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Coloring Vertex

The document discusses vertex and edge coloring of graphs. It defines proper vertex and edge coloring as assigning colors to vertices or edges such that no two adjacent vertices or edges have the same color. The chromatic number χ(G) is the minimum number of colors needed for a proper vertex coloring, and the edge chromatic number χ'(G) is defined similarly for edges. It proves several properties of these numbers, such as χ(G) ≥ ω(G) (the clique number) and χ'(G) ≥ Δ(G) (the maximum degree). Vizing's theorem states χ'(G) is either Δ(G) or Δ(G)+1. Snarks are defined as

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361 views14 pages

Coloring Vertex

The document discusses vertex and edge coloring of graphs. It defines proper vertex and edge coloring as assigning colors to vertices or edges such that no two adjacent vertices or edges have the same color. The chromatic number χ(G) is the minimum number of colors needed for a proper vertex coloring, and the edge chromatic number χ'(G) is defined similarly for edges. It proves several properties of these numbers, such as χ(G) ≥ ω(G) (the clique number) and χ'(G) ≥ Δ(G) (the maximum degree). Vizing's theorem states χ'(G) is either Δ(G) or Δ(G)+1. Snarks are defined as

Uploaded by

ejuneor
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Vertex Coloring 2.

37

(Vertex) Colorings
Definition: A coloring of a graph G is a labeling of the vertices of G
with colors. [Technically, it is a function f : V (G ) {1, 2, . . . , c}.]
Definition: A proper coloring of G is a coloring of G such that
no two adjacent vertices are labeled with the same color.
Example. W6 :

We can properly color W6 with

colors and no fewer.

Of interest: What is the fewest colors necessary to properly color G ?

Vertex Coloring 2.1

38

The chromatic number of a graph


Definition: The minimum number of colors necessary to properly
color a graph G is called the chromatic number of G , denoted
(G ) = chi.
Example. (Kn ) =
Proof. A proper coloring of Kn must use at least
colors,
because every vertex is adjacent to every other vertex. With fewer
than
colors, there would be two adjacent vertices colored the
same. And indeed, placing a different color on each vertex is a
proper coloring of Kn .
! (G ) = k is the same as:
1

There is a proper coloring of G with k colors.

(Show it!)

There is no proper coloring of G with k 1 colors. (Prove it!)

Vertex Coloring 2.1

39

Chromatic numbers and subgraphs


Lemma C:

If H is a subgraph of G , then (H) (G ).

Proof. If (G ) = k, then there is a proper coloring of G using k


colors. Let the vertices of H inherit their coloring from G . This
gives a proper coloring of H using k colors, which implies (H) k.
Theorem:
For any graph G , (G ) (G ).
(clique number)
Proof. Apply Lemma C to the subgraph of G isomorphic to K(G ) .
Example. Calculate (G ) for this graph G :
|V (G )|
Theorem: (G )
(G )
Proof. In a proper coloring, vertices colored the same
always form an independent set. So how many colors are needed?
At least:

Vertex Coloring 2.1

Critical graphs
How to prove (G ) = k?
One way: Find a (small) subgraph H of G that requires k colors.
Definition: A graph H is called critical if for every proper
subgraph J ! H, then (J) < (H).
Theorem 2.1.2: Every graph G contains a critical subgraph H such
that (H) = (G ).
(Stupid) Proof. If G is critical, stop. Define H = G .
If not, then there exists a proper subgraph G1 of G with
.
If G1 is critical, stop. Define H = G1 .
.
If not, then there exists a proper subgraph G2 of G1 with
Since G is finite, there will be some proper subgraph Gl of Gl1
such that Gl is critical and (Gl ) = (Gl1 ) = = (G ).

40

Vertex Coloring 2.1

Critical graphs
What do we know about critical graphs?
Thm 2.1.1: Every critical graph is connected.
Thm 2.1.3: If G is critical and (G ) = 4, then deg(v ) 3 for all v .
Proof. Suppose not. Then there is some v V (G ) with deg(v ) 2.
Remove v from G to create H.

Similarly: If G is critical, then for all v V (G ), deg(v ) (G ) 1.

41

Vertex Coloring 2.1

Bipartite graphs
Question: What is (Cn ) when n is odd?
Answer:
Definition: A graph is called bipartite if (G ) 2.
Example. Km,n , "n , Trees
Thm 2.1.6: G is bipartite every cycle in G has even length.
() Let G be bipartite. Assume that there is some cycle C of
odd length contained in G . . .

42

Vertex Coloring 2.1

Proof of Theorem 2.1.6


() Suppose that every cycle in G has even length. We want to
show that G is bipartite. Consider the case when G is connected.
Plan: Construct a coloring on G and prove that it is proper.
Choose some starting vertex x and color it blue. For every other
vertex y , calculate the distance from y to x and then color y :
!
blue
if d(x, y ) is even.
red
if d(x, y ) is odd.
Question: Is this a proper coloring of G ?
Suppose not. Then there are two vertices v and w of the same
color that are adjacent. This generates a contradiction because
there exists an odd cycle as follows:

43

Edge Coloring 2.2

44

Edge Coloring
Parallel to the idea of vertex coloring is the idea of edge coloring.
Definition: An edge coloring of a graph G is a labeling of the edges of
G with colors. [Technically, it is a function f : E (G ) {1, 2, . . . , l }.]
Definition: A proper edge coloring of G is an edge coloring of G
such that no two adjacent edges are colored the same.
Example. Cube graph ("3 ):

We can properly edge color "3 with

colors and no fewer.

Definition: The minimum number of colors necessary to properly


edge color a graph G is called the edge chromatic number of G ,
denoted " (G ) = chi prime.

Edge Coloring 2.2

45

Edge coloring theorems


Thm 2.2.1:

For any graph G , " (G ) (G ).

Thm 2.2.2: Vizings Theorem:


For any graph G , " (G ) equals either (G ) or (G ) + 1.
Proof. Hard. (See reference [24] if interested.)
Consequence: To determine " (G ),

Fact:

Most 3-regular graphs have edge chromatic number 3.

Edge Coloring 2.2

46

Snarks
Definition: Another name for 3-regular is cubic.
Definition: A snark is a cubic graph with edge chromatic number 4.
Example. The Petersen graph P is a snark. It is 3-regular. #
Let us prove that it can not be colored with three colors.
Assume you can color it with three colors. WLOG, assume ab, ac, ad.
Either Case 1: be and bi
or Case 2: be and bi .
Either Case 1a: ig and ij or Case 1b: ig and ij.

g
i

g
j

g
j

h
j

Edge Coloring 2.2

46

Snarks
Definition: Another name for 3-regular is cubic.
Definition: A snark is a cubic graph with edge chromatic number 4.
Example. The Petersen graph P is a snark. It is 3-regular. #
Let us prove that it can not be colored with three colors.
Assume you can color it with three colors. WLOG, assume ab, ac, ad.
Either Case 1: be and bi
or Case 2: be and bi .
Cases 2a, 2b
Either Case 1a: ig and ij or Case 1b: ig and ij.

g
i

g
j

g
j

g
j

h
j

In all cases, it is not possible to edge color with 3 colors, so " (G ) = 4.

Edge Coloring 2.2

47

The edge chromatic number of complete graphs


Goal:

Determine " (Kn ) for all n.

Vertex Degree Analysis:

The degree of every vertex in Kn is

Vizings theorem implies that " (Kn ) =


If " (Kn ) =

or

, then each vertex has an edge leaving of each color.

Question: How many red edges are there?


This is only an integer when:
!
" (K2n ) =
So, the best we can expect is that
" (K2n1 ) =

Edge Coloring 2.2

48

The edge chromatic number of complete graphs


Thm 2.2.3: " (K2n ) = 2n 1.
Proof. We prove this using the turning trick.
Label the vertices of K2n
0, 1, . . . , 2n 2, x. Now,
Connect 0 with x ,
Connect 1 with 2n 2,
..
.
Connect n 1 with n.
0

Now turn the inside edges.


And do it again. (and again, . . .)

4
0

Each time, new edges are used.


This is because each of the
edges is a different circular length: vertices are at circ. distance
1, 3, 5, . . ., 4, 2 from each other, and x is connected to a different
vertex each time.
6

Edge Coloring 2.2

49

The edge chromatic number of complete graphs


Theorem 2.2.4:

" (K2n1 ) = 2n 1.

This construction also gives a way to edge color K2n1 with 2n 1


colorssimply delete vertex x!
This is related to the area of combinatorial designs.
Question: Is it possible for six tennis players to play one match per
day in a five-day tournament in such a way that each player plays
each other player once?
Day 1 0x 14 23
Day 2 1x 20 34
Day 3 2x 31 40
Day 4 3x 42 01
Day 5 4x 03 12
0

Theorem 2.2.3 proves there is such a tournament for all even numbers.

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