which is to
operate the wheel, the table must now be swiveled back to its normal
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
447
In bobbing the teeth the wheel is caused to turn
position at zero.
by
the interlocking of the hob and wheel-teeth as shown in
ThereFig. 627.
fore we do not need the
index-plate for dividing. To permit the wheel to
turn, the dog is removed from thfe gear-arbor.
Before starting the hob
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
448
The foot-stock
axes intersect at right angles are called miter-gears.)
To avoid excessive deflection, the
cannot be used in cutting this gear.
gear should be placed close to the end of the dividing-head spindle. It is
If the gear be of such a size and angle that
held on the arbor by a nut.
the nut would interfere with the cutter, the nut may be either reduced
in thickness or omitted.
In the latter case the arbor should fit the gear
be held by friction.
The gear must be set central under the cutter as in the case of the
The dividing-head is graduated along the edge A, and it
spur-gear.
must be set to the cutting angle, which angle is given on the drawing.
When thus adjusted it is clamped by the nut N. The side, top, and bottom lines of the teeth converge in C, and consequently when the gear
sufficiently tight to
is
set to the cutting angle the face
the cutter
plane as
is
HF
will not
be horizontal.
When
in the zero position its center will be in the same vertical
the highest part of the edge H, as shown in Fig. 628. To find
is
this position the cutter is rotated,
forth about one half inch the knee
Next the table
is
moved
and while the table
is
is
fed back
and
H.
raised until the cutter touches at
in the direction of arrow 7
and the knee raised
the required depth of the tooth space.
Having arranged the index-plate,
we now proceed to rough-cut the
teeth
the
in
finish
cannot
cutting around once, because the
gear.
the
teeth
be
between
wider
at H, and the first cutting will
must
space
not give this result. In Fig. 629 the blank spaces show the grooves
We
made
will
in the first cutting, while the dotted lines
appear when finished.
show the spaces
as they
be understood that both the teeth and the spaces are taperand
having taken the first cut around the gear the metal left
ing;
between the dotted line D and full line L must next be cut away. To
effect this the dividing spindle is rotated or swiveled slightly on its axis.
This operation moves any point H, on the greatest diameter of the gear,
If the student does not underfarther than F on the small diameter.
stand why this enables us to cut more from the thick end of the tooth
than from the thin end it may be made clearer by the following reasonIt will
will move a greater
ing. It is evident that if the gear be rotated,
distance than F; for C, which is a prolongation of HF, being a point
on the axial line of the dividing-head spindle, does not move at all
and C, on the line HFC, must
This being true, any point between
move a shorter distance than H. It should be clear, then, that the
spaces between the teeth may be made tapering by slightly rotating
the gear and moving it laterally in the opposite direction. This being
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
WORK
449
repeated on each side, and the gear fed to the cutter in each instance,
the space will be made tapering symmetrically with respect to its center
The thickness should be marked off on one or two teeth as a guide
line.
to cut by.
It will be necessary to explain why the gear is moved laterally when
swiveling for a taper. It is found that when the gear is swiveled sufficiently to give the correct taper to the teeth the latter would be cut
too thin did
we not make another adjustment
ment consists in moving the gear
moves the clamp-bed (see Fig. 546)
laterally
.
to offset this.
This adjust-
by the hand-wheel
/, which
This tapering process can be best
explained by considering the operation of cutting a miter-gear of some
The
definite size, say 12-pitch, 40 teeth, on a No. 1 B. & S. miller.
index-plate used for this gear has among the circles one circle of 39 holes.
thin the tooth next to the left side of the cutter (looking at Fig. 630)
the index-crank is turned in the direction of arrow No. 1, 5 spaces of
To
the 39
circle.
This turns the gear toward arrow No.
ting too much off the tooth the gear is
As
in the direction of arrow No. 5.
effected
by moving the hand-wheel
3.
now moved
stated,
J, Fig. 546.
this
With
tion of the index-crank for a starting-point, the teeth
To avoid
cut-
laterally .018"
movement is
new posimay now be
this
After completing one side, the index-crank is
on one side.
turned 10 spaces (or 5 spaces from the original position) toward arrow
No. 2, and the clamp-bed is moved to take the gear .036" (or .018"
from the original position) toward arrow No. 6, Fig. 630. Dividing the
finished
gear from this new position of the index-crank,
the opposite sides of the teeth.
we proceed
to finish
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
450
The
thickness and
addendum should be given on the drawing for
may be measured by a gear-tooth Vernier
each end of the tooth, and this
shown at Fig. 631. In the absence of such an instrument
shown in Fig. 632 may be used.
has been found somewhat difficult to convey to the student a
caliper as
the gage
It
clear idea of the last part of bevel-gear cutting.
It
may
fore, to repeat the instruction for tapering the teeth.
the
first
we move the
89 circle, and move
tapering cut
be
well, there-
Thus, to take
1, 5
index-crank toward arrow No.
the clamp-bed .018" toward arrow
the opposite side of the tooth we move the index-crank
toward arrow No. 2, 10 spaces from last position and move the clampspaces on
No.
5.
the
To trim
bed .036" from last position in the direction of arrow No. 6
It is important to observe in this connection that in adjusting the
gear laterally the lost motion in the screw must be kept in one direction.
.
Thus, having turned the hand- wheel of the clamp-bed through an arc
which moves the dial-pointer .018" to the left of zero, in moving to the
opposite side it would not answer to merely move it .036" backward. This
would reverse the lost motion; and while the hand- wheel would move
through an arc corresponding to .036", the clamp-bed would move less.
In moving to the opposite side of zero the dial-pointer should be turned
backward about one half of a revolution and then be moved forward
and stopped .036" short of the previous position.
By this method
the lost motion does not interfere with the reading on the dial, because, notwithstanding the hand-wheel moves in opposite directions,
its final movements are in one and the same direction for the two
opposite adjustments of the clamp-bed.
It should be explained that while the
amount of the lateral and
one particular gear are here
In pracgiven, these adjustments may not apply to a different gear.
tice these adjustments are found by trial and error, and when thus
swivel
movements
for tapering the teeth of
found the operator makes memoranda of them, and thus saves doing
the work again for duplicate gears. It should also be noted that in
practice the first or parallel cut is not made except in coarse pitches,
but it may be well to have the beginner make the three cuts.
Common Method
not Theoretically Correct.
The tooth
of a bevel-
gear varies in curvature between the thick and thin end, but the diskcutter will not make such curvature. The method here outlined, though
commonly used in practice, is, for the above reasons, not theoretically
The cutter cannot be right for both ends of the tooth, and
correct.
the usual practice
is
to select a cutter of
correct shape for the thick
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
end, as has
by
451
been explained, and correct the remainder of the tooth
Some
filing.
of the tooth.
prefer to use a. cutter of correct shape for the center
In this case the 'thick end of the teeth will be too much
rounded, but for most purposes
out any
WORK
^rie
gear will be fairly satisfactory with-
filing.
When
bevel-gears are to run at a very high speed, or have very
method of cutting the teeth here described is not very
For such gears there are machines in use which will cut
satisfactory.
long faces, the
the teeth theoretically correct, but the process
sive than the one above explained.
is
slower and more expen-
Cutting Rack -teeth. The attachment shown in Fig. 599 is a very
satisfactory device for cutting racks in the miller. If the rack is not
greater than about 8" long it may be held in a common miller vise, but
a long rack is best held in a special fixture. If two or more be held in
the vise or fixture the cut may be made through all of them in one operaThe depth of space is measured in connection with the graduated
tion.
the same as in cutting the spur-gear, but the teeth are spaced by
The distance between the centers of the
entirely different method.
teeth is, of course, the circular pitch, and when the diametral pitch only
is known, the circular pitch is found by dividing 3.1416 by the diametral
dial,
an
'
pitch.
Thus the
circular pitch of a 12-pitch gear equals
=.262".
Now
having a graduated dial on the table-screw it is a very simple matter
by hand .262" for each tooth, the rack being fed to the
revolving cutter by the hand-wheel which moves the clamp-bed.
to feed the table
When
numbers
sometimes pays to
machines are so conSome
purchase a special rack-cutter.
structed that a number of cutters may be strung together on the same
large
of racks are required
it
of these
arbor, so as to cut as many teeth in one operation as there are cutters.
Now if there are, say, 6 racks clamped to the table, then six times as many
teeth as there are cutters may be cut in one operation.
Direction of Rotation of Cutter. Milling-machines are commonly
equipped with both forward and backing belts, and the beginner needs
to be informed as to the proper relation between the direction of table
movement and cutter rotation. It takes but little experience to learn
that, with rare exceptions, the work should be fed against the front or
cutting faces of the teeth, as at
Fig. 633
If
the feed be
' '
with the teeth/
as at B, the work is likely to be pulled forward an amount equal to the
This causes the cutter to
freedom or backlash in the screw or rack.
dio; in,
and sometimes breaks the
teeth.
452
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
The best authorities say that the cutter will remain sharp much longer
when the work is fed as at A. This is certainly true when surfacing a
rough casting. The reason is that after the cutter has entered the work
it
no longer attacks the hard scale from above, but breaks
it
off
from
FIG. 633.
below. In the latter case the scale has but little support and yields
with light pressure.
The reasons given for running the cutter with the feed seem to have
but little weight. There is one case, nowever, in which it may be advantageous to run the cutter in this way. It is that of milling a deep
with a cutter, say, l /i to 3/ 16 inch thick. In this work the cutter
Better results may possibly be
is very likely to make the slot crooked.
obtained in such work with the cutter running with the feed as at B.
slot
In the latter case the
table gib-screws
should be somewhat
The same precaution should be used when the
both top and bottom at the same time, as in Fig. 580.
usual.
tighter
cutter
is
than
cutting
Some w orkmen
r
counterweight the table in such cases.
It should be observed that the common size cutters are held on the
arbors by friction between the cutters and the collars, these being bound
together by the nut on the outer end of the arbor. Now, as the millerspindle runs in both directions, some of the arbors must have right-hand
MILLING-MACHINES AND MILLING-MACHINE
thread and some left-hand thread.
When
WORK
453
the cutter runs clockwise,
the arbor with left-hand thread should be used and vice versa.
Speed and Feed of Milling-caters. In some of the examples of miland (iepth of cut have been given. These rates apply
ling the speed, feed
to particular cases
and are supposed to represent rapid work. It is
a general rule. The depth of cut, character of material,
number of teeth in the cutter, etc.. are factors which must be considered.
difficult to give
The Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company,
in their
book entitled
"
Construction and Use of Milling-Machines," after acknowledging the
difficulties of the problem, say: "The average speed on wrought iron
and annealed
steel is
perhaps 40' a minute.
The
feed of the
work
"
for this surface speed of the cutter can be about 1 1 / 2 a
In cast iron a cutter can
depth of cut, say, Vie".
minute and the
have a surface
1
speed of about 50' a minute, while the feed is I / 2" a minute and the
"
cut 3/i 6 deep, and in tough brass the speed may be 80', the feed as
3
before, and the chip /32""
But as showing how the speed may be increased under favorable
conditions the same authority cites cases in which cutters have been run
in their own works at 125' per minute, while the work was fed more than
8" a minute. In the cases referred to the work consisted of short pieces
of annealed cast iron and the cut was only l /&" deep.
In the book above mentioned an English authority is quoted as
proposing the following speeds and feeds for cutters 6" diameter and
upwards
//
36 feet per minute with a feed of 1/2 per minute
"
il
li
"
"
"
"
H
1"
48
Steel
Wrought
iron.
..
"
"
120
60
Cast iron
Brass
"
il
"
"
"
" ll
" "
ll
"
"
"
"
1"
1"
"
The same book quotes another authority
to the effect that in milling
this is quite different from
I"
that
iron
with
a
cut
(note
deep
wrought
mere surface milling) a surface speed of 36 to 40 feet was all that was
practicable.
The speeds above given were
doubtless
meant
to be used in connec-
with ordinary tool-steel cutters. With high-speed steel greater
speeds should be practicable. In this connection read pages 123 and 173
tion
on high-speed
The
steels.
following
is
taken from a card of instructions written by the
author and posted near the milling-machine at the Michigan Agricultural College:
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
454
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE OF ARBORS ON THE MILLING-MACHINE
Before inserting the cutter-arbor see that both the arbor and socket
The spindle socket may be cleaned
in the end of the spindle are clean.
a
and
around
stick
swabbing out the socket while
by wrapping waste
the spindle
it
is
revolving.
Dirt, or
hammer-marks on
the arbor will cause
to revolve eccentrically.
The same precautions are necessary in connection with the slipThe smallest speck of grit between these collars
collars on the arbor.
will cause the arbor to be bent when the clamping-nut is tightened.
The collars
Therefore these collars must also be carefully cleaned.
of
tool
steel
with
are
made
hardened
and
the
arbor
furnished
ground
and cast-iron collars must not be used. The objection to the cast-iron
The slightest lump made on
collar is that it is easily bruised in use.
the face of the collar in this manner will have the same effect as a particle
of grit, i.e., it will cause the arbor to be sprung when the clamping-nut
,
is
tightened.
Both the cutter-arbor*
must
be driven in tightly.
a block of hard wood.
to get loose
If
and
and the arbor used in dividing-head spindle
Use the rawhide mallet, or the hammer and
When
not tightly secured the arbors are likely
spoil the work.
the arbor which holds the
work be used between
centers, the set-
screw in the driver on dividing-head spindle must be closely adjusted
against the tail of the dog on the arbor; otherwise there will be an error
If the arbor be held in the socket of the dividing-head
socket
and arbor must be carefully cleaned according to
both
spindle,
in the dividing.
instructions respecting the main spindle socket.
gear or other work held on an arbor in the dividing-head spindle
should be placed as close to the spindle as practicable to avoid deflection.
*So far as the cutter-arbor is concerned, this paragraph was meant
more particularly to a miller which lacked the overhanging arm.
to apply
CHAPTER XXVII
SPECIAL GEAR-MACHINES
The Gould and Eberhardt Automatic Gear-cutter.
The adapta-
tion of the universal miller to gear-cutting has been briefly described.
FIG. 634.
An
automatic gear-cutter used for gear-cutting only is shown hi Figs.
This machine cuts spur-, bevel-, skew-, and face-gears.
634 and 635.
As a rotary-disk cutter is employed, the machine might be considered
as a special form of miller.
However, there are important differences
455
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
456
in the construction
and operation
of the
two machines.
In the auto-
matic gear-cutter, in addition to the rotary motion, the cutter is given
a traversing motion. In other words, the cutter is fed to the gear instead
The indexing system
of the gear being fed to the cutter.
ferent, as will be presently shown.
is
also dif-
Referring to Fig. 634, the driving-pulley A is mounted on a sleevebearing, so that the pulley-shaft is relieved from the side strain due to
the pull of the belt. By means of a pair of miter-gears motion is comseen
municated from the shaft of A to the side-shaft B. The shaft
driven
from
the
latter
The
end
of
B
is
the
above
by spur-gears.
just
is
cutter-spindle
This spindle
seen projecting at E.
is
driven by
worm-
worm being splined to shaft 0. At C are shown a pair of
which may be changed for other gears having different ratios.
gearing, the
spur-gears
These are the "change-gears,
is
The
varied.
cutter-slide
"
is
by which the velocity of the cutter-spindle
fed by screw F. This screw is operated
by gears D, which may be changed
to give different rates of feed.
P is the dividing worm-wheel.
This worm-wheel serves the same purpose as the worm-wheel in the
dividing-head in the milling-machine. P is operated by a worm on K,
which in turn is driven by the vertical shaft T and spur-gearing. The
Enclosed within
gear to be cut
is
gear-guard at
held on the arbor H, the outer end of which
is
sup-
ported as shown. The arbor and gear are driven by driving fixtures
secured to the face-plate near the right of H. In cutting a gear having
arms or spokes, one of the spokes engages with the U-shaped carrier shown
The gear, and with it the dividing worm-wheel, etc., is raised by
at 7.
a screw and bevel-gear mechanism shown at the top of the machine,
The crank-shaft is provided with
this being operated by the crank J.
a dial graduated to thousandths of an inch, by which the depth of cut
is measured.
In cutting bevel-gears the cutter-slide is elevated to the required
(See Fig. 635.) As shown,
angle by means of a crank applied at M.
this crank turns a worm operating a cross-shaft by means of a wormwheel.
On this cross-shaft are two pinions meshing with the slotted
quadrant
1.
When
raised to the required angle the quadrant is
left of the worm-wheel.
In cut-
locked by means of a nut seen to the
ting bevel-gears in this machine at least two cuts (sometimes three)
must be taken, one on each side of the tooth. For this purpose the
arranged to swivel a slight amount to the right and left
When three cuts are taken, one is a central cut.
This central cut is made for the same purpose that a central cut is somecutter-slide
is
of the center line.
SPECIAL GEAR-MACHINES
times
made
slide is raised
with
it.
shaft at
in cutting a bevel-gear in the miller. When the cutterand swiveled it carries the left section of shaft
(Fig. 634)
To provide
its
457
right
for thus raising shaft B,
it is
connected to a short
end by a-universa$joint.
FIG. 635.
The pressure of the cut in cutting both spur- and bevel-gears
sustained by the adjustable support R.
is
The Indexing Mechanism. The change-gears shown at Q in Fig. 635
by shafts and gearing to the indexing worm-wheel. In
the casing behind this gearing is a locking device which makes one
revolution for each spacing of the gear being cut, regardless of the number of teeth in the latter. To give this locking device one revolution,
the gears at Q are changed for each different number of teeth in the
gear being cut. The locking device is made with extreme accuracy
and its operation is such as to eliminate all errors due to the wear of
change-gears and connecting-shafts.
are connected
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
458
Construction of the Dividing Worm-wheel.
When
a very accurate
worm-wheel is required, it is customary to make the rim in two separate
The object of this construction is to
rings, and bolt these together.
avoid possible errors in hobbing the teeth. The correction is made
as follows: Having hobbed the worm-wheel once around, before the
taken the removable section is turned one-half revolution
and the hobbing is repeated. This divides up minute errors which
may occur in the first hobbing. In making the dividing-wheel of the
machine under consideration this shifting and re-hobbing is repeated
final cut is
a number of times, thus further eliminating the possibility of error.
With the exceptions noted above in the description, the cutting of
gears in the automatic gear-cutter does not differ greatly from the
method used in the miller. It will be understood, however, that as the
indexing, feeding back and forth of the cutter, etc., are
the chances of error are reduced to a minimum, and one
all
automatic,
workman can
operate several machines. Having started the cutting of a gear, the
machine automatically makes all the movements necessary to complete
the gear, and when completed a gong is automatically sounded, notifying
the workman that the gear is ready to be removed.
Gang-cutters. The manufacturers of the machine just described
make cutters which may be used in gangs for cutting gears having more
than 30 teeth. The object is the same as in the case of cutting rackteeth with gang-cutters.
ber of teeth in the gear,
From
may
2 to 12 cutters, according to the numAs these cutters must have
be used.
proper contact on the periphery of the gear-blank, it is evident that
the cutters will be of varying diameter. The hub thickness or hub
length of the cutters must be gaged very accurately to bring the cutters
the right distance apart. Special precautions are required in using these
cutters, and the gear-blanks must be quite accurate as to diameter; but
when a large number of gears of one kind are required, the great saving
in time fully justifies the extra care required.
Fellows
Gear-shaper.
Theoretically, cut gears should require a
number of teeth in the gears. There-
different cutter for every different
made on the
principle of the set of eight involute cutters
previously referred to, while sufficiently correct for all ordinary purfore cutters
Where greater accuracy is required
poses, cannot be absolutely right.
the manufacturers of these cutters furnish them in sets having a greater
number of cutters to each set, and they will also make special cutters to
order.
However, the machine shown in Fig. 636 is designed to regularly
make
gears of theoretically correct tooth outline.
SPECIAL GEAR-MACHINES
459
Imagine a gear-blank of some plastic material held upon an arbor
and a complete gear secured to 'another arbor parallel with the first.
Now, let the gear be pressed int^ the blank to the correct tooth-depth
and caused to make one complete revolution. Assuming that there
is perfect
rolling contact between the pitch-line of the blank and that
FIG. 636.
of the gear, the latter will generate on the blank, teeth of theoretically
correct shape.
This is the principle upon which gear-teeth are generated in the above-mentioned machine. The actual operation, how-
ever,
and
different in that, in addition to the revolving motion of gear
cutter, the latter is given also a reciprocating motion like that of
is
the slotting-machine ram. The principle of the machine may be further
explained by the consideration of the method of making the cutters.
In Fig. 637
will
be seen an emery-wheel having one straight face at
The means for dressing the side of the
right angles to the wheel axis.
is
such
as
a high degree of accuracy. In coninsure
to
emery-wheel
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
460
is shown also a small gear.
This gear
in reality a steel cutter which has been roughed out to the approxi-
nection with the emery-wheel
is
mate shape and hardened.
The diagram
is
designed to show a method
of presenting the cutter to the revolving emery-wheel in a manner to
grind the teeth of the cutter to the exact shape. The sides of a theoretical involute rack-tooth are straight, the angle of each side being
Ornery Wheel
Cutter
FIG. 637.
The straight face of the emery-wheel, being
pitch-line.
the
at
required angle with the path of the cutter, is intended
placed
one
side of such a rack-tooth.
to represent
75 / 2 with the
1
The
cutter
is
rolled past the revolving
emery-wheel at the required
angle in true rack and pinion motion, and for each passage of the cutter
one side of one tooth is formed. This is repeated for each tooth, when
the cutter
is
reversed and the same process
is
followed for the opposite
SPECIAL GEAR-MACHINES
side.
Fig.
461
638 shows one of the cutters and one of the methods for
holding it. It will be seen that the cutter has the proper clearance.
In Fig. 639 is shown a cutter in connection with a partially developed
gear.
This figure illustrates the method of starting the cut.
The
CUTTER
FIG. 639
machine being
set in motion, the cutter is gradually fed to the full depth"
when both blank and cutter begin to revolve
they were two gears. The reciprocating motion is, of
in the blank,
just as
though
course, main-
tained during the rotary motion, the result being that in one revolution
the blank becomes a finished gear. To prevent the rubbing and wearing
of
action
cutter
is
back to
the cutter on the gear-teeth, during the return-stroke the
slightly.
By a similar mechanism it is brought
moved outward
its
The names
cutting position at the beginning of the downward stroke.
of the various parts of the machine are given in connection
with Fig. 640.
It is important to observe that in this system of gear-cutting only
one cutter is needed for each pitch. This cutter cuts both external
and internal gears. Fig. 641 shows the two gears in one casting and
the cutter in position for cutting an internal gear. The dotted lines
on the opposite side show the cutter in correct position for shaping
the tooth of an external gear.
The Gleason Gear-planer. As has been stated, the method of cutting
bevel-gears in a miller
long faces.
The
theoretical shape.
is
not satisfactory for gear-teeth having extra
is the variation from the
longer the face the greater
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
462
If we stretch a fine thread along the side of a
tooth from
bevel-gear
the apex of the pitch-cone to the outer curved edge of the tooth, the
thread will follow the side of the tooth throughout the length of the
latter.
If the outer
end of the thread be moved to another
Adjustment for position
of Cutter
position,
Rotate Cutter'
Driving
Crank
Pilot Wheel
Work Support
Cutter Slide -
Locking Pin
Cutter
Work Arbor
Chip Pan
Apron Lever
Detachable
Levrf
Apron
Worm
Adjust nienl
Lower Index
Feed Trip
Chance Gears
FIG. 640.
the inner end being held as before, the thread will still remain in contact
with the side of the tooth. The principle of a bevel-gear tooth, as
distinguished from the spur-gear tooth, may, therefore, be represented
by an infinite number of straight lines extending from the outer curved
outlines of the tooth to the apex of the pitch-cone.
The Gleason
bevel-gear machine
is
simply a system of mechanism
designed to give practical effect to this principle in planing gear-teeth.
Figs 642 and 643 show respectively perspective and outline views of
SPECIAL GEAR-MACHINES
the Gleason machines.
from that of the
ferent
The
463
construction of Fig. 643 is slightly difin the perspective view, but it never-
machine^
The formers, which
theless helps to explain the princigj^ of the latter.
are the main elements to" give effect to the above principle, are clearly
Work
shown on the
front of the machine in the perspective view.
As seen
is held on the head-spindle at G, and before the
in Fig. 643, the gear
cutting is begun the head must be moved to bring the apex of the gear
To facilitate this work a gage for the
to the center of the machine.
purpose
is
furnished with each machine.
In this machine a single-
caused to reciprocate in very much the same way as a
the
guide for the tool being pivoted at its inner end in a
shaper-tool,
universal joint, and caused to follow the curved former at its outer end.
point tool
is
The manufacturers of this machine explain the movements of the cuttingtool as follows: "The arm on which the tool-holder travels is rotated
around the center of the machine in a horizontal plane. Besides this
movement of the arm, it is hinged at the center of the
machine so as to give a vertical movement as it is fed over the former,
so that the tool travels always at the correct angle of the gear from
horizontal
464
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
the top of the tooth to the root, and the tooth, therefore, has the perfect
reducing cut, the small end being in proportion to the large end."
The tooth-curve of the former is produced by a machine designed
especially for this purpose, and there is practically
because it is used in connection with a roller.
no wear on the former
FIG. 642.
During the time that the tool
is cutting the gear is stationary, the
The first operation is to cut a central
as in a milling-machine.
"
groove for each tooth. This is accomplished by the roughing or stocking" cutter shown in Fig. 644. During the second operation the upper-
same
shown in Fig. 645 planes one side of each tooth. This tool
removed and the under-cut tool of Fig. 646 is used to finish the oppoThus it requires three tools and three revosite side of each tooth.
cut tool
is
SPECIAL GEAR-MACHINES
465
lutions of the blank to complete the gear. The gear is indexed for
each tooth after the completion pf "the work of each tool upon the tooth.
CRANK SHAFT
FIG. 643.
The slide which carries the tool-holder is driven from the cone
through triple gears, and has a Whitworth quick-return. The feed is
worm-driven and positive. These machines are made for bevel-gears
only,
and with each machine a number
of formers sufficient for all the
gears within the capacity of the machine
pany makes also spwr-gear planers.
is
furnished.
The same com-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
466
In referring to a few of the leading gear-cutting machines the BilThis machine cuts
gram bevel-gear planer should not be omitted.
bevel-gears having either long or short faces theoretically correct.
STOCKING CUT TOOL
FIG. 644.
The use
t'PER CUT TOCl
UNDER CUT TOOL
FIG. 645.
FIG. 646.
of bevel-gears
on
bicycles stimulated the design of special
Most of these machines have a narrow
machines for cutting the gears.
range, being designed for small gears only.
CHAPTER XXVIII
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
AN
old-time machinist entering a modern machine-shop will note
changes and improvements. Among these he will find that his
old familiar friend, the grindstone, to which water was fed by a shingle
"
or stick and which filled the shop with dust every time it was
trued
many
up,"
has been superseded by the more pretentious emery-grinder,
in a trim box-frame and having automatic water-supply and
mounted
still those who believe in the
grindthat
had the grindstone received as much attenThese contend
stone.
tion and had it been given as good a chance generally as the emerywheel, it would still be a strong rival of the latter. Nevertheless, it
is generally conceded that the emery-stone has come to stay, and those
dustless truing-roll.
There are
who
regret the change are few and far between.
Methods of Measuring and Designating Abrasive Materials.
Emery,
corundum, and carborundum are the principal materials used for grinding purposes. These materials are not sufficiently different to warrant
a detailed description within the space here available. In the making
of an emery-wheel the abrasive material is mixed with some kind of
cementing-material, such as glue, rubber, etc., which holds the wheel
Emery and other abrasive wheels are designated with respect
to the size of the grain by numbers. These vary between 6 and 220,
in form.
the coarser materials taking the lower numbers. The coarsest and
The
finest numbers are very seldom used for manufacturing purposes.
sizes
most employed vary from 16 to
150.
The various sizes of emery and corundum are measured in a sieve,
and the number of the abrasive material indicates the number of the
meshes per square inch in the sieve. Thus No. 20 emery means that
the material will pass through a sieve having 20 meshes per square inch.
The grade of an emery- or corundum-wheel is the measure of the
resistance of
its
outer surface to crumbling.
particles are easily broken
down
or separated
is
wheel of which the
said to be soft; while
467
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
468
one which does not easily yield under pressure of the work is said to
be hard. The different grades or degrees of hardness are indicated
by the letters of the alphabet. Thus A is the softest and Z the hardest.
For all-round purposes the medium-hard wheel, indicated by the letter M,
Mr. C. H. Norton recommends for grindis the one commonly used.
"
L
steel
soft
wheel, No. 24 combination."*
ing
grade
Grinders for Lathe- and Planer-tools. A good example of the modern
wet emery-grinder for general tool-grinding is shown in Fig. 647. The
FIG 647.
water-supply in this machine is regulated by a hand-wheel, one or two
turns of which start or stop the supply. It is well distributed over
the grinding surface and a guard
*
Two
is
furnished which protects the sur-
or more numbers mixed together give a "combination."
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
469
rounding machinery from the spray of water when the machine is not
in use.
Mounted within convenient reach above the rest is the truingTo get the best
roll, which can be applied by a few turns of a knob.
results the wheel should be kept true, and to avoid danger from the
tool catching between the emery-wheel and rest, the latter should be
moved up to the wheel as often as the wheel wears an appreciable
amount. It should be kept so close as to barely clear the wheel.
The novice should be informed that the water serves an important
purpose, and that unless freely used it would be necessary to spend
considerable time in the forge-shop retempering the tools.
In grinding tools in connection with the above-mentioned machine,
the tool is held in the hand and ground according to the judgment and
FIG. 648.
the workman.
However, there are on the market machines in
of tool-post and fed to the wheel by a
screw or other mechanical means. These machines are so constructed
that any number of tools may be ground to the same angles, the toolskill of
which the
tool
is
held
by a kind
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
470
swiveling devices being graduated, and a table giving the angles for
the various tools being furnished with the machine.
Emery-, corundum-, and carborundum-wheels mounted on simple
frames are very extensively used for grinding rough castings and forgFig. 648 shows a machine of
ings in various lines of manufacturing.
this character.
of purposes.
These machines are made in all sizes to suit a variety
small machine of this same general design is some-
PIG. 649.
When these machines
have no water-supply, it requires some care to avoid burning the point
Most mechanics keep a small pail of water near the grinder
of the tool.
and dip the tool in the water every few seconds.
times used for grinding lathe- and planer-tools.
The grinding
of
reamers,
milling-cutters,
etc.,
requires
different
manipulations from that of ordinary tool-grinding. Fig. 649 shows a
machine adapted to the former class of work. There are special machines
designed for grinding twist-drills exclusively, but the illustration shows
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
471
that twist-drills are included in the list of tools that may be ground
on this machine. For this purpose and for some other purposes, attachments to the machine proper are furnished. A twist-drill is shown in
the fixture at the left in--position*ibr being ground. The device is provided with adjustment for grinding different diameters of drills and
for giving the drills different degrees of clearance.
On
the right of the machine
the reamer.
To
is
seen a reamer held between centers
emery-wheel being shown just above
a
reamer
like
that of the illustration, the reamer
grind
in position for grinding, a small
472
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
FIG. 651.
FIG 652
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
473
and in having fewer adjustments and attachments.
shows a Landis plain grinder and some of its accessories. The
universal grinder is designed for quite a different purpose from that
of the common tool-grinder.
3Jie former is used for grinding cylinbeing
heavier
Fig. 656
a
if
more accurately than
possible to turn them in
required to run, say 4000 R.P.M.,
turned in the lathe in the ordinary manner, would, because of the
drical surfaces
lathe.
shaft- journal, which
it
is
is
minute imperfections in the lathe work, be likely to heat.
in the grinder it would run without heating.
If finished
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
474
Referring to Fig. 65, B is the bed, T the sliding table, T 1 the
the head-stock, T2 the tail-stock,
swivel table,
the emery-wheel, P
the pulley which drives the emery-wheel, and
1 and
2 the pulleys
which drive the work. The work is either held between the centers in
head-stock and tail-stock and driven by a dog, or it is carried by a
chuck. Generally when the work is driven by a dog the head-stock
spindle does not revolve, but the pulley P 1, which turns freely
on the
spindle, drives the
work by contact
of the
dog with the pins
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
475
projecting from the pulley. As in this arrangement neither of the
centers revolves, errors due. to an eccentrically revolving head-
center are impossible. When the work is carried in a chuck, pulley
1
In this case the spindle
is taken off and the ckuck screwed on instead.
by pulley P2, which is tight on the spindle.
The emery-wheel E is fed to the work by means of the hand-wheel
H 2. At the back of this hand-wheel is a graduated ratchet-disk by
The machine is provided with
which the depth of cut is measured.
power cross-feed which may be adjusted to grind to .00025", and the
feed is automatically stopped when the work is ground to the required
is
driven
size.
P2
The table is moved by hand by hand- wheel
1, and by turning
a knob the automatic mechanism, by which the table is fed, is set in
motion. The table may be swiveled on a central stud 3 1 /2 each side
of zero.
The object of thus swiveling the table is to provide for grindFor grinding abrupt tapers and certain kinds of
ing slight tapers.
disk work the head-stock may be swiveled to any required angle.
Work Done on Grinders. As a rule the universal grinder is not used
for heavy cutting, but to correct small imperfections; therefore the
work done on this machine is generally made nearly right, as to dimenIn addition to such work as
sions, in the lathe or other machine.
the universal grinder is also used for grinding
and various angular and tapering shapes.
Formerly, grinding machine-shafts, etc., was considered a very expensive process, and it was dispensed with except in special cases.
Recently,
machine-shafts,
etc.,
lathe-arbors, reamers,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
476
grinding-machmes and processes have been studied and
developed to such an extent that grinding is coming into use, as a matter of economy, on a great deal of work where the refinements of the
however,
A specialist in grinding can make
process are not strictly necessary.
the finishing cuts on all kinds of cylindrical work at less cost than is
In some classes of work the
possible with ordinary lathe processes.
lathe
is
dispensed with, and both roughing and finishing cuts are
This is especially true of the plain grinder.
In the grinder.
made
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
477
In most kinds of work it is ^necessary to keep water running on the
wheel when grinding, and for this purpose a pump attached to the rear
machine automatically supplies the water.
Grinding Parallel Shafts. About the simplest operation on the
of the
grinder
forming
is
that of grinding a plain shaft parallel in diameter. In perwork the shaft is placed between the centers with a dog
this
on the head-stock end, the swivel-table is set to zero, and with the
machine in motion the emery-wheel is fed up against the work by hand.
For traversing the table the automatic longitudinal feed is, of course,
If the grinding is to approach very close to the dog or to the
foot-stock spindle it will be necessary to use care in adjusting the tap-
used.
FIG. 657.
If, for instance, the
pets which regulate the traverse of the table.
far to the left, the
be
moved
too
next
to
the
head-stock
end
tappet
emery-wheel
may
strike
the dog, causing the wheel to burst.
It
is
safer to first adjust the tappets for a too short traverse and make the
correction after noting how far the table falls short of the required
It is important also in this and other grinding operations
that the hood which covers the emery-wheel be used.
In most grinding-machines, if not all, it is difficult to adjust the
table at the first setting to grind a shaft parallel.
Having adjusted
stroke.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
-478
the table as nearly as
-cut-and-try
may
be by the graduations at the end, the
method must be used
for
In some classes of work, in which
it
is
shoulder,
the shoulder.
making the
it
is
final corrections.
necessary to grind close to a
//
1
wide next to
permissible to turn a groove about /4
This obviates the necessity of having the emery-wheel
touch the shoulder. The diameter at the bottom of the groove need
not be more than about .001" less than the diameter of the shaft. If it
Is necessary to grind to a sharp corner under the shoulder without the
preliminary grooving, it will be advantageous to begin grinding at the
shoulder and feed the other way. By this method the advancing corner
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
of the
wheel
will
do the most
is
the
and the wear of the wheel
next cut under the shoulder.
of the work,
will leave the opposite corner sfyarp for the
This
479
method followed at
.the
works of The Brown and Sharpe
Manufacturing Company:
FIG. 659.
In grinding a long shaft the parallelism of the shaft is affected by
the wear of the emery-wheel. To reduce this wear to a minimum, a
wheel having a comparatively wide face should be used and the feed should
be correspondingly
faster.
and backward traverse
wear in the wheel.
The machine grinds during both the forward
and this in part compensates for the
of the table,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
480
Use of the Back-rest. It has been shown elsewhere that in turning
long slender work in the lathe it is necessary to use a steady rest, or backThe back-rest
rest, to support the work against the pressure of the cut.
shown in Fig. 657 is used for a similar purpose in the Universal grinder.
The shoes or lugs which support the work may be made of some soft
metal or hard wood. Fig. 658 shows the Universal back-rest. This rest
admits of more delicate adjustment and is better for some kinds of
work, especially shafts having keyways. Work in which the diameter
very small in proportion to the length requires the use of several rests.
rest for a length of about every eight diameters should be sufficient.
Grinding Tapers. As has been indicated the upper part of the table
swivels on a central stud and is graduated at the end.
This provision
is
One
enables the table to be adjusted for grinding slight tapers.
In other
FIG. 660.
respects the grinding of these tapers does not differ from grinding parallel
work.
It
may
be observed, however, that this method, which does not
is much superior to the method of
turning
tapers in the lathe by setting over the tail-stock. It is even more reliable
than the compound-rest method.
disturb the
fit
of the centers,
The table will not swivel sufficiently for abrupt tapers like that
shown in Fig. 659. For such work the table is set to zero and the wheelbed adjusted to the required angle and fed by the cross-feed mechanism.
As will be seen in the illustration the wheel is swiveled to give it a full
bearing on the work.
In some cases a slight taper and an abrupt taper are required
the same piece of work. In such a case the slight taper is ground
on
by
swiveling and feeding the table as previously described, the abrupt taper
being ground as in Fig. 659, excepting that the wheel is adjusted in
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
481
proper relation for the slight taper and its corner beveled off to give it
a sufficient bearing on the abrupt taper.
Grinding the Ends of Bushings and Collars. In Fig. 660 is shown
one method of grinding bushings and
collars.
For
this purpose the
wheel
FIG. 661.
should be so shaped as to leave a narrow bearing on the side and the bushing should overhang a shoulder on the arbor. This is necessary in order
sufficient crosswise movement without touching
be understood that the cross-feed is used on such work.
Disk -grinding. Work the diameter of which is much greater than
the length may be very conveniently ground by swiveling the head-stock
90 and using the longitudinal feed of the table. Fig. 661 shows this
that the wheel
the arbor.
method.
the work
may have
It will
By varying the angle of the head-stock from 90 the face of
may be made either convex or concave. In connection with
the swiveling head-stock and chuck
it
should be easy without any
illustra-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
482
method of grinding two surfaces at an angle to
Thus the face of the work might be ground by feeding the
table lengthwise and its corner ground to an angle with the face.
In
grinding the corner the cross -feed should be used. As indicated in a some-
tion to conceive of a
each other.
what
its
similar case, one corner of the wheel should be beveled off to increase
bearing on the angular surface.
The chuck shown in Fig. 662 is very conSpecial Draw-in Chuck.
venient for thin disk work which is required to be held quite true with
its bore.
Such work is placed upon the split bushing at C, which bush
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
483
ing is expanded by the screw B, and the work is drawn up firmly against
the face-plate by the knob A. Different sizes of bushings may be used for
different bores. The method of grinding the work is the same as in Fig. 661.
FIG. 663
Internal Grinding.
Figs.
Fig. 663 shows the internal grinding fixture and
classes of internal grinding.
As will be
664 and 665 show two
FIG. 664.
seen the fixture
is
bolted to the wheel platen and driven by a light belt
The spindle which carries the pulley L is driven
from the pulley L.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
484
from the overhead counter-shaft by a belt running on the pulley m.
In
placed at zero and is fed in the same
manner as for external parallel work. A method of grinding slight
and abrupt tapers is clearly indicated in Fig. 665. The table is swiveled
parallel
and
work the
swivel-table
is
In grinding the
longitudinal feed operated for the slight taper.
the
is
In
the
cross-feed
used.
wheel-slide for
abrupt taper
adjusting
this taper the angle of the table must be taken into account.
its
Surface-grinding machines are used for
Surf ace -grinding Machines.
grinding plane surfaces.
Like the grinders for cylindrical work, these
FIG. 665.
machines are designed for both roughing and finishing cuts, and to grind
hardened steel which cannot be machined with ordinary tools. Fig. 666
shows a surface-grinding machine constructed very much like a metal
The wheel is driven from the drum seen behind the housing,
planer.
This
which drum in turn is driven from an overhead counter-shaft.
the
is
the
The
travel
of
table
autois
seen
near
machine.
counter-shaft
matic and
its
stroke
is
regulated
adjustable on the housing
by adjustable
dogs.
The
cross-rail is
castings, the front faces of which are
made
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
circular to avoid disturbing the tension of the belt.
485
The cross-head
carrying the emery wheel is fed horizontally on the cross-rail at the end
of the stroke in very much the same manner as a planer-tool is fed.
Great care
is
required in clamping work to the grinder-table to
FIG. 666.
avoid springing
it.
The refinements
possible in the grinding process
The Walker magnetic
are easily neutralized by errors in clamping.
in
lathe-work, planer-work, etc.,
chucks, which are used to some extent
are of special advantage in connection with the surface grinder.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
486
Combined
surface
and
Drill
drill
and Surface Grinder.
grinder.
tion tools in that both
It
Fig. 667
shows a combined
has an advantage over some combina-
operations
may
be performed simultaneously.
"A
peculiarity of the drill holder is that it does not require adjustment
for different diameters of drills, while the adjustment for length is made
in the usual
manner."
The
table for surface grinding has a vertical
FIG. 667.
adjustment, and in connection with this adjustment a graduated dial
reading to thousandths of an inch is provided. The work is not clamped
to the table, but is fed along on the table by hand.
Floor Grinders with Surface Attachment. The grinding-machine
in Fig. 668 has an emery-wheel at the right end of the spindle
shown
which may be used for miscellaneous grinding. Mounted above the
wheel at the left is a surface-grinding table. This table is adjustable
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
vertically to
compensate for the wear of the wheel and
ing the depth of the cut.
by hand as in Fig. 667.
487
also for adjust-
The work is moved over the revolving wheel
The grooves seen in the table are designed
to catch the particles of emery ancT%rit from the castings
being ground.
This machine while very convenient for general grinding is not adapted
to the high grade of work for which the machine in Fig. 666 is designed.
Emery-wheel Dressers. In connection with Fig. 647 we allude to
a truing-roll used for truing the wheel of that machine.
The
roll is
FIG. 668.
simply a cylinder having small journals at each end and having deep
grooves in the cylinder, giving the latter the -appearance of a series
The roll is caused to revolve
of thin disks separated by small washers.
into contact with the revolving emery-wheel by screw
Increasing this pressure causes the roll to crush and break
the particles of emery. As the roll touches the high parts of
by being brought
pressure.
down
the emery-wheel
or
make
its
first
and hardest the
effect is to
"true
up"
periphery concentric with the axis of rotation.
the wheel,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
488
Shown near
emery-wheel
the right-hand wheel in Fig. 668 is another form of
In using this device the pressure is applied by
dresser.
the lever, the effect being to break down the high spots in the emerywheel the same as in the case of the truing-roll.
FIG. 669.
For dressing the higher grades of emery-wheels such as are used
on the Universal
grinders,
small center grinder,
etc.,
a cheap black
FIG. 670.
diamond held in the end of a metal holder is used. This holder has a
handle on the outer end and is applied to the revolving emery-wheel
in about the same way that a hand-tool is used. Holders are made
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
489
also of such shape as to admit of being held in a kind of tool-post provided for this purpose.
Grinding Attachment for the Lathe. A first-class machine for
cylindrical grinding is a -costly t(M.
Many small machine-shops which
could not afford a regular machine would find the attachment illustrated
in Figs. 669 and 670 very useful.
This attachment is held upon the
tool-rest in place of the tool-post and is driven from an overhead drum
FIG. 671.
counter-shaft which
is
is
furnished with the attachment.
In the
first illus-
shown grinding an arbor. For internal grinding the spindle
removed and another spindle is used instead, as shown in Fig. 670.
tration
it is
Portable Emery-grinder.
and the method of applying
By
using suitable wheels,
it
it
Fig. 671 shows a portable emery-grinder
in polishing and grinding framework, etc.
may
be employed for grinding heavy cast-
ings, for cleaning, polishing, buffing, etc.
and
It is driven
by a
counter-
shown.
Speed of Emery-wheels. In general an emery-wheel should be run
For most purposes
at the speed recommended by the manufacturers.
5000
Exwill
be
much
than
not
feet per minute.
this speed
greater
run
as
in
lines
of
work
sometimes
fast
as
about
6500
feet
special
perts
shaft, rope,
flexible shaft as
490
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
per minute, but on account of the great danger of the wheel bursting,
excessively high speeds are not to be encouraged.
Work Speed and Rate of Wheel Traverse. It is difficult to give
rules for the work speed and the
traversing feed of emery-wheels as
used in the Universal and plain grinders. In the
early days of cylindrical grinding, the work was rotated at a
high speed, in some cases
as high as 400 to 500 feet per minute.
The traversing feed was
about Vioo to 3/ioo inch per revolution of work. With
improvements
was learned that better
speeds and faster traversing
feeds.
At present very few mechanics run the work faster than 100
feet per minute.
A feed of i/4 to 3 /4 inch per revolution of work in
in the emery-wheels and further
experiments
results could be obtained with slower work
it
machines of ordinary size is perhaps in accordance with conservative
Mr. Landis, an expert in the use of grinding-machines, recompractice.
mends a range of from 25 to 80 feet per minute, with a feed of one half
to three fourths the width of the wheel-face.
Mr. C. H. Norton, another
authority, says: "At the present time the best and quickest work is done
* Mr. Norton thinks
at a work speed of from 6 to 40 feet
per minute."
that the feed should equal the, width of the
wheel-face, and states that
he has used wheels of 1" to 4" face.
In a pamphlet entitled "A. Few Points on
Grinding," Mr. Norton
tells of some
astonishing results which were accomplished by a nice
adjustment of the relations between work speed, wheel speed, and
feed and wheel grade.
He claims that one cubic inch of steel
be re-
moved per minute
may
in cylindrical grinding
when
all
the conditions are
favorable.
Those mechanics who have been accustomed to the use of
//
1
wheels beveled at the edge to give a
3
bearing on the work of /8 to /s",
with corresponding feeds, should study recent
developments in grinding
machines and processes.
It is evident that the
possibilities of these
machines in both cylindrical and surface
grinding have been greatly
underestimated.
Glazing.
When
the
"bond"
enough to allow the emery
is
too hard
it does not wear
away fast
and the wheel becomes glazed. A
but will heat the work and cause it
to cut,
glazed wheel will not cut freely,
to spring between the centers.
Glazing may usually be prevented
either reducing the speed or
using a softer wheel.
by
Coarse and Fine Wheels.
coarse wheel will generally give a
better finish on tempered steel and other hard
materials, while a fine
wheel will give best results on brass,
copper, etc.
* "
American Machinist," Jan.
7,
1904, page 17.
GRINDING MACHINES AND METHODS
491
The causes of chattering in cylindrical grindare
not
from those which produce a similar result
different
ing
altogether
in lathe work.
Small wheel-spinciles, loose wheel-spindles, unbalanced
wheels, small work-centers, small machine-centers, loose fits in the
Causes of Chattering.
work not properly supported with back-rests, high
work speeds, and wheels too hard for the work, are some of the causes of
sliding parts, long
A knowledge of the cause will generally suggest the remedy.
the
width of wheel-face and feed will in some cases prevent
Reducing
but
as this lessens the quantity of work the other remedies
chattering,
should first be applied as far as practicable.
chattering.
Mounting the Wheel. It is absolutely necessary to safety in operation
fit freely on the spindle, and that some kind of elastic washers
be used between the flanges and the wheel.
For the latter purpose
that a wheel
rubber, pasteboard, or blotting-paper may be used.
Uses of Water in Cylindrical Grinding. Causes of Eccentricity. It
is very important in heavy grinding of work between centers to keep the
work
cool.
pump and
For
this purpose, the grinding-machine
a very
liberal
and even supply
is
furnished with a
of water should be used.
It is
said that a degree of heat which is imperceptible to the touch will curve the
work.
very slight degree of curvature may be detected, being shown
by sparks on the convex side of the work.
small amount of very light grinding on each
In such cases as require a
piece,
and
especially in short
be dispensed with.
The smallest speck of grit between the machine-center and the
work-center will cause eccentricity. Now, this speck of grit is likely to
wear away during the process of grinding, and this would cause a varying degree of eccentricity. Eccentricity may also be caused by wear
chuck work, water
may
due to lack of oil, or by the centers being made too small.
The work-centers should be amply large, they should fit the machinecenters so as to insure a full bearing, and they should be kept scrupulously
clean and well oiled.
of the centers
CHAPTER XXIX
POLISHINGPolishing-
which
is
shown
AND BUFFING-WHEELS
and Buffing-lathe.
In connection with this machine,
in Fig. 672, a variety of polishing-wheels and materials
The polishing-wheels are held between the collars on
are employed.
the spindle in about the same manner as emery-wheels are held, and the
article to be polished is applied to the revolving wheel by hand.
The
over-hang of the spindle and its bearings affords convenient access to
both sides of the wheel as well as to its periphery. Among the different
polishing-wheels used in the buffing-lathe are wooden wheels, walruswheels, brush-wheels, rag-wheels, felt-wheels, paper-wheels, and canvaswheels.
Wooden Wheels. Leather-covered wooden wheels are employed for
various classes of polishing. These wheels are made of wood, whitewood
being suitable. The wood is built up on a metal bushing in broken-joint
manner of pattern-making. Oak-tanned sole-leather
" thick makes a
good covering. After slightly moistening the
leather in hot water it should be stretched around the wheel, flesh side
To assist in holding the leather,
in, and glued, the glue being quite hot.
metal tacks may be used temporarily, but these should be replaced by
wooden pegs driven below the surface of the leather.
The leather is coated with emery, which may vary from No. 60 for the
preparatory work to flour emery for finishing. In applying the emery
the leather is first coated with hot glue. The wheel is next quickly
rotated over a planed board, upon which the emery has been evenly
spread. These wheels give a fairly good surface on cast iron, wrought
iron, and steel, flour emery being used for the finishing process.
For obtaining a higher finish or polish a " grease wheel" may be
used. A wheel "set up" with flour emery and glazed or worn smooth
The oil or grease may be applied to the wheel by any
will answer.
convenient means while the wheel is in motion. If oil be used, it may
be applied with a thick cloth. If cake tallow be preferred, care should
be taken to give the wheel a very thin coating. Fine emery-cake
sections after the
about 1 / 4
492
AND BUFFING-WHEELS
POLISHINGapplied to the wheel after
it
has been greased will
49$
make a good
pol-
ishing material.
J]rass also may be polished
may
oa emery-coated wooden wheels.
It
be roughed down with emery and finished with red rouge or other
FIG. 672.
suitable polishing material, cake-tallow being used for the preparatory
Before greasing it the surface of the wheel should be glazed
greasing.
as above described.
Walrus -wheels. Walrus (or sea-horse) hide cut into disks and
glued together makes a first-class polishing-wheel. A variety of polishing materials is used with these wheels. Emery may be applied in connection with glue in the same manner as in the case of wooden wheels.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
494
may be used as grease wheels also. Some prefer to
these
wheels
for the final finishing, using crocus or rouge for this
keep
When
thus
used the emery and glue coating may be dispurpose.
Walrus-wheels
Walrus-wheels are principally used for polishing tools
pensed with.
and cutlery, but they are also used to some extent in polishing brass.
Powdered pumice-stone mixed with oil and applied to the wheel with
a brush makes a good preparatory surface on brass. Crocus, rouge,
be used to give the final polish. Nickel rouge is
Vienna lime dipped in oil and applied
to the revolving walrus-wheel will give a fine finish on iron and steel.
Crocus and nickel rouge come in cakes and may be applied to the
revolving wheel by hand without oil.
Brush-wheel. This is a kind of circular brush, the hair being held
or nickel rouge
may
also used for polishing nickel.
in the brush in about the
lime
is
same manner
often used on these wheels.
as in a
common
In polishing
brush.
Vienna
steel or iron the lime
is preceded by oil and emery, these being applied in any convenient
manner. Crocus or rouge mixed with water or oil may be used on
brush-wheels for both brass and steel. To get the best results these
materials should be preceded by powdered pumice-stone mixed with oil.
Rag-wheels. Rag-wheels, or buffs, admit of wide application as
polishing-wheels, but they are not adapted to work requiring the corners
to be kept sharp. They may be used on about all the common metals,
For polishdifferent polishing materials being used to suit each case.
a
iron
and
of
steel
Vienna
and
beeswax
lime,
crocus,
composition
ing
This material comes in cakes and it is dipped in
is sometimes used.
Crocus mixed with
oil and applied sparingly to the revolving wheel.
tallow and oil is used on rag-wheels for polishing fine steel goods and
and plated work. It is especially adapted to nickel plate
Crocus alone is often used on these wheels, being rubbed on while the
wheel is in motion. Rouge is used on rag-wheels for steel, iron, nickel
for brass
It is sometimes mixed with alcohol
plate, brass, bronze, and copper.
and water (equal parts of each) into a thin paste. In this form it may
be applied to both the wheel and the work with the finger.
Glue and emery coatings are not used on rag-wheels. As above indi-
cated, various
of the
compounds are applied to the wheels during the progress
work.
In using any of the polishing agents, such as rouge, crocus, etc.,
best to apply the material sparingly and often, rather than in thick
The work is delayed rather than hastened by a too free
coatings.
it is
use of the polishing-cake.
POLISHING-
When
AND
BUFFINGHE
495
necessary to preserve the exact shape of the work, especorners
are to be kep^ sharp, the surface of the wheel should
cially
be approximately unyielding. Leather-covered wooden wheels are comit is
when
monly used
for such requirements, but to get the best results the wheel
should be covered with sheet lead instead of leather.
The Emery-stick. This is simply a stick of wood coated with alternate layers of hot glue and emery. It is used to remove the old glue
and emery from a wheel before recharging with new emery. The stick
is
held against the revolving wheel, care being taken to avoid applying
sufficient pressure to injuriously heat the leather.
Rag-wheels
may
be cleaned by applying the point of an old
file
to the revolving wheel.
Speed of Polishing-wheels.
Wooden wheels are run at a speed of
6000 to 7000 feet per minute. As there is danger in such high velocities,
it is important that these wheels be purchased of experienced and reli-
No novice should attempt to make one.
may be run at a velocity of 7000 to 8000
able manufacturers.
Walrus-wheels
feet per
are not so likely to fly apart as are wooden wheels.
Brush-wheels are made in sizes as small as 2" diameter. It is not
minute.
They
convenient to run such small sizes at a high surface speecl, but the larger
sometimes run as fast as 5000 feet per minute.
Buffs or rag-wheels are run at about 6500 feet for coloring and as high
"
as 13,000 to 14,000 feet per minute for
cutting-down" or preparatory
work.
sizes are
In finishing castings or other materials which have not been
machined, the work should have a thin, smooth scale. If the surface
be deeply pitted, too much time will be required to finish it. Canvaswheels, set up in No. 80 emery, are well adapted to the first, or cutting-
down, process in such work.
CHAPTER XXX
THE INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURE
Jigs.
By
the interchangeable system
is
meant, such shop methods
as enable the manufacturer to furnish duplicate parts to replace broken
Of fundamental importance in such
or worn-out parts of his machines.
These have already
a system are accurate measuring-instruments.
Next in importance are jigs and special fixtures for
been described.
the accurate and rapid machining of the duplicate pieces. If an enginecylinder head is to be drilled to receive the studs which secure it to the
The head could be carefully
cylinder, one of two ways could be used.
laid out by rule and compass and drilled to the marks, or a device could
be made to
fit over the cylinder-head having holes in exactly the right
Such a device is called a jig, and it pays
positions to guide the drill.
to make this tool when a large number of duplicate pieces are to be
Should one of these cylinder-heads need to be replaced
manufactured.
after shipping the engine, if drilled by a jig a new one could be sent
with the assurance that it would require no refitting.
Inasmuch as the jig is used for a large number of duplicate parts
it be made with great accuracy, but
is essential not only that
that provision be made for maintaining this accuracy. With this end
in view the guiding-holes in the jig are not allowed to come in contact
it
or reamer (which would wear them out of shape) but are
and bushed, as at B, Fig. 673. If the holes through the
5
l
cylinder-head are /s", the holes in the jig should be about l /s", and
s
bushings with /8" holes should be inserted to guide the drill. The
bushings are sometimes made of tool steel and hardened, which makes
them very durable; but inasmuch as the hardened bushings may injure
the drill, or reamer, some mechanics make them of cast iron and renew
them when worn. Renewing the bushings is an inexpensive process compared with renewing the whole jig, and it does not in the least affect the
with the
made
drill
larger
original accuracy of the jig.
The same jig is in some
cases used for both the cylinder-head
and the flanges on the ends of the cylinder; but as the holes in the
496
THE INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURE
cylinder-flanges are
made
497
smaller to allow for thread on the studs, the
for the smaller holes.
Otherwise a
jig requires an extra set of bushings
special drill would be necessary.
It is frequently necessary to make jigs for work which is only partly
machined. If we require a jig for the steam-chest cover of a steam-
FIG. 673.
FIG. 674.
engine, and only three edges of the cover are planed, the jig could be
made with planed lugs fitting the planed edges of the steam-chest cover,
the holes being laid out with reference to these planed edges. The
jig should be secured to the steam-chest cover by set-screws in lugs,
which set-screws should press against the rough edge of the cover, as
shown
An
in Fig. 674.
excellent example of jig-making
and jig work is shown in Figs.
675, 676, 677, and 678.* Fig. 675 is a working drawing of a side-frame
of a small machine to be drilled and reamed. The dimensions are given
to the third decimal place, thus indicating the degree of accuracy required.
There are two of these frames for each machine, and as they are very
nearly alike, the jig for the drilling
is
made
reversible, so that after drilling
one frame, the other may be secured to the opposite side of the jig and
drilled in a similar manner.
The main casting D which holds the bushings
Fig. 676 shows the jig.
has four feet, lettered (7, by which the jig is supported on the drillingmachine.
the
These
feet are hardened tool steel.
"
"
supporting-plate
and bushing-plate
The frame
* These cuts were first used to illustrate an article
by
can Machinist," vol. 24, page 1296.
is
held between
by the clamps
W. H.
G.
Pike, Jr., in
The
"Ameri-
498
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
THE INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURE
D are all of
bushing-holes in plate
in the bushings. This
the
same diameter
the
uniformity simplifies
499
as are also the holes
making
of the bushings
rUJ
"
'.Liili
i"
if
Jiff
--V
i-L.!
\''
V'iS'
'
^"^>
'
'
|!
'
FIG. 676.
and
facilitates accurate location of the holes for the bushings.
The
latter
were bored and reamed on a milling-machine and "the position verified
by height-gage and vernier." To equalize the strains in the castings due
to forcing in the bushings, some were forced from one side and some from
the other.
An important feature in connection with this jig is the method of
guiding the drills and reamers. These do not touch the bushings, being
FIG. 677.
held in the special sockets, as shown in Fig. 677. The lower ends of
these sockets are hardened and ground to fit the bushings.
This
arrangement prevents in a great measure the wear of bushings and
tools.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
500
sizes of drills and reamers used
enough to pass through the work.
The various
far
in the sockets project just
FIG. 678.
li
FIG. 679.
Fig.
678
two planed
is
men-can Xachinitt
FIG. 680.
a bottom view of the jig with the side-frame in place. The
frame abut against the guide-plates, which are
feet of the
THE INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURE
shown at
in Fig. 676.
to the milling of the feet,
The
third locating-point
is
501
a hole drilled before
and from whict the milling was gaged.
"
which
and
679
680,
Figs.
arej;aken from an article by Cherry Red"
"
in
American Machinist/' vol. 2?, page 357, show a jig for drilling the
FIG. 681.
clamp-levers used on the tail-stock of a lathe. The bushing is threaded,
and when screwed down upon the ball end of the lever, automatically
The angle of the handle to the drilled hole is regulated
it.
the
V block shown.
adjustable
by
The jig shown in Fig. 681, the cut of which is taken from " American
centers
Machinist," dated September 29, 1888, needs but
central hole of the lathe-handle
may
the bushing a and adjustable seat
b.
first
little
explanation.
The
be drilled in connection with
is then placed in the
The handle
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
502
jig as
shown, for
In order to
drill
drilling the
end
hole, the central hole fitting the
stem
holes different distances between centers the stem c
c.
is
adjustable in a slot.
Jigs are used not only in the drilling-machine but also in connection
with the planer, milling-machine, etc. When used on these machines
THE INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURE
503
be considered, such operations being described in connection with other
jigs-
operation of squaring, up the sides, etc., is done in a jig or
ten
fixture,
castings being milled at one time.
For the second operation, viz., that of milling the dovetail B and
the gibway C, the jig shown in Fig. 683 is used. This jig, which is
The
first
shown broken in the illustration, holds eight castings.
accurately machined at all essential points, and the
held against the locating-lugs P by
other direction, the screws in lug
machined face not shown.
The
The
jig
is
castings are
the set-screws in lugs L. In the
force the castings up against a
accurately located on the millerin the T slot of the table.
Being
jig is
by the fitting of the tongue Q
thus located, the dovetailed surfaces B are milled one at a time with
an angular cutter. Then the surface C is milled with a plain cutter,
a vertical milling attachment being used in these operations.
table
The next operation is that of milling the curved surfaces DD. For
work the jig shown in Fig. 684 is employed, a formed milling-cutter
this
FIG. 685.
being used on each casting separately. The method of holding the
work in this jig is clearly shown in the illustration.
The drilling was done next, but of this we shall not speak.
The deep slot or keyway was milled as shown in Fig. 685,* a number
of castings being held in the fixture and milled in one operation.
This may seem like a very expensive outfit for such work, but when
a large number of pieces are to be made, the first cost of the fixtures is
Not only may the work be done much quicker than
fully justified.
old method, but less skilful labor may be employed. Jig-making
however, requires a high degree of skill, and the question as to
whether it pays to make a jig or not depends upon the number of pieces that
by the
itself,
are to be made.
*
worth
Figs. 682 to 685 are from cuts accompanying an article
in "American Machinist," vol. 26, pages 1434 to 1435.
by Joseph V. Wood-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
504
Some jig-makers leave a space between the work and the lower
end of the bushing about equal to the diameter of the drill or reamer.
The object in this is to allow the chips to lift out of the hole without
working up in between the tool and bushing and wearing the latter.
Various special fixtures are shown in connection with millingmachine work in Chapter XXVI.
Machine Nomenclature. Another very important requirement in
connection with the interchangeability of machine details is a system of
machine nomenclature. By this we mean a plan of symbolizing machines
and parts of machines. Different manufacturers have different systems,
but a very simple plan is to give each different design of machine a letter,
or a combination of letters, and each part of the machine a number.
Thus, the first machine could be A, and the first piece of this machine
would be No. 1; and if there were a thousand pieces in the machine the
last would be No. 1000.
The machine as a whole would be known by
its letter, and the details would be designated by the machine letter
and detail numbers. The first piece on machine A would be marked
A 1, the second piece A 2, etc. The next different machine built would
be designated as B, and its parts B 1, B 2, B 3, etc.
If any detail of a machine be slightly altered, we may indicate this by
giving it a sub-letter; for instance, A 1 when first changed would become
A la, the second change would be A 16, and so on. If sufficient changes
were made to use all the letters of the alphabet, the piece would be so
different from the original as to justify a new number.
This would be the
next number above the highest number in the machine.
As indicated above, when
all
the letters of the alphabet are taken, the
machine may be symbolized by combining the letters. Thus, the next
machine to Z could be designated as AB or A A, the next AC or BB, etc.
Some prefer to designate the machine by the initial letters of its
name. This plan obviously has some advantages, but it has also the
disadvantage that the second design of any class, and each subsequent
design, must take a sub-letter. In designing a series of upright drills, for
instance, if the first size be marked UD, subsequent sizes would be
marked UDa, UDb,
etc.
Some manufacturers
letter.
give each machine a number in addition to its
first machine of a given design would be A 1, the
In this system the
second A
2, etc. Whether the machine number appears on the name-plate of
the machine or not, it is kept in the factory, and the number of machines
of a certain design sold, together with any alterations, are noted in records
kept for this purpose. As indicated, the machine letter is marked on
THE INTERCHANGEABLE SYSTEM OF MANUFACTURE
the
detail
505
number or symbol; but the
numbers to symbolize
should
not
on any other part
appear
machines)^
in connection with the detail
machine number (except
in such aystems as use
the different designs of
than the name-plate casting.
system of machine nomenclature is valuable not only in ordering
duplicate parts, but in distinguishing the castings and patterns in the
In cases where there are many kinds of patterns this greatly
shop.
facilitates the work in the shops.
CHAPTER XXXI
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINE-SHOP METHODS
Lapping is a kind of grinding, and it is applied to such
as requires a higher degree of refinement than is possible by the
We sometimes lap a machineordinary process of the universal grinder.
Lapping.
work
is required to run at an extremely high speed, say 6000
revolutions per minute. Other machine details may be lapped when
an exceptionally high degree of refinement is required, but the process
shaft which
is
more commonly applied to measuring-tools, such as the collar- and
The process of lapping the collar- and plug-gages will
plug-gages, etc.
illustrate the general principle.
Having ground the
collar,
it
is
next
placed on a freely fitting shaft and supported on the lathe-centers as in
We now apply oil and emery-dust to the shaft, and, causing
turning.
the latter to rapidly revolve, we move the collar back and forth lengthwise of the shaft by hand, and at the same time revolve it slowly. Ihe
effect of this is to grind
The plug
out the slight imperfections
left
by the universal
lapped in the same manner, excepting that it
grinder.
revolves in the lathe the same as a shaft, a collar being used for the lap.
is
laps above described are of the simplest and cheapest forms,
namely, a plain shaft for the internal, and a collar for the external, lap,
and both are made of cast iron; but when there is considerable lapping
The
pays to make adjustable laps. For internal lapping the
adjustment may be provided by cutting a narrow slot through the center
of the shaft and using a headless set-screw to expand the shaft. This setscrew should be screwed into a tapped hole in one section of the shaft ,
to be
done
it
point pressing against the other section, as shown in Fig. 686. The slot
should stop short of the ends of the shaft an inch or more, leaving the
ends solid. For external lapping the lapping collar may be made with
a slotted lug on one side with a screw in the lug by which to close the
its
Fig. 687 shows this design.
laps are generally made with lead strips extending
lengthwise of the lap. These strips are formed by pouring melted lead
506
collar to
compensate for wear.
The adjustable
MISCELLANEOUS SHOP METHODS
507
into recesses cut in the lap, the lead being trimmed down to the surface
of the lap. The object of the lead is to hold the
emery, which becomes
imbedded
in the lead.
Large *o.r long laps are sometimes made by
casting a lead sleeve or collar on a tapering shaft. This sleeve is turned
in the lathe the required she, and when worn too small the sleeve is
enlarged by driving in the tapering shaft. A groove is cut lengthwise
of the shaft.
This groove is filled with lead in casting, and serves as a
key to keep the sleeve from turning on the
shaft.
This form
is
shown
in
A,B,C,D=Lead
FIG. 686.
Internal Lead
Lap
FIG. 688.
FIG. 687.
Great care is necessary in lapping holes to prevent the lap
To avoid this the laps are sometimes
the
hole large at the ends.
making
made slightly convex.
Fig. 688.
Grinding Valves, Joints, etc. Lapping is sometimes used in making
steam- and water-tight joints, but in such cases it is generally called
Conical valves, flat-seated valves, etc., are sometimes fitted
grinding.
The process, however, is not so much used in this line
in this way.
machine has been designed which does this
work as formerly.
of
work so accurately
as to obviate in
many
cases the necessity for the
grinding.
If a lapped or ground joint is wanted in such a case as the cylinderhead on a steam-engine, the head is so turned as to leave a narrow
circular strip for grinding.
This strip
is first
scraped as nearly true as
and then emery and oil are applied and the head rotated
backward and forward until the surface is true. During this grinding
process the surface should be frequently examined, and care should be
taken to avoid getting emery on the low spots.
practicable,
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
508
The ordinary method of securing gears, pulleys, etc.,
means
of key, set-screw, or pin. In some lines of machinery,
by
and force-fits are used.
shrink-fits
The tires of locomotive
however,
shrunk
the
are
and
common
car-wheels are usually
on,
driving-wheels
forced on by hydraulic pressure. The tire is usually turned about .001"
Shrink -fits.
to shafts
is
per inch of diameter smaller than the driving-wheel proper.
(The
The tire is then expanded by heat until
latter is called wheel-center.)
large
enough to
slip
over the wheel-center.
the tire on the wheel-center
it
is
next cooled
Having properly placed
off,
which causes
it
to
The allowance of .001"
contract and tightly grip the wheel- center.
less
inch
of
than
allowed by some raildiameter, although slightly
per
roads, is a very convenient and doubtless a very .satisfactory rule for
tires as well as other large work, but for diameters 12" and less the
,
Diameter of shaft
.
" + .001" is proposed as likely to give better
formula Tn/SfT"
.
results.
The
following table of shrinkage allowances
of the leading mechanical journals
Size in Inches.
2
2
4
6
9
12
18
24
35
45
55
inches and under
to 4
to 6
tO 9
tO 12
tO 18
to 24
to 35
to 45
to 55
to 65
was copied from one
of journal lost)
(name
Allowance for Shrinkage.
1
/wo inch or less
Vioo
Y 64
/128
1/32
3
/64
i/ 2 o
Vis
Vi6
Yu
Yi 2
This table gives a greater allowance than the formula, but such
Any rule that may be adopted should be used
practice is doubtful.
with discrimination; for it is obvious that a light cast-iron ring will not
stand the strain that might be safe for a heavy steel ring. The hole is
usually made standard size, the allowance being made on the shaft.
In shrinking on such work as collars and shaft- couplings, the enveloping piece should be heated from the outside rather than through the
If heated from the inside first the hole will, in some cases, be
hole.
Or if
made temporarily smaller, and the shaft will not at first enter.
the shaft be forced in, it is likely to be an unsatisfactory fit later when
the heat has uniformly penetrated the outside piece and expanded it.
MISCELLANEOUS SHOP METHODS
509
important to cool the enveloping piece as quickly as practikeep the shaft cool; ptherwise the heat may penetrate and
expand the shaft. This might stretch the outside piece. If for any
reason it is necessary to"remove the shaft from some piece which has
been shrunk on it, great care is necessary to keep the shaft cool while
It is
cable, or
both are heated both will be expanded.
on hubs of pulleys, gears, etc., to
Bands
are smooth and true the
surfaces
both
When
them.
strengthen
allowance made by the formula is about right. But it often happens
that neither band nor hub is machined. In such a case we cannot
heating the outside piece.
If
are sometimes shrunk
measure so accurately, but by measuring the hub in different places
and taking as nearly as possible the average diameter we need not err
greatly from the allowance recommended.
Force -fits. By force-fit is meant the fit made by forcing a shaft
The data
into a wheel or other part by hydraulic or other pressure.
respecting force-fits
is
The tightness
not so satisfactory as that
relating to shrink-
usually designated by the pressure
shaft
into
the
hole.
In the best practice the presthe
force
to
required
sure for this purpose varies between six and nine tons per inch of diamIf,
eter, according to the smoothness or roughness of shaft and hole.
fits.
of the
fit
is
an axle into a car-wheel, the pressure indicated
considerably less than the minimum above given, the
rejected; if much greater than the maximum, the axle
for instance, in forcing
on the gage
car-wheel
is
is
is
taken to the lathe and reduced in diameter.
The allowance for the force-fit is seldom indicated in terms of the
diameter.
The amount
the mechanic.
is
in
many
If required to give
,
Diameter
diameter, the formula
factories left to the
judgment
of
the allowance in terms of the shaft
of shaft
m*-..
lr>,,
-+.0015" up to 12" would be
not far from correct, assuming smooth surfaces for both shaft and hole,
and hub about twice the diameter of shaft.
In some shops the shaft is turned rough, forming a kind of thread.
With this method the shaft does not need to be so exact as to diameter,
as the rough surface when but slightly excessive in diameter will be
cut away by the enveloping piece while it is being pressed on the shaft.
In making shrink- or force-fits, especially if the enveloping piece
be frail, care should be taken that the stress does not exceed the elasBut considering that both shaft and
tic limit of the outside part.
are
compressed to a slight extent, it is believed that
enveloping piece
the allowance recommended in the preceding formulas will give satis-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
510
when the hub conforms to the above proportions. If
be
much
the hub
weaker, the constant in the above formula for forcefits might be changed to .0005".
For further information on this sub-
factory results
together with diagrams of allowances for driving-fits, running-fits,
limit-gages, see the data-sheet issued in connection with the engineering edition of "Machinery" for August, 1903, and "The American
ject,
and
Machinist" for August 6, 1903.
Formulas for force-fits, shrink-fits, and
issue of
drive-fits,
given in the above
"Machinery," are as follows:
Force-fits,
= 2D + .5;
Shrink-fits,
Drive-fits,
where
A = allowance
in thousandths of
an inch and
D = nominal
diambe seen that the formula for shrink-fits agrees very
nearly with the one proposed in this work; but the formula for forcefits gives much greater values, and probably subjects the enveloping
part to a considerable initial tension.
The article in "The American Machinist" is by Mr. John Riddell.
He provides for four different cases, varying with the material used and
eter of
fit.
It will
the class of work, as follows:
Nominal Diameter.
2 in
4"
6"
8"
10'-'
12"
The maximum allowances
Minimum.
.0005
.00075
.001
.001
.001
.001
Maximum.
.0015
.00275
.0035
.0045
.00525
.00575
in this table are for the heaviest force-fits
and also for shrink-fits. It will be noticed that there is a wide difference
between Mr. RiddelPs allowances and those quoted from "Machinery."
Different writers have been quoted on this subject to emphasize what
was indicated above, namely, that these formulas respecting force-fits
and shrink-fits, like many other mechanical formulas, should be used
with judgment and discrimination.
MISCELLANEOUS SHOP METHODS
Machines Used
511
In factories where a great
Force-fits.
done hydraulic machines are used. These
are furnished with gages which Register the amount of pressure. When
in
deal of this kind of
Making
work
is
such expensive machines- cannot be afforded a screw-press may be used
for the purpose.
However, the screw-press has very low efficiency and
it is not very satisfactory for forcing shafts
above, say, 5".
Balancing Pulleys. All machine rotating parts which run at coiisiderable speeds should be balanced.
That is to say, the weight of the
material of which the rotating piece is composed should be distributed
symmetrically with respect to the axis on which the piece revolves.
for instance, a common pulley; if
the rim on one side be heavier than
Take,
Balancing Pulleys
Balance Weight
on the side diametrically opposite,
the centrifugal force will be greater
on the heavy side and this will tend
to cause vibration of the shaft.
Pulleys
are not ordinarily in a
balanced condition when the lathe
work
is
balancing them
is
The method
finished.
as follows
of
for ordinary speed
Insert a closely
FIG. 689.
fit-
ting arbor in the pulley and place the
whole upon two straight strips of metal which have been carefully
When thus arranged
leveled on suitable supports, as shown in Fig. 689.
the arbor will roll with the pulley until the heavy side of the latter stops at
the bottom. The pulley should now be weighted with putty or clay on
the inner side of the rim until
it
will stop in
marked the exact point where the putty was
diameter
is
any
Having
Vie"
position.
placed, a hole about
drilled for the rivet at that point
and then countersunk
on the outside of the rim.
For the balancing weights button-shaped blocks of iron of
different
One
of these equaling in weight the putty is riveted to
the pulley, the rivet being filed flush with the outside of the rim. If
the pulley is to be held by set-screws, these should be in place before the
sizes are used.
If it is to be keyed, an arbor with key-seat and key
pulley is balanced.
should be used in balancing, or the difference made by keyway and key
should be estimated.
A pulley balanced by the above method is said to be in " standing
balance," and this
little
is
the method used in
consideration, however,
will
all
show that
but exceptional
it is
cases.
not exact; for while the
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
512
method enables us
to find the
heavy
side of the pulley,
it
does not indicate
the position of the heavy part lengthwise the pulley. For pulleys more
than, say, 12" face, or length, and running above 2000 revolutions per
it may be necessary to locate the counterbalance in the same
plane at right angles to the arbor axis as the heavy part. There is
no simple method of determining this position. The Defiance Machine
minute,
of Defiance,
Company,
persons
who cannot
make a machine
for the purpose, but
purchase such a machine use various
Such methods may be best explained in the
Ohio,
afford to
cut-and-try methods.
classroom.
Pulleys are sometimes balanced more accurately
the hub on the outside, and rim on inside as well as outside.
by turning
Balancing Cutter-heads. Cutter-heads (for wood-working machinery)
which run at high velocities usually require to be balanced with extreme
accuracy. Not only are the heads machined very carefully, but bolts,
washers, and knives on opposite sides are delicately weighed to insure an
When complete the cutter-head
attachments must be given a final test, and if found out of
balance the correction may be made by drilling or otherwise cutting
metal from the head.
Balancing Emery-wheels. In balancing an emery-wheel, the nuts,
equal distribution of centrifugal force.
and
all its
collars, etc.,
should be truly turned in the lathe.
The emery-wheel and
arbor complete should then be tested, and if found out of balance the
If but slightly out
correction may be made by drilling into the collars.
of balance, holes cut in the gaskets between collar and emery-wheel will
Some manufacturers make flat-bottom holes on
When so made the correction for
balancing may be made by filling in these holes on the light side.
answer the purpose.
the inner side of the collar-flanges.
It may be remarked in this connection that an improperly mounted
emery-wheel is a dangerous piece of machinery. The wheel should not
be forced on the arbor, but should fit freely, and rubber or other soft
gaskets should be placed between the wheel and the collars on both sides.
The wheel should generally run not faster than recommended by the manufacturer.
As a
further precaution wheels of greater diameter than about
'
5 / _" should be covered with suitable guards.
1
CHAPTER XXXII
TABLES* RECIPES, ETC.
>
TABLE No.
1.
THE PRINCIPAL WIRE-GAGES USED IN THE UNITED STATES.
Number
of Wire-
gage.
514
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
TABLE No.
2.
GAGE NUMBERS AND DIAMETERS FOR TWIST-DRILLS.
Gage
Number.
TABLES, RECIPES, ETC.
TABLE No.
3.
GAGE NUMBERS AND DIAMETERS FOR WOOD AND MACHINE-SCREWS.
Number
of Screw.
515
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
516
TABLE No.
4.
TAP-DRILLS FOR V THREADS.
Diameter
of
TABLES, RECIPES, ETC.
TABLE No.
5.
TAP-DRILLS FOR MACHINE-SCREW TAPS.
Number
of
Tap.
517
518
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
TABLE No.
TAP-DRILL SIZES FOR U.
Diameter of
Tap, Inches.
S.
6.
STANDARD THREAD.
TABLES, RECIPES, ETC.
TABLE No.
8.
CONSTANTS FOR FINDING DIAMETER AT BOTTOM OF THREAD.
(Used by permissioA of the Pratt and Whitney Co.)
Threads
519
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
520
Let it lay until cold. Hard cast iron can be softened enough in
This process will be exceedingly useful to iron
to be filed or drilled.
cover with ashes.
this
way
founders, as
this
by
means there
will
be a great saving of expense in making
new
patterns.
3. To make a Casting of Precisely the same Size of a Broken Casting without
Put the pieces of broken casting together and mould them,
the Original Patterns.
and cast from this mould. Then anneal it as above described; it will expand to
the original size of the pattern, and there remain in that expanded state.
In working brass and copper,
4. How to Anneal Brass or Copper.
come hard, and
if
hammered
to
any great extent
will split.
it
will be-
To prevent cracking
or splitting, the piece must be heated to a dull-red heat and plunged in cold water;
Be careful not to heat brass too hot,
this will soften it so it can be worked easily.
will fall to pieces.
or
it
of
hammering.
The
piece
must be annealed frequently during the process
Steel, wrought iron, etc., may be case-hardened as fol5. Case-hardening.
Cool
lows: Polish the piece, heat to bright red, and rub with prussiate of potash.
the article in air to a dull red and then immerse in water.
6.
Weight
without
nails;
If
of Castings.
an iron casting
you have a pattern made
made from
of soft pine, put together
weigh sixteen pounds to every
brass, it will weigh eighteen pounds to
it
will
pound of the pattern. If the casting is of
every pound of the pattern.
7. A cubic inch of cast iron weighs .2607 pound; wrought iron (bars), .2817
pound;
steel (cast) .2839
pound; brass
(cast) .2930
pound; brass
(rolled) .2972
pound.
8.
Bolts.
stock.
Determining Diameters of Round Stock for Hexagon- and Square-head
For hexagon, the distance across the flats divided by .866= diameter of
For square-head bolts, the distance across flats divided by .7071 = diame-
ter of stock.
9.
stoned
To Sharpen Reamers.
first
on the face
Hand
of the flutes
reamers,
when
dull
then on top of the
through wear, should be
The stone should be
flutes.
always held perfectly flat with the face and clearance that the original shape of
the flutes may be preserved.
End-cutting reamers should be first turned on centers with a wheel, and then recleared to insure reaming a hole the same size of reamer.
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
CHAPTER
1.
2.
What is the value of the English yard in terms of the meter?
What is the difference between common calipers and thread-calipers'.
3. In fitting a shaft to a gear or pulley what precautions are necessar-. in
adjusting the calipers?
4. What is a Vernier caliper?
5. What two systems of graduation are used for machine-shop Ver, der
calipers?
6. Give brief descriptions of common micrometer-calipers and scr>jwthread micrometer-calipers.
How would you adjust the former to .-60%]!"?
In using the latter to measure a U. S. standard screw, what value must be
added to the reading of the instrument in order to obtain the outside diameter
What
of the screw?
the
value must be added to obtain the outside diameter of
V thread?
8.
Describe an inside micrometer-gage, a micrometer depth-gage.
Describe a method of compensating for errors in screws.
9.
Describe a
7.
common form
of caliper-gage.
Describe ordinary collar- and plug-gages.
11. Describe external- and internal-thread gages.
10.
12.
What
is
the purpose of a limit-gage?
Describe an adjustable limit-
gage.
13.
14.
15.
Sketch and describe the thread- and center-gage.
is a thread pitch-gage?
is a templet?
What
What
16. Describe the
special
it
form
common
of surface-gage
surface-gage and
may
tell
how
be used in describing
it
is
circles,
used.
What
and how
is
used?
17. Describe a common wire-gage, a twist-drill gage.
18. Describe a key-seat rule.
19. Is the English wire-gage the same as the British Imperial?
20. What wire-gage is used almost exclusively in America for electrical
purposes?
21.
What
are the distinguishing features of the Edison wire-gage?
521
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
522
22. Is there a standard gage in the U. S. for the diameters of
wood- and
machine-screws ?
23.
What
precautions are necessary in ordering wire and sheet and plate
metal to avoid delay?
24.
What
is
method
the most accurate and reliable
of
measuring and
specifying the size of wire?
25. How may the combination square be used for measuring tapers?
CHAPTER
27.
What
What
28.
How
26.
are the three
II
most common forms
of
hammer?
the meaning of the word peen?
would you shape a crank-pin, or any large pin, to facilitate
riveting?
29. What
is
methods are used
for straightening shafts?
the effect of machining a peened surface?
31. Describe two methods of straightening long bars of cast iron.
32. How may the peening principle be applied, for enlarging piston-rings?
30.
What
Explain
how
is
this principle
may
be used in
CHAPTER
33.
What
are the
names
of the
two
fitting
connecting-rod straps.
III
chisels
most generally used
in the
machine-shop?
34.
To 'about what
(a) cast iron, (6) steel,
35.
What
is
cutting angle should
(c)
a chisel
be
ground to
cut
Babbitt?
a center-punch and for what purpose
What is a pin-drift?
is it
used?
36. Describe a key-drift.
37. In chipping, what precaution is necessary upon approaching the
edge of the work? What other precaution is necessary to insure smooth
chipping?
38. What precaution is necessary in grinding chisels and other tools to
prevent drawing the temper?
39. In general, when should the chisel be used and when not?
CHAPTER
40. Into
41.
what three general
What advantages
are
classes
may
IV
files
derived from
be divided?
making a
file
with a convex
surface?
42. Distinguish between cross-filing and draw-filing, and explain the purpose of each.
43. What is a safo-edge file? What is its purpose?
44.
45.
46.
meant by pinning, and how may it be partly prevented?
are most commonly used in the machine-shop?
Describe the process of finishing a chipped surface by filing.
What
What
is
files
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
47.
48.
49.
50.
523
How may
How may
very broad surfaces be filed?
curved surfaces be filed without producing flat spots?
two principles are ip be observed in filing lathe work?
source of ^danger idr'to be guarded against in filing rotating
What
What
work?
51.
How
52.
W hat
emery-cloth applied to lathe work to polish
a polishing-clamp?
is
it?
is
CHAPTER V
53.
What
is
a surface-plate, and
how
54. Describe a typical scraper.
55.
may chattering of a scraper
How
56.
What
scraping
57.
flat
precautions
surfaces?
What form
58. Describe a
How is
used?
be obviated?
should be observed when
against wasting time
of scraper may be used in fitting a bearing to its shaft?
method of giving an ornamental finish with the scraper?
With emery-dust and a pine
59.
is it
stick?
the scraper applied to work in the lathe, and in general, for
what purpose?
60.
What
61. Is
it
is
a "graver"
safe to use files
and scrapers without handles on lathe work?
CHAPTER
62.
Name
63.
How
several
is
common forms
provision
made
VI
of vises.
in the swivel-vise for swinging
work
in
a hori-
zontal plane?
64.
65.
How may a vise be arranged
How is a vise arranged for
to clamp tapering work?
threading pipes, and where should
it
be
placed?
66. Describe the hand-vise, the pin-vise.
67. What are the advantages in having vise-jaws detachable?
68.
What
materials are used for vise-clamps, and
when
are vise-clamps
used?
69. Describe a
good design of hack-saw.
CHAPTER
70.
What
is
VII
the definition of the term drill?
what
used?
71. Describe the ratchet-drill;
72. Describe the breast-drill.
for
73. Describe the Fifield drilling
attachment, and
is it
tell
how
74. Describe the portable drilling-machine, and tell how
75. What are the essential features of a sensitive-drill.?
76.
drii:?
How may
it is
it is
operated.
used.
a variable-speed friction-drive be applied to a sensitive-
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
524
77.
78.
Give a general description of a back-geared drill.
What is the principle and what the purpose of the back gears?
80.
What
What
81.
How
82.
What
79.
is
feed-gearing?
how
applied to the drill?
an automatic stop, and what advantage has it?
the head of a drill-press usually adjusted as to height?
adjustments are provided for the table of an ordinary
is
is
drill -press?
83.
What
a radial
is
drill?
What advantages
drill-press?
84. Give a general description of the
radial drill shown in Figs. 121 to 125.
has
it
over the
common
main driving mechanism
85. Describe the feed-gearing of the foregoing
86. Describe the depth-gage.
87. What is the difference between the
of the
machine.
universal radial drill and
the
plain radial drill?
88. What is the object of the tilting-table shown in Fig. 132?
89. Give general descriptions of the suspension-drill, the multispindledrill, and the turret-drill.
90.
Explain the
necessity
and use
of
attachment for
the high-speed
large radial drills.
91.
How
is
a hole started in work to be drilled?
92. Describe a
and
method
of holding
work
in drilling-machines (a)
by
bolts
straps, (6) by use of the angle-plate, (c) by use of the drill-vise.
93. Describe the universal vise as used for drilling.
94.
How
are
blocks used in connection with the drilling-machine?
method of machining hubs in the drill.
the most accurate method of adjusting work
95. Describe a
96.
What
is
CHAPTER
for drilling?
VIII
97. Describe the twist-drill, defining longitudinal clearance,
ance, and lip clearance.
98. What are the essentials of a correctly ground drill?
99. What is the effect of grinding a drill eccentric?
100.
of
work
How
is it
does the farmer-drill differ from the twist-drill?
body
clear-
To what kind
adapted?
101. Describe a flat-drill.
Under what circumstances would a
flat-drill
be used?
102. Describe
(a)
the pin-drill or counterbore,
(b)
the
tit-drill,
(c)
the
bottoming-drill.
103. What is the purpose of the oil-tube drill?
104. Give
approximate speed formulas
iron, (c) brass.
105. About
for drilling (a)
machine
steel, (b) cast
how much faster may drills be run when made of high-speed
than when made of ordinary tool steel?
106. Give approximate rates of feed for drills.
.steel
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
525
CHAPTER IX
107.
How
are taper-shank
thrills
driven in the drill-press?
approximate taper of the "Morse Standard" ?
108. Describe a cheap device for driving broken-tang
109.
110.
term
How
How
is it
111.
What
is
the
drills.
are straight-shank drills driven?
is the drill-socket made for use in the lathe?
By what
other
known?
How may the
taper-shank
drill
be driven by a drill-chuck?
CHAPTER X
112. What is the purpose of a reamer? What would be the effect of
allowing too much metal for the reamer to cut?
113. Describe the solid fluted reamer.
What is the object of making
reamers with spiral flutes?
114.
What
is
the essential difference between the rose reamer and the
fluted reamer?
What
making a reamer in the shell form?
n adjustable reamer with detachable blades. What
object of the adjustable reamer?
117. Describe a good form of chucking reamer.
What is the object
chucking reamer?
115.
is
the advantage of
116. De:cribe
is
118.
What
119.
Can the taper-reamer be used
a wood-bit as used in the machine-shop?
in the rose form?
120. What is the object of notching the cutting edges of a reamer?
121. What governs the number of cutting edges in a reamer?
122. What is the effect of too much body clearance in a reamer?
the object of spacing the teeth of a reamer unequally?
Describe a
123. For what purposes may square reamers be used?
method
124.
of
is
th)
of the
is
What
c
.eap
making square reamers.
What
precautions should be observed in hardening reamers?
CHAPTER XI
125.
What
are the distinguishing features between the hand-lathe and the
engine-lathe?
126. Describe the principal elements in connection with the head-stock of
the engine-lathe?
127. Describe the tail-stock.
128. Describe the thread-cutting mechanism.
129. Is the feed-belt reliable for thread-cutting?
130. Describe the feed
How may
mechanism.
the apron-gearing and lead-screw be designed so as to
admit of the lead-screw being used as a feed-rod?
131.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
526
132. Describe the screw-cutting
mechanism
of the lathe
shown
in Figs.
218
to 222.
133. Describe the operation of the feed-clutches.
134. Explain the operation of the apron-gearing of Fig. 223.
is this
135. What is meant by "back-gear ratio"?
How
com-
ratio
puted?
136. Explain the principle of the spur-gear reversing mechanism as illustrated in Fig. 225.
137. Describe the head-stock gearing shown in Figs. 227 and 228.
138. Explain in detail (a) the raise-and-fall rest, (b) the plain rest, (c) the
rest, (d) the elevating tool-rest, (e) the open-side tool-rest,
three-tool shafting-rest.
139. What are the distinguishing features of (a) the pulley-lathe,
compound
pit-lathe, (c) the gap-lathe?
140. What is the meaning of the
of a
common
term "swing"?
How may
(/)
the
(6)
the
the "swing"
lathe be increased?
In general what
141. How is the cutting speed of a lathe designated?
considerations govern the cutting speed? How many revolutions of a 3-inch
shaft would be required to give a cutting speed of 35 ft. per minute? What
would be the cutting speed of a 3-inch shaft when making 38.22 revolutions
per minute?
142. Name some of the brands of high-speed steel in use.
About
what is the maximum cutting speed when using the best high-speed
steel?
143.
What
considerations govern the feed in lathe work?
How may
the
rotary measure shown in Fig. 239 be used to measure cutting speed?
144. What is the advantage of a hollow spindle in a lathe?
145. Describe a
method
of testing the alinement of a lathe-spindle.
CHAPTER
146.
What
XII
are the distinguishing features of the turret-lathe?
147. Describe the plain screw-machine.
148. Explain the chucking principle illustrated in Figs. 243 and 244.
149. Describe a method of making filister-head screws in the screw-
machine.
150.
To what
class of
work
is
the monitor lathe adapted?
151. Describe the characteristic features of the
machines shown in Figs. 248
to 252.
152. What is the principle difference between the machine illustrated in
Fig. 252 and that shown in Fig. 259?
153. Briefly describe the operations illustrated in Figs. 261 to 266.
154. Give three different methods of using turrets in connection with the
engine-lathe.
155. What
is
What
is
156.
a box tool? What is a knee tool?.
a forming-tool, and to what class of work
is it
adapted?
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
CHAPTER
157.
What
What
are the
names
of a
pommon
527
XIII
set of lathe-tools?
are the advantages of the tool-holder system of lathe- tools?
159. Describe a boring -system in" which round bars with inserted cutters
158.
are used.
What advantages
has this system as compared with that in which
forged boring-tools are used?
160. Give one or
more
cases in which a multiple-edge tool
may
be used
with advanatge.
How
161. What is the advantage of the backward offset in planer-tools?
the same principle employed in lathe-tools?
162. What is the meaning of the term "rake" as applied to machine-shop
tools? What is the effect of "rake"?
is
163.
164.
Does changing the height
is the effect on the
What
of a tool
change
its
angle of front rake?
side clearance of changing the longitudinal
feed?
166.
How do tools for brass differ from other tools with respect
Why do planer-tools require less rake than lathe-tools?
167.
What
165.
to rake?
metals are machined in connection with lubricants?
CHAPTER XIV
168.
What
169.
Why
is the correct angle for the point of a lathe-center?
are hardened centers more reliable than soft centers?
170. Describe a machine used for grinding centers.
be so shaped as to lessen the work of grinding?
171.
What
How may the
precautions in using lathe-centers are necessary to
centers
prevent
eccentric work?
172.
are suitable proportions for work centers?
Why is it
the center sufficiently deep to give clearance to the point of
About what
important to
drill
the lathe-center?
173. Describe
the tools and methods
employed
in
locating
centers
in
work.
Refer back to
174. Describe a machine designed especially for centering.
the chapter on drilling-machines and explain how work may be supported in
the sensitive-drill while the centers are being drilled.
CHAPTER XV
What
the ordinary method of driving work between the latheshould threaded work be driven? What is a bolt-dog?
176. Describe one or more methods of driving work between centers
which allow the work to be machined its full length without being reversed?
177. Describe three chucks ordinarily used for lathe work.
How could a chuck be made
178. Describe one or more special chucks.
without jaws for holding packing-rings? What is a wood-chuck?
175.
centers?
How
is
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
52S
179.
What
precautions are necessary
when
gripping
frail
work
in the ordi-
nary chuck?
180.
What methods may be
used for testing the concentricity of chuck
work?
CHAPTER XVI
181.
What
is
a lathe arbor or mandrel and
how
is it
used?
182. Describe the plain arbor, giving its taper per foot.
183. What is the construction of the self-tightening arbor?
tion
is
urged against
What
objec-
it?
How
is it used?
184. Describe the expansion arbor.
185. Describe an arbor used for different sizes of tapering holes.
and tell which is best and why.
sometimes used in machining armed
186. Describe three kinds of nut arbors
187.
What
special arbor
method
is
pulleys?
188.
How may
arbors be forced into work without injuring the arbor?
189. Describe one design of arbor-press.
CHAPTER XVII
190. Describe the various steps necessary in
plained on pages 254 to 257.
191. Describe the operations necessary for
machining a
collar, as ex-
machining the shaft, pages 257
to 258.
192.
How
should a side-tool be ground and set to give the best finish on
the end of a shaft?
193. What are some of the causes
and what are the remedies?
of chattering
mentioned in
this chapter,
194. Describe the operations necessary for machining a bevel-gear blank.
the beveled face be turned without a compound rest?
How may
195.
What
compound
precautions are necessary to avoid mistakes
in,
adjusting the
rest?
What
a taper attachment?
the method of turning tapers (a) by taper attachment,
by tail-stock adjustment. Give an approximate rule for adjusting the
196.
is
197. Describe
(6)
tail-stock for tapers.
198. Describe the steady rest
and cathead.
For what purposes are these
devices used?
199. In
what
cases
is
a follower-rest used?
200. Describe a special method of machining a cone pulley with several
tools cutting simultaneously.
Explain the construction of the chuck shown
in Fig. 397.
201. Explain
the operation of the ball-turning rest illustrated in Figs.
Describe other methods of turning balls.
202. Explain the general principle of turning curved surfaces with guiding forms.
398 and 399.
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
529
CHAPTER XVIII
203. Is the feed-belt reliable
205.
What
What
206.
With stud and
204.
lead-screw,
is
is
fr
thread-cutting?
meant by the term
lead as applied to screw-threads?
the distinction between lead and pitch?
spindle
to
for
compute change-gears
and 6 threads per inch on the
(all single
12, and 13 threads
6,
threads] .
207.
What is a translating-gear, and why
208. .With a lead-screw of 4-inch turns,
is it
used?
compute change-gears (simple
gearing) for cutting a thread with 2 millimeters lead.
209. Explain a method of cutting fractional threads with approximate
change-gears.
210. Describe a
method
of setting
and U.
S.
standard thread-tools for
straight-screw cutting.
211. Describe the same for cutting tapered screws.
212. What is a thread stop-gage, and how is it used?
213. Explain how to catch the thread without reversing the lathe.
214. How may multiple threads be spaced in the lathe?
CHAPTER XIX
215.
What
the
is
difference
between
the stronger? Which
216. Describe the Acme thread.
threads?
Which
is
217. In starting a
new
plant,
is
and U.
standard
S.
screw-
the more durable?
what screw-threads should be adopted for
general purposes?
218.
is
What number
often used for
219.
What
is
of
threads per inch different from the U. S. standard
" screws?
meant by the nominal diameter
of
pipe?
By
the
actual diameter?
220. Where is the extra metal added to "extra-strong" and "doubleextra-strong" pipe?
221. Describe the set of standard machinists' hand-taps.
222. Describe the pulley-tap.
223. What taper is used for pipe-taps?
224. What is "hob"? What is a stay-bolt tap?
225. Describe the process of making a solid die.
226. Describe one form of adjustable die.
227.
What method
is
suggested for retapping old dies?
228. Describe the "water-anneal" process.
229. What is meant by backing off a tap?
230. Describe a
common form
of
adjustable tap-wrench.
231. Describe a simple bolt-cutting machine.
232. Describe in general terms the die-head of a bolt-cutting machine.
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
530
CHAPTER XX
233.
234.
235.
Name and describe three types of boring-bar.
What methods are used in securing the cutters in
What is the advantage of double cutters?
the
236. Explain
boring-bars.
237. How
may
the
of
star-feed
as
to
applied
sliding-head
the star-feed be applied to lateral feeding?
and explain three methods
238. State
boring-bar.
239. How
action
a boring-bar?
may an
of boring tapered holes with the
engine-cylinder be rebored without removing
it'
from the
engine-bed?
What
240.
and how
conditions
may
cause chattering in the use of the boring-bar,
chattering remedied?
241. Describe a satisfactory cutter for roughing cuts, for finishing cuts.
is
CHAPTER XXI
For what purposes are
242.
horizontal
boring- and
drilling-machines
used?
a
243. Describe
facing
attachment
used
on
horizontal
the
boring*
machine.
244.
How may a
245.
What
horizontal boring-machine be adapted for milling?
distinguishes a base-boring machine from the ordinary boring-
machine?
246. For what
247.
What
is
class of
work
are portable boring-machines used?
a crank-boring machine?
CHAPTER XXII
248. What are the characteristic features of the vertical boringturning-mill? What are its advantages for turning large fly-wheels?
249. Describe a special boring-machine for car-wheels.
and
250.
Can the turret-head be advantageously applied
turning-mills?
251. What can
you say about the adaptation
to vertical boring-
of vertical
and
boring- and
turning-mills to thread-cutting operations?
CHAPTER XXIII
252. Give a general description of the metal planer.
253. What is the construction of the friction feed-disk
commonly used
on the planer?
254.
How
is
the cross-head automatically fed?
255. Describe the system of gearing that drives the planer-table.
256.
is the table reversed?
How
257. Are planers always equipped with a positive drive? What advantage
is claimed for the "second-belt" drive referred to in this chapter?
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
258.
planer?
531
What
conditions as to strength must exist in a satisfactory open-side
Describe a device sometimes used on the ordinary planer for planing
wide work.
259. Describe
shaper.
260.
How
the
mechanism driving the ram
in
common
crank-
the length of stroke regulated in the crank-shaper?
method of effecting quick return in the planer.
is
261. Describe one
262.
What
the difference
is
between a geared shaper and a crank-
shaper?
What
What
a traverse shaper?
the object of swiveling the tool-apron of the planer?
265. Describe a simple tool-lifter for under-cut planing.
266. What precaution should be observed in adjusting the
263.
264.
is
is
planer
cross-rail?
267.
How may
work be held on the planer-table without a
vise?
(Give
two methods).
268.
What
What
What
is
an angle-plate?
What are straps?
necessary in blocking up work on the planer-table?
What is the result of neglecting this precaution?
271. What are planer-centers and how are they used?
272. Describe a concave attachment for the shaper, a convex attachment.
269.
270.
are
blocks?
precaution
is
273. Explain the "former principle" as used on the planer for planing
curved work.
274. Describe a method of cutting rack-teeth on the planer.
275. Describe a grinding attachemnt as used on the planer and shaper.
276. How may the alinement of a planer-bed be tested?
CHAPTER XXIV
277.
How
278.
To what
does the slotting-machine differ from the shaper?
line of work is the slotter especially adapted?
279. Describe a
common
slotting-machine tool.
280. Describe a rotating tool-holder for use on the slotting-machine.
CHAPTER XXV
281. What is a key? a key-seat?
505
What advantage has this
282. Describe a simple key-seating machine.
machine as compared with the slotting-machine?
283. Describe a key-seating attachment for the drill-press.
CHAPTER XXVI
What
are the essential features of a milling-machine?
284.
285. Outline the feed-gearing of a Universal milling-machine.
286.
What
is
a plain milling-machine?
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS
532
287.
What advantage
has the planer type milling-machine?
288. Describe the vertical milling-machine.
289. How does the milling-machine compare with the planer as to range
of
work and economy?
290.
291.
292.
293.
What is slab-milling?
Name and describe some common forms of milling-cutters.
What is meant by gang-milling?
What two processes are necessary in milling a large dove-tail
from the
slot
solid?
a method for holding two shafts parallel, for milling key-
294. Give
ways.
295.
Name and
describe a cheap form of cutter used in emergencies.
296. Describe a rack milling attachment for the milling-machine, a slot-
Name some other attachments.
ting attachment.
297. What is the dividing-head and for what
299.
What
What
300.
With change-gears
298.
is
it
used?
is
the difference between simple and
compound indexing?
is
differential indexing?
of 32, 40,
72 teeth
64,
and
determine
the
arrangement necessary for a spiral of 36" lead with pitch of screw=" and
worm-wheel with 40 teeth.
301. Describe a taper attachment for use on the milling-machine.
302. How may abrupt angles be milled?
303.
304.
What is the circular pitch of a gear? the diametral pitch?
What method may be used to mill gears too large to be held on a
horizontal arbor?
305.
What
is
worm?
a worm-wheel?
What
tools are used in cutting
worm-wheels?
306. State in their order the processes for cutting a bevel-gear.
is the common method of cutting bevel-gears theoretically
307.
incorrect?
Why
308.
What
considerations govern the cutting speed of milling-cutters?
CHAPTER XXVII
309.
310.
What
What
is
is
311.
How
312.
What
the advantage of automatic gear-cutting machines?
the principle of the gear-shaper?
are gear-shaper cutters ground?
is the principle involved in the Gleason gear-planer?
CHAPTER XXVIII
313.
How
314.
What
is
emery graded as to coarseness?
three materials are used extensively for the manufacture of
grinding-wheels?
315. For
316.
what
How
class of
are errors
the Universal grinder?
work
is
the universal grinding-machine used?
due to eccentricity of the head center avoided in
QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT
533
317. What is the effect of wearing of the emery-wheel in
grinding a
parallel shaft?
may this effect be obviated?
318.
is the back-rest
applied to the universal grinder?
319. What provision is jnade for^grinding abrupt tapers in the universal
How
How
grinder?
320.
How may
disk
work be ground in the universal grinder?
chuck for disk-grinding.
321. Describe a convenient draw-in
322.
323.
What
What
a surface-grinding machine?
precaution is necessary in clamping work to the
is
surface-
grinder table?
324.
What two forms
325.
How may
326.
What
What
327.
of emery-wheel truer are used?
a grinding attachment be applied to the lathe?
speed is permissible for emery-wheels?
considerations govern the width of face of the emery-wheel for
the universal grinder?
328.
What
considerations govern the traverse per revolution of the
work
Give opinions of experts on this subject.
What is glazing of emery-wheels? How may it be prevented?
What causes may produce chattering in cylindrical grinding?
What precautions are necessary in mounting an emery-wheel?
For what purpose is water used in cylindrical grinding?
in the universal grinder?
329.
330.
331.
332.
CHAPTER XXIX
333.
Name
several kinds of wheels used in the
polishing-
and
buffing-
lathe.
334.
How
335.
Name several polishing
How may rag-wheels be
336.
is
polishing- wheels?
emery applied to
materials and give the uses of each.
cleaned?
CHAPTER XXX
337.
338.
What
What
is
a jig?
provision
What
is
are the advantages of the jig?
for keeping the guiding holes in jigs from
made
wearing?
339. How may the cutting edges of drills and reamers be kept from
touching the bushings in jigs?
340. For what purposes are jigs generally used in the planer and
miller?
341. What is meant by machine nomenclature?
342. Describe a convenient system of machine nomenclature.
CHAPTER XXXI
343.
344.
What
What
Describe one form of adjustable lap
Give a formula.
is
meant by lapping?
is
a shrink-fit?
MACHINE-SHOP TOOLS AND METHODS.
534
345.
What
precaution
is
necessary in shrinking on
collars
and
shaft-
couplings?
346.
Where
are
force-fits
used?
About what allowance
is
made
for
force-fits?
347.
Why
is it
they balanced?
necessary to balance pulleys and emery-wheels?
How
are
INDEX
Abrasive materials, measuring and designating
wheels, grading of
Adjusting work in the drilling-machine
Angle
of lathe-centers
224-225
374
Angle-plates, use of, on planer
106
drilling-machine
horizontal boring-machines
vertical boring
and turning
Angles, milling of abrupt
Annealing brass and copper
cast iron
steel
Arbor, self-tightening
Arbors, centers in
,
classification of
expansion
instructions for use of, on the miller
methods of forcing into work
nut
plain
Attachment, boring-tool, for lathes
,
concave, for shapers
convex, for shapers
Fifield drilling
grinding, for planers
shapers
,
,
330, 331, 336
mill
352
438-439
520
519
304
247
251, 253
for large work
for tapering work.
,
PAGE
467
467
110-111
high-speed, for drilling-machines
key-seating, for drilling-machines
rack-cutting, for miller
rotary, for miller
slotting, for miller
taper, for lathes
miller
vertical milling
wide-angle spiral, for miller
246
248
250, 253
248
454
250-253
248-250
246-247
213
378-379
379-380
75-77
384
385, 386
103-104
396
422-423
419-424
423
170-264
438
422
421
535
INDEX
PAGE
Attachments, ball-turning, for lathes
boring-machine facing
,
274
331-332
384, 489
grinding, for lathes
Back gearing
Back rests, use
80-83, 92, 159-161, 400
of, in cylindrical
grinding
Balancing cutter-heads
emery-wheels
pulleys
Ball-turning
Base-boring and drilling machines
Bath indicator
Bell center-punch
Bevel-gear planer, Bilgram's
Gleason's
,
Bevel-gears, length of face
milling teeth of
,
selecting cutters for
turning
Bevel protractor, universal
Bilgram bevel-gear planer
Bits, wood, and holder
Blocking up centers on miller
Bolt-cutter
-dog
Bolts
and
nuts, milling of
Boring a steam-engine cylinder
Boring-, drilling-, and milling-machines, portable
Boring- and turning-mills, vertical, advantage of, in large work
on
, cutting threads
,
examples of work on
turret-heads for
Boring-bar cutters
,
causes of chattering of
shapes of
feeding by the lathe-gearing
laterally with star feed-device
longitudinally with star feed-device
fixed head
methods of driving
sliding head
Boring-bars
Boring-machine, crank
,
facing attachment for
horizontal, description of typical
work on
milling
rotary tables for
work
of
special
Boring-machines, securing cylinders on
477, 480
512
512
511-512
273-276
334
245, 268
229-230
466
461-466
441, 451
447-451
440, 441, 450-451
259-261
26-28
466
137-139
444
309-312
235
436
315-317
340
342
355
342-344, 349-353
354-355
314, 317, 320, 326
326
326-327
321-322
322-323
319-320
317-319
320-321
319-320
314-327
341
331-332
328
333-334
333
331-334
340
315-317, 338-340
INDEX
537
PAGE
Boring-machines, universal
340
Boring-mill tools
Boring taper holes with boring-bar.
Boring-tool attachment for lathes.
feeding back and forth
351-352, 355
4^..
324-325
r
.
213
255
200-201
494
492-495
fl
Box
tools
Brush-wheels
Buffing and polishing
230
10-11
Caliper, hermaphrodite
6,
large micrometer
screw-thread micrometer
13
15-16
Caliper-gages
Calipers, double
,
friction-joint
micrometer
setting
spring-joint
thread
vernier
5
9
graduations on micrometer
Car- wheels, special boring-mill for
Case-hardening, receipts for
Cast iron, to harden
,
'.
Cat-head
Center-drills
238
4
6-8
8-9
10
353
520
519
267-268
8,
and reamers
Center-gage
Centering-machine
Centering-tool, lathe
Centering work with special accuracy
18,
230-232
283-285
230-231
259
231
41
Center-punch
,
Bell
turning and knurling
of..
Center-square
Centers, angle of
blocking-up, on miller
female
in
........
,..".. .........
methods of making,
method of grinding
work
,pipe
precautions as to
proportions of, in work
square
taper and angle of
Change-gears, approximate, for fractional threads
,
for thread-cutting,
Chasers, die
Chattering (foot-note)
in cylindrical grinding
planer work
229-230
261
229
....
.............
computing
224-225
444
228
228-232
225-226
228
225-227
228-229
227
224-225
283
279-283
311-313
255-256
...
491
376
INDEX
538
PAGE
Chattering with boring-bar
Chipping, precautions to avoid breaking edge of work
,
smooth
Chisel, cape
,
difficulty with,
when corners wear tapering
214,
326-327
42-43
42
38, 40
38
cow-mouth
41
40
37
40-41
40-41
37-38, 43
43
238
439
239
242
240-241
180, 439, 482-483
128
243
237-238
diamond-point
flat
oil-groove
side
Chisels, grinding of
when
to use
Chuck, machining back plate of
use of, on miller
,
universal
Chuck-jaws for face-plate
Chucks, combination
,
draw-in
drill
home-made
independent
magnetic
valve
with slip jaws.
485
.
242
241
244
wood
244-245
430-431
Chuck-work, testing concentricity of
Compound indexing on miller
Compound
260-261
rest of lathe, precautions as to angle of
Concave attachment
378-379
for shaper
83, 92, 157, 350, 401
Cone-of-gears feed
Cone-pulley, special
method
of
272-273
34-35
379
269-270
372
309
512
314, 317, 318, 319, 322
314, 317, 320, 326
machining
Connecting-rod strap, peening a
Convex attachment for shaper
Crank, machining a small
Cross-rail adjustment, planer.
Cutter, bolt
Cutter-head, balancing of
Cutter-heads
Cutters, boring-bar
direction of rotation of milling
epicycloidal system of gear-tooth
451
440
feed of work to, in milling
for shaping large curves, cheap
method
of
making
involute system of gear-tooth
milling, various shapes and names of
selecting gear tooth
single and double, compared
Depth-gage, micrometer
Diameters of stock for hexagon- and square-head bolts
453
218
439
407-410
439, 440-441, 450-451
317
J 5
520
13,
INDEX
539
PAGE
Diametral pitch
Diamond emery-truer
Die, geometric screw-cutting
Die, making a solid. ......"
Die-head for bolt-cutting machine
440
488
205
300-302
312-313
.*,
302
Dies, adjustable
clearance-holes of
301
301, 313
chamfering
302
300
302
298, 300, 302
205
298, 300
307
298-303
431-434
heel-clearance of
lands of
retapping old
300,
solid
spring
square
tempering
thread
Differential indexing
Direction of rotation of milling cutters
451
481
Disk -grinding
5-6
424-430
235
Dividers, universal
Dividing head
Dog, bolt
driving work by a common lathe
on centers without a
for taper
233
236
234
234
437-438
work
threaded work
taper milling
using a double-end
Dovetail slot, milling a
233
415
5
42
42
42
Double caliper
Drift, .definition of
,
key
,pin
Drill (machine), adjusting
,
work on, by use
automatic stop
feed-gearing
hand-feed
back gear
head
quick-return
table adjustment
of
breast
character of work on
holding work on
round work on
horizontal drilling and boring
portable
protecting finished work on
radial,
tram
110-111
79-
of
back-geared
arrangement of driving-shafts
84
83-84
84
84
84
84-86
80-83
75-76
104
105-108
107
328-341
77-78
106
87, 91-92
INDEX
540
PAGE
Drill (machine),
,
depth gage for
radial, feed gearing
,
Drill
general description
hand-feed and quick return
mechanism
reversing
tilting-table for
universal
ratchet
starting a hole
turning hubs on
use of angle-plates on
upright, with revolving table
vises for
and reamer
sockets, special, for jigwork
split sleeve for
broken-tang
Drill,
a cheap device for driving
Drill-chucks
and -surface-grinder
Drill-holder, the lathe-dog as a
Drill-grinder
combined
Drilling, a
hazardous practice in
Drilling attachment, Fifield
,
131
75-77
103-104
121-122
high-speed
deep
Drilling hard metal
,
124
108, 109
oil-holes in pulley-hubs
Drilling, lubricants used for
Drills,
,
effect of errors in grinding
and
definition
feeds of
flat
gage for twist
classification of
grinding
grinding-machines for
high-speed steel for
oil-tube
123
three-groove and four-groove twist
123-124
121-122
119-120
120-121
pin, or counterbores
470, 486
slotting
speed of
straight-shank twist
straight- way or farmer
123
120
116
112
93-94, 124
118-119
'20, 23
114-116
bottoming
90-91
89, 92
86
89-90
87-89
95-96
94-95
74-75
104-105
108-1 10
106
96, 98
106, 107, 108
499
130-131
127
128, 129
486
130
117
117-118
117
120
112-117, 121-122
tit
twist
,
clearances of
nomenclature
113
Drills (machines), multispindle
,
radial,
,
important principle
motor-driven
sensitive
in design of
112-113
96, 99-101
93
94
78-79
INDEX
541
PAGE
79-80
95
99-103
Driving work on centers without a dog
130
125-127
1 25
128-129
125
510
236
Drills (machines)
sensitive friction
suspension
Drill-shanks, table of
Drill-sockets
,
turret
Morse taper
abuse of
or holders, lathe
Drive
positive-grip
fits
491
227
116
167
417
467
489
Eccentricity, causes of, in grinding
lathe- work
Effect of errors in grinding drills
Elevating tool-rest on lathe
Emergency milling
Emery, measuring and designating
Emery
grinder, portable
Emery-stick
Emery-wheels, balancing of
comparison of coarse and
,
dressers for
glazing of
grading of
mounting
495
512
490
487-488
490
467-468
491, 512
489-490
fine
of
speed of
width of face
of, for cylindrical
grinding
Engine-lathe, turrets for
Engine-lathe work
Epiclycloidal system of gear-tooth cutters
Etching fluid, relieving taps by
Expansion-chuck
Expansion-reamers
Extension head for planers
External and internal thread-gages
Extra heads on planers
Feed, automatic chuck and roller on turret lathe
Feed-clutches on the lathe
Feed, cone-of-gears, mounted
Feed-disk for planer
Feed
Feed-gearing in cross-head of planer
,
miller
shaper
Feed-mechanism of lathes
Feed of drills, rate of
Feeds, rate of, for lathe-work
Fellow's gear-shaper
File-brush and file-card
190-191
158-159
83, 92, 156, 350, 401
356
for miller
490
198-199
254-293
440
307
243
136
362
17-18
363
453
356-359
401-402
366
149, 156, 159, 161-162
93, 94, 124
173
458-461
51
INDEX
542
PAGE
and corresponding names
should not be lifted on return-strokes
File sections
44-46
File
curving for special work
dead-smooth for extra fine finish
distinction between the terms double-cut and second-cut
efficiency of hand-cut
59
57
55
56-57
54
52
57-58
58
67
58
59
48
52
49
49
50-51
57
52
48
49
general classification
44-45
grades and names
grasping
increment-cut versus hand-cut
most used in machine-shop
49-50
49
Filing a rectangular recess
broad surfaces
curved surfaces
changing direction of strokes of
moisture causes glazing
Filing lathe-work
danger of clothing being caught
dangerous without file-handle
Filing,
,
speed of the work
which new files should not be used
with respect to shape
coarse and bastard, used on heavy and coarse work
convexity increases the "bite"
compensates for rocking motion.
Files, care, of, cases in
classification
,
,
cross-filing
,
,
and draw-filing
47
52
51-52
46
pinning, prevention of
pitch of teeth varies with length of
51
safe edge
stub and holder
57
44
tang and heel, meaning of
uses of hand, pillar, mill, equalling, and round
Finishing a
Flat drills
flat
54
118
Floating-shank reamer
Force fits
Former, use of, for machining curved shapes
Forming tools in screw-machines
Friction-disk
52-5
surface
mechanism
for feeding milling-machine table
355
509-510
277, 379-382
205
402
17
Gage, adjustable limit
,
15-16
24-25
caliper
decimal
jobber's drill
23
micrometer, inside
13
13
depth
the Edison wire
,
24
theory of
thread and center
thread-pitch
18
U.
19
S.
standard thread
18,
283-285
INDEX
wire and twist-drill
wood- and machine-screw.
5,
543
20-24
.
24
16
23
23
."
I
Gages, collar and plug
distinction between. Stubs' wfre and Stubs' steel wire
drill and Stubs' steel wire
,
external and internal thread
limit..
to prevent wasting time
17
16-17
28
24
29
20
513
514
515
458
412
172
413-415
455-457
382
439-444, 447-451
442, 450
163-164
461-466
458-461
440-441, 450-451
279-283
440
83-84, 92
for confusion in use of wire
seasoning steel for caliper and collar and plug
surface
table of wire
remedy
twist-drill
wood- and machine-screws
Gang-cutters for gear-teeth
Gang
milling
Gap-lathe
Gas-engine frame, milling a
Gear-cutter, Gould and Eberhardt automatic
.'
Gear-cutting on planer and shaper
miller
,
care as to lost motion of screws
Geared-head lathes
Gleason
,
Gear-shaper, Fellow's
Gears, bevel, cutters for
change, computing
circular pitch of
,
sliding-key
lathe
163
triple, for
Gear-tooth cutters, selecting
Geometric screw-cutting die-head
439, 440-441, 450-451
Glazing of emery-wheels
Graver made of square file
Grinder, combined
,
drill
and surface
draw-in chuck for
floor, with surface attachment
portable
Grinders for lathe- and planer-tools
Grinding attachments for lathes
planer and shaper
ends of collars and bushings
,
parallel shafts
tapers
work, economy of
roughing and finishing cuts lathe dispensed with
Grinding-machine for reamers, milling cutters, etc
Grinding-machine, plain
,
surface
universal
205
490
67
486
482-483
486-487
489
468-470
384, 489
384-385
481
477-479
480-481
476
476, 484
470-471
471. 473
484-185
471-475
INDEX
544
PAGE
491
Grinding, causes of chattering in
disk
481-482
483-484
internal
use of water in cylindrical
.valves
and
joints
work-speed and rate of wheel- traverse
Hack-saw
Hammer, peen
of
Hammers, common forms
31
soft
35
30
weight of
Hand-lathes
Hardening
cast iron
reamers
metal, drilling
Hermaphrodite caliper
Hexagon-head bolts, diameter of stock for
High-speed attachment for drilling-machines
steel
Hobs, hobbing worm-wheels
Holding work on planer by pins and stops
Hollow spindle, advantage of, in lathes
Horizontal boring- and drilling-machines
Ideal condition of lathe-centers
Inch-turns, meaning of
Indicator, bath
Index centers, plain
,
compound
differential
mechanism
of
Gould
&
Eberhardt gear-cutter
simple
Interchangeable system of manufacturing
Internal grinding
Involute system of cutters
,
cylinder-heads
steam-chest cover
Jig-making, an excellent example of
leaving space between bushing and work
,
Jigs
as used on planer and miller
importance of, for interchangeable
special drill
and reamer sockets
for
30
146
519
144
124
6, 230
520
103-104
123, 173, 453
445-447
373-374
175
328-340
224
279
245, 268
444
430-431
431-434
457
430
496
483-484
439
501
501
Jig for drilling ball-handles
drilling tail-stock clamp-levers
32
31
30
of
Indexing,
73
the handles of
material of
fitting
Hard
490
31
two blows for one with the
proper method of using the
striking
491
507
work
496-497
497
497-501
504
496-504
502-503
496
499-500
INDEX
Key-drift
545
PAGE
42
Key -seating attachment
for upright* drill
machines
Key-seat rule
Key-seats and key-fitting
Keyways, milling
Knurling-tools
Lands
of dies
.>
300
Lapping centers
Laps and lapping
Lathe, advantage
396
395-396
24-25
394-395
416-417
262-263
135, 136, 253
506-507
176
175
advantages of hollow spindle
148, 165-166, 260-262, 286
compound rest of
172-173
cutting speeds of the
147-149
engine, general description with names of details
173
feeds of the
172
for turning locomotive driving-wheels
172
,gap
172, 173-175
increasing the swing of, meaning of word swing
173
instrument for measuring cutting speed of the
of offset tail-stock
'
'
171
pit
primitive form of the
pulley
purchasing a
reverse gears under head stock
screw-cutting mechanism of
steel
special, for high-speed
testing alinement of a
tool-room
triple gear
use of screw as feed-rod
Lathe- and work-centers
Lathe-bed easily twisted
Lathe-centers, grinder for
importance of keeping them true
shaping the point to lessen grinding
taper
of,
angle of point
Lathe change-gears, mounted
Lathe mandrels or arbors
Lathe slide-rest
Lathes, analysis of back gear of
,
bevel-gear reverse in apron of
classification of
elevating tool-rest for
feed-clutches of
feed-mechanism of
geared head
hand
open-side tool-rest for
145-146
170-171
175
151
149
164-165
176-177
172
163
149
224-232
176
226
225-227
226
224-225
156-158
246-253
146
159-161
158-159
145
167
158
149
163-164
146-147
167
INDEX
546
PAGE
165
Lathes, plain rest for
,
165
161-162
raise-and-fall rest for
spur-gear reversing mechanism of
taper attachment for. . K.
170
168
three-tool shafting-rest for
turret, see Turret machines.
208-223
233-245
254-293
Lathe-tools (see also Tools)
Lathe-work, driving of
, engine
Lead
of threads,
278
223
meaning
Lubricants for turning and drilling
Machine nomenclature
Machine, nut-tapping
Machines, drilling
,
key-seating
Machining a
collar
flanged cylinder
small crank
Magnetic chucks
Mandrels, lathe (see also Arbors)
Measuring-machine, Sweet's
the Pratt and Whitney
Metre, the national prototype
value in English measure
Metric and fractional threads, computing change gears for
Metric system, when legalized by Congress
Micrometer calipers
504-505
313
74-111
394-396
254
338
269
485
246-253
11
13
large
gage, inside
13
202
436-437
454
hollow
straddle
Miller arbors, instruction for use of
attachments, see Attachments.
centers, blocking
up
for large
work
on
dividing head
feed-gearing.
holding work on, without special fixtures
Miller, boring
.....
open side
planer-type
plain
use of chucks on the
vertical,
vertical.
Milling-cutters,
,
work
.
.........
....
........
on.
computing change-gears for cutting
direction of rotation
9-13
10-11
383, 437
13
screw-thread caliper
282
282
13
depth gage
disks and measurements
Mill,
2
2,
..,....
.
...
spirals
443-444
417
424, 428-430
401-402
417-418
404
404, 405
402-404
439
413-419
405-407
434-436
451-453
INDEX
547
PAGE
Milling-cutters, feed of
,
work to
form
453
4.
407, 410
.'"
438-439
436-437
dove tail slot
415-416
413-415
gas-engine frame
447-450
gear-teeth, bevel-gears
common method theoretically incorrect for bevel-gears 450-451
precautions as to lost motion or back-lash of feed-screws 442, 450
443-444
special method for large gears
441-443
spur-gears
445-447
worm-gears
416-417
keyways
420
"-***
parallel pieces of different widths with same cutters
Milling abrupt angles
bolts and nuts.
&
. .
7.
451
417
412, 458
407-411
rack-teeth
emergency
gang
Milling,
,
slab
412-413
415
437-438
398-400
420-421
407
397-454
130, 224, 349
slot
steel castings
taper, special dog for
Milling-machine driving-gear
vises
Milling-machines and planers compared
Milling-machines, work, etc
Morse
tapers.
National prototype metre.
Nomenclature, system of machine
,
twist drill
Nut-tapping machine
Oil-tube
finish
2
504
112
313
121
drills
Open-side miller
planer
Ornamental
>
with emery and stick
Paper weight, turning a
Parallel blocks, adjustable
Peen, meaning of
Peening a connecting-rod strap
Peening, enlarging piston-ring by
straightening shafts by
.
Pin-drift
Pins for holding shaper and planer work
Pipe, nominal and actual diameter of
Pipe-threads, tap-drill sizes for.
Piston-ring chuck
Pitch of gear-teeth
thread, meaning of
404
362
65
271-272
375-376
31
34-35
35
33-34
42
373-374
296
516
243
440
278
INDEX
548
PAGE
171
Pit-lathes.
Planer and shaper, difference between
364
387
385
Planer-bed, testing of
Planer-table, care of
,
movement
of
tools
359-361
376-377
217-219, 376
372-384
375
356-358
356-359
382
356
362
361-362
370-371
372
362-363
363-364
361, 362
371
372-373
377-388
379-382
380-382
382-383
375
211, 214, 215, 217-219,
,
backward
offset of, to
prevent chattering
work
Planer, blocking up
feed-disk of
work on the
'
feed-gearing in cross-head of
gear-cutting on
general description
open-side
second belt-drive for
swiveling the tool-slide and tool-apron of
Planers, adjusting the cross-rail
extension-head for
extra heads for.
,
ratio of table reverse
tool-lifter for
vises for
'.
Planing curved work
irregular forms
,
shape of work not a duplicate of former
rack teeth
Planing, precaution as to pressure of straps
Pliers
73
Polishing-
and
buffing-lathe
Polishing brass, steel, nickel, etc
Polishing-clamps
Polishing in the lathe
Polishing materials, crocus, rouge, pumice, emery, etc
Polishing, ornamental, with emery and stick
Polishing-wheels, brush, wooden, walrus, rag, grease, etc
,
speed of
Presses, arbor
Protecting finished
work from set-screw of lathe-dog
on drilling-machine
thread in screw-cutting
Protractor, universal bevel
Pulleys, balancing of
Questions on the text
Quick return of drill-spindle
planer-table
shaper-ram
Rack-teeth, planing
Rake of brass tools
lathe tools.
492
493-495
58-59
58
494-495
65
493-495
495
253
234
106
234-235
26
511-512
521-534
84, 89
361, 362
367
382-383
222
.219
INDEX
549
PAGE
Reamers
132-144
and
,
drills
compared
>
adjustable
allowance for wear and stoning
blanks, turning off decarbonized surface
body clearance of
not milled to extreme edge
causes of chattering of
chucking
considerations governing
definition
eccentric relief
expansion
floating
hand
and
number
of cutting-edges
classification of
and
flat relief
shank
hardening of
lapping centers of
miscellaneous
135
143
143
135
134
140
140
object of unequally spacing teeth
resetting rose and fluted
rose and fluted, compared
solid fluted
133
special sockets for
499
spiral
standard, allowance for cutting
tables of cutters for
taper of rose and fluted
tapering
to sharpen
Receipts for hardening, case-hardening, annealing, etc
Renold silent chain
,
compound
elevating-tool
follower
open-side tool
plain
raise-and-fall
slide
steady
355
132-133, 136, 139-140
144
roughing taper
shapes of cutting edges of
shell and arbors for
Rest,
132
136
143
144
142
142
142
132, 137
140
132
142
138
three-tool shafting
Riveting, special method for large pins
Rotating tool-holder
,
Rule, hook
134-135
133
133, 134
141
133-134
139
520
519-520
343
148, 165, 166, 260-262, 286
167
268-269
167
165
165
146
231, 267
168
32-33
393
3
key-seat
Rules, wood and steel
24-25
Scraper, double end
61-62
INDEX
550
Scraper, causes of chattering in using
63,
not economical
for interior curves
grasping the
grinding and oil-stoning the
cheap
63-64
62
61, 67
62
hooked form of
ornamental work with
precautions against drawing temper in grinding the
wasting time in use of the
special
typical
form
of, for
broad surfaces
,
dangerous without handles
Screw-cutting, see Thread-cutting.
Screws, compensating for errors in
dog
.'
Setting calipers
thread-tools for straight and taper
,
,
work
concave attachment for
convex attachment for
crank
cutting gears on
driving-gear of crank
feed-gearing of
Fellow's gear
geared
quick return in the crank
ram movement on geared, and crank
ram, motion of
of the
, stroke adjustment
for
, surface-grinding attachment
swiveling the tool-slide and tool-apron of the
traverse
tool-lifter for
vises for
work on
12
13
Shaper
,
65-67
67
234-235
for
Screw-thread micrometer caliper
Screw-threads, taps, dies, etc
Seasoning steel used for gages
63
62-63
63
64
61
Scrapers, use of, in lathe-work.
66
61
steel
work, pins for holding
variable-speed gearing for
Shrink fits, allowance for
Single and double threads
,
Slab-milling
Slide, cross, for turret-lathe
Slide-rest of lathe
Sliding-key gears
Slot-milling
Slott ing-attachment for milling-machines
294-314
29
8, 238
283-284
364-372
378
379
364-367
382
366
366
458-461
368
367
368
367
367
385-386
370-371
368-369
371-372
372-373
372
373-374
368-370
508-510
278-279
407-411
146
146
92
412-413
423
INDEX
551
PAGE
Slotting-machine, general description.
portable
^
388-
389-391
388
393
388
391-393
388-389
143
432
292
455-466
172
123
489-490
453
434
421
ram movement
of
rotary tool-holder for
table movement of
tools
work
Spacing cutting-edges of reamers
numbers used with dividing head
of multiple threads
Special-gear machines
Speed for cutting in the lathe
'.
of drills
emery-wheels
milling-cutters
computing change-gears for cutting
miller attachment for wide angle
Square, combination
Spirals,
26
25
machinists' try
Square-head bolts, diameter of stock for
Standard set of lathe-tools
Standards of length
Star-feed
520
208
1-2
mechanism
319, 322
Starting the hole in drilling
104
Steady rest
Steel, annealing
,
231, 267
seasoning
'.
tempering
Steam-engine cylinders, boring
,
reboring on engine-bed
Straddle mill
Straight-edge, definition of
Straightening a cast-iron bar
by dropping process
peening
screw-press
Stubs' gages, distinction between Stubs' wire and Stubs' steel-wire gages
Surface-gages
Surface-plate, design and care of
object of, description
using the
,
173-175
95
V and U.
machine-screw gage diameters
Table of Morse tapers
tap-drill diameters for machine-screws
pipe
61
95
Suspension drilling-machines
Swing, meaning of, as applied to lathes
Table, tilting, for radial drill
Table of constants for diameter at root of
304
29
307
315-317
325
436
60
34
34
33
33
23
20
60
60
S.
standard threads
519
515
130
517
51S
INDEX
552
PAGE
Table of tap-drill diameters for U.
standard screws
V threads
twist-drill gage diameters
wire gages
Tail-stock, adjusting for taper work
Taper attachments, errors in graduation
518
516
514
513
263-264, 266
265
265
263-265
258-263
206-207
284
S.
shaft, fitting to collar
turning by taper attachment
examples of
on the flat turret-lathe
Tapering screws, setting thread-tool for
Tap, making a taper
lever or wrench
303-306
308
308
308
306
298
306
297-298
Tapping holes
steel, lard-oil
and graphite
for
off
Taps, backing
,
bottoming
grooving
machinist's
machine
298, 299
298, 299
pipe
plug
pulley
relieving
hand
297
298, 299
by etching
,
stay-bolt
taper
307
307
298, 300
297
307
305, 306
fluid
%
'
tempering
threading
19
Templets
Threading large work
Threads, acme
pipe
,
screw,
single
some practical considerations concerning.
and double
square
U. S. standard and V
variations from U. S. standard
Whitworth
Thread-cutting, catching the threads
for
, computing change-gears
in the engine-lathe
principles of
turret-machines.
,
left-hand
. .
worm
precautions in connection with
spacing multiple thread^
square threads
stop-gage for
theoretical difficulties
'.
308-309
295
296-297
294-296
278-279
295
294-295
296
294
289
279-283
278-293
278
204
290
285-286
292-293
287-289
286-287
291
INDEX
553
PAGE
Thread-cutting, use of
compound
rest for
Thread-calipers
'. .
fc
Thread-gage
Thread-pitch gage
286
6
18, 283
v
.
18
-*
Thread-tool and holder
,
Rivett-Dock holder
Thread-tools, setting
side clearance
of, for
square thread
215
215-217
283-284, 285
291-292
Tool, knurling
262, 263
Tool-holder plan
Tool-lifter for planer
212-219
Tools, advantage of
backward
371
217-219
208
200-201
220-221
211-212
200-207
214-215
468
217-218
211-215, 376
214
219-222
391
219
205
210-211
282
offset in planer
a standard set for lathe and their names
box
changing height changes rake
for brass
turret-lathes
,
gang-planer.
grinder for
.'
multiple-edge
planer
with angular adjustment
rake and clearance of lathe
,
slotting-machine
spring, for lathe-work
turret-forming
uses of various lathe
Translating-gear, use of, in thread-cutting
Turning angular face of bevel-gear without
compound
273-277
178-179
182-183
distinguishing features
turret-lathe
flat
automatic chuck and
cross-slide
roller feed
191
die-carriage
improved design
taper-turner and former
Gisholt chucking-lathe
hollow hexagon lathe
monitor lathe
tools for
work done with forming-tools
Turrets used on engine-lathes
Universal back-rest for grinding-machine
,
178
186-191
190-191
190
examples of work done on the improved machine
261
rest
curved shapes
Turret-machines, a plain screw-machine
automatic screw-machine
198
191-198
207
183-185
185-186
183
200-207
205
198-199
480
340
boring-machine
chucks.
239
INDEX
554
PAGE
Universal dividers
5-6
grinding-machine and work
471, 473-484
94-95
radial drill
107, 374, 413, 416, 418
blocks
V's,
drawn
tool-steel for lathes
174
294
507
242
368
343, 344, 352, 353
405, 418
8
V threads
Valve and joint grinding
Valve-chucks
Variable-speed shaper-gear
Vertical boringmiller
and
turning-mills, examples of
work
Vernier calipers
graduations on micrometer calipers
Vise, combination pipe
for taper work (swivel jaw)
quick-acting
shaper and planer
10
solid
box
70
69
70
372-373
68
universal
71
Vise-clamps and mold for making lead clamps
Vise-jaws with detachable faces
72
71
hand and pin
Vises,
height of
holding screws in
milling-machine
parallel
and
71
50
72-73
420-421
69
parallel -swivel.
Water-anneal
Weight
of castings in relation to pattern
cubic inch of various metals
Work, protecting
finished
pins for holding shaper
Worm, cutting left-hand
,
Worm-wheel, construction
Worm-wheels
and planer
of dividing
its value defined by Congress in metres
the British Imperial
Yard-stick, composition of
superseded by National Prototype Metre
304
520
520
106, 234-235
373
287
458
445
2
Yard, the,
Zero position of cutter in milling gear-teeth
dial-pointer in milling gear-teeth
^ OF THE
UNIVERSITY
T
OF
1
'.
442
442
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Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis
Arnold's Compendium of Chemistry.
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Ende.)
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Modern High Explosives
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50
50
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Fowler's Sewage
Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (Wells.)
Manual of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. Part I. Descriptive.
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in
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3 o
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50
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Hind's Inorganic Chemistry
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Keep's Cast Iron
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Assaying
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for
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Examination of Water. (Chemical and Bacteriological.)
Matthew's The Textile Fibres
Meyer's Determination of Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.).
Miller's
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Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry
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The Alkaloids and
their
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Pinner's Introduction to Organic Chemistry.
Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels
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Elements of Physical Chemistry
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Vol. I
Large 8vo,
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8vo,
12 mo,
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Chemistry. Part Two.
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* Richards and Williams's The Dietary Computer
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Ricketts and Russell's Skeleton Notes upon inorganic Chemistry.
(Part I.
Non-metallic Elements.)
8vo, morocco,
Ricketts and Miller's Notes on Assaying
8vo, 3
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Sewage and the Bacterial Purificat'on of Sewage
Disinfection and the Preservation of Food
Rigg's Elementary Manual for'the Chemical Laboratory
Rideal's
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Serum Diagnosis.
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8vo,
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Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions
Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish
Salkowski's Physiological and Pathological Chemistry.
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Schimpf's Text-book of Volumetric Analysis
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Essentials of Volumetric Analysis
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i6mo, mcrccco,
Spencer's Handbook for Chemists of Beet-sugar Houses
Handbook for Sugar Manufacturers and their Chemists. i6mo, morocco,
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Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils
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Treadwell's Qualitative Analysis.
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Quantitative Analysis.
(Hall.)
Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies
Van
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Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners.
(Boltwood.)
Walke's Lectures on Explosives.
Washington's Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks
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*
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oo
oo
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(Bol-
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Text-book of Chemical Arithmetic. (In press.)
Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water
Wilson's Cyanide Processes
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Chlorination Process
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CIVIL ENGINEERING.
BRIDGES AND ROOFS. HYDRAULICS. MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
3 oo
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** Burr's Ancient and Modern Engineering and the Isthmian Canal.
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Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables
Engineering for Land Drainage
Farm Drainage
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Fiebeger's Treatise on Civil Engineering.
Folwell's Sewerage.
(Designing and Maintenance. 1
2d Edition, Rewritten
Freitag's Architectural Engineering.
French and Ives's Stereotomy
Goodhue's Municipal Improvements
Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse
Gore's Elements of Geodesy
Hayford's Text-book of Geodetic Astronorry
Bering's Ready Reference Tables (Conversion Factors')
Elliott's
Practical
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8vo,
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i2mo,
25
i
i
i
50
oo
50
oo
3 oo
8vo,
8vo,
8vo,
50
I2rro,
75
8vo,
8vo,
&vo,
i6mo, morocco
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3 50
2
50
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2
50
Howe's Retaining Walls for Earth
Johnson's (J. B.) Theory and Practice
i2mo,
Small 8vo,
of Surveying
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Johnson's (L. J.) Statics by Algebraic and Graphic Methods
Laplace's Philosophical Essay on Probabilities. (Truscott and Emory.) 12010,
Mahan's Treatise on Civil Engineering. (1873.) (Wood.)
8vo,
*
8vo,
Descriptive Geometry
Merriman's Elements of Precise Surveying and Geodesy
8vo,
.
Elements of Sanitary Engineering
Merriman and Brooks's Handbook
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for Surveyors
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Nugent's Plane Surveying
Ogden's Sewer Design
8vo,
i2mo,
Patton's Treatise on Civil Engineering
Reed's Topographical Drawing and Sketching
Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage
Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone-cutting and Masonry
Smith's Manual of Topographical Drawing.
(McMillan.)
8vo half leather,
i 25
4 oo
2 oo
2 oo
5 oo
50
50
2 oo
2 oo
2
3 50
2 oo
4to,
7 50
5 oo
8vo,
3 50
8vo,
50
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Sondericker's Graphic Statics, with Applications to Trusses, Beams, and Arches.
8vo,
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Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced
2 50
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Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence
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6 oo
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Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in Engineering and Architecture
8vo,
Law
Sheep,
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Warren's Stereotomy Problems in Stone-cutting
8vo,
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8vo,
Elementary Course of Civil Engineering
Wilson's Topographic Surveying
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5 oo
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2 50
25
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BRIDGES AND ROOFS.
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*
Thames River
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Bridge
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oo
5 oo
Burr's Course on the Stresses in Bridges and Roof Trusses, Arched Ribs, and
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8vo,
Burr and Falk's Influence Lines for Bridge and Roof Computations.
8vo,
3 50
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.
Du
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Vol. II
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Arches in Wood, Iron, and Stone
Howe's Treatise on Arches
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8vo,
8vo,
2 50
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Part II. Graphic Statics
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Part HI. Bridge Design
8vo, 2 50
Part IV. Higher Structures
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Morison's Memphis Bridge
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^
Waddell's De Pontibus, a Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers. i6mo, morocco, 3 oo
i2mo, i 25
Specifications for Steel Bridges
Wood's Treatise on the Theory of the Construction of Bridges and Roofs 8vo, 2 c >
.
Wright's Designing of Draw-spans:
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Part II. Riveted-truss and Pin-connected Long-span Draws
Two
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8vo,
2 50
8vo,
2 50
8vo,
3 50
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of the Liquid Vein Issuing from
8vo,
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Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics
v
Church's Mechanics of Engineering. . .
8vo,
payer,
Diagrams of Mean Velocity of Wats* in Open Channels
Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems
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Flather's Dynamometers, and the Measurement of Power
i2mo,
Bazin's Experiments
an
upon the Contraction
Orifice.
'.
Formula
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Uniform Flow
of
6 oo
i
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2 50
Frizell's
Water-filtration Works
Ganguillet and Kutter's General
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50
50
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4 oo
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Hazen's Filtration of Public Water-supply
Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Water- works
50
in
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8vo,
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Mason's Water-supply. (Considered Principally from a Sanitary Standpoint.)
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Water-supply of the City of New York from 1658 to 1895
Wilson's Irrigation Engineering
Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover
Wood's Turbines
Elements of Analytical Mechanics
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8vo, 3 oo
8vo, 2 50
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5 oo
5 oo
MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING.
Baker's Treatise on Masonry Construction
Roads and Pavements
'.
3vo,
Black's United States Public Works
Oblong 4to>
8vo,
Bovey's Strength of Materials and Theory of Structures
Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of the Materials of Engineering
8vo,
8vo,
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Inspection of the Materials and Workmanship Employed in Construction.
8vo,
8vo,
2 50
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7 50
8vo,
7 50
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iietcalf's Steel.
A Manual
8vo,
Small 4to,
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*
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Richardson's Modern Asphalt Pavements
Richey's Handbook for Superintendents of Construction
Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France
12 mo,
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i oo
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Patton's Practical Treatise on Foundations
..
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6 oo
7 50
6 oo
3 50
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Church's Mechanics of Engineering
Du Bois's Mechanics of Engineering. VoL I
Johnson's Materials of Construction
Fowler's Ordinary Foundations
Keep's Cast Iron
Lanza's Applied Mechanics
Marten's Handbook on Testing Materials. (Henning.)
Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration
Merriman's Text-book on the Mechanics of Materials
Strength of Materials
7 go
oo
5 oo
8vo, 3 oo
lomo, mor., 4 oo
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Sabin's Industrial and Artistic Technology of Paints and Varnish
8vo,
Smith's Materials of Machines
I2mo,
Snow's Principal Species of Wood
Spalding's Hydraulic Cement
Text-book on Roads and Pavements
Taylor and Thompson's Treatise on Concrete, Plain and Reinforced
8vo,
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Thurston's Materials of Engineering. 3 Parts
Part I. Non-metallic Materials of Engineering and Metallurgy
Part II. Iron and Steel
Part III. A Treatise on Brasses, Bronzes, and Other Alloys and
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Thurston's Text-book of the Materials of Construction
Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials
Waddell's De Pontibus. ( A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers.). i6mo,
.
Specifications for Stc. 1 Bridges
Wood's (De V.) Treatise on the Resistance of Materials,
the Preservation of Timber
Wood's (De V.) Elements of Analytical Mechanics
Wood's (M. P.) Rustless Coatings: Corrosion and
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8vo,
8vo,
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8vo,
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3 oo
i
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8vo,
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RAILWAY ENGINEERING.
Andrew's Handbook for Street Railway Engineers
Berg's Buildings and Structures of American Railroads
3x5 inches, morocco,
4to,
Brook's Handbook of Street Railroad Location
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