Definition & History

Piezoelectricity - Definition and History

Piezoelectricity (from: pressure electricity) is a property of certain classes of crystalline materials
including natural crystals of Quartz, Rochelle Salt and Tourmaline plus manufactured ceramics
such as Barium Titanate and Lead Zirconate Titanates (PZT).
When mechanical pressure is applied to one of these materials, the crystalline structure
produces a voltage proportional to the pressure. Conversely, when an electric field is applied,
the structure changes shape producing dimensional changes in the material.
The piezoelectric materials from Morgan Electro Ceramics use polycrystalline ceramics instead
of natural piezoelectric crystals. These are more versatile with physical, chemical and
piezoelectric characteristics able to be tailored to specific applications. The hard, dense
ceramics can be manufactured in almost any given shape or size. They are chemically inert,
and immune to moisture and other atmospheric conditions.
Morgan Electroceramic, as part of a group which is a world leader in Advanced Ceramics, has
piezoelectric R&D and manufacturing facilities in Southampton, England; Ruabon, Wales and
Bedford, Ohio.
Historical Note:
The Piezoelectric effect was discovered by
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) in the early 1880's.

Piezoelectric Actions

Piezoelectric Actions
The piezoelectric effect for a given item depends on the type of piezoelectric material and the
mechanical and electrical axes of operation can be precisely orientated within the shape of the
ceramic. These axes are set during "poling"; the process that induces piezoelectric properties in
the ceramic. The orientation of the dc poling field determines the orientation of the mechanical
and electrical axes.
The poling field can be applied so the ceramic exhibits piezoelectric responses in various
directions or combination of directions.
The poling process permanently changes the dimensions of a ceramic element. The dimension
between the poling electrodes increases and the dimensions parallel to the electrodes
decrease. The effect is shown in the fig 1, albeit greatly exaggerated.

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Axes
Piezoelectric materials are anisotropic - their electrical, mechanical, and electromechanical
properties differ for electrical or mechanical excitation along different directions. Thus for
systematic tabulation of properties, we require a standardized means for identifying directions.
Where crystals are concerned, we use the orthogonal axes originally assigned by
crystallographers. However, we identify the axes by numerals:
1 corresponds to x axis,
2 corresponds to y axis,
3 corresponds to z axis.
Piezoelectric ceramics are isotropic and are not piezoelectric before poling. Once they are
polarized, however, they become anisotropic. The direction of the poling field is identified as the
3 direction. In the plane perpendicular to the 3 axis, the ceramics are non directional.
Accordingly, the 1 and 2 axes may be arbitrarily located but, of course, they must be
perpendicular to each other.

Piezoelectric Voltage
Piezoelectric Voltage - Static Actions
After the poling process is complete, a voltage lower than the poling voltage changes the
dimensions of the ceramic for as long as the voltage is applied.
A voltage with the same polarity as the poling voltage causes additional expansion along the
poling axis and contraction perpendicular to the poling axis (fig. 2). A voltage with the opposite
polarity has the opposite effect: contraction along the poling axis, and expansion perpendicular

to the poling axis. In both cases, the ceramic element returns to its poled dimensions when the
voltage is removed from the electrodes. These effects are shown greatly exaggerated in fig. 2.

Piezoelectric Voltage
After the poling process is complete, compressive and tensile forces applied to the ceramic
element generate a voltage. Refer to fig. 3. A voltage with the same polarity as the poling
voltage results from a compressive force (a) applied parallel to the poling axis, or from a tensile
force (b) applied perpendicular to the poling axis. A voltage with the opposite polarity results
from a tensile force (c) applied parallel to the poling axis, or from a compressive force (d)
applied perpendicular to the poling axis.

The instances above can also be arranged to occur in the other two planes, i.e. thickness shear
and face shear.

Generally two or more of these actions are present simultaneously. In some cases one type of
expansion is accompanied by another type of contraction which compensate each other
resulting in no change of volume. For example, the expansion of length of a plate may be
compensated by a n equal contraction of width or thickness. In some materials, however, the
compensating effects are not of equal magnitude and net volume change does occur. In all
cases, the deformations are very small when amplification by mechanical resonance is not
involved. The maximum displacements are on the order of a few microinches.
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Vibrations & Displacements

Piezoelectric Ceramic Vibrations & Displacements
Piezoelectric Ceramic Vibrations & Displacements
When the crystalline structure of a material has no centre of symmetry, it is
noncentrosymmetric. A single crystal with this structure has anisotropic
characteristics: the properties of the material differ according to the direction of
measurement. Piezoelectricity is an anisotropic characteristic. The noncentrosymmetric crystalline structure provides a net electric dipole moment within
the crystal unit cell. Any dipoles aligned in the same direction will arrange
themselves into regions called domains.
Piezoelectric ceramics are ferroelectric materials. These materials have
noncentrosymmetric unit cells below a certain temperature and a centrosymmetric
structure above that temperature. That temperature is the Curie temperature.
Above the Curie temperature, these ceramics have a centrosymmetric structure and
have no piezoelectric characteristics. Below the Curie temperature, these ceramics
have a noncentrosymmetric structure.
A ceramic material is composed of many randomly oriented crystals or grains, each
having one or a few domains. With the dipoles randomly oriented, the material is
isotropic and does not exhibit the piezoelectric effect. By applying electrodes and a

strong d.c. electric field, the dipoles will tend to align themselves parallel to the
field, so that the material will have a permanent (or remanent) polarization. Refer
to Figure 5. Not as many domains can align their dipoles in ceramic materials as in
single crystals, but enough do so that the material will become piezoelectric. After
poling, the material has a remanent polarization (Pr) and remanent stress (Sr) as
shown in Figures 6A and B.

Fig 5 Poling

Unpoled

Poled

Fig 6 Hysteresis

Fig 6A

Fig 6B

As this "poled" ceramic is subjected to stress, the crystal lattice or grains distort
causing some of the domains to grow at the expense of others. This changes the
total dipole moment of the material. Within a certain range of stress, this change of
dipole moment with stress gives rise to piezoelectric property (and its converse)
can be used practically, because the material's response is nearly linear.

Dynamic Performance

Dynamic Performance
Dynamic Performance

Dynamic performance relates to the behaviour of a material when subjected to

alternating fields or stresses at frequencies close to the mechanical resonance of a
component. Piezoelectric transducers may be approximately represented by the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 7. The mechanical resonance of the device is
represented by L1, C1, and R1 . Since it is a dielectric with electrodes it also has an
electrical capacitance C2.

It is this parallel combination of C2 with L1, C1, and R1 that dictates the reactance
of the transducer, which varies with frequency as shown in Figure 8.
The graph shows the curve decreasing to a minimum impedance, at a frequency fm
followed by a sharp increase to a maximum at fn These two frequencies are the
resonance and anti-resonance respectively. The performance of a transducer will
have a maximum response at a point which lies between these points.

Circuit Considerations

Circuit Considerations
Circuit Considerations
To obtain optimum performance from a piezoelectric device, the circuit to which it is
connected must have certain characteristics which are dictated by the design of the
device. In discussing this subject, it is convenient to divide piezoelectric devices into
two broad categories non-resonant devices and resonant devices. Non resonant
devices are so named because they are designed to operate well below resonance,
or over a relatively large frequency range, usually several octaves. A resonant
device either operates at its mechanical resonance or over a band of less than one
octave around this resonance.
Circuit Considerations - Non-Resonant Mechanically Driven Devices

For most practical circuit design purposes, a non-resonant piezoelectric generator

device, such as a microphone or accelerometer, together with the load on the
device, may be represented by the equivalent circuit of Fig 9A,

where Ce represents the capacitance of the piezo-electric element, Rc is the shunt

leakage resistance of the device, CL is the shunt load capacitance, RL represents
the load resistance and eL represents the load potential.
The values of the shunt leakage resistance and the capacitance of the piezoelectric
element are dependent on the dimensions of the element and, in the case of
leakage resistance, also upon the dryness of the surface. Under normal operating
conditions ,the value of this resistance is many times greater than the normal load
resistance, ranging from several hundred megohms to many thousands of
megohms. Generally, except at very low frequencies, the capacitances in the circuit
have reactances very much lower than the circuit resistances. Under these
conditions, the circuit reduces to the simple capacitive voltage divider circuit (Fig
9B).

It can be seen from this circuit that the shunt load capacitance (CL) of wiring,
cable, and amplifier input does not bring about a relative loss of high frequency
response as in the case of resistive or inductive sources shunted by capacitance
loads, but instead reduces the output at all frequencies (except very low
frequencies as discussed in the next paragraph).
By the application of elementary network theory, the basic circuit can be reduced to
the equivalent circuit of Fig 9C which is useful for analyzing the low frequency
response. From this it can be seen that when the combined reactance of the
piezoelectric and circuit capacitances in parallel approaches the combined
resistance, the low frequency response begins to fall off. This is analogous to the
situation existing in conventional RC-coupled amplifiers.

Circuit Considerations - Non-Resonant Electrically Driven Devices

In the case of non-resonant piezoelectric devices which are electrically driven, the
electrical impedance of the device may, for most practical purposes, be considered
to be purely capacitive. For all frequencies well below the first mechanical
resonance of the device, the electromechanical relationships are such that the
displacement of the piezo electric element from its normal position, at any instant,
is directly proportional to the electric charge applied at that instant.

Resonant Devices

Circuit Considerations - Resonant Devices

The electrical impedance of a piezoelectric device is in reality more complicated
than the simple capacitor representation generally employed in discussing non
resonant devices. A more proper representation would be a capacitor representing
the static capacitance of the piezo electric element, shunted by an impedance
representing the mechanical vibrating system. In most non resonant devices, the
latter impedance may be approximated by a capacitor. Therefore, we have a
capacitor in parallel with a capacitor- hence the single capacitor representation.
In devices designed for operation at resonance, the impedance representing the
mechanical system may become, at resonance, a resistance of relatively low value
and this is shunted by the same static capacitance.
The shunt static capacitance generally is undesirable, whether the device is
designed for operation at resonance or for broadband, below resonance operation.
ln electrically driven devices, it shunts the driving amplifier or other signal source
requiring that the source be capable of supplying extra current. In the case of
mechanically driven devices, the static capacitance acts as a load on the active part
of the transducer, reducing the electrical output.
In non-resonant devices, not much can be done about the shunt capacitance,
except choose a piezoelectric material having maximum activity. In resonant
devices, however, the static capacitance may be "neutralized " by employing a
shunt or series inductor chosen to resonate with the static capacitance at the
operating frequency. This is illustrated in Figure 10.

fig10 resonant device with static capacitance neutralized by inductor

Typical Shapes

Typical Arrangements
Unimorph
The magnitude of piezoelectric forces, actions and voltages is relatively small. The
maximum extension of a single element is in the order of fractions of a micron.
Amplification is often required and can be achieved by various arrangements of the
piezo ceramic such as Unimorph, Bimorph and Stacks.
A Unimorph is made by bonding a thin piece of piezo ceramic to an inactive
substrate. Driving the piezo-ceramic will lead to deformation of the entire structure.
Transducer Products Division has expertise in making various high specification
Unimorphs for Hydrophones, Sensors and Actuators

Bimorphs
A Bimorph is made by bonding two pieces of piezo-ceramic together so that
differential changes in length of the two pieces can produce relatively large
movements. This element consists of two transverse expander plates secured
together face to face in such a manner that a voltage applied to the electrodes
causes the plates to deform in opposite directions, resulting in a bending action.
The displacement of the Bimorph in response to an applied voltage is many times
greater than the corresponding displacement of a single plate, typically in excess of
10m per volt. Thus Bimorphs have, in effect, 'built-in' levers to provide or require
much greater motion but less force than single plates.

Actuator Stacks
Stacks are several piezoelectric elements connected mechanically in series and
electrically in parallel. The displacement of each transducer element adds to the
total displacement. The displacement of the whole stack assembly is equal to the
sum of the individual displacements. Stacks are generally required for applications
requiring large displacements (typically between 5 and 180m).

Sandwich Transducers
It is difficult to make single blocks of ceramic resonating below about 100 KHz.
Instead a composite half wave resonator is used consisting of two or more piezoceramic rings sandwiched between metal layers.

This arrangement can achieve low frequencies at high drive levels.

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Symbols & Notation

Symbols & Notation

The piezoelectric properties are described by a system of symbols and
notations, identifying compliance, electromechanical coupling, etc.
The tables include the MKS units used in measuring each property.
Also see the later section on Units & Symbols for a complete listing.

Ceramic Property Definitions

Property Definition

MKS Units

Electro Mechanical Coupling Coefficient

or...
-

Piezoelectric Constants

m/V
d
C/N

V -m/ N
g
m2 / C
Relative Dielectric Constant

Modulus of Elasticity

Nm-2

Y
Density

kg/m3
Frequency Constant

Controlling Dimension x Resonant Frequency

Hz m

Superscript and subscript notations describe the characteristics of a property.

The next table illustrates and explains several examples of annotated symbols.
The superscripts describe external factors (physical mounting, electrical
conditions, etc.) that effect the piezoelectric property. The subscripts describe
the relationship of the property to the poling axis.
The characteristics of piezoelectric properties depend on their orientation to the
poling axis. This orientation determines the direction of the action or response

associated with the property. The subscript notations define the axes of a
component in terms of orthogonal axes: 1 corresponds to the x-axis, 2
corresponds to the y-axis, and 3 corresponds to the z-axis. Conventionally, the
direction of polarization is defined as the 3 axis. (See below)

(4, 5 and 6 refer to shear strains)

The first subscript position identifies the direction of the action; the second
identifies the direction of the response. For example, refer to the piezoelectric
"d " constant in the following table. The first subscript refers to the direction of
the field and the second refers to the direction of the strain. For the converse
piezoelectric constant "g", the first refers to the stress and the second to the
voltage.

indicates that compliance is measured with electrode circuit open

indicates that stress or strain is in direction 1
indicates that strain or stress is in direction 1
Compliance = strain / stress

indicates that compliance is measured with electrodes connected

together
indicates that stress or strain is in shear around axis 3
indicates that strain or stress is in direction 3
Compliance = strain / stress

indicates that all stresses on material are constant; for example zero
external forces
indicates that electrodes are perpendicular to axis 1

Relative dielectric constant =

indicates that all stresses on material are constant; for example material
completely blocked preventing deformation in any direction
indicates that electrodes are perpendicular to axis 3

Relative dielectric constant =

indicates that stress or strain is in shear around axis 2

indicates that electrodes are perpendicular to axis 1
Electromechanical coupling

Planar, used only for thin discs. It indicates electrodes perpendicular to

axis 3 and stress or strain equal in all directions perpendicular to axis 3.

Electromechanical coupling

indicates that the piezoelectric induced strain, or the applied stress, is in direction
3

indicates that electrodes are perpendicular to axis 3

strain
applied stress

short circuit charge / electrode area

applied stress

Indicates that stress is applied equally in 1, 2 and 3 directions (hydrostatic stress;

and that electrodes are perpendicular to axis 3)

short circuit charge / electrode area

applied stress

indicates that the applied stress or piezoelectric induced strain is in direction 1

indicates that electrodes are perpendicular to axis 3
field
applied stress

strain
applied charge / electrode area

indicates that the applied stress or piezoelectric induced strain is in shear

form around axis 2
indicates that electrodes are perpendicular to axis 1
field
applied stress

strain
applied charge / electrode area

Typical Properties
Equivalent DoD Navy Type I
Parameter

Symbol

General Material Designations

KT33
Dissipation Factor

Unit
4
1115 1435
0.004

Qm

500 - 600

Density

kg/m3

7600

Curie Temperature

320

Coupling
Coefficients

kp

0.580

k31

-0.340

Piezoelectric
Charge Constants

d33

x10-12C/N or m/V

290

d31

x10-12C/N or m/V

-125

Piezoelectric
Voltage Constants

g33

x10-3Vm/N

24.6

g31

x10-3Vm/N

-10.6

Frequency Constant

Np

Hz.m

2220

Elastic Constants
Short Circuit

SE11

SEx10-12m2/N

12.4

YE11

SEx10-12m2/N

8.1

Elastic Constants
Open Circuit

SD11

SDx10-12m2/N

11.0

YD11

SDx10-12m2/N

9.1

High Field Dielectric

Properties
(200kV/m)

KT33

<7.0

High Field Dielectric

Properties
(400kV/m)

KT33

DF

<0.02

DF

<20.0
<0.0

Volume Resistivity @
25C

ohm.m

>1010

Volume Resistivity @
100C

ohm.m

>108.5

Volume Resistivity @

ohm.m

>105.5

200C

Time Constant @
25C

>100

Time Constant @
100C

>5

Time Constant @
200C

>0.07

KT33

% / time decade

-4.6

kp

% / time decade

-1.7

d33

% / time decade

-3.4

Aging Rates & Time

Stability

Np

1.0

Temperature Stability

% change in KT33from 0
- 50C

8.0

Equivalent DoD Navy Type II

Parameter

Symbol

Unit

General Material Designations

KT33

1770

Dissipation Factor

0.02
Qm

75

Density

kg/m3

7800

Curie Temperature

365

Coupling Coefficients

kp

0.600

k31

-0.343

Piezoelectric
Charge Constants

d33

x10-12C/N or m/V

400

d31

x10-12C/N or m/V

-177

Piezoelectric

g33

x10-3Vm/N

25.2

Voltage Constants

g31

x10-3Vm/N

-11.1

Frequency Constant

Np

Hz.m

1980

Elastic Constants Short

Circuit

SE11

SEx10-12m2/N

10.1

YE11

SEx10-12m2/N

6.2

Elastic Constants Open

Circuit

SD11

SDx10-12m2/N

14.2

YD11

SDx10-12m2/N

7.1

High Field Dielectric

Properties (200kV/m)

KT33

12.5

High Field Dielectric

Properties (400kV/m)

KT33

DF

0.0238

DF

26.1
0.0551

Volume Resistivity@ 25C

ohm.m

>1012

Volume Resistivity@ 100C

ohm.m

>1011

Volume Resistivity@ 200C

ohm.m

>1010

Time Constant @ 25C

Time Constant @ 100C

Time Constant @ 200C

Aging Rates & Time

Stability

KT33

% / time decade

-1.0

kp

% / time decade

-1.7

d33

% / time decade

-3.4

Np

Temperature Stability

0.2

% change in
KT33 from 0 - 50C

11.3

Equivalent DoD Navy Type III

Parameter

Symbo
l

Unit

General Material Designations

KT33

980 1180

Dissipation Factor

0.002
Qm

900 1600

Density

kg/m3

>7500

Curie Temperature

>300

Coupling
Coefficients

kp

>0.52
0

k31

-0.350

Piezoelectric
Charge Constants

d33

x10-12C/N or m/V

300

d31

x10-12C/N or m/V

-127

Piezoelectric
Voltage Constants

g33

x10-3Vm/N

28.8

g31

x10-3Vm/N

-12.2

Frequency Constant

Np

Hz.m

2170

Elastic Constants Short

Circuit

SE11

SEx10-12m2/N

12.8

YE11

SEx10-12m2/N

7.8

Elastic Constants Open

Circuit

SD11

SDx10-12m2/N

11.3

YD11

SDx10-12m2/N

8.9

High Field Dielectric

Properties (200kV/m)

KT33

1.9

DF

High Field Dielectric

Properties (400kV/m)

KT33

DF

Volume Resistivity @
25C

ohm.m

>1012

Volume Resistivity @
100C

ohm.m

>108

Volume Resistivity @
200C

ohm.m

>106

Time Constant @ 25C

>100

Time Constant @ 100C

>2

Time Constant @ 200C

>0.01

KT33

% / time decade

-4.0

kp

% / time decade

-2.1

d33

% / time decade

-6.3

Aging Rates & Time

Stability

Np

Temperature Stability

1.0

% change in KT33from 0 50C

10.4

Equivalent DoD Navy Type V

Parameter

Symbo
l

General Material Designations

KT33
Dissipation Factor

Unit
5J
2650
0.020

Qm

71

Density

kg/m3

>760
0

Curie Temperature

>250

Coupling
Coefficients

kp

0.635

k31

0.375

Piezoelectric
Charge Constants

d33

x10-12C/N or m/V

530

d31

x10-12C/N or m/V

-230

Piezoelectric
Voltage Constants

g33

x10-3Vm/N

22.6

g31

x10-3Vm/N

-9.8

Frequency Constant

Np

Hz.m

1965

Elastic Constants Short

Circuit

SE11

SEx10-12m2/N

16.0

YE11

SEx10-12m2/N

6.2

Elastic Constants Open

Circuit

SD11

SDx10-12m2/N

13.8

YD11

SDx10-12m2/N

7.3

High Field Dielectric

Properties (200kV/m)

KT33

High Field Dielectric

Properties (400kV/m)

KT33

DF

DF

Volume Resistivity @
25C

ohm.m

Volume Resistivity @
100C

ohm.m

Volume Resistivity @
200C

ohm.m

Time Constant @ 25C

Time Constant @ 100C

Time Constant @ 200C

Aging Rates & Time

Stability

KT33

% / time decade

-1.1

kp

% / time decade

-0.3

d33

% / time decade

-4.0

Np

Temperature Stability

0.2

% change in KT33from 0 50C

24.1

Equivalent DoD Navy Type VI

Parameter

Symbo
l

Unit

General Material Designations

5H

KT33

3300

Dissipation Factor

0.021
Qm

67

Density

kg/m3

7500

Curie Temperature

195

Coupling
Coefficients

kp

0.635

k31

0.375

Piezoelectric
Charge Constants

d33

x10-12C/N or m/V

618

d31

x10-12C/N or m/V

-264

Piezoelectric
Voltage Constants

g33

x10-3Vm/N

21.2

g31

x10-3Vm/N

-8.9

Frequency Constant

Np

Hz.m

1963

Elastic Constants Short

Circuit

SE11

SEx10-12m2/N

16.9

YE11

SEx10-12m2/N

5.9

Elastic Constants Open

Circuit

SD11

SDx10-12m2/N

14.5

YD11

SDx10-12m2/N

6.9

High Field Dielectric

Properties (200kV/m)

KT33

High Field Dielectric

Properties (400kV/m)

KT33

DF

DF

Volume Resistivity @
25C

ohm.m

>1011

Volume Resistivity @
100C

ohm.m

>1011

Volume Resistivity @
200C

ohm.m

>1010

Time Constant @ 25C

>200
0

Time Constant @ 100C

>200
0

Time Constant @ 200C

>100
0

% / time decade

-0.6

Aging Rates & Time

KT33

Stability

kp

% / time decade

-0.2

d33

% / time decade

-3.9

Np

Temperature Stability

0.3

% change in KT33from 0 50C

30.7

Custom Materials
Parameter

Symbol

Unit

General Material Designations

KT33
Dissipation Factor
Qm

PZT 5B

PZT 5R

PZT 5M

PZT 5K

PZT 7A

PZT 7D

PT2 / PC6

5B

5R

5M

5K

7A

7D

PT

2350

2000

4015

5500

410

1300

218

0.020

0.020

0.028

0.023

0.025

0.005

0.022

80

80

45

61

580

600

1150

Density

kg/m3

7900

7900

7700

7900

7900

7800

6900

Curie
Temperature

330

350

150

160

350

325

238

Coupling
Coefficients

kp

0.640

0.630

0.630

0.650

0.510

0.510

kt=0.510

k31

-0.380

-0.385

-0.370

-0.380

-0.300

-0.300

-0.030

Piezoelectric
Charge
Constants

d33

x10-12C/N or
m/V

530

480

650

775

154

240

67

d31

x10-12C/N or
m/V

-210

-200

-270

-323

-60

-112

-3

Piezoelectric
Voltage
Constants

g33

x10-3Vm/N

25.5

27.1

20.0

18.6

41.3

21.0

34.8

g31

x10-3Vm/N

-10.1

-11.5

-7.6

-6.9

-16.2

-9.6

-2.1

Frequency
Constant

Np

Hz.m

2015

1950

2025

1945

2380

2265

2856

Elastic Constants
Short Circuit

SE11

SEx10-12m2/N

14.7

15.7

15.0

16.0

10.6

11.8

7.5

YE11

SEx10-12m2/N

6.8

6.4

6.7

6.3

9.4

8.5

13.4

Elastic Constants
Open Circuit

SD11

SDx10-12m2/N

12.6

13.3

12.9

13.8

9.7

10.7

7.4

YD11

SDx10-12m2/N

7.9

7.5

7.8

7.3

10.4

9.4

13.5

High Field
Dielectric
Properties
(200kV/m)

KT33

High Field
Dielectric
Properties
(400kV/m)

KT33

-0.9

DF

0.016

-1.0

DF

0.016

Volume
Resistivity @ 25C

ohm.m

>1011

>109

Volume
Resistivity @
100C

ohm.m

>1011

>108

Volume

ohm.m

>1010

>106.5

>1010

Resistivity @
200C

Time Constant @
25C

>2000

>10

Time Constant @
100C

>1800

>0.5

Time Constant @
200C

>250

>0.03

Aging
Rates &
Time
Stability

KT33

%/
time
decade

-0.3

3.6

0.06

0.03

-2.3

kp

%/
time
decade

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.00
6

k t=1.
7

d33

%/
time
decade

-3.0

3.1

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.05

0.02

15.6

16.
3

18.1

11.3

Np

Temperatur
e Stability

%
change
in
KT33 fro
m050C

Back to top...

Typical Thermal Effects

Pyroelectric effects, in 10-6 coul/cm2 (10-2coul/m2C)
Temp C

PZT4D

PZT5A

PZT5A

1st Heating

First Heating

Subsequent
Heatings

-196

-0.02

-0.02

-80

-0.025

-0.03

-0.02

-60

-0.025

-0.03

-0.02

-0.025

-0.04

-0.02

30

-0.028

-0.06

-0.02

60

-0.026

-0.07

-0.02

80

-0.025

-0.09

-0.02

100

(a)

-0.11

-0.02

200

(a)

-0.17

-0.04

300

(a)

-0.23

-0.09

0.2

(a) Above about 80C the pyroelectric effect is masked by anomalous dielectric
charges.

Thermal Expansion Coefficient ( in 10-6 /C)

Poled PZT5A
1st Heating
C

1st Heating

Subsequent
Heatings

Subsequent
Heatings

+1.5

+2

+1

+4

50

+1.5

+2

+1.4

+4

100

+6

-6

+2

+3

150

+6

-7

+2.7

+1

200

+5

-7

+3.3

-1.6

250

+4.2

-6

+3.9

-4.2

1st Heating

Subsequent
Heatings

Subsequent
Heatings

Poled PZT4D
1st Heating
C

+1.5

+0.1

+3.8

+1.7

50

+4.5

-0.1

+3.8

+1.7

100

+5.8

-6

+3.8

-1

150

+6.4

-6

+3.8

-1.4

200

+5.4

-6.1

+3.4

-2.4

250
Virgin Unpoled
PZT5A

PZT4D

+2.5

+2.0

50

+2.1

+1.8

100

+2.0

+1.5

150

+1.8

+1.1

200

+1.5

+1.0

250

+1.0

+0.3

300

+0.7

0.0

350

-3.0

+6.2

400

+5.0

+7.8

500

+8.2

+8.2

As noted above, thermal expansion of PZT4D and PZT5A is extremely

anisotropic only on first heating, and on first heating only above about 50C
Heat Capacity

PZT,

approx 420 joules/kgC (138 joulesC mole)

Thermal Conductivity

PZT,

approx 1.8W/mC

Typical Responses
g31 vs Temperature

d31 Vs Temperature

Relative Dielectric Constant Vs Temperature

Mechanical Q Vs Temperature

Planar Coupling Factor Vs Temperature

Frequency Constant Vs Temperature

Back to top...
Typical High Signal Properties
PZT4D

PZT5A

PZT8

AC depoling Field

>1.0

0.7

>1.5

AC field for tan =0.04,

25C (a)

0.39

0.45

>1.0

% increase of
electric field

17

11

10

0.33

0.045

n/a

25C

82.7

20.7 or
34.5(c)

82.7

100
C

41.4

20.7

41.4

% change of T33with stress

increase to rated max
compressive stress at 25C (b)

+25%
approx(d)

-3%
approx(d)

+18%
approx(d)

% change of d33 with stress

increase to rated max
compressive stress at 25C (b)

15%
approx(d)

0% at
20.7
-13% at
34.5
approx

+6%(d)

25C

82.7

20.7

82.7

100
C

41.4

20.7

41.4

at above

T
33

AC field for tan =0.04,

100C

Max rated static compressive

stress (maintained) PARALLEL
to polar axis

Max rated compressive stress

(cycled) PARALLEL to polar
axis

Max rated static compressive

stress (maintained)
PERPENDICULAR to polar axis

25C

55.2

13.8

55.2

100
C

27.6

13.8

27.6

% change of T33with stress

increase to rated max
compressive stress at 25C (b)

+10%
approx

-2%

% change of d31 with stress

increase to rated max
compressive stress at 25C (b)

-10%
approx(f)

-10%

Maximum rated hydrostatic

pressure

345

138

345

Compressive Strength

>517

>517

>517

75.8

75.8

75.8

Tensile Strength, Dynamic

(peak) (g)

24.1

27.6

34.5

Mechanical Q at 0MPa

600

75

1000

Mechanical Q at 7MPa

180
approx

25 approx

800

Mechanical Q at 14MPa

110
approx

25 approx

500

% increase in sE11 at 7MPa

1.7
approx

10.5
approx

0.1

% increase in sE11 at 14MPa

3.7
approx

17 approx

0.2

Tensile Strength, Static

(g)

Notes
(a) The value of tan at a given electric field is a function of time after poling
or after any major disturbance such as exposure to an elevated temperature.
(b) After appropriate stabilizing treatment. This consists of a temperature
stabilization plus a few minutes soak at the appropriate static stress. The
temperature stabilization is, however, more important than the stress soak.
(c) The higher figure applies to a receiver, the lower to a radiator. The
recommended use of PZT-5A or PZT-5H is the former.
(d) In range to 70 MPa.
(e) In range to 35 MPa.
(f) The lateral d-constant perpendicular to the stress and polar axis is up about
20%.
(g) These figures are dependent upon configuration and perfection of
fabrication. The static tensile strength figures were obtained from bending tests

on thin "Bimorph" structures,while the dynamic tensile strength figures were

obtained from measurements of high amplitude resonant vibration of rings The
latter tests are more sensitive to minor flaws.
Back to top...
Ageing Rates and Time Stability
Most of the properties of piezoelectric ceramics change gradually with time. The
changes tend to be logarithmic with time after poling. The ageing rate of
various properties depends on the ceramic composition and on the way the
ceramic is processed during manufacture. Because of ageing, exact values of
various properties such as dielectric constant, coupling, and piezoelectric
constants may only be specified for a standard time after poling. The longer the
time period after poling, the more stable the material becomes. The ageing
process in any ceramic can be accelerated by exposing the ceramic to one or
more of the following conditions.
(l ) high mechanical stress
(2) strong electric depoling field
(3) high temperature approaching the Curie point
Material selection should be based on the conditions of a given application.
Some typical ageing rates of various material properties are given in the
following table
Time Stability (percent change per time decade) for some common materials

Property

Material

PZT4D

PZT8

PZT5A

PZT5J

PZT5H

PZT7A

KT33

-4.6

-4.0

-0.9

-1.1

-0.6

+0.06

kp

-2.0

-1.5

-0.1

-0.3

-0.2

0.0

d33

-3.4

-6.3

-2.9

-4.0

-3.9

0.0

Np

+1.2

+0.9

+0.1

+0.2

+0.3

-0.05

Temperature Stability
The performance characteristics of the electric and piezo electric properties are
affected by temperature variations. Each piezoelectric material is affected
differently by temperature changes, according to the method of manufacture
and chemical composition of the material. The changes in the various material
properties with temperature are shown in the following table for all PZT
materials.
Temperature Stability of KT33
Material

%KT33 (%change from 0 - 50C)

PZT-4D

8.8

PZT8

10.4

PZT5A

11.3

PZT5J

24.1

PZT5H

30.7

PZT7A

18.1

Limitations
Limitations
Limitations
Each piezoelectric material has a particular operating limit for temperature, voltage, and
stress. The particular chemical composition of the material determines the limits.
Operating a material outside of these limitations may cause partial or total
depolarization of the material, and a diminishing or loss of piezoelectric properties.
Temperature Limitations
As the operating temperature increases, piezoelectric performance of a material
decreases, until complete and permanent depolarization occurs at the material's Curie
temperature.
The Curie point is the absolute maximum exposure temperature for any piezoelectric
ceramic. Each ceramic has its own Curie point. When the ceramic element is heated
above the Curie point, all piezoelectric properties are lost. In practice, the operating
temperature must be substantially below the Curie point.
The material's temperature limitation decreases with greater continuous operation or
exposure. At elevated temperatures, the ageing process accelerates, piezoelectric
performance decreases and the maximum safe stress level is reduced.
Voltage Limitations
A piezoelectric ceramic can be depolarized by a strong electric field with polarity
opposite to the original poling voltage.
The limit on the field strength is dependent on the type of material, the duration of the
application, and the operating temperature. The typical operating limit is between
500V/mm and 1 000V/mm for continuous application.
It should be noted that alternating fields can have the same affect during the half cycle
which is opposite to the poling direction.

Mechanical Stress Limitations

High mechanical stress can depolarize a piezoelectric ceramic. The limit on the applied
stress is dependent on the type of ceramic material, and duration of the applied stress.
For dynamic stress (impact ignition) the limit is less severe; materials with higher
energy output (high g constant) can be used.
For impact applications, the material behaves quasi statically (non-linear) for pulse
durations of a few milliseconds or more. When the pulse duration approaches a
microsecond, the piezoelectric effect becomes linear, due to the short application time
compared to the relaxation time of the domains.
Power Limitations
The acoustic power handling capacity of a radiating transducer is limited by the
following factors.
(1) Dynamic mechanical strength of the ceramic
(2) Reduction in efficiency due to dielectric losses
(3) Reduction in efficiency due to mechanical losses
(4) Depolarization of the ceramic due to electric field
(5) Depolarization of the ceramic due to temperature rise
(6) Instability resulting from the positive feedback between dielectric losses and internal
heating (2 and 5)
In practice, power limitations are imposed by factors 2 and 5 and the feedback between
them (6). depending on the composition of the ceramic. Factors 1, 3 and 4 may be
neglected. Factor 1 may be reduced through mechanical bias in sonar, ultrasonic, and
other similar applications. Factor 3 may be generally disregarded, since mechanical
losses are negligible compared to dielectric losses. In the case of factor 4, the electric
field necessary to cause sufficient depolarization will create extremely undesirable
operating conditions with very high dielectric losses and resulting low efficiency.
A transducer may be efficiency-limited, temperature limited, or dynamic-strength
limited. Dynamic strength is significant only when the transducer is not mechanically
biased and the ceramic has a high QM A low frequency, low duty transducer is
efficiency-limited. A high frequency continuous duty transducer is temperature-limited.
Temperature limited transducers are dependent on the efficiency of the heat removal
from the ceramic. Between these two extremes, the specific limitation is dependent on
the mechanical design of the transducer. An absolute value on the power limitation of
the ceramic cannot be determined without knowledge of its operating conditions.
The equations pertaining to the power handling capacities of the material may be readily
derived from lumped equivalent circuits. It can be shown that the acoustic power
density P per cubic metre is given by Formula 1.

where k Is equal to k33 for a stack of axially poled rings or plates or k31 for a radialy
poled cylinder. E is the rms electric field, and f, is the resonance frequency.
It is assumed that the mechanical losses in the ceramic and the housing are negligible
compared to dielectric losses. This tends to hold for materials with QM>100 The power

per cubic metre dissipated in the ceramic by dielectric dissipation Pd is given by Formula
2.

Formula 2
where f is the operational frequency.
The efficiency of the transducer
approximated by Formula 3.

considering only the internal losses of the material is

Formula 3
With high values of QM power handling capacity of the material is limited at times by the
dynamic tensile strength, even though a bias compressive stress as high as about 80
MPa is used with PZT-4D. In this case, the acoustic power is given by Formula 4.

Formula 4
where

is the rms stress

These equations may be simplified for the specific case of a matched transducer.
Matching is the term applied to the process of adjusting the acoustic load so that it
corresponds to the image impedance of the transducer, which is treated as a bandpass
filter. In this case, an inductor equal to:

is connected across the transducer. The impedance of the driving electric generator is
set equal to the image impedance in order to maximize the transducer bandwidth,
where the generator resistance, RG and the mechanical load impedance, RT are given
by Formula 5; the bandwidth is given by Formula 6; and the acoustic power and
efficiency are given by Formula 7.

Formula 5

Formula 6
where f1 and f2 are the lower and upper cut-off frequencies
Formula 7

Table 9 lists the relative power for PZT-4D and PZT-5A at resonance for the same
acoustic load for a given volume of material, assuming that the material is limited by
the dielectric losses with Tan = 0.04.
Relative Power for PZT-4D and PZT-5A

Material
PZT-4D
PZT-4D
PZT-4D
PZT-4D
PZT-5A
PZT-5A
PZT-5A
PZT-5A

Mode
Parallel
Parallel
Transverse
Transverse
Parallel
Parallel
Transverse
Transverse

Temp C
25
100
25
100
25
100
25
100

Relative Power
100
65
23
12.5
2.7
3.2
0.5
0.6

Useful Relationships
Useful Relationships
Useful Relationships
Piezoelectric Equations and Constants
To a good approximation, the interaction between the electrical and mechanical
behaviour of the piezoelectric medium can be described by the following relationships:
S = sET + dE
D = dT + TE
E = -gT + ( T)-1D
S = sDT + gD
E = field (Vm-1)
T = Stress (Nm-2)
S = Strain (dimensionless)
D = Dielectric displacement (Cm-2)
and the superscripted permittivity and compliance s denotes the quantity kept
constant under boundary conditions (e.g T is the permittivity under constant stress).
"d" and "g" are piezoelectric constants, related by the general expression:
d=

where:
r = relative permittivity (or dielectric constant)
-12
Fm-1)
o = permittivity of free space ( 8.85x10

The piezoelectric constants are defined as follows:

direct effect
d= charge density developed CN-1
applied mechanical stress

reverse effect
d = strain developed
applied field

mV-1

g= electric field developed

VmN-1 g= strain developed
m2C-1
applied mechanical stress
applied charge density
As well as the above there are other parameters to be considered which characterise a
piezoelectric material; of prime importance are the coupling coefficient, loss factor and
the mechanical quality factor.
The Coupling Coefficient
This parameter determines the efficiency of energy conversion in the component (but
not the overall efficiency of the ceramic as a transducer) and is defined as follows:
(i) For an electrically stressed component
k2 = stored mechanical energy

total stored energy

(ii) For a mechanically stressed component
k2 = stored electrical energy

total stored energy

The derivation of k from critical frequencies is complex and graphical solutions are
generally used to facilitate calculations of k from (fn - fm)/fm. (see IRE Standards on
Piezoelectric Crystals: Measurements of Piezoelectric Ceramics, 1961.)
An approximate solution which depends on the shape of the piece, the mode of vibration
as well as the material and is useful in design is given by:

This expression is often used for thick (1Ot > d) discs and is then called kD.

Dielectric Loss
The efficiency of a transducer depends on the mechanical
and dielectric loss as well as the coupling coefficient. The
dielectric loss is usually the most significant factor and is
the ratio of the effective series resistance to the effective
reactance, or as in the diagram to the right. It is the
tangent of the loss angle

tan

= series resistance

series reactance

Ceramics with a low tan should be employed for

transducers which are to be run continuously at high power
levels.

Mechanical/ Quality Factor Qm

is defined as the ratio of the energy supplied per cycle to
the energy dissipated per cycle and can be calculated from:

where C is the low frequency (1 kHz) capacitance and Zm

the minimum impedance. QM can also be determined
approximately from the frequency response curve as right:
The frequency difference fz - f, is the frequency bandwidth
at about 3dB where the amplitude is 1 /SQR(2) of its
maximum value.

Direction Dependence
Because poled piezoelectric ceramics are anisotropic and the
direction of polarising may be freely chosen, a method of
identifying the axes of a component is necessary in order to
specify its parameters.
The direction of polarisation is conventionally taken as the 3
axis, with axes 1 and 2 perpendicular to this. The terms 4, 5
and 6 refer to shear stains associated with the 1, 2 and 3
directions.
This axis notation is used when specifying mast of the
piezoelectric parameters discussed above.

Permittivity: ij
i - direction of dielectric displacement.
j - direction of electric field.
E.g. 11T is the permittivity for a material whose dielectric
displacement and field are in the 1 direction under

QM =

fr

f2 - f1
(only where Q>3)

conditions of constant stress.

Compliance: sii
i - direction of strain.
j - direction of stress.
E.g. s55D is the shear strain to shear stress ratio at constant
electric displacement, for shear about an axis perpendicular
to the poling direction.

Units & Symbols

Units & Symbols
Values are SI metric.

= Permittivity
= Permittivity of free space (8.85x10-12 Fm-1)
= relative dielectric constant, free
= relative dielectric constant, clamped

0
T
33
S
33

K
K
tan
/QE
kp
k31
k33
k15
kt
d
g
SE
SD
QM
N1

=1

= dissipation factor at 1kHz, low electric field

= planar coupling factor
= transverse or lateral coupling factor
= longitudinal coupling factor
= shear coupling factor
= thickness coupling factor (laterally clamped)
piezoelectric constant, strain/field at constant stress or
=
charge density/stress at constant electric field, 10-12m/V
piezoelectric constant, electric field / applied stress at
= constant charge or strain/charge density at constant
stress, 10-3 Volt metres/Newton
= elastic compliance at constant electric field, 10-12 m2/N
= elastic compliance at constant charge density, 10-12m2/N
mechanical Q. This is dependent upon configuration, and is
=
given here for a thin disc.
= frequency constant of a thin bar, Hz m.

N33
T

frequency constant of a disc or plate poled through

thickness resonating in thickness mode
= density, 103kg/m3
= temperature, C
= thermal expansion
=

Static Operation

Static and Quasi-Static Operation

Under static or quasi-static (below resonance) conditions, the magnitude of the
piezoelectric effect is given by piezoelectric "d" and "g" constants. For the case of the
direct piezoelectric effect where the material develops an electric charge from an
applied stress, the definitions for "d" for constant field and "g" for constant dielectric
displacement should be used. Refer to the table in section 9, Ceramic Property
Definitions. For the converse effect where the material develops a strain from an applied
electric field, the definitions for "d" and "g" for constant stress should be used. These
"d" and "g" coefficients are related by Formula 8 for plates and discs, and Formula 9 for
rods.

Formula 8
(Plates & Discs)

d31 = g31

T
31

Formula 9
(Rods)

d33 = g33

T
33

where

T
33

is the permittivity of the material

The permittivity of the material is related to both the permittivity of free space and the
dielectric constant of the material according to Formula 10.

kT33 =

Formula 10
where kT33 is the relative dielectric constant of the material and
-12
farad/meter).
the permittivity of free space (8.85x10

0 is

T
31

At frequencies far below the mechanical resonance frequency, the electro-mechanical

coupling factor, K, can be calculated by Formula 11 for plates, Formula 12 for discs,
Formula 13 for rods, and Formula 14 for shear plates.

Formula 11
(Plates)

Formula 12
(Discs)

Formula 13
(Rods)
Formula 14
(Shear Plates)
where s is the compliance of the material
The coupling factor is a useful expression relating the amount of energy that can be
changed from the electrical form to the mechanical form, or visa versa, for the different
operational modes. The coupling factor can be expressed as Formula 15.

Formula 15

k2 =

Stored energy converted

Stored input energy

This value, although related, should not be considered the overall efficiency of the
electromechanical transduction, since it does not take into account electrical and
mechanical dissipation or losses. When a transducer is not operating at resonance or if
it is not properly tuned and matched, the efficiency can be quite low. A properly
designed transducer can operate at well over 90% efficiency. The pressure P which a
ceramic driver can impart is given approximately by Formula 16.

Formula 16

P = dEYE11

Dynamic Operation
Dynamic Operation
Under dynamic conditions, the behaviour of the piezoelectric material is much more complex. It can
be characterized in terms of an equivalent electrical circuit which exhibits the conditions of parallel
and series resonance frequencies. To approximate these frequencies, measure the frequency of the
minimum impedance (f,) and maximum impedance (fa) for the component, since they differ by a very
small amount (<0.1%). The coupling coefficient, K, can be derived from these frequencies. This
derivation is somewhat complex as K is dependent on both the shape of the component and the
mode of the vibration. The most useful of these relationships are described in Formula 17 for plates,
Formula 18 for discs, and Formula 19 for rods.

Formula 17
(Plates)
Formula 18
(Discs)

kp2 = (1 - kp2) (Bessel Function)

Formula 19
(Rods)
In addition to the coupling coefficient, the total efficiency of a transducer depends on
the mechanical and dielectric losses. The dielectric losses, tan
, are given by the
dissipation factor, D.F., as described in Formula 20.

Formula 20
Where QE is the electrical damping.

D.F. = tan

= 1/QE

The mechanical losses can be determined from the mechanical quality or damping
factor, QM, from Formula 21.

Formula 21
Where C is the low frequency capacitance and
Zr is the minimum impedance.
QM can also be determined approximately from the frequency response curve as follows:

(only where Q>3)

The frequency difference f2 - f1 is the frequency bandwidth at about 3dB where the
amplitude is 1/SQR(2) of its maximum value.
Of these losses, the dielectric losses are usually the most significant. Therefore it is
recommended that materials with a low dissipation factor be used for high power
applications, particularly since these losses increase with power. For high intensity
transducers, the overall electroacoustical efficiency
is given approximately by
Formula 22.

Formula 22
Where QA is the mechanical quality factor due
to the acoustic load alone.
It should be noted that at high drive levels QE and QM are not constants. They are
usually lower than the low drive level values.
The dielectric permittivity of the material. and therefore the dielectric constant and
capacitance, decreases as the applied frequency (mechanical or electrical) exceeds each
resonant frequency of the particular ceramic part. For static operation, well below the
first resonance frequency, the dielectric permittivity is T33 (free).
For dynamic operation well above all resonance frequencies of the ceramic part, the
material behaves as if it was clamped (strain = 0), and the electric permittivity is
S
33 (clamped). Between each, the permittivity is the product of the static permittivity
and a loss term based on the coupling of the resonance mode each resonance point the
applied frequency has exceeded, as described in Formula 23 (above first resonance),
Formula 24 (above second resonance), and Formula 25 (above third resonance).

Formula 23
(above first resonance)
Formula 24
(above second resonance)
Formula 25
(above third resonance)

T
33

(1 - k12)

T
33

(1 - k12) (1 - k22)

T
33

(1 - k12) (1 - k22) (1 - k32)

where k1, kZ and k3 represent the coupling factors for the particular resonance For a thin
plate, k1 and k2 are k31 and k'31 (length and width, respectively), and k3 is kt (thickness)
For a thin disc, k1 is kp (radial), k2 is Kt (thickness), and there is no third resonance. For
a rod, k1 is k33 (length), k2 is k'p, and there is no third resonance.

In addition to FA and fr (series and parallel resonance frequencies), there is a frequency,

fm at which the transducer's electromechanical transduction is maximized This frequency
represents the maximum sensitivity for receivers or the maximum output for drivers
This frequency, the bandwidth, and the output are all dependent on the external
resistive load, ReX .
When k<<1, fm may be calculated using Formula 26.

Formula 26
Where
fm = FA for (Q<<1, Rex small, short circuit condition)
fm = f for (Q>>1, Rex large, no load condition)

The maximum bandwidth, B, obtainable by electrical tuning, is approximately equal to

the product of the coupling coefficient and the series or parallel resonance frequency.
Refer to Formula 27.

Formula 27

B = kfs,p

If the mechanical quality factor is high (QM>Q), the external Formula 37 resistance
Rex for a fairly flat frequency response can be approximated by Formula 28 for parallel
inductance, or Formula 29 for series inductance.

Formula 28
Formula 29
Many of the calculated parameters above are interrelated Thus, many useful
relationships can be derived A few of the most useful relationships are described in
Formulas 30 through 37.

Formula 30
(Rods)
Formula 31
(Rods)
Formula 32
(Rods)

Formula 33
(Plates)
Formula 34
(Plates)
Formula 35
(Plates)
Formula 36
(Hydrostatic charge constant)
Formula 37

Glossary of Terms

Materials Properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion
Either volumetric or linear this describes the expansion that occurs with a change in temperature.
Volumetric describes the volume change whereas linear describes the change in dimensions.
Dielectric Constant
The relative permittivity of a material. Indicates the ability of a material to store electrical energy when
a voltage is applied to it.
Dielectric Loss
This is the proportion of energy that is dissipated within a dielectric material and lost as heat in an
electrostatic field.
Dielectric Strength
The minimum electric field that produces breakdown of the insulating properties of the dielectric.
Dissipation Factor
The dissipation factor is a measure of the loss of power that takes place in virtually all dielectric
materials, usually in the form of heat. It is expressed as the ratio of the resistive (loss) component of
the current to the capacitive component of current, and is equal to the tangent of the loss angle.
Hermetic Seal
Airtight seal.

Loss Factor
This is the product of the Dielectric Loss and the Dielectric Constant of a dielectric material.
Piezoelectric
When mechanical pressure is applied to one of these materials, the crystalline structure produces a
voltage proportional to the pressure. Conversely, when an electric field is applied, the structure
changes shape producing dimensional changes in the material. The amount of deformation is
proportional to the applied electric field and the d33 coefficient of the material.
Porosity
The proportion of the non-solid volume to the total volume of material.
Materials and products
PZT
a) Piezoelectric Transducer
b) Lead Zirconate Titanate, Pb(Zr,Ti)O3