KINEMATICS OF

RIGID BODIES

Introduction
In rigid body kinematics, we use the relationships
governing the displacement, velocity and acceleration,
but must also account for the rotational motion of the
body. Description of the motion of rigid bodies is
important for two reasons:
1) To generate, transmit or control motions by using cams, gears
and linkages of various types and analyze the displacement,
velocity and acceleration of the motion to determine the
design geometry of the mechanical parts. Furthermore, as a
result of the motion generated, forces may be developed
which must be accounted for in the design of the parts.
2) To determine the motion of a rigid body caused by the forces
applied to it. Calculation of the motion of a rocket under the
influence of its thrust and gravitational attraction is an
example of such a problem.

Rigid Body Assumption

A rigid body is a system of particles for which the
distances between the particles and the angle between
the lines remain unchanged. Thus, if each particle of
such a body is located by a position vector from
reference axes attached to and rotating with the
body, there will be no
change in any position
vector as measured from
these axes. Of course this
is an idealization since all
solid materials change shape
to some extent when forces
are applied to them.

Nevertheless, if the movements associated with the

changes in shape are very small compared with the
movements of the body as a whole, then the
assumption of rigidity is usually acceptable.
For example, the displacements due to the flutter of
an aircraft wing do not affect the description of the
aircraft as a whole and thus the rigid body assumption
is acceptable.
On the other hand, if the problem is one of describing,
as a function of time, the internal wing stress due to
wing flutter, then the relative motions of portions of
the wing cannot be neglected, and the wing may not be
considered as a rigid body.

Plane Motion
A rigid body executes plane motion when all parts of
the body move in parallel planes.The plane of motion
is considered, for convenience, to be the plane which
contains the mass center, and we treat the body as a
thin slab whose motion is confined to the plane of the
slab. This idealization adequately describes a very
large category of rigid body motions encountered in
engineering.
The plane motion of a rigid body is divided into several
categories:

Translation
It is any motion in which every line
in the body remains parallel to its
original position at all times. In
translation, there is no rotation of
any line in the body.
In rectilinear translation, all
points in the body move in parallel
straight lines.

Rocket test sled

In curvilinear translation, all points move on congruent

curves.
In each of the two cases of translation, the motion of the
body is completely specified by the motion of any point in
the body, since all the points have the same motion.

Fixed Axis Rotation

Rotation about a fixed axis is the
angular motion about the axis. All
particles in a rigid body move n
circular paths about the axis of
rotation and all lines in the body which
are perpendicular to the axis of
rotation rotate through the same
angle at the same time.

General Plane Motion

It is the combination of translation
and rotation.

We should note that in each of the examples

cited, the actual paths of all particles in the
body are projected onto the single plane of
motion.
Analysis of the plane motion of rigid bodies is
accomplished either by directly calculating the
absolute displacements and their time
derivatives from the geometry involved or by
utilizing the principles of relative motion .

Rotation
The rotation of a rigid body is described by its angular
motion. The figure shows a rigid body which is rotating as it
undergoes plane motion in the plane of the figure. The
angular positions of any two lines 1 and 2 attached to the
body are specified by 1 and 2 measured from any
convenient fixed reference direction.
Because the angle is invariant, the
relation 2 = 1 + upon differentiation
with respect to time gives 2 = 1 and
2 = 1 or, during a finite interval,
2 = 1. Thus, all lines on a rigid body

in its plane of motion have the same

angular displacement, the same angular
velocity and the same angular
acceleration.

The angular motion of a line depends only on its angular

position with respect to any arbitrary fixed reference
and on the time derivatives of the displacement. Angular
motion does not require the presence of a fixed axis,
normal to the plane of motion, about which the line and
the body rotate.

Angular Motion Relations

The angular velocity and angular acceleration of a rigid body in
plane rotation are, respectively, the first and second time
derivatives of the angular position coordinate of any line in the
plane of motion of the body. These definitions give

d
=
=
dt
d
=
=
dt

or

d = d

or

d 2

dt 2
d = d

In each of these relations, the positive direction for and ,

clockwise or counterclockwise, is the same as that chosen for .

For rotation with constant angular acceleration, the relationships

become

= 0 + t
= 0 + 2 ( 0 )
2

1 2
= 0 + 0 t + t
2
Here 0 and 0 are the values of the angular position coordinate and
angular velocity at time t = 0 and t is the duration of the motion
considered.
As seen, the relationships given for the rotary motion of rigid
bodies are analogous to those derived for the particle.

Rotation About a Fixed Axis

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed
axis, all points other than those on the axis
move in concentric circles about the fixed
axis. Thus, for the rigid body in the figure
rotating about a fixed axis normal to the
plane of the figure through O, any point
such as A moves in a circle of radius r. So
the velocity and the acceleration of point A
can be written as

v = r
an = r = v / r = v
2

a t = r

These quantities may be expressed alternatively using the cross

product relationship of vector notation. The vector formulation is
especially important in the analysis of three dimensional motion. The
angular velocity
of the rotating body may be expressed by the

vector normal to the plane of rotation and having a sense

governed by the right hand rule. From the definition of
the vector

cross product, the vector v is obtained by crossing into r. This

cross product gives the correct magnitude and direction for v .

v = r =r
The order of the vectors to be
crossed must be retained. The
reverse order gives

r = v

The acceleration of point A is obtained by differentiating the cross

product expression for v , which gives

a = v = r +r

= ( r ) + r

= v + r

Here = stands for the angular

acceleration of the body. Thus, we can

write

v =r

an = ( r )

at = r

For three dimensional motion of a rigid body,

the angular velocity vector

may change

direction as well as magnitude, and in this

case, the angular acceleration, which is the

time derivative of angular velocity, =

will no longer be in the same direction as

PROBLEMS
1. The angular velocity of a gear is controlled according to
= 12 3t2, where in rad/s is positive in the clockwise
sense and where t is the time in seconds. Find the net angular
displacement from the time t = 0 to t = 3 s. Also find the
total number of revolutions N through which the gear turns
during the three seconds.

d
= = 6t
dt

d
=
dt

2
12
3
d

t
dt
0
0

= 9 rad

d = dt
3

= 12t t 3 = 12(3) 33 = 9 rad

3
3

PROBLEMS
Does the gear stop between t = 0 and t = 3 seconds?
= 12 3t 2 = 0
1

0 d =
2

2
2
0 12 3t

0 d =

12 = 3t 2 t = 2 s (it stops at t = 2 s )

)dt

3
2
2 12 3t

)dt

3
1 = 12t t 3 = 12(2) 23 = 16 rad
3 0

3
2 = 12t t 3
3

= 7 rad
2

16 + 7 = 23 rad
1 revolution = 2 rad
N revolutions = 23 rad ,

N = 3.66 revolutions

PROBLEMS

2. Load B is connected to a double pulley by one of the two

inextensible cables shown. The motion of the pulley is controlled by
cable C, which has a constant acceleration of 9 cm/s2 and an initial
velocity of 12 cm/s, both directed to the right. Determine,
a) The number of revolutions executed by the inner pulley for t = 2
seconds.
b) The velocity and change in position of the load B after 2 seconds.
c) The acceleration of point D on the rim of the inner pulley at t = 0.

30 cm
50 cm

a) The number of revolutions executed by the inner pulley for t = 2 seconds.

vCO = v DO = 12 cm / s
rD = 30 cm
v DO = o rD
a Dt = rD

= o + t

a Dt = 9 cm / s 2
30 cm
50 cm

v DO

12
=
= 0.4 rad / s (cw)
o =
rD
30
a Dt
9
=
= 0.3 rad / s 2
=
30
rD

= 0.4 + 0.3(2) = 1 rad / s

1
2
Number of revolutions

= o + o t + t 2

1
2
1 rev = 2 rad

= 0 + 0.4(2) + 0.3(2) 2 = 1.4 rad (cw)

1.4
= 0.223 rev
x rev = 1.4 rad , x =
2

b) The velocity and change in position of the load B after 2 seconds.

v B = rB = 1(50) cm / s

y B = rB = ( 50 )( 1.4 ) = 70 cm (upwards )
c) The acceleration of point D on the rim of the inner pulley at t = 0.

a Dt = 9 cm / s 2

o = 0.4 rad / s

at t = 0

a Dn = rDo = (30)(0.4) = 4.8 cm / s

2

a D = a Dn + a Dt

2 1/ 2

= 10.2 cm / s

30 cm
50 cm

PROBLEMS

3. The motor shown is used to turn a wheel by the pulley A attached to it.
If the pulley starts rotating from rest with an angular acceleration of A=2
rad/s2, determine the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration of point
P on the wheel, after the wheel has turned 10 revolutions. Assume the
transmission belt does not slip on the pulley and the wheel.

B = 20 = 62.83 rad
s = A rA = B rB

A 0.15 = 62.83(0.4)
A = 167.6 rad
vC = A rA = B rB

A 2 = O 2 + 2 (1 O )

[10 rev = 20 rad ]

A 2 = 0 + 2(2)(167.6)
A = 18.31 rad / s
C

18.31( 0.15 ) = B (0.4)

B = 6.87 rad / s

vP = B rB = 6.87(0.4) = 2.75 m / s
aC t = A rA = B rB

A rA = aC t = aP t = 0.3 m / s 2

0.3
B =
= 0.75 rad / s 2
0.4
2
a P n = rB B = 0.4(6.87) 2 = 18.88 m / s 2
aP = aP n + aP t = 18.90 m / s 2
2

A
rB

rA

Absolute Motion
In the first approach in rigid body kinematics, the absolute
motion analysis, we make use of the geometric relations which
define the configuration of the body involved and then proceed
to take the time derivatives of the defining geometric relations
to obtain velocities and accelerations.
The constrained motion of connected particles is also an absolute
motion analysis. For the pulley configurations, the relevant
velocities and accelerations were determined by successive
differentiation of the lengths of the connecting cables. In rigid
body motion, the defining geometric relations include both linear
and angular variables and, therefore, the time derivatives of
these quantities will involve both linear and angular velocities and
linear and angular accelerations.

PROBLEM
A wheel of radius r rolls on a flat surface without slipping.
Determine the angular motion of the wheel in terms of the linear
motion of its center O. Also determine the acceleration of a point
on the rim of the wheel as the point comes into contact with the
surface on which the wheel rolls.

Relative Velocity
The second approach to rigid body kinematics uses the principles
of relative motion. In kinematics of particles for motion relative
to translating axes, we applied the relative velocity equation

v A = vB + v A / B
to the motions of two particles A and B.
We now choose two points on the same rigid body for our two
particles. The consequence of this choice is that the motion of
one point as seen by an observer translating with the other point
must be circular since the radial distance to the observed point
from the reference point does not change. This observation is
the key to the successful understanding of a large majority of
problems in the plane motion of rigid bodies.

The figure shows a rigid body

moving in the plane of the
figure from position AB to AB
during time t. This movement
may be visualized as occurring
in two parts. First, the body
translates to the parallel
position AB with the

displacement rB . Second, the

body rotates about B through
the angle , from the
nonrotating reference axes xy attached to the reference
point B, giving rise
to the
displacement rA / B of A with
respect to B.

To the nonrotating observer

attached to B, the body appears
to undergo fixed axis rotation
about B with A executing circular
motion.
Point B is arbitrarily chosen as
the reference point for
attachment of the nonrotating
reference axes x-y. Point A could
have been used just as well, in
which case we would observe B to
have circular motion about A
considered fixed. In this case,
the sense of the rotation,
counterclockwise direction, is
the same whether we choose A or
B as the reference, and we see

that rB / A = - rA / B .

With B as the reference point, the total displacement of A is

rA = rB + rA / B

Where rA / B has the magnitude r as

approaches zero. We
note that the relative linear motion rA / B is accompanied by the
absolute angular motion , as seen from the translating axes
x -y. Dividing the expession for rA by the corresponding time
interval t and passing to the limit, we obtain the relative
velocity equation

v A = vB + v A / B

We should note that in this expression the distance r between A

and B remains constant.

The magnitude of the relative velocity is thus seen to be

vA/ B
which, with

= lim
( rA / B / t ) = lim
(r / t )
t 0
= becomes

t 0

v A / B = r

Using r to represent the vector rA / B

relative velocity as the vector

, we may write the

vA/ B = r

Therefore, the relative velocity equation becomes

v A = vB + r

Here, is the angular velocity vector normal to the plane of

the motion in the sense determined by the right hand rule.
It should be noted that the direction of the relative velocity
will always be perpendicular to the line joining the points A
and B.

Interpretation of the Relative Velocity Equation

We can better understand the relative velocity equation by
visualizing the translation and rotation components separately.

Path of A
Path of B

translation

Fixed axis
rotation

Path of A
Path of B

translation

Fixed axis
rotation

In the figure, point B is chosen as the reference point and the

velocity of A is the vector sum

portion v B ,
of thetranslational

plus the rotational portion v A / B = r , which has the

magnitude vA/B=r, where = , the absolute angular velocity

of A B . The fact that the relative linear velocity is always
perpendicular to the line joining the two points A and B is an
important key to the solution of many problems.

Solution of the Relative Velocity

Equation
Solution of the relative velocity equation may be
carried out by scalar or vector algebra or by graphic
interpretation. In the scalar approach, each term in
the relative
motion
equation may be written in terms

of its i and j components, from which we will

obtain two scalar equations.

Relative Acceleration
Consider the equation

v A = vB + v A / B

which describes the relative velocities of two points A and B in

plane motion in terms of nonrotating reference axes. By
differentiating the equation with respect to time, we obtain the

relative acceleration equation, which is v A = v B + v A / B

or

a A = aB + a A / B

This equation states that the acceleration of point A equals the

vector sum of the acceleration of point B and the acceleration
which A appears to have to a nonrotating observer moving with B.

Relative Acceleration Due to Rotation

If points A and B are located on the same rigid body and in the
plane of motion, the distance r between them remains constant
so that the observer moving with B perceives A to have circular
motion about B. Because the relative motion is circular, it
follows that the relative acceleration term will have both a
normal component
directed from A toward B due to the change
of direction of v A / B and a tangential component
perpendicular

to A B due to the change in magnitude of v A / B . Thus, we may

write,

a A = a B + (a A / B )n + (a A / B )t

Where the magnitudes of the relative acceleration components

are
2
2

(a A / B )n = v A / B / r = r
(a A / B )t = v A / B = r

In vector notation the acceleration components are

(a A / B )n = ( r )

(a A / B )t = r

In these relationships, is the angular velocity and is the

angular acceleration of the body. The vector locating A from B

is r . It is important to observe that the relative acceleration

terms depend on the respective absolute angular velocity and
the absolute angular acceleration.
The relative acceleration equation, thus, becomes

a A = a B + ( r ) + r

Interpretation of the Relative Acceleration Equation

The meaning of relative acceleration equation is indicated in the
figure which shows a rigid body in plane motion with points A and
Bmoving along
separate curved paths with absolute accelerations

a A and a B .

Contrary to the case with velocities, the accelerations a A and a B

are, in general, not tangent to the paths described by A and B

when these paths are curvilinear.

The figure shows the acceleration of A to be

composed of two parts: the acceleration of B and the
acceleration of A with respect to B. A sketch showing
the reference point as fixed is useful in disclosing
the correct sense of the two components of the
relative acceleration term.

Alternatively, we may express the acceleration of B

in terms of the acceleration of A, which puts the
nonrotating reference axes on A rather than B. This
order gives

aB = a A + aB / A

Here a B / A and its n and t components are the

negatives of a A / B and its n and t components

( aA/ B

= aB / A).

Solution of the Relative Acceleration

Equation
As in the case of the relative velocity equation, the
relative acceleration equation may be carried out by
scalar or vector algebra or by graphical construction.
Because the normal acceleration components depend
on velocities, it is generally necessary to solve for
the velocities before the acceleration calculations
can be made.

PROBLEMS
1. The center O of the disk has the velocity and
acceleration shown. If the disk rolls without slipping on
the horizontal surface, determine the velocity of A and
the acceleration of B for the instant represented.

PROBLEMS
2. The triangular plate has a constant clockwise angular
velocity of 3 rad/s. Determine the angular velocities and
angular accelerations of link BC for this instant.

PROBLEMS
3. If the velocity of point A is 3 m/s to the right and is
constant for an interval including the position shown,
determine the tangential acceleration of point B along its
path and the angular acceleration of the bar AB.

PROBLEMS
4. The flexible band F attached to the sector at E is
given a constant velocity of 4 m/s as shown. For the
instant when BD is perpendicular to OA, determine the
angular acceleration of BD.

PROBLEMS
5. At a given instant, the gear has the angular motion
shown. Determine the accelerations of points A and B on
the link and the links angular acceleration at this instant.

PROBLEMS
6. The center O of the disk rolling without slipping on the
horizontal surface has the velocity and acceleration
shown. Radius of the disk is 4.5 cm. Calculate the velocity
and acceleration of point B.

vo=45 cm/s
37o

4 cm
4.5 cm

6 cm

B
1
y = x2
4

x=2 cm

10 cm

ao=90 cm/s2