INTEGRALS

5.3
The Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus
Monday, February 8, 2010
In this section, we will learn about:
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
and its significance.
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

(FTC) is appropriately named.

 It establishes a connection between the two

branches of calculus—differential calculus and
integral calculus.
FTC

Differential calculus arose from the tangent

problem.

Integral calculus arose from a seemingly

unrelated problem—the area problem.
FTC

Newton’s mentor at Cambridge, Isaac Barrow

(1630–1677), discovered that these two
problems are actually closely related.

 In fact, he realized that differentiation and

integration are inverse processes.
FTC

The FTC gives the precise inverse

relationship between the derivative
and the integral.
FTC

It was Newton and Leibniz who exploited this

relationship and used it to develop calculus
into a systematic mathematical method.

 In particular, they saw that the FTC enabled them

to compute areas and integrals very easily without
having to compute them as limits of sums—as we did
in Sections 5.1 and 5.2
FTC Equation 1
The first part of the FTC deals with functions
defined by an equation of the form
x
g ( x)   f (t ) dt
a

where f is a continuous function on [a, b]

and x varies between a and b.
FTC
x
g ( x)   f (t ) dt
a

 Observe that g depends only on x, which appears

as the variable upper limit in the integral.

x
 If x is a fixed number, then the integral
is a definite number.

a
f (t ) dt

x

 If we then let x vary, the number a f (t ) dt
also varies and defines a function of x denoted by g(x).
FTC

If f happens to be a positive function, then g(x)

can be interpreted as the area under the graph
of f from a to x, where x can vary from a to b.

 Think of g as the
‘area so far’ function,
as seen here.
FTC Example 1
If f is the function
whose graph is shown
x
and g ( x)  
0
f (t ) dt ,
find the values of:
g(0), g(1), g(2), g(3),
g(4), and g(5).

 Then, sketch a rough graph of g.

FTC Example 1

First, we notice that:

0
g (0)   f (t ) dt  0
0
FTC Example 1

From the figure, we see that g(1) is

the area of a triangle:
1
g (1)   f (t ) dt
0

 (1 2)
1
2

1
FTC Example 1
To find g(2), we add to g(1) the area of
a rectangle:
2
g (2)   f (t ) dt
0
1 2
  f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt
0 1

 1  (1 2)
3
FTC Example 1
We estimate that the area under f from 2 to 3
is about 1.3.
3
So, g (3)  g (2)   f (t ) dt
2

 3  1.3
 4.3
FTC Example 1

For t > 3, f(t) is negative.

So, we start subtracting areas, as

follows.
FTC Example 1
Thus,
4
g (4)  g (3)   f (t ) dt  4.3  (1.3)  3.0
3
5
g (5)  g (4)   f (t ) dt  3  (1.3)  1.7
4
FTC Example 1

We use these values to sketch the graph

of g.
 Notice that, because f(t)
is positive for t < 3,
we keep adding area
for t < 3.
 So, g is increasing up to
x = 3, where it attains
a maximum value.
 For x > 3, g decreases
because f(t) is negative.
FTC

Notice that g’(x) = x, that is, g’ = f.

 In other words, if g is defined as the integral of f

by Equation 1, g turns out to be an antiderivative
of f—at least in this case.
FTC

If we sketch the derivative

of the function g, as in the
first figure, by estimating
slopes of tangents, we get
a graph like that of f in the
second figure.

 So, we suspect that g’ = f

in Example 1 too.
FTC

To see why this might be generally true, we

consider a continuous function f with f(x) ≥ 0.
x

 Then, g ( x)  a f (t )dt can be interpreted as
the area under the graph of f from a to x.
FTC

To compute g’(x) from the definition of

derivative, we first observe that, for h > 0,
g(x + h) – g(x) is obtained by subtracting
areas.

 It is the area
under the graph
of f from x to x + h
(the gold area).
FTC

For small h, you can see that this area is

approximately equal to the area of the
rectangle with height f(x) and width h:
g ( x  h)  g ( x)  hf ( x)
So, g ( x  h)  g ( x)
h
 f ( x)
FTC

Intuitively, we therefore expect that:

g ( x  h)  g ( x )
g '( x)  lim  f ( x)
h 0 h

 The fact that this is true, even when f is not

necessarily positive, is the first part of the FTC
(FTC1).
FTC1

If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function g

defined by
x
g ( x)   f (t )dt a xb
a

is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on

(a, b), and g’(x) = f(x).
FTC1

In words, the FTC1 says that the derivative

of a definite integral with respect to its upper
limit is the integrand evaluated at the upper
limit.
FTC1 Equation 5
Using Leibniz notation for derivatives, we can
write the FTC1 as d x

dx a
f (t )dt  f ( x)

when f is continuous.

 Roughly speaking, Equation 5 says that,

if we first integrate f and then differentiate
the result, we get back to the original function f.
FTC1 Example 2

Find the derivative of the function

x
g ( x)   1  t dt
2
0

 As f (t )  1  t 2 is continuous, the FTC1 gives:

g '( x)  1  x 2
FRESNEL FUNCTION Example 3

For instance, consider the Fresnel function

x
S ( x)   sin( t / 2) dt
2
0

 It is named after the French physicist Augustin Fresnel

(1788–1827), famous for his works in optics.
 It first appeared in Fresnel’s theory of the diffraction
of light waves.
 More recently, it has been applied to the design
of highways.
FRESNEL FUNCTION Example 3

The FTC1 tells us how to differentiate

the Fresnel function:
S’(x) = sin(πx2/2)

 This means that we can apply all the methods

of differential calculus to analyze S.
FTC1 Example 4
d x4
Find

dx 1
sec t dt

 Here, we have to be careful to use the Chain Rule

in conjunction with the FTC1.
FTC1 Example 4
Let u = x4.
Then,
d x4 d u

dx 1
sec t dt   sec t dt
dx 1
 
d u
du 1 
sec t dt
du
dx
(Chain Rule)

du
 sec u (FTC1)
dx
 sec( x )  4 x
4 3
FTC1

In Section 5.2, we computed integrals from

the definition as a limit of Riemann sums
and saw that this procedure is sometimes
long and difficult.

 The second part of the FTC (FTC2), which follows

easily from the first part, provides us with a much
simpler method for the evaluation of integrals.
FTC2

If f is continuous on [a, b], then

b
a
f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a)

where F is any antiderivative of f,

that is, a function such that F’ = f.
FTC2

The FTC2 states that, if we know an

antiderivative F of f, then we can evaluate
b
a
f ( x)dx simply by subtracting the values
of F at the endpoints of the interval [a, b].
FTC2

If v(t) is the velocity of an object and s(t)

is its position at time t, then v(t) = s’(t).

So, s is an antiderivative of v.
FTC2 Example 5
1

3
Evaluate the integral x dx
2

 The function f(x) = x3 is continuous on [-2, 1]

and we know from Section 4.9 that an antiderivative
is F(x) = ¼x4.
1
 x dx  F (1)  F (2)
3
 So, the FTC2 gives:
2

 1   2 
1 4 1 4
4 4

  154
FTC2

We often use the notation

F ( x)]  F (b)  F (a)
b
a

So, the equation of the FTC2 can be written

as: b
 f ( x)dx  F ( x)] where F '  f
b
a a

b b
 Other common notations are F ( x) | and [ F ( x)]a .
a
FTC2 Example 6

Find the area under the parabola y = x2

from 0 to 1.

 An antiderivative of f(x) = x2 is F(x) = (1/3)x3.

 The required area is found using the FTC2:
1
1 x  13
3
03
1
A   x dx     
2
0 3 0 3 3 3
FTC2 Example 7

Find the area under the cosine curve

from 0 to b, where 0 ≤ b ≤ π/2.

 Since an antiderivative of f(x) = cos x is

F(x) = sin x, we have:

A   cos x dx  sin x 0
b b
0

 sin b  sin 0
 sin b
FTC2 Example 7

In particular, taking b = π/2, we have

proved that the area under the cosine curve
from 0 to π/2 is sin(π/2) =1.
FTC2

If we didn’t have the benefit of the FTC,

we would have to compute a difficult limit
of sums using either:

 Obscure trigonometric identities

 A computer algebra system (CAS), as in Section 5.1

FTC2 Example 8

What is wrong with this calculation?

3
3 1 x 
1
1 4
1 x 2
dx  
1  1
 
3
 1  
3
FTC2 Example 9
To start, we notice that the calculation must
be wrong because the answer is negative
but f(x) = 1/x2 ≥ 0 and Property 6 of integrals
b
says that

a
f ( x)dx  0 when f ≥ 0.
FTC2 Example 9

The FTC applies to continuous functions.

 It can’t be applied here because f(x) = 1/x2

is not continuous on [-1, 3].

 In fact, f has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0.

3 1
 So,  2
dx does not exist.
1 x
FTC

Suppose f is continuous on [a, b].

x
1.If g ( x) 
a
f (t ) dt , then g’(x) = f(x).

b
2.

a
f ( x) dx  F (b)  F (a) , where F is
any antiderivative of f, that is, F’ = f.
INVERSE PROCESSES

We noted that the FTC1 can be rewritten

as:
d x

dx a
f (t ) dt  f ( x )

 This says that, if f is integrated and then

the result is differentiated, we arrive back
at the original function f.
INVERSE PROCESSES

As F’(x) = f(x), the FTC2 can be rewritten

as:
b
a
F '( x) dx  F (b)  F (a)

 This version says that, if we take a function F,

first differentiate it, and then integrate the result,
we arrive back at the original function F.

 However, it’s in the form F(b) - F(a).

SUMMARY

The FTC is unquestionably the most

important theorem in calculus.

 Indeed, it ranks as one of the great

accomplishments of the human mind.
SUMMARY

Before it was discovered—from the time

of Eudoxus and Archimedes to that of Galileo
and Fermat—problems of finding areas,
volumes, and lengths of curves were so
difficult that only a genius could meet
the challenge.
SUMMARY

Now, armed with the systematic method

that Newton and Leibniz fashioned out of
the theorem, we will see in the chapters to
come that these challenging problems are
accessible to all of us.