Energy Systems Engineering Technology

College of Technology
Instrumentation and Control
Module # 7 Temperature Measurement

Document Intent:
The intent of this document is to provide an example of how a subject matter expert might teach
Temperature Measurement. This approach is what Idaho State University College of
Technology is using to teach its Energy Systems Instrumentation and Control curriculum for
Temperature Measurement. The approach is based on a Systematic Approach to Training where
training is developed and delivered in a two step process. This document depicts the two step
approach with knowledge objectives being presented first followed by skill objectives. Step one
teaches essential knowledge objectives to prepare students for the application of that knowledge.
Step two is to let students apply what they have learned with actual hands on experiences in a
controlled laboratory setting.
Examples used are equivalent to equipment and resources available to instructional staff
members at Idaho State University College of Technology.
Temperature Measurement Introduction:
This module covers aspects of temperature measurement as used in process instrumentation and
control. Temperature measurement addresses essential knowledge and skill elements associated
with measuring temperature. Students will be taught the fundamentals of temperature
measurement using classroom instruction, demonstration, and laboratory exercises to
demonstrate knowledge and skill mastery of measuring temperature. Completion of this module
will allow students to demonstrate mastery of knowledge and skill objectives by completing a
series of tasks using calibration/test equipment, temperature indicating, and temperature
transmitting devices.

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References
This document includes knowledge and skill sections with objectives, information, and examples
of how temperature measurement could be taught in a vocational or industry setting. This
document has been developed by Idaho State Universitys College of Technology. Reference
material used includes information from:
1. American Technical Publication Instrumentation, Fourth Edition, by Franklyn W. Kirk,
Thomas A Weedon, and Philip Kirk, ISBN 979-0-8269-3423-9, Chapter 2
2. Department of Energy Fundamentals Handbook, Instrumentation and Control, DOEHDBK-1013/1-92 JUNE 1992, Re-Distributed by http://www.tpub.com

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STEP ONE
Temperature Measurement Course Knowledge Objectives

Knowledge Terminal Objective (KTO):

KTO 1.

Given examples, EVALUATE temperature measurement fundamentals as they

apply to measuring temperature in process control variables to determine
advantages and disadvantages associated with different types of devices used to
indicate, measure, and transmit temperature.

Knowledge Enabling Objectives (KEO):

KEO 1.1.

DEFINE Temperature and its importance as a process variable

KEO 1.2.

DEFINE Heat and how it is measured in the United States

KEO 1.3.

DEFINE Specific Heat as it applies to thermal energy

KEO 1.4.

DEFINE Energy as it applies to temperature

KEO 1.5.

List Six important elements of Temperature, Heat, and Energy

KEO 1.6.

DEFINE Absolute Zero Temperature

KEO 1.7.

DESCRIBE Four commonly used temperature scales, compare their ranges,

applications, and where these scales are used
a.
b.
c.
d.

KEO 1.8.

Fahrenheit ( 0F )
Rankine ( 0R )
Celsius ( 0C )
Kelvin ( 0K )

CONVERT Temperature readings between Fahrenheit, Rankine, Celsius, and

Kelvin temperature scales

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KEO 1.9.

EXPLAIN the need for Reference Temperatures as applicable to industrial

processes and why boiling and freezing temperatures are inadequate to define a
temperature scale

KEO 1.10.

DESCRIBE Heat Transfer as it applies to Thermal Equilibrium

KEO 1.11.

DESCRIBE Heat Conduction

KEO 1.12.

DESCRIBE Heat Convection

KEO 1.13.

DESCRIBE Heat Radiation

KEO 1.14.

DESCRIBE Heat Capacity

KEO 1.15.

DESCRIBE Temperature Response Time

KEO 1.16.

EXPLAIN The Principle of Differential Thermal Expansion

KEO 1.17.

DESCRIBE How Thermal Expansion Thermometers work

KEO 1.18.

EXPLAIN How Bimetallic Thermometers work

KEO 1.19.

EXPLAIN Pressure-Spring Thermometers work

KEO 1.20.

DESCRIBE Temperature Bulb Location considerations Vapor Pressure Bulbs

KEO 1.21.

DESCRIBE The Response Time considerations for Pressure-Spring

Thermometers

KEO 1.22.

DESCRIBE What an Electrical Thermometer is

KEO 1.23.

DESCRIBE What a Thermocouple is and how it is used

KEO 1.24.

DESCRIBE The Seebeck Effect as it pertains to a Thermocouple:

KEO 1.25.

STATE The Law of Intermediate Temperatures

KEO 1.26.

STATE The Law of Intermediate Metals

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KEO 1.27.

LIST The Standard Color Code, Wire Type, Polarity, Maximum Temperature
Range, and uses for the following types of Thermocouples in the United States &
Canada:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

KEO 1.28.

J
K
T
E
N
R
S
B

DESCRIBE A brief description of the following type of Thermocouple

Measurement Circuits:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Difference Thermocouples
Thermopiles
Averaging Thermocouples
Pyrometers

KEO 1.29.

DESCRIBE What a Resistance Temperature Detector is and how it is used

KEO 1.30.

DESCRIBE How the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit us used to measure the

resistance change of an RTD

KEO 1.31.

DESCRIBE A basic overview of a Thermistor and its application

KEO 1.32.

DESCRIBE How a Thermistor can be used as a temperature switch

KEO 1.33.

DESCRIBE The principle of operation of a Semiconductor Thermometer

KEO 1.34.

COMPARE advantages and disadvantages of Thermocouples, Resistance

Temperature Detectors, Thermistors, and Integrated Circuit Sensors.

KEO 1.35.

DESCRIBE The principle of operation of an Infrared Radiation Thermometer

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KEO 1.36.

DESCRIBE Calibration Considerations for Temperature Measuring Instruments

using the following:
a. Dry Well and Mircobath Calibrators
b. Blackbody Calibrators
c. Electronic Calibrators
DOE FUNDAMENTALS OBJECTIVES

KEO 1.37.

STATE three basic functions of temperature detectors

KEO 1.38.

DESCRIBE the two alternate methods of determining temperature when the

normal temperature detection sensing devices are inoperable

KEO 1.39.

STATE two environmental concerns which can affect the accuracy and reliability
of temperature detection instrumentation

KEO 1.40.

Given a simplified schematic diagram of a basic bridge circuit, STATE the

purpose of the following components:
a.
b.
c.
d.

R1 and R2
Rx
Adjustable Resistor
Sensitive Ammeter

KEO 1.41.

DESCRIBE the bridge circuit conditions that create a balanced bridge

KEO 1.42.

Given a block diagram of a basic temperature instrument detection and control

system, STATE the purpose of the following blocks:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Temperature Module

RTD
Bridge Circuit
DC-AC Converter
Amplifier
Balanced Motor/Mechanical Linkage

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KEO 1.43.

DESCRIBE the temperature instrument indication(s) for the following RTD

circuit faults:
a. Short Circuit
b. Open Circuit

KEO 1.44.

EXPLAIN the three methods of bridge circuit compensation for changes in

ambient temperature

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TEMPERATURE MEASURMENT

KEO 1.1.

DEFINE Temperature and its importance as a process variable

The word Temperature indicates the hotness or coldness of a body with reference to some
standard value. The measurement of temperature is probably the most widely measured and
controlled industrial variable. Temperature of a substance is simply a number that tells you how
hot or cold a substance is.
If two bodies are placed in contact with each other, the one that has the higher temperature will
transfer heat to the other. To have meaning, temperature must be measured on a definite scale.
Hotness or coldness is expressed in the units (degrees) of that specific scale.
There are changes in the physical or chemical state of most substances when they are heated or
cooled. This is why temperature is one of the most important of the measured variables
encountered in the industrial environment and the most often measured of all process variables.
Many temperature measurements are involved in heat transfer, boiler operation, Heating
Ventilation Air Condition (HVAC) systems, welding and a host of many other industrial
processes.

KEO 1.2.

DEFINE Heat and how it is measured in the United States

HEAT is energy that flows to a body, causing it to increase in temperature, melt, boil, expand, or
undergo other changes.
When heat flows to a body, the bodys thermal energy increases; this together with pressure
determines the bodys temperature and physical state. For example, assume that heat is added to
water in a container at atmospheric pressure, increasing the waters thermal energy. The
temperature of the water increases until it boils and evaporates to steam, thus changing its state.
If the thermal energy of the same liquid decreases, the temperature drops. If enough thermal
energy is removed, the water changes state again, becoming a solid (ice).
The traditional unit for measuring heat in the United States is the British Thermal Unit (BTU). A
BTU is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1
degree Fahrenheit. The metric unit for measuring heat is the joule (J).
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Adding a fixed quantity of heat raises the temperature of a body or material by a fixed amount as
long as there is no change in the state. In general, you can say that adding heat to a body
increases its thermal energy, resulting in a raise in its temperature.
Temperature change is not only the indication of a change in thermal energy. The nature of the
body or material is also important. Different substances (water and aluminum, for example)
require different quantities of heat to change temperature. A pound of water requires 1 BTU to
change 1 degree Fahrenheit in temperature. A pound of aluminum requires only 0.22 BTU to
change 1 degree Fahrenheit in temperature. Although the temperature of the water and aluminum
change by the same amount, the thermal energy required for each change differs.

SUMMARY

KEO 1.3.

Temperature indicates the hotness or coldness of a body with reference to a standard

value.
Temperature measurement is important to many process variables measured
throughout industry because of changes in the physical or chemical state of most
substances when they are heated or cooled.
Heat is energy that flows to a body, causing it to increase in temperature, melt, boil,
expand, or undergo other changes.
The traditional unit of measuring heat in the United states is the British Thermal Unit
(BTU).

DEFINE Specific Heat as it applies to thermal energy

SPECIFIC HEAT is defined as the ratio of heat required to raise the temperature of a certain
weight of substance 1 degree Fahrenheit (measured under constant pressure). The specific heat of
aluminum is approximately 0.22 as previously mentioned. Every substance has a specific heat
that differs for that of other substances. Thus, at the same temperature, different substances
contain different amounts of thermal energy.
KEO 1.4.

DEFINE Energy as it applies to temperature

Temperature is the degree of intensity of heat measured on a definite scale. Temperature is an

indirect measurement of the heat energy contained in molecules. When molecules have a low
level of energy they are cold, and as energy increases they get warmer. This energy is in the
form of molecular movement or vibration of the molecules.
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KEO 1.5.

List Six important elements of Temperature, Heat, and Energy

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

KEO 1.6.

Temperature Scales
Reference Temperatures
Heat Transfer
Heat Capacity
Response Time
Thermal Expansion

DEFINE Absolute Zero Temperature

ABSOLUTE ZERO is the lowest temperature possible, where there is no molecular movement
and the energy is at a minimum. This condition is the zero point for the absolute temperature
scales.
SUMMARY

KEO 1.7.

Every substance has a specific heat and different substances contain different
amounts of thermal energy.
Energy is in the form of molecular movement of vibration of molecules.
SPECIFIC HEAT is defined as the ratio of heat required to raise the temperature of
a certain weight of substance 1 degree Fahrenheit (measured under constant pressure).
ABSOLUTE ZERO is the lowest temperature possible, where there is no molecular
movement and the energy is at a minimum.

DESCRIBE Four commonly used temperature scales, compare their ranges,

applications, and where these scales are used
a.
b.
c.
d.

KEO1.7.a

Fahrenheit ( 0F )
Rankine ( 0R )
Celsius ( 0C )
Kelvin ( 0K )

The Fahrenheit ( 0F ) temperature scale is the most common temperature scale in

the United States. On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32 0F.
The boiling point of water is 212 0F at standard atmospheric pressure, and there
are 180 degrees between the fixed points.

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KEO1.7.b

The Rankine ( 0R ) temperature scale is the absolute equivalent of the Fahrenheit

temperature scale. The Rankine scale has its zero point at the absolute zero, the
scale divisions are the same as the Fahrenheit scale, and the scales are offset by
459.670.
To convert between Fahrenheit and Rankine temperatures add or subtract 459.67
degrees as follows:
0

F = 0R + 459.67

R = 0F - 459.67

The difference between 671.67 abd 491.67 on the Rankine scale is 180 degrees,
the same difference between 212 and 32 on the Fahrenheit scale.
KEO1.7.c

The Celsius ( 0C ) temperature scale is another temperature scale that is

sometimes used in the United States, but is primarily used in other countries. The
Celsius scale, formerly known as the Centigrade scale, is universally used for
scientific measurements.
On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 00C, the boiling point of water
is 1000C, at standard atmospheric pressure, and there are 100 degrees between the
fixed points.

EO1.7.d

The Kelvin (K) temperature scale is the absolute equivalent of the Celsius scale.
The Kelvin scale has its zero point at absolute zero, the scale divisions are the
same as the Celsius scale, and the scales are offset by 273.15 degrees.
When using the Kelvin scale, the word degree and the degree symbol ( 0 ) are not
used. To convert between Celsius and Kelvin temperatures add or subtract 273.15
degrees as follows:
K = 0C + 273.15
0

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C = K - 273.15

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The following depicts the four different temperature scales used in different applications, but
measurements can be converted from one scale to another:

Figure 2-1 page 27

SUMMARY
Fahrenheit temperature scale is the most common temperature scale used in the
United States.
Rankin temperature scale is the absolute equivalent of the Fahrenheit temperature
scale
Celsius temperature scale is also used in the United States, but is primarily used
universally for scientific measurements
Kelvin temperature scale in the absolute equivalent of the Celsius scale

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KEO 1.8.

CONVERT Temperature readings between Fahrenheit, Rankine, Celsius, and

Kelvin temperature scales

The conversions for temperature scales are depicted below:

Figure 2-2 page 28

KEO 1.9.

EXPLAIN the need for Reference Temperatures as applicable to industrial

processes and why boiling and freezing temperatures are inadequate to define a
temperature scale.

For industrial processes that may involve much lower or higher temperatures, the freezing and
boiling temperatures of water are inadequate to define a temperature scale. For example,
processes like cryogenic gases or molten metals, require many more known fixed points to
define a temperature scale.

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The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), adopted by the International Committee
of Weights and Measures in 1989, uses 17 points to define the Kelvin temperature scale and it
uses the Celsius temperature as depicted below:

Figure 2-3 page 29

The international Temperature Scale of 1990 establishes standards for different temperatures
based on physical properties of pure materials.
The IST-90 also defines the Kelvin as 1 / 237.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple
point of water. The triple point is the condition where all three phases of a substance: Gas,
Liquid, and Solid can coexist in equilibrium. The triple point of water occurs at 32.018 0F and
273.16 K @ 0.08865 psi (611.657 Pascals) pressure.

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The Triple Point of a substance is depicted below:

Figure 2-4 page 29

Two important early ideas about heat were the suggestion that heat is conserved and the
distinction between the quantity and quality of heat. Quality of heat is now called temperature
and the study of temperature s called thermometry. The study of the quantity of heat is called
calorimetry.
SUMMARY
For industrial processes that may involve much lower or higher temperatures, the
freezing and boiling temperatures of water are inadequate to define a temperature
scale.
The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), adopted by the International
Committee of Weights and Measures in 1989, uses 17 points to define the Kelvin
temperature scale and it uses the Celsius temperature scale.
The international Temperature Scale of 1990 establishes standards for different
temperatures based on physical properties of pure materials.
The triple point is the condition where all three phases of a substance: Gas, Liquid,
and Solid can coexist in equilibrium.

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KEO 1.10.

DESCRIBE Heat Transfer as it applies to Thermal Equilibrium

Heat Transfer is the movement of thermal energy from one place to another. When objects are
at the same temperature, they are in thermal equilibrium.
Thermal Equilibrium is the state where objects are at the same temperature and there is no heat
transfer between them. When two substances are at different temperatures, there is heat transfer
from the one with the higher temperature to the substance with the lower temperature until both
are in thermal equilibrium. Heat transfer occurs by: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation as
depicted below:

Figure 2-5 page 30

In the example above, heat transfer occurs through conduction, convection, and radiation in the
operation of a boiler.
SUMMARY
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SUMMARY
Heat Transfer is the movement of thermal energy from one place to another
Thermal Equilibrium is the state where objects are at the same temperature and
there is no heat transfer between them.
Heat transfer occurs by: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation.

KEO 1.11.

DESCRIBE Heat Conduction

Heat Conduction is heat transfer that occurs when molecules in a material are heated and the
heat is passed from molecule to molecule though the material. For example, conduction occurs
when one end of a metal rod is heated in a flame or when metals are welded. The molecules are
heated and move faster.
The faster moving molecules transfer energy though collisions from molecule to molecule across
the metal until they reach the opposite end of the work-piece. Heat is then transferred through
conduction; there is no flow of material.
Conduction also occurs between two different metals that are in direct contact. This process of
heat transfer is the same, but the rate of heat transfer differs depending on the substances.
Gases and liquids are generally poor heat conductors. Iron is a much greater heat conductor than
water. For example, heat is transferred from a boilers heating surface to the boiler water to
produce steam. Heat is then conducted from the hot combustion gases through the metal wall to
the water to produce steam.
The hot side of the metal wall next to the fire is nearly the temperature of the fire generating the
heat. The cool side of the metal next to the water is nearly the temperature of the water.

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Another example of conduction is a heat sink as depicted below:

Figure 2-6 page 31

A Heat Sink is a heat conductor used to remove heat from sensitive electronic parts. As
depicted above, a transistor conducts current during its normal operation. A certain amount of
power is lost in the form of heat. That heat must be removed from the transistor to prevent heatrelated failure.
The heat is conducted away through a metal bracket or chassis to radiator fins. From the fins,
heat is transferred away by convection or radiation as will be discussed later in module.
The use of heat sinks is very important to both electrical and electronic equipment. For example
computers use heat sinks and fans to keep the processor and other critical components from
becoming damaged by excessive heat conditions. Electrical Transformers also use heat sinks to
dissipate heat.
KEO 1.12.

DESCRIBE Heat Convection

Heat Convection is heat transfer by the movement of gas or liquid from one place to another
caused by a pressure difference. Natural Convection is the unaided movement of a gas or liquid
caused by a pressure difference due to a difference in density within the gas or liquid. Heat is
transferred by currents that circulate between warm and cool regions in a fluid.
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For example: A flame heats the boilers heating surface. The hot boiler surface heats the water.
The water is heated so quickly that conduction within the water cannot transfer the heat away
fast enough.
The hot water is less dense and begins to rise to the surface and is replaced by cooler, denser
water with moves to the bottom of the boiler near the heat source.
Another type of heat convection is Forced Convection. Forced convection is the movement of a
gas or liquid due to a pressure difference caused by the mechanical action of a fan or pump. An
example of this is in our automobiles heating and cooling system. Liquid is heated by the
engines internal combustion and this heat is and fans and pumps allow that heat to be dissipated
or used to keep us warm in cold climates and to keep the engine from overheating.
In Heating Air Conditioning and Ventilation (HVAC) systems for example, warm air in a forced
air heating system travels through the ducts because of the pressure difference created by the
blower fan. Once the air is in a room and mixed, natural sources of heating nd cooling cause air
in parts of the room to cool down or warm up.
This HVAC example is depicted below as the system used forced convection to transfer heat
throughout a building space:

Figure 2-7 page 31

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KEO 1.13.

DESCRIBE Heat Radiation

Heat Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves emitted by a higher temperature

object and absorbed by a lower-temperature object.
All objects emit radiant energy. The amount of emitted energy depends of the temperature and
nature of the surface of the object. Radiant energy waves move through air or space without
producing heat.,
Heat is only produced with the radiant energy waves contact an object that absorbs the energy
waves. The energy is transferred to the surface molecules of the object, which are warmed by the
energy the energy from the electromagnet waves. When heat is transferred by radiation, there is
no flow of material.
For example: When a metal is heated to a glowing red, a person that is standing a distance away
from the metal can feel the radiant energy. When a boiler furnace door is opened, the heat can
immediately be felt even though the air temperature between the fire and the person does not
change very much. In both examples, electromagnetic waves emitted by the hot object travel
through the air and warm the person.
One more example is solar heating where radiation from the sun is used to heat water. The
heated water is them moved by convection to where it is needed as depicted below:

Figure 2-8 page 32

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KEO 1.14.

DESCRIBE Heat Capacity

Heat Capacity of a material is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of the
material by a certain amount. Heat energy is commonly measured in units of BTU and the
Calorie.

The following depicts Heat Energy Definitions for both units:

Figure 2-9 page 32

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There are specific heats of substances. Specific heat has no unit of measurement since it is a
ratio. The following table depicts specific heats of common substances and how they vary
considerably:

Figure 2-10 page 33

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The amount of energy to change the temperature of a substance is expressed by the following
formula:

It takes 162 BTU to increase the temperature of 1 lb of water from 500F to 2120F.
In other words, it takes 162 BTU/lb to increase the temperature of any amount of water from
500F to 2120F.

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SUMMARY
Heat Conduction is heat transfer that occurs when molecules in a material are
heated and the heat is passed from molecule to molecule though the material.
Heat Convection is heat transfer by the movement of gas or liquid from one place
to another caused by a pressure difference.
Heat Radiation is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves emitted by a higher
temperature object and absorbed by a lower-temperature object.
Heat Capacity of a material is the amount of energy needed to change the
temperature of the material by a certain amount.

KEO 1.15.

DESCRIBE Temperature Response Time

Temperature Response Time is the time it takes any temperature-measuring instrument to

respond to changes of temperature. A response time is the time required for an instrument to
reach 63.2 % of its final value.
The following depicts how the size of a temperature sensor determines its response time (the
example exhibits the size of the wires used in a thermocouple to transmit the temperature):

Figure 2-11 page 34

Notice the smaller the wire size, the quicker it takes to transmit the temperature by the
Thermometer Response Time chart above.
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KEO 1.16.

EXPLAIN The Principle of Differential Thermal Expansion

The Principle of Differential Thermal Expansion is the basis of operation for some
thermometers. When one material has a greater coefficient of thermal expansion than another
material, the difference is expansion can be used as a measure of temperature by a direct reading
or by connection to a mechanical linkage.
This same differential expansion can produce a force that actuates devices in direct relation to
the temperature like an alarm or a switching device for temperature control. Common thermal
expansion instruments are liquid-in-glass, bimetallic, and pressure-spring thermometers.
KEO 1.17.

DESCRIBE How Thermal Expansion Thermometers work

An example of a Thermal Expansion Thermometer is a Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer. They

consist of a sealed, narrow-bore glass tube with a bulb at the bottom filled with a liquid.
Depicted below are examples of the simplest liquid-in-glass common thermometers:

Figure 2-13 page 35

The volumetric expansion of liquids is typically many times greater than glass. Since the volume
of the liquid changes more than the change in glass, the liquid moves up or down in the tube with
changes in temperature. Liquid in class thermometers can be typically used to measure
temperatures from a -112 0F to 760 0F.

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As depicted above, the liquid used in thermometers is usually alcohol or some other organic
liquid with a red dye added to improve visibility. Mercury has been commonly used in the past,
but the use of mercury is being discouraged because of the risk associated with a mercury spill as
mercury is a hazardous material with strict handling federal, state, and local environmental
statutes and regulations.
The most common type of liquid-in-glass thermometer is the industrial thermometer. Both the
tube and glass are enclosed in a metal case with the lower portion of the glass tube extending out
the bottom of the case into a metal bulb chamber.
The chamber contains a liquid with excellent heat transfer characteristics. These thermometers
provide an indication as to the temperature by a raising liquid in a tube or by the liquid raising
attached to linkage that provides an indication on a circular scale as depicted below:

Figure 2-14 page 36

Industrial thermometers are fitted with an external pipe thread that enables them to be screwed
into a pipe or a thermowell for isolation from direct contact to the process being measured and
for and ease of replacement.

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SUMMARY

Temperature Response Time is the time it takes any temperature-measuring instrument

to respond to changes of temperature.
The Principle of Differential Thermal Expansion is the basis of operation for many
thermometers devices.
Differential Expansion can produce a force that actuates devices in direct relation to the
temperature like an alarm or a switching device for temperature control.
Common thermal expansion instruments are liquid-in-glass, bimetallic, and pressurespring thermometers.
Thermal Expansion Thermometers use liquid-in-glass, bimetallic, and pressure spring
devices that expand or move when temperature is applied.
Mercury has been commonly used in the past for thermal expansion devices, but the use
of mercury is now limited due to the risk associated with a mercury spill, as mercury is a
hazardous material with strict handling federal, state, and local environmental statutes
and regulations.

KEO 1.18.

EXPLAIN How Bimetallic Thermometers work

A Bimetallic Thermometer is thermal expansion thermometer that uses a strip consisting of two
alloys with different temperature coefficients of thermal expansion that are fused together and
formed into a single strip, and a pointer or indicating mechanism calibrated for temperature
reading.
Because of the different temperature coefficients of thermal expansion, this means that when
heat is applied the two alloys react and causes a movement because one alloy will be more
responsive to the temperature change than the other, this strip actually bends in a reaction to the
heat being applied. If one alloy were heated, it would bend quickly in response to the heat
applied; however when the alloy is bound to another alloy, it creates a more even and easier
movement for this heat transfer to be measured. This controlled movement is then transmitted
via linkage to provide a calibrated accurate temperature indication that can be used to indicate
and control the temperature being measured.

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Bimetalic Elements are usually constructed and wound into a spiral, helix or coil o allow the
element to be placed into a smaller space than a straight element requires as depicted below:

Figure 2-15 page 37

The figure above depicts how bimetallic elements function when heat is applied through thermal
expansion that can be used to indicate, and actuate switches to activate temperature control
circuits.

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The following pictures show different bimetallic devices and principles of operation:

SUMMARY

A Bimetallic Thermometer is thermal expansion thermometer that uses a strip

consisting of two alloys with different temperature coefficients of thermal expansion that
are fused together and formed into a single strip, and a pointer or indicating mechanism
calibrated for temperature reading.
Bimetallic Elements are usually constructed and wound into a spiral, helix or coil o
allow the element to be placed into a smaller space than a straight element would require.
Not only is the movement of bimetallic devices used to provide a temperature indication
for local and remote applications, the movement can also be used to open and close
switches for alarm and control purposes.

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KEO 1.19.

EXPLAIN Pressure-Spring Thermometers work

Pressure - Spring Thermometers are thermal expansion devices consisting of a filled, hollow
spring attached to a capillary tube and bulb where the fluid in the bulb expands or contracts with
the temperature and this movement is detected by linkage.
The spring can be in the C shape of the original Bourdon tube but is often in the form of a spiral
or helix as depicted below:

Figure 2-16 page 39

Pressure Spring thermometers can be filled with Gas, Liquid, or Vapor Pressure.
Gas Filled pressure spring thermometers measure the increase in pressure of a confined gas
due to a temperature increase. Nitrogen is the gas most often used for such systems and except
for size of the bulb is identical to the liquid filled types.
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Liquid Filled is filled with a liquid under pressure as depicted below:

Figure 2-17 page 40

Liquid Filled pressure spring thermometers uses the thermal expansion of a liquid to
pressurize a Bourdon Tube calibrated in temperature units as indicated above.

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Vapor Pressure pressure spring thermometers is a pressure uses a change in pressure due to
temperature changes of an organic solution as depicted below:

Figure 2-18 page 41

The Vapor Pressure pressure spring thermometer uses the vapor pressure on the liquid in the
bulb to pressurize a Bourdon tube as indicated above.

KEO 1.20.

DESCRIBE Temperature Bulb Location considerations Vapor Pressure Bulbs

The difference in height between the bulb and the pressure spring can introduce error, especially
with Vapor Pressure pressure spring thermometers. Since the system is not filled under
pressure, as liquid and gas filled systems, any column of fluid can create a pressure that causes
an erroneous reading. These types need to be installed per manufactures specifications. The

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picture below depicts to installation of a Pressure Spring Bulb when bulb is mounted above the
pressure spring:

Figure 2-20 page 43

When a pressure spring bulb is mounted above the pressure spring as indicated above, the
instrument must be calibrated to account for the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid in the line
above the pressure spring location.
Vapor Pressure thermometers provide an accurate measurement and can generate a greater
amount of power to make it easier to operate switch mechanisms and are frequently used for
driving temperature switches.
KEO 1.21.

DESCRIBE The Response Time considerations for Pressure-Spring

Thermometers

Response Time is an important consideration in the time it takes to respond to temperature

changes. There are different response times associated with the type of pressure spring selected
and its location.
Bulbs must be installed so it senses only the temperature of the process or material into which it
is in contact with. It should be shielded from reflected or radiant heat.
At no point should the bulb be in contact with cold metal as this will lower the temperature
reading.
Of the various types of pressure spring thermometers, the Gas Filled have the fastest
response time, followed by the Vapor Pressure and Liquid Filled pressure spring
thermometers.

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Important Note: The response of all systems is faster if the substance whose temperature is to
be measured is a liquid rather than a gas.
PRESSURE SPRING (THERMOMETER) SUMMARY

Pressure - Spring Thermometers are thermal expansion devices consisting of a filled,

hollow spring attached to a capillary tube and bulb where the fluid in the bulb expands or
contracts with the temperature and this movement is detected by linkage.
Spring thermometers can be filled with gas, liquid, or vapor.
Gas Filled pressure spring thermometers measure the increase in pressure of a
confined gas due to a temperature increase.
Liquid Filled pressure spring thermometers use the thermal expansion of a liquid
to pressurize a device.
Vapor Pressure spring thermometer uses the vapor pressure on the liquid in the
bulb to pressurize a device
The difference in height between the bulb and the pressure spring can introduce error
with Vapor Pressure pressure spring thermometers and should be installed according
to manufacture specifications to compensate for this difference.

KEO 1.22.

DESCRIBE what an Electrical Thermometer is

An ELECTRICAL THERMOMETER is a device having electrical characteristics that change

when heated or cooled. Certain metals when heated or cooled actually change their electrical
characteristics. When they are used as part of an electrical circuit, a change in temperature can
close a switch to start a motor, or cause a solenoid valve to open or close, or the electrical signal
may be converted into a digital signal to be used by a microprocessor.
A common electrical thermometer is a thermostat used in homes to control the temperature.
When air temperature is too low, the heating system is turned on until the air temperature reaches
a preset value. Common electrical thermometers include: Thermocouples, Resistance
Temperature Detectors, Thermisters, and Semiconductor Thermometers.

KEO 1.23.

DESCRIBE what a Thermocouple is and how it is used

A THERMOCOUPLE is an electrical thermometer consisting of two dissimilar metals joined

together at one end and a voltmeter connected to the other end to measure voltage. The voltage
generated is in measured in mV (Millivolts 1mV = .001 Volt).

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The following picture depicts a thermocouple and how it is configured to measure a change in
temperature:

Figure 2-21 page 43

A thermocouple junction is the point where the two dissimilar wires are joined. The figure
depicts Copper and Constantan as the two dissimilar metals that are joined.
The hot junction is also called the measuring junction and is the joined end of the thermocouple
that is exposed to the process where the temperature measurement is desired.
The cold junction is also called the reference junction and is the end of the thermocouple leads
that is kept at a constant temperature in order to provide a reference point.
When the temperature changes at the hot junction, a measurable voltage (mV) is generated
across the cold junction as shown above at the voltmeter.

KEO 1.24.

DESCRIBE The Seebeck Effect as it pertains to a Thermocouple:

The Seebeck Effect is a thermoelectric effect where continuous current is generated in a circuit
where the junctions of two dissimilar conductive materials are kept at different temperatures.

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The Seebeck Effect is depicted in the picture below:

Figure 2-22 page 44

When the circuit is opened (as shown above) at the cold junction, an electrical potential (the
Seeback Voltage) exists at that cold junction. The voltage produced by exposing the measuring
junction (hot junction) to heat is dependent on the composition of the two wires and the
temperature difference between the hot and cold junction.
Important Note: The Seebeck Effect goes away when a thermocouple opens either at the hot
junction or in the lead wires. When this happens the instrument detecting the temperature fails to
a zero reading. There are temperature instruments designed to react to this loss of signal by
providing an alarm or causing a fail open or closed event to the process until the problem can be
corrected.

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SUMMARY

A THERMOCOUPLE is an electrical thermometer consisting of two dissimilar metals

joined together at one end and a voltmeter connected to the other end to measure voltage.
A Thermocouple Junction is the point where the two dissimilar wires are joined.
The Hot Junction is also called the Measuring Junction and is the joined end of the
thermocouple that is exposed to the process where the temperature measurement is
desired.
The Cold Junction is also called the Reference Junction and is the end of the
thermocouple leads that is kept at a constant temperature in order to provide a reference
point.
The Seebeck Effect is a thermoelectric effect where continuous current is generated in a
circuit where the junctions of two dissimilar conductive materials are kept at different
temperatures.
Seebeck Voltage is the voltage generated across the leads of a thermocouple
If a Thermocouple Opens, the temperature reading will fail to a reading equivalent to
the reference junction and will lose its Seebeck Effect and the temperature measuring
instrument will fail to a loss of its signal.

KEO 1.25.

STATE The Law of Intermediate Temperatures

The Law of Intermediate Temperatures states that in a thermocouple circuit, if a voltage is

developed between two temperatures T1 and T2, and another voltage is developed between T2 and
T3, the thermocouple circuit generates a voltage that is the sum of those two voltages when
operating between temperatures T1 and T3.
To summarize this law, the law states:
The temperature at the end of the wires determines the electrical potential
regardless of the intermediate temperatures.

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The picture below depicts the Law of Intermediate Temperature:

Figure 2-25 page 46

This law says it is possible to use a reference junction with any fixed temperature T2 that is lower
than T3. This is the basis of cold junction temperature compensation in thermocouples. A
temperature sensitive resistor, or thermistor, is used to measure the reference temperature and an
adjustment is made to the measured voltage to determine the temperature at the measured
junction.

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KEO 1.26.

STATE The Law of Intermediate Metals

The Law of Intermediate Metals states that the use of a third metal in a thermocouple circuit
does not affect the voltage, as long as the temperature of the three metals at the point of junction
is the same.
The following picture illustrates this Law of Intermediate Metals:

Figure 2-26 page 47

To summarize this law, the law states:

Other metals may be used in a thermocouple circuit as long as the junctions are at the same
temperature.
Therefore, metals different from the thermocouple materials can be used as extension wires in
the circuit. This is common practice in industry.

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Modern devices can measure a direct digital readout of a temperature that converts mV to
degrees with built in compensation to accommodate the reference junction. This device will
provides a direct digital readout of the temperature as depicted below:

Figure 2-30 page 50

SUMMARY

Law of Intermediate Temperatures states the temperature at the end of the wires
determines the electrical potential regardless of the intermediate temperatures.
Law of Intermediate Metals states other metals may be used in a thermocouple circuit
as long as the junctions are at the same temperature.
There are a lot of principles and laws associated with thermocouples.
Connecting a volt meter to a thermocouple will provide a (mV) reading.
Modern thermocouple systems include a direct readout along with automatic reference
junction compensation for an accurate temperature reading of the thermocouple junction.

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KEO 1.27.

LIST The Standard Color Code, Wire Type, Polarity, Maximum Temperature
Range, and uses for the following types of Thermocouples in the United States &
Canada:
a. J
e. N
b. K
f. R
c. T
g. S
d. E
h. B

The following table of International Thermocouple Color Codes lists the color code, wire type,
polarity, maximum temperature range and uses for thermocouples:

Figure 2-31 page 51

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SUMMARY

There are several types of thermocouples with specifications that need to be factored into
the correct selection and use
Many measurement errors are caused by unintended thermocouple junctions.
Care must be taken to ensure that the proper extension wires are used.

Additional information on thermocouple characteristics to include temperature ranges and uses

are illustrated below:

Figure 2-32 (top half) page 52

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Figure 2-32 (bottom half) page 52

KEO 1.28.

DESCRIBE A brief description of the following type of Thermocouple

Measurement Circuits:
a.
b.
c.
d.

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Difference Thermocouples
Thermopiles
Averaging Thermocouples
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KEO1.28.a

Difference Thermocouples are made of two thermocouples wired in series with

reversed polarity to measure a temperature difference between two objects. A
difference thermocouple is illustrated below:

Figure 2-33 page 54

The lower temperature thermocouple is wired so that the polarity is reversed from the hightemperature thermocouple. Therefore, the voltage output of the two thermocouples is equivalent
to the temperature difference of the two measurements. A difference TC can usually measure a
difference of about 50o or more in temperature.

KEO1.28.b

A Thermopile consists of several thermocouples wired in series in order to

amplify the temperature signal. A thermopile is illustrated below:

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Figure 2-34 page 55

With the thermocouples connected in series, they provide a higher voltage output. In a
thermopile, the individual voltages of each thermocouple are added together. A thermopile can
be used to measure extremely small temperature differences or it can be used to increase the
voltage of a circuit to be able to trip a contact in a temperature control circuit.
Thermopiles have been designed that can measure temperature differences as small as a few
millionths of a degree. The output of thermopiles is sufficient to be used by a transmitter,
recorder, or controller. This type of temperature sensing is commonly used in glass furnaces,
kilns, and steel mills.
KEO1.28.c

Averaging Thermocouples consist of a set of parallel-connected thermocouples

that are used to measure an average temperature of an object or specific area. An

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example would be in a large tank, a set of thermocouples inserted in a protective
tube or thermowell in the top of the vessel. The difference thermocouples are
positioned at different depths in the tube and the circuit averages the voltage
readings as depicted below:

Figure 2-35 page 56

In the example above the resistance of the different thermocouple circuits must be similar.
Because the wires are different lengths, this example depicts that each circuit has equivalent
resistors called swamping resistors to ensure the resistances are similar.

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KEO1.28.d

A thermocouple Pyrometer consist of a plain electrical meter with a

measurement range of 20 to 50 mV, a thermocouple, and a balancing variable
potentiometer resistor to balance loop resistance as illustrated below:

Figure 2-36 page 56

The Thermocouple Pyrometer is entirely self-contained, requiring no external power, and is
ideal for a local thermocouple measurement installation. The disadvantage is that it does not
have a high degree of accuracy and is not acceptable for critical temperature measurement
applications.

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SUMMARY

KEO 1.29.

Difference Thermocouples are made of two thermocouples wired in series with

reversed polarity to measure a temperature difference between two objects.
A Thermopile consists of several thermocouples wired in series in order to amplify
the temperature signal.
Averaging Thermocouples consist of a set of parallel-connected thermocouples that
are used to measure an average temperature of an object or specific area.
A thermocouple Pyrometer consist of a plain electrical meter with a measurement
range of 20 to 50 mV, a thermocouple, and a balancing variable potentiometer
resistor to balance loop resistance
Thermocouples are constructed of two dissimilar wires joined at one end and encased
in a metal sheath.
The other end of each wire is connected to a meter or measuring circuit.
Heating the measuring junction of the thermocouple produces a voltage that is greater
than the voltage across the reference junction.
The difference between the two voltages is proportional to the difference in
temperature and can be measured on a voltmeter in mV.

DESCRIBE What a Resistance Temperature Detector is and how it is used

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are wire wound and thin film devices that measure
temperature because of the physical principle of the positive temperature coefficient of electrical
resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the larger or higher the value of their electrical
resistance.
RTDs are also called Resistance Thermometers, or Resistive Thermal Devices. They are
usually encapsulated in probes for temperature sensing and measurement with an external
indicator, controller or transmitter, or enclosed inside other devices where they measure
temperature as a part of the device's function, such as a temperature controller or precision
thermostat.
RTD General Description:
An RTD is a thermometer consisting of a high precision resistor with resistance that varies with
temperature. Unlike a thermocouple, an RTD does not generate its own voltage. An external
source of voltage or current must be incorporated into the circuit to transmit its temperature

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signal. The voltage drop across and RTD provides a much larger output than the Seebeck voltage
of a thermocouple, allowing an RTD to be more precise over a small temperature range.
There are many RTD categories; Carbon Resistors, Film Thermometers, and Wire-Wound
types are the most widely used.

Carbon Resistors are widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very
reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable form at extremely
low temperatures. They generally do not suffer from hysteresis or strain gauge effects.
Carbon resistors have been employed by researchers for years because of the many
advantages associated with them.

Film Thermometers have a layer of platinum on a substrate; the layer may be extremely
thin, perhaps one micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively low cost and fast
response. Such devices have improved performance although the different expansion
rates of the substrate and platinum give strain gauge effects and stability problems.
Film RTD

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Wire-Wound Thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature
ranges. The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability and
allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential drift.
Wire-Wound RTD

Coil Elements have largely replaced wire wound elements in the industry. This design
allows the wire coil to expand more freely over temperature while still provided the
necessary support for the coil. This design is similar to that of a SPRT (Sequential
Probability Ratio Test), the primary standard which ITS-90 is based on, while still
providing the durability necessary for an industrial process.

Coil Element RTD

The current international standard which specifies tolerance and the temperature to electrical
resistance relationship for platinum resistance thermometers is IEC 751:1983. By far the most
common devices used in industry have a nominal resistance of 100 ohms at 0 C, and are called
Pt-100 sensors ('Pt' is the symbol for platinum). The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is a
nominal 0.385 ohm/C. RTDs with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/C as well as a variety
of others are also available.
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RTD Wiring Configurations
The simplest resistance thermometer configuration uses two wires as shown below. It is only
used when high accuracy is not required as the resistance of the connecting wires is always
included with that of the sensor leading to errors in the signal. Using this configuration you will
be able to use 100 meters of cable. This applies equally to balanced bridge and fixed bridge
system.
Two Wire

In order to minimize the effects of the lead resistances a three wire configuration as shown
below can be used. Using this method the two leads to the sensor are on adjoining arms, there is
a lead resistance in each arm of the bridge and therefore the lead resistance is cancelled out. High
quality connection cables should be used for this type of configuration because an assumption is
made that the two lead resistances are the same. This configuration allows for up to 600 meters
of cable.
Three Wire

The four wire resistance thermometer configuration below even further increases the accuracy
and reliability of the resistance being measured. In the diagram below, a standard two terminal
RTD is used with another pair of wires to form an additional loop that cancels out the lead

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resistance. The Wheatstone Bridge method uses a little more copper wire and is not a perfect
solution.
Four Wire

Below is a better alternative configuration of a Four-Wire Kelvin connection that should be

used in all RTDs. It provides full cancellation of spurious effects and cable resistance of up to 15
can be handled. Actually in four wire measurement the resistance error due to lead wire
resistance is zero.
Four Wire Kelvin

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KEO 1.30.

DESCRIBE How the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit us used to measure the

resistance change of an RTD

A Bridge Circuit is a resistance bridge circuit used to provide a precise measurement of an

unknown resistor. A Wheatstone Bridge is often used as the bridge circuit as shown below:

Figure 2-50 page 68

The fixed resistors R1 and R2 are matched to each other to have the same resistance. In the
Balanced Bridge, the variable resistor R3 is adjusted to match the resistance of the RTD in order
to balance the bridge to have equal current flow in the bridge legs with zero potential across the
voltmeter. Then R3 is proportional to the temperature of the RTD.

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The Unbalanced Bridge with fixed resistors provides a voltage across the bridge proportional to
the temperature of the RTD.

RTD SUMMARY

RTDs are called Resistance Temperature Detectors, Resistive Thermal Devices,

and Resistance Thermometers Devices.
RTDs are usually wire-wound or film resistance devices that measure temperature by
providing an increase of resistance with an increase of temperature.
RTDs are high precision resistors that are usually encapsulated in a probe assembly
and require an external voltage or current source.
Carbon RTDs are inexpensive and provide a reproducible results at low
temperatures.
Film RTDs are low cost and have a fast response time to temperature changes.
Wire-Wound RTDs have better accuracy for a wider temperature range.
Coil-Wound RTDs are most frequently used over wire-wound as this design allows
the wire coil to expand freely with temperature changes.
SPRT (Sequential Probability Ratio Test) is the standard which the ITS-90
(International Temperature Standard of 1990) is based on.
2-Wire RTDs are used when high accuracy is not required.
3-Wire RTDs are used to minimize the effects of lead wire resistance and allows for
up to 600 meters of lead wire to be utilized.
4-Wire RTDs further increase accuracy and reliability of temperature measurement.
4-Wire Kelvin RTDs are the best alternative as they provide full cancellation of
spurious effects of cable / lead wire resistance.
Wheat Stone Bridge circuitry is used to provide a precise measurement of an RTD
device.

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KEO 1.31.

DESCRIBE A basic overview of a Thermistor and its application

Thermistors are tiny a temperature-measuring devices. They are sensitive resistors consisting of
solid-state semiconductor material and are hermetically sealed in glass. They are available in
several shapes as illustrated below:

Figure 2-53 page 71

The electrical resistance for most thermistors, decreases with an increase of temperature and
therefore have a negative temperature coefficient (NTC). However there are some applications
where a positive temperature coefficient exists, (PTC) thermistors are used. Thermistors have a
much higher resistance than RTDs ranging from 100 ohms to 100 M ohms. Therefore, lead wire
resistance is not a concern. NTC thermistors are well suited for many applications that require a
large change in resistance when a small change of temperature occurs.

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KEO 1.32.

DESCRIBE How a Thermistor can be used as a temperature switch

A Thermistor can be used as a temperature switch to sound an alarm if the temperature

increases above setpoint. With a NTC Thermsistor, as temperature increases, the resistance of
the thermistors decreases. As the resistance of the thermistors decreases, the current flow
increases and there is a larger voltage drop across the alarm/circuit. The alarm sounds as long as
the temperature is high. The below picture illustrates how thermistors can be used as a
temperature switch:

Figure 2-55 page 72

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With a PCT Thermistor with resistance increasing with temperature makes it suitable for
current-limiting applications as illustrated below:

Figure 2-56 page 73

For currents lower than the limiting current, the power generated in the unit is in-sufficient to
heat the thermistor to its switch temperature. However, as current increases to the critical level,
the resistance of the PTC thermistors increases at a rapid rate so that any further increase in
power dissipation results in a current reduction.
SUMMARY

Thermistors are tiny temperature measuring devices in many different shapes and sizes
having both a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) where temperature increases the
resistance decreases, and a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) where when
temperature increases the resistance increases; NTC is most commonly used.
Thermistors have a much higher resistance rating over RTDs, therefore lead wire
resistance is not a concern.
NTC Thermistors are well suited for many applications requiring a large change in
resistance when a small change of temperature occurs.
NTC Thermistors are used as temperature switches to respond to temperature increases,
as the resistance decreases allowing a greater current or voltage drop to activate an alarm
or control function.
PTC Thermistors having the resistance increase with increased temperature make them
suitable for current limiting applications.

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KEO 1.33.

DESCRIBE The principle of operation of a Semiconductor Thermometer

A Semiconductor Thermometer is a semiconductor device having change in electrical

properties with a change in temperature and are either RTDs or Thermistors. They are typically
produced in the form of integrated circuits as an individual circuit within the IC.
This temperature sensing circuit can be incorporated into many devices at low cost and allows
easy measurement of critical electrical circuits.
Semiconductor Thermometers are typically used as a coarse measurement in thermal shutdown
applications and have a range from -10o F to 400o F.
These devices have an important function in preventing over temperature failure of integrated
circuits and components those components that are being controlled by these circuits.
KEO 1.34.

COMPARE advantages and disadvantages associated with Thermocouples,

Resistance Temperature Detectors, Thermistors, and Integrated Circuit Sensors.

The following table compares the advantages and disadvantages for four common temperature
transducers:

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SUMMARY

Semiconductor Thermometers are typically used as a coarse measurement in thermal

shutdown applications and range from -10o F to 400o F.
Thermocouples are self-powered, yet are the least sensitive.
RTDs are most stable, yet they are expensive and slow in response time and require an
external voltage or current source.
Thermistors have the highest output and fast in response, yet they are non-linear and
have a limited temperature range.
IC Sensors are the most linear with the highest output and are the least expensive, yet
they have a low temperature range and are slow in response time.

KEO 1.35.

DESCRIBE The principle of operation of an Infrared Radiation Thermometer

An Infrared Radiation Thermometer is a thermometer that measures the infrared radiation

emitted by an object to determine the objects temperature.
Infrared radiation is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum with longer wavelengths than
visible light as illustrated below:

Figure 2-57 page 74

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Bodies at low temperature emit little infrared radiation at long wavelengths. As the temperature
increases, the amount of emitted infrared radiation from the surface increases dramatically.
Infrared Radiation Thermometers generally have a quick response time. They can typically
make several measurements per second in areas where it is difficult to use a contact
thermometer.
The heart of the IR Thermometer is the Detector, which provides an electrical output
proportional to the amount of infrared radiation focused on it. This output is used in additional
circuitry to provide a control signal and other features.
An IR Thermometer focuses the IR waves onto the IR Detector by means of a lens and
aperture. For best accuracy, the body to be measured must fill the field of view and the angle on
incidence must be as close to 90 degrees as practical. The following picture illustrates this:

Figure 2-59 page 76

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If the angle of incidence is not close to 90 degrees, erroneous reading can occur because the spot
size gets larger and the amount of incident radiation changes.

The following picture exhibits a typical Infrared Radiation Thermometer used to measure
temperature in a hard to reach space:

Picture page 85

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The following picture illustrates the use of an Infrared Radiation Thermometer used in the
calibration of a temperature sensing device:

KEO 1.36.

DESCRIBE Calibration Considerations for Temperature Measuring Instruments

using the following:
a. Dry Well and Mircobath Calibrators
b. Blackbody Calibrators
c. Electronic Calibrators

All temperature-measuring instruments have to be calibrated with known temperature sources

like regulated ice or sand baths, thermal ovens, refrigerated coolers, sub zero freezers, or with
instrument calibration devices that simulate the same temperature signal temperature measuring
instruments provide at their output.
A comparison is made between the actual temperature readings of the calibration source, to what
the device signal is indicating. The sources used are calibrated to set calibration standards and
verified periodically to ensure accuracy to these standards. Infrared Radiation Thermometers are
calibrated against a blackbody calibrator to verify its accuracy. Temperature-Measuring
Transmitters also need to be calibrated to ensure the signal from them is properly sent on to a
Temperature Indicating device (TI) or a Temperature Indicating Controller (TIC).

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KEO1.36.a. A Dry Well Calibrator is a temperature controlled well or box where a
thermometer can be inserted and the output compared to the know dry well temperature as
illustrated below ( a Hart Scientific Dry Well Calibrator:

Figure 2-70 page 84

Dry wells are constructed of high-stability metal blocks with holes drilled in them to accept a
reference and a thermometer under test.
A Mircobath is a small tank containing a stirred liquid used to calibrate thermometers. The use
of a thermal bath eliminates problems resulting from poor fit in a dry well block, so microbaths
are especially suited for calibrating odd-shaped probes.
Both Dry Well and Mircrobaths have a temperature controller that maintains the calibrator at a
constant temperature. The actual temperature of the well or bath is measured with a reference
thermometer. The external reference thermometer is usually a Platinum RTD for mazimum
precision and accuracy.

To perform calibrations, set the well or bath calibrator to the desired temperature at the
low, middle, and high setting to verify the as-found settings of the temperature measuring
device being calibrated. Verification of the finding needs to be within the desired
tolerances. If the device is a thermometer and is not within tolerances, it needs to be
discarded or used with an offset reading. If the device is an electrical thermometer and
found to be out of calibration specifications, it should be replaced or the conversion
coefficients may be able to be adjusted in the readout device for continued use.

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SUMMARY

An Infrared Radiation Thermometer is a thermometer that measures the infrared

radiation emitted by an object to determine the objects temperature.
When using an Infrared Thermometer, for best accuracy, the body to be measured
must fill the field of view and the angle on incidence must be as close to 90 degrees as
practical.
A Dry Well Calibrator is a temperature controlled well or box where a thermometer can
be inserted and the output compared to the know dry well temperature
A Mircobath is a small tank containing a stirred liquid used to calibrate thermometers.

KEO 1.36.b

A Blackbody Calibrator is a device used to calibrate infrared thermometers.

Blackbody Calibrators have a surface that is either unheated or heated. The
temperature is measured with a certified internal RTD sensor. They are commonly
used to calibrate IR Thermometers as indicated below:

Figure 2-71 page 85

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KEO 1.36.c

Electronic Calibrators are instruments that are connected to the input of an

electronic temperature measuring device to generate an electrical signal that
replicates the signal from an electrical thermometer as illustrated below:

SUMMARY

Blackbody Calibrators are used to calibrate Infrared Thermometers.

Electronic Calibrators are used to measure actual temperature signals or to replicate
them for calibration of instruments that receive a temperature signal.

KEO 1.37.

STATE three basic functions of temperature detectors

Three functions of Temperature indicators are:

1. To provide an INDICATION of the degree of temperature detected.
2. To provide an ALARM when the degree of temperature has been achieved (either
a high temperature, a low temperature, or the preferred temperature but usually
is for HIGH Temperature)
3. To provide a temperature signals for a circuit to CONTROL / MAINTAIN a set
temperature for the process being measured

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Temperatures being monitored may normally be displayed in central locations like a control
room with visible indications and alarms associated with preset limits that must not be exceeded.
The temperatures being measured have control functions associated with them so that equipment
can be started or stopped to support a given temperature condition so a protective action can
occur to prevent equipment damage or injury to personnel.

KEO 1.38.

DESCRIBE the two alternate methods of determining temperature when the

normal temperature detection sensing devices are inoperable
1. If an installed spare temperature sensing device is not available, a contact
pyrometer (portable thermocouple) may be used to obtain a temperature reading.
2. If the malfunction is in the circuitry and the detector itself is still functional, it
may be possible to obtain temperature readings by connecting an external bridge
circuit to the detector. Resistance readings may then be taken and a corresponding
temperature obtained from the detector calibration curves.

KEO 1.39.

STATE two environmental concerns which can affect the accuracy and reliability
of temperature detection instrumentation.
1. Ambient Temperature variations will affect the accuracy and reliability
of temperature detection. Variations in ambient temperature can directly
affect the resistance of components in a bridge circuit and the resistance of
the reference junction for thermocouples. These variations can also affect
the calibration of electric/electronic equipment. These temperature
variations can be reduced by design of the circuitry and by maintaining the
temperature detection instrumentation in the proper environment via
HVAC.
2. Presence of Humidity will also affect most electrical equipment,
especially electronic equipment. High humidity causes moisture to collect
on equipment and can cause short circuits, grounds, and corrosion to
damage components. These effects are controlled by maintaining the
equipment in the proper environment via HVAC.

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SUMMARY

Temperature detectors are used for Indication, Alarm Functions, and Control
Functions
If a temperature detector became inoperative, a Spare Detector may be used if installed
or a Contact Pyrometer can be used
Two environmental concerns are Ambient Temperature and Humidity

KEO 1.40.

Given a simplified schematic diagram of a basic bridge circuit, STATE the

purpose of the following components:
a.
b.
c.
d.

R1 and R2
Rx
Adjustable Resistor
Sensitive Ammeter

Basic Bridge Circuit

Resistors R1 and R2 are the ratio arms of the bridge. They ratio the two variable resistances for
current flow through the ammeter. R3 is a variable resistor known as the standard arm that is
adjusted to match the unknown resistor. The sensing ammeter visually displays the current that
is flowing through the bridge circuit. Analysis of the circuit shows that when R3 is adjusted so
that the ammeter reads zero current, the resistance of both arms of the bridge circuit is the same.
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The following Equation shows the relationship of the resistance between the two arms of the
bridge:
R1
------R3

R2
------Rx

Since the values of R1, R2, and R3 are known values, the only unkown is Rx. The value of Rx
can be calulated for the bridge during an ammeter zero current condition. Knowing this
resistance value provides a baseline point for calibration of the instrument attached to the bridge
circuit. The unknown resistance, Rx, is given by the following Equation:

Rx

KEO 1.41.

R2 R3
--------R1

DESCRIBE the bridge circuit conditions that create a balanced bridge

Basic Bridge Circuit

The Bridge Circuit above operates by placing Rx in the circuit and then adjusting R3 so that all
current flows though the arms of the bridge circuit. When this condition exists, there is no
current flow through the ammeter, and the bridge is said to be balanced.
When the bridge is balanced, the currents through each of the arms are exactly proportional.
They are equal if R1 = R2. When this is the case, and the bridge is balanced, then the resistance of
Rx is the same as R3 or Rx = R3.

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KEO 1.42.

Given a block diagram of a basic temperature instrument detection and control

system, STATE the purpose of the following blocks:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

RTD
Bridge Circuit
DC-AC Converter
Amplifier
Balanced Motor/Mechanical Linkage

Temperature Detection Circuit

The above block diagram consists of a temperature detector (RTD) that measures the
temperature. The detector is felt as resistance to the bridge network.
The Bridge Network converts this resistance to a DC voltage signal.
.
The DC AC Converter sees the electronic signal developed in the bridge circuit across the
bridge potentiometer and converts the DC voltage to an AC voltage.
The AC voltage is then Amplified by the Amplifier to a higher (usable) voltage that is used to
drive a bi-directional motor.
The bi-directional (Balanced Motor) motor positions the slider on the slide-wire to the Balance
Circuit Resistance (Drive Linkage) to provide an indication.
If the RTD becomes open in either the unbalanced and balanced bridge circuits, the resistance
will be infinite and the meter will indicate a very high temperature. If it becomes shorted,
the resistance will be zero and the meter will indicate a very low temperature.

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KEO 1.43.

DESCRIBE the temperature instrument indication(s) for the following RTD

circuit faults:
a. Short Circuit
b. Open Circuit

A Short Circuit in a temperature instrument will indicate a very high temperature.

An Open Circuit in a temperature instrument will indicate a very low temperature.
KEO 1.44.

EXPLAIN the three methods of bridge circuit compensation for changes in

ambient temperature:
1. Measuring Circuit Resistor Selection - because of changes in ambient
temperature, the resistance thermometer circuitry must be compensated. The
resistors that are used in the measuring circuitry are selected so that their
resistance will remain constant over the range of temperature expected.
2. Electronic Circuitry Design - Temperature compensation is also
accomplished through the design of the electronic circuitry to compensate for
ambient changes in the equipment cabinet.
3. Use of 3-Wire or 4-Wire RTD Circuits - It is also possible for the resistance
of the detector leads to change due to a change in ambient temperature. To
compensate for this change, three and four wire RTD circuits are used. In this
way, the same amount of lead wire is used in both branches of the bridge
circuit, and the change in resistance will be felt on both branches, negating the
effects of the change in temperature.

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SUMMARY

The basic bridge circuit consists of:

Two known resistors (R1 and R3 that are used for rationing the adjustable and
known resistances.
One known variable resistor (R3) that is used to match the unknown variable
resistor.
One unknown (Rx) that is used to match the unknown variable resistor.
A sensing ammeter that indicates the current flow through the bridge circuit.
The bridge circuit is considered balanced when the sensing ammeter through the bridge
circuit.
A basic temperature instrument is comprised of:
An RTD for measuring temperature.
A Bridge network for converting resistance to voltage.
A DC to AC voltage converter to supply an amplifiable AC signal to the
amplifier.
An AC signal amplifier to amplify the AC signal to a usable level.
A balancing motor/mechanical linkage assembly to balance the circuits
resistance.
An open circuit in a temperature instrument is indicated by a very high temperature
reading.
A short circuit in a temperature instrument is indicated by a very low temperature
reading.
Temperature instrument ambient temperature compensation is accomplished by:
Measuring circuit resistor selection.
Electronic circuitry design.
Use of three or four wire RTD circuits.

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STEP TWO

Temperature Measurement Course

Skill/Performance Objectives

Skill Introduction:
Below are the skill objectives. How these objectives are performed depend on equipment and
laboratory resources available. With each skill objective it is assumed that a set of standard test
equipment and tools be provided.
For example, to be able to perform temperature calibration tasks, the following tools and
equipment will be required:
1. A temperature source such as a hot or cold bath, oven or subzero container, etc.
2. A calibration standard to measure the applied temperature
3. Equipment capable of measuring temperature such as a gauge, transducer, transmitter,
switch, etc.
4. A measuring device capable of measuring / indicating the output signal such as meter or
smart calibrator
5. An appropriate power supply to power the equipment being calibrated

Skill Terminal Objective (STO):

STO 1.0

Given a Temperature Measurement Task Checklist, under the direction of an

instructor, COMPLETE A SERIES OF TASKS using calibration equipment,
temperature indicating devices, and temperature transmitting devices to
demonstrate mastery of both knowledge and skill objectives associated with the
measurement of temperature.

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Skill Enabling Objectives (SEO)

SEO 1.1.

Calibrate a Rosemount Temperature Transmitter

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SEO 1.2.

Calibrate a Moore Temperature Transmitter

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SEO 1.3.

Perform a temperature calibration using a Thermo Electric TC Source

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SEO 1.4.

Perform a temperature calibration using a FLUKE 744 Smart Calibrator

FLUKE 744 SMART CALIBRATIOR NOTE:

A standard temperature transmitter calibration is performed by removing the input wires from
the transmitter and replacing them with the Fluke 744 electronic calibrator. The calibrator
generates an electric signal that replicates the signal from an electronic device like a
thermocouple or an RTD. This is accomplished by connecting the test leads from the calibrator
to the transmitter as depicted above (the black cable leaving the top side of the calibrator is the
temperature simulated signal being sent to the transmitter via the optional HART interface cable
connected to the RS-232 serial port).
The output from the thermocouple jacks (black HART cable - top side of calibrator or the two
pin yellow cable with plug to plug into lower right side of meter ) simulates a temperature input
to the transmitter. The red and black leads from the calibrator provide loop power to the
transmitter and measure the 4-20 mA current resulting from temperature changes into the
transmitter.
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SEO 1.5.

Perform a temperature calibration using the Smart Hart 375 Calibrator

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SEO 1.6.

Perform a calibration of a Rosemount temperature transmitter using an RTD

temperature detection device as its input

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SEO 1.7.

Perform the measurement of temperature using an Infrared Temperature Detector

device

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SEO 1.8.

Perform the calibration of a Temperature Switch

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SEO 1.9.

Perform a direct read measurement of temperature signals received from the

following three temperature detection devices:
a.
b.
c.

Thermo Couple (TC)

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Thermister Temperature Detector (TTD)

Thermocouple Readout

RTD Readout
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SEO 1.10.

Perform a Furnace Temperature Comparison test using temperature detection

devices to compare responses and accuracies

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SEO 1.11.

Perform at three manual Temperature Transmitter calibrations with calibration

devices of your own choice

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SEO 1.12.

Perform a Temperature Response Time lab activity with different thermo-well

devices to plot response times

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