Chapter - 1

INTRODUCTION
A countrys production of electricity is a basic indicator of its size & level of
developments. Although a few countries export electric power, mostly generation
is for domestic consumption.
In 1983 the first electric supply undertaking was established in India by a
company, which constructed a small generating station in the city of Surat in
Gujrat. This was perhaps one of the earliest electric supply companies anywhere in
the world. This undertaking got as far as lighting the main streets of the city by arc
lamps, but unfortunately in the next year disastrous floods of the river Tapi
submerged its generating plant. In the year 1896 an undertaking started operation
at Calcutta. Thus the beginning of electric supply industry in India was mainly due
to private company effort.
According to reports (1998)
The total installed capacity

89,166.87MW

Thermal power

55,969.48MW = 62.76%

Hydro

21,891.08MW = 24.55%

Nuclear

2,225.00MW = 2.49%

Diesel, wind & gas

9,081.31MW = 10.18%
100%

Installed power generation capacity, however does not give a correct

indication of the quantum of the reliable generation capacity (utilization factor). As
the thermal power units are periodically required to be close down (called planned
outages) for mandatory repair, inspection & overhauling. Consequently the
availability of TPP is reduced to about 60% even under the best condition of
operation & management. (The ratio of reliable capacity / installed capacity is

called utilization factor). In India the average utilization factor is about 46% .So as
such there exists a room for improving the availability. This would probably off
set the gap in present demand & supply more economically.
The forced shut down of a boiler due to failure of components severely
affects the progress through non-availability of power which is the basic need for
growth in national economy. Some of the outages are due to tube failures in
pressure parts most of which can be minimized by proper care and preventive steps
of its causes.
The actual cost of repairing failed tubes is less than the cost of generation
loss due to outage, so it becomes imperative to repair & bring the unit quickly into
service. Also, it is equally important to identify the cause of failure so as to take
corrective action and preventive measures so that the failure does not recur. Tube
failure is most significant causes of bringing down the plant availability in utility
fossil-fired boilers. Shutdown of a 200MW unit on account of tube failure will
cause a loss of several lakhs rupees, even when the shutdown is only for three
days. Further, during outage of boiler, if the secondary damages due to the tube
failure is not detected additional failure during start up or afterwards can occur,
thus prolonging shutdown & increasing the generation loss.
1. Forced / unplanned / planned outages in power plant amount to 15%.
2. Forced / unplanned / planned outages resulting out of boiler are 60% or more of
the above (1).
3. Outages due to boiler tube leakage are 75% or more of the above (2).

About The Process

Boiler is a composed of number of tubes. It covers the following heating zones.
1. Water Walls
2. Super-Heaters
3. Re- Heaters
4. Economiser

Water Walls
Almost all-modern power boilers are equipped with water walls. In large
boilers water walls completely occur in the interior surface of the furnace
providing practically complete elimination of exposed refractory surface. Water
walls serve as means of heating and evaporating the feed water supplied to the
boiler from economiser. Water walls usually consist of large number of vertical
tubes arranged tangentially or approximately. They are connected at the top and
bottom of headers. These tubes receive water from the boiler drum by means of
down comers connected between drum and water wall lower header. In boiler the
water walls absorb approximately 50% of heat released by combustion of fuel in
the furnace. Heat so absorbed is used in evaporation of all or a relatively large

percentage of water supplied to the boiler. The mixture of steam and water is
discharged from top of water wall tubes into the upper wall header and then passes
through riser tubes to the steam drum.

Types of water walls

a)

Tangent tube construction

b)

Membrane wall construction

Super- Heaters
SH are meant to raise the steam temperature above the saturation
temperature by absorbing heat from flue gas. By increasing the temperature of the
medium (steam) the useful energy that can be recovered increases thus efficiency
of the cycle is improved. So in modern Boilers SH are widely used to increase
cycle efficiency economically. The maximum temperature to which steam can be
heated is dictated by the metallurgy & economy in initial cost and maintenance

cost. Present trend is to limit the steam temperature value to 540 oC both in SH as
well as reheater. SH also eliminates the formation of condensate during
transporting of steam in pipelines and inside the early stages of turbines, which is
harmful to the turbine blades and pipelines.

Water Walls
Reheater
RH is used to raise the temperature of cold steam from which, part of the
energy has been extracted in H.P.T. This is another method of increasing the
cycle. The efficiency increases with number of stages of reheating. Reheating
requires additional equipment (i.e.) heating surface, boiler turbine connecting
piping, safety equipment like safety valve, NRV, isolating valve, steam temperature
regulating equipment , instruments etc. Because of these additional investment,
complexity in operation and reduced availability of such system offsets the gain in
efficiency of the system gets minimised. Hence single RH can be economically
applied only for capacity above 100 MW & two RH for capacity above 500MW.
The limit is also dictated by the predicted fuel price over the period of operation.
Types of SH & RH
These heating surfaces can be classified into convection and radiant type
according to heat transfer process.
Even though the surfaces get heat by both radiation and convection, the ratio
between them varies according to the location and temperature of flue gases at that
location. The Reheater and SH placed above furnace which can view the flame is
called Radiant type .The other surfaces are called as convection type. Radiant
surfaces are located at high temperature region.

They are widely pitched to reduce the velocity of gas and bridging the
surface by the ash . They are arranged inline with least longitudinal pitch. They are
called platen SH. The SH and RH can be arranged either horizontally or allowed to
hung vertically. The vertical arrangements are simpler in supporting and allows for
expansion . This arrangement is pendent type. Horizontal SH needs supporting of
tubes at multi points to avoid sagging . Expansion movement should also be
permitted with advantage of draining.
The SH which is placed at lower flue gas temperature region is called as
Low Temperature Super heater (LTSH). The SH & RH can also arranged as ceiling
or wall and they are termed as ceiling superheater or wall SH etc. accordingly.
Arrangements of SH and RH
Generally the heating surface can be arranged in line or staggered. Staggered
arrangement requires fewer surfaces for the same duty but draft loss will be more.
Also on load cleaning of surfaces, will not be effective. Hence In line or staggered
arrangement is selected based on fuel fouling characteristic, operating cost of draft
loss and cost of tube material used at location.
The surface can be designed to place in such way that the flow direction of
flue gas and steam is in line parallel or opposite. Counter flow arrangement has
advantages of minimum surface area requirement but the metal temperature at the
leaving section is high compared to parallel flow. Counter flow arrangement is
used in most cases except in final section where the metal temperature limitations
call for parallel flow.

Economiser
The function of an economiser in a steam-generating unit is to absorb heat
from the flue gases & add this as sensible heat to the feed water before the water
enters the evaporative circuit of the boiler.
Earlier the economisers were introduced mainly to recover the heat available
in flue gas that leaves the boiler. Provision of this additional heating surface
increased the efficiency of steam generation, thus saving in fuel consumption. So
the name economiser was christened. In the modern boiler (used for power
generation) feed water heaters are used to increased the efficiency of the unit &
feed water temperature. So the relative size of economiser is less than earlier unit.
This is a good proposition as the heat available in boiler exit flue gas can be
economically recovered using air heater, which is essential, for pulverized fuel
fired boiler.
Location & Arrangements
It is usual to locate economiser ahead of Air Heaters & following the
primary SH or RH in the gas stream. Hence it will generally be contained in the
same casing as the primary SH or RH tubes.
Counter flow arrangement is normally selected so that heating surface
requirement is kept minimum for the same temperature drop in the flue gas.
Economiser coils are designed for horizontal placement, which facilitate draining
of the coil & favours the arrangement in the second pass of boiler. Water flow is
from bottom to top so that any steam formed during heat transfer can move along
with water & prevent the lock up steam, which will cause overheating, & failure of
economizer tube.

Types of construction of economiser Tube

1) Plain Tube
Plain tube economisers have several banks of tubes with either in- line or
staggered type formation.
2) Welded fin- tube
Large no. of variations in this type was available in earlier days. Cast Iron
shrouds were shrunk on mild steel tubes for use as economiser in stoker fired
boiler. This type had good resistance against gas side corrosion but was heavy in
weight. Modern boiler uses only plain or fin welded design as gas side corrosion is
not faced due to high feed water temperature.
Materials Used for Boiler Tubes
Metallic iron is rarely found in nature. The principle ores of iron are
heamatite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), limonite (2Fe2O3 3H2O) & siderite
(FeCo3). The first step in the production of iron & steel is reduction of the ore with
coke & limestone in blast furnace to produce an impure form of iron called pig
iron. Pig iron is then remelted in a cupola furnace to produce cast iron. C.I. are
alloys of iron & carbon containing approximately 2% to 4.5% carbons. Steels like
cast iron , are alloys of iron and carbon containing upto 2%. Carbon . Steel is cast
in an initially malleable mass. Steel production consists of removal of slag of
excessive amount of carbon silicon & manganese, & impurities such as sulphur &
phosphorus by chemical reactions. This is followed by addition of controlled
quantities of carbon, silicon, manganese & aluminium to produce required
composition. Other alloying elements are added in case of alloy steels.
Steels in the molten state can contain in solution relatively large quantities of
gases, particularly oxygen & hydrogen. The solubility diminishes with falling
temperature & gases released during cooling may be entrapped in the solidifying

steel, giving rise to extensive porosity. All cast ingots contains a small proportion
of cavities but these have little significance & are welded up by a pressure welding
process during rolling or forging. It is necessary to remove most of the gases whilst
the steel is still molten.
Effects of Alloying
The effects of alloying elements are numerous. a list of a few of the more
important effects is given below.
1) To alter the transformation temperatures and time.
2) To modify the room temperature & Elevated temperature strength of given
structures by
a) Stiffening the crystals.
b) Introducing complex precipitates, which tend to harden the steel.
3) To modify the type of oxide film formed on the surface of the steel & there by
affects its corrosion resistance.
Alloying elements can be broadly classified into two groups
a) Austenite Stabilizers: Which have the effects of extending the temperature
range over which austenite is formed. Such elements are carbon, manganese,
nickel, copper & cobalt.
b) Ferrite Stabilizers: Which have the effect of extending the temperature range
over which alpha & delta ferrite are formed. This consequently reduces
temperature range over which austentile is formed. Such elements are Silicon
Chromium, Molybdenum, Tungsten, and Titanium & Niobium.
Some of these elements for example chromium, molybdenum & vanadium
also form carbides, which replace or modify the iron carbide in the structure.
Additions of the austenite stablising elements reduce temperature at which
the austenite to ferrite change occurs and will consequently facilitate the formation

of martensite with slower rates of cooling that are necessary with plain carbon
steels. This also means that for a given cooling rate, larger cross- sections can be
fully hardened uniformly throughout their section.
A) Chromium
Chromium, although in itself a ferrite & carbide former, has a side effect of
making the structural changes very sluggish. This suppresses the austenite to ferrite
change in heat treatment easily . It is therefore extensively used in steels to be
hardened & tempered. A further important property of chromium particularly
marked when present in quantities above about 5% is to improve resistance to
corrosion & oxidation.
Resistance to corrosion & oxidation of steel depends on the film of oxide
formed on its surface . In carbon & many low alloy steels, this oxide film offers
little or no resistance to atmospheric corrosion. At elevated temperature i.e. upto
575 degree C these steels have good resistance to oxidation in air or flue gases but
above this, the rate of oxidation increase rapidly. The presence of chromium,
however, in excesses of about 5% promotes the formation of a more protective
oxide film . Although 5% is insufficient to obtain useful resistance to atmospheric
& aqueous corrosion, it is enough to improve the oxidation resistance up to about
600c. Further increasing the chromium content produces a more resistant oxide
film & at 13% satisfactory resistance to mild corrosion media such as wet steam is
achieved. Application of this type of steel is steam turbine blades, propeller &
pump shafts, impellers & water turbine runners. Increasing the chromium content
above 13% produces improved resistance to more corrosive media & at 28%
chromium, satisfactory oxidation resistance at 1100 degree C can be obtained.
B) Nickel
In order to be able to utilize the good corrosion resisting properties of
these high chromium steels and at the same time attain satisfactory engineering

properties, it is necessary to re-establish the austentite region. This can be done by

adding nickel. With an 18% chromium steel the addition of about 2% of nickel
does this and produces a steel which can be hardened and tempered. This is the
well known S80 steel (En 57) which is widely used for pump shafts in the marine
field.
Maintaining a chromium level of 18%, the addition of increasing amounts of
nickel extends the re- established austentite region until at 8% nickel the
temperature of the change from austenite to ferrite is suppressed below room
temperature and the structure at room temperature consists of grains of austenite.
These steels are termed austenite and include the well-known 18/8 stainless steel.
Since the austenite-ferrite change, on which hardening and tempering are
dependent, is suppressed below room temperature, these austentite steels are
similar to the high chromium ferritic steels in that they cannot be hardened by
normal heat treatment. They are different from the ferritic high chromium steels in
that they are extremely ductile, and ideally suited for deep pressings and similar
applications. In addition, since they are austenitic, they are non- magnetic and they
have a high coefficient of thermal expansion and a low thermal conductivity.
Although these steels are not hardenable and have relatively low tensile
strength at room temperature, they do have good elevated temperature tensile
properties which, when combined with their good corrosion resistance suit them to
application demanding this combination. These include superheater tubing and
steam piping where the metal temperatures are in excess of 550C, gas turbine
components, and numerous types of pressure vessels employed in the chemical and
allied industries.

C) Carbon
Carbon is not generally regarded as an alloying element because steel
would not be steel without carbon. Nevertheless, it is appropriate in a discussion of
alloying elements to note the specific effects of carbon on the properties of steel.
In general, an increase in carbon content produces higher ultimate strength
and hardness but lowers ductility and toughness of steel alloys. The curves in
figure indicate the general effect of carbon on the mechanical properties of hot
rolled carbon steel.
Carbon also increases air hardening tendencies and weld hardness,
especially in the presence of chromium in low alloy steel for high temperature
applications. The carbon content is usually restricted to a maximum of about
0.15% in order to assure optimum ductility for welding, expanding, and bending
operations. To minimize intergranular corrosion caused by carbide precipitation,
the carbon content of austenitic (18-8 type) alloys is limited in commercial
specification to a maximum of 0.08%, or even less, i.e. 0.03% in the extremely
low- carbon grades used in certain corrosion- resistant applications.
In plain carbon steels in the normalised condition, the resistance to creep at
temperature below 440C appears to increase with carbon content upto 0.4%
carbon. At higher temperature there is but little variation of creep properties with
carbon content.
An increase in carbon content lessens the thermal and electrical
conductivities of steel and increases its hardness on quenching.
C) Silicon
Silicon contributes greatly to the production of sound steel because of its
deoxidizing and degasifying properties. When added in amounts up to 2.5%, the

ultimate strength of the steel is increased without loss in ductility. Silicon in excess
of 2.5% causes brittleness, and amounts higher than 5% make the steel
nonmalleable.
Resistance to oxidation and surface stability of steel is increased by the
addition of silicon. These desirable effects partially compensate for the tendency of
silicon to lower the creep properties of steel. Silicon increases the electrical
resistivity of steel and decreases hysteresis losses. Silicon steels are, therefore,
widely used in electrical apparatus.
E) Manganese
Manganese is an excellent deoxidizer and sulfur neutralizer, and improves
the mechanical properties of steel, notably the ratio of yield strength to tensile
strength at normal temperatures. As an alloying element, manganese serves as an
inexpensive means of preventing red shortness (brittleness, now more commonly
known as hot shortness). It improves rolling properties, hardenability, and
resistance to wear. However, manganese increases the crack sensitivity of
weldments particularly with steels of higher carbon content.
Unlike silicon, manganese benefits the creep properties of steel. It does not
appear to have any specific influence on the resistance to oxidation or corrosion of
steel.
F) Titanium and Columbium (Niobium)
These are potent carbide-forming elements. Titanium is also a good
deoxidizer and denitrider. These elements are most effective in the chromiumnickel austenitic alloys (18-8 type) where they react more readily with carbon than
does chromium. This allows the chromium to remain in solid solution and in the

concentrations necessary to maintain the stainlessness (corrosion resistance) of

the steel.
Titanium and columbium (or columbium plus tantalum) are sometimes used
to reduce air- hardening tendencies and to increase resistance to oxidation in steel
containing upto 14% Cr. These elements seem to have a beneficial effect on the
long time high temperature properties of chromium- nickel stainless steels.
Both columbium and titanium have been used in some of the super alloys to
improve high- temperature properties.

Chapter - 2
BOILER TUBE FAILURE MECHANISMS
Identification
1)

Short term Overheating (Stress Rupture)

For a specific tube material, there is a maximum allowable stress at a

particular temperature. If the tube metal temperature increases beyond this point,
creep will occur and the tube will eventually fail by stress rupture.
Superheaters and reheaters can experience interruptions and/or reductions in
steam flow that can increase tube metal temperatures that lead to stress rupture
failures.
With ferritic steel, a "fish mouth" or longitudinal rupture, with a thin edge
fracture is most likely. With other tube materials, still other appearances are
possible. The causes for this type of failure are the following
(Fig. 2.3).
Abnormal coolant flow from a blockage in the tube
Blockage due to debris in the tube
Blockage due to scale in the tube
Blockage due to condensate in the tube following an incomplete boil out
Excessive combustion gas temperatures
High temperatures from over-firing during start-up.
2)

High Temperature Creep (Stress Rupture)

A small fracture may be associated with a blister, while a large fracture

could have a thick-edged, "fish mouth", longitudinal crack. The area around the

fracture may have an alligator hide appearance, with significant oxide scale
penetration. The root causes for high temperature, longer term failure such as
these are the following
High heat flux into a section of the boiler that could have used a higher grade of
steel
Excessive hot gas flow through an area that is plugged
Excessive heat absorption from an adjacent lug, or other welded attachment
Partial pluggage from blockage or internal scale
3)

Dissimilar Metal Welds (Stress Rupture)

The weld failures will normally have one side of the weld that responds to a

magnet, while the other does not. The weld crack will be circumferential at the
weld, over on the side that responds to the magnet; the ferritic side. The cause of
failure relate the stress of the two metals expanding differently
And the following
Stress from internal steam pressure
Stress from the vertical weight on the weld
Stress from the constraints of how the tube is supported or attached
Internal thermal gradients, which add up to the total stress. The higher the
value, the sooner the weld fails.
4.

Caustic Corrosion (Water-side Corrosion) (Fig. 2.4a)

There are two types of caustic corrosion: caustic embrittlement and caustic

gouging. Caustic embrittlement is an intergranular attack along grain boundaries

leading to sudden failures.

Caustic gouging is a general eating away of the

protective magnetite film until the tube wall is thinned to failure.

embrittlement is relatively uncommon in comparison to caustic gouging.

Caustic

Caustic embrittlement is characterized by intergranular cracking with very

little metal loss. It normally occurs in stressed and restricted areas where boiler
water containing caustic soda can reach high concentration levels (100,000 to
200,000 ppm NaOH). The most common occurrence of caustic embrittlement is
on tubes that the rolled into boiler drums. If leakage occurs around the rolled-in
tube, the escaping steam leaves the tube-drum interface highly concentrated with
soluble boiler water salts. If caustic is present, then the potential for caustic
embrittlement exists. Three conditions are necessary for caustic embrittlement:
high metal stress, concentrating mechanism and free caustic.
There is no question that more boilers suffer from caustic gouging. This
water side corrosion literally eats away the protective magnetite film along boiler
tubing.
Caustic corrosion can cause either a pinhole leak or what looks more like a
small, bulged, thin edge rupture. The tube fails when the tube is so thin that it
cannot take the internal pressure any longer. There is often a thick deposit on the
inside of the tube, but the leak could purge much of the deposit. These failures are
usually found where the heat flux is greatest and are the result of the following
Condenser leaks
Deposits of caustic contaminants from the feed water system
Upsets in the boiler water chemistry.
The two conditions necessary for caustic gouging are : a concentrating
mechanism must be initiated and free caustic must be present in the boiler water.
Dirty tubes are far more susceptible to caustic gouging because the deposits trap
and concentrate the boiler water. Proper adjustment of boiler water chemistry is
required to prevent caustic gouging.

5.

Hydrogen Damage (Water-side Corrosion)

Hydrogen damage is a serious and costly type of water side corrosion that

affects generating tubes in sub critical boilers operating above 124.11 bar or 1800
psig. Lower pressure units can also experience hydrogen damage, but it becomes
more uncommon as the operating pressure is reduced.
Hydrogen damage will occur whenever acidic conditions exist in the boiler
Clean tubes are far less susceptible to hydrogen damage than heavily
deposited tubes. Certain types of adherent and nonporous deposits appear to
promote localized hydrogen attack more readily.
The failures remove a chunk of tube, almost like a window that has been
placed in the tube. The failure has a thick edge fracture that removes the heavy
deposit that lead to the failure. The failure's root cause is
(Fig. 2.5)
Boiler water chemistry that has turned acidic, rather than its normally caustic
level. Hydrogen damage will not occur under alkaline conditions.
In-leakage of condenser water which tends to be acidic
Contamination from a chemical cleaning procedure
Higher heat flux which helps to form the deposit in the first place. Note
that if the deposit is not there to begin with, the excursion to low pH by itself
will not cause hydrogen damage.
The dirtier the boiler water, the sooner failures could occur.
Hydrogen damage seldom causes any significant wastage of the tube wall,
making it difficult to detect using ultrasonic devices. Sometimes hardened dense

oxide plugs of magnetite dispersed with copper form directly over hydrogen
damaged areas.
6.

Pitting Localised corrosion (Water-side corrosion)(Fig.2.6)

Water containing dissolved oxygen is highly corrosive to many metals ;

therefore everything must be done to minimize the introduction of oxygenated

water into the boiler and pre-boiler systems. Oxygen corrosion can dramatically
affect various components in operating and non-operating boilers. Much of the
suspended crux that enters an operating boiler is the direct result of oxygen attack
of components in the pre-boiler system.
Localized pitting is found where oxygen is allowed to come in contact with
the inside of the tubes, which is just about anywhere. It appears as a steep edged
crater with red iron oxide surrounding the pit. The tube surface near the pit may
show little or no attack. Sometimes there is a series of smaller pits. The typical
cause starts with
High levels of oxygen in the feed water, i.e. poor deaeration at start-up
Filling of condensate in low point, such as bends, when the steam cools
Outages where air gets inside the assembly from adjacent repairs, or vents
being left open as the steam condenses
7.

Stress Corrosion Cracking (Water-side Corrosion) (Fig. 2.7)

These thick-edged fractures can be either circumferential or longitudinal,

depending on how the stress is oriented. Typically the chemical attack is on the
inside of the tube and works its way out through the growing crack. Far less
commonly, the chemical attack exists on the outside (fire side) and works its way
inward. The root cause is the coupling of more than one factor working on the
same location
Contaminants can come from boiler steam drum carry over

 Contaminants can come from contamination in the desuperheater spray

External contaminants come from acidic components to the fuel
Additionally there must be a stress possibly from a bend in the tube
Weld attachments from initial assembly
Or possibly from cyclic unit operation
8.

Low temperature corrosion (Fire side) (Fig. 2.8)

External surfaces of furnace tubes that are exposed to a moist environment

containing flue gases can experience acid corrosion. Certain acidic salts (ferrous
sulfate for example) can hydrolyze in moist environment to produce low pH
conditions that will attack carbon steel.
Sulfur trioxide (SO3), present in the cooler flue gas areas, can react with
water vapour to produce sulfuric acid. If the temperature is below the dew point,
sulfuric acid condenses along metal surfaces and corrodes the metal.

Water

washing can also produce acid attack.

A gouged exterior and a thin ductile failure characterize this form of failure.
When the pressure becomes too great, the pressure inside blows out a hole. The
root cause for low temperature failures are
The presence of sulfur in the oil, which has an opportunity to condense on
the last rows of economiser tubes
The condensing of sulfur and ash when the exit gas temperature is low.
9. Water wall corrosion (Fire side) (Fig. 2.9)
Fire side water wall corrosion covers a broad array of corrosive forces from
the intense combustion process. A broad, general thinning occurs with the surface
of the tube having fairly deep longitudinal and lateral gouges or cracks. The thin

wall ductile rupture will go length wise down the tube. The surface of the tube will
typically have a hard dark slag deposit. The causes are
A zone of combustion where there is too little oxygen
High level of chloride or sulfides in the fuel being burned
10.

Vibration Fatigue (Fig. 2.10)

In locations where boiler tubes are welded to support lugs, a thick edge

failure can form at the toe of the weld. This fracture is circumferential, running at
right angles to the weld. The root cause is
The vibration of the tube, caused by the steady flow of exhaust gases
Along with a lug location that induces a rigid point that will concentrate the
force into a short distance.
11.

Thermal Fatigue (Fig. 2.11)

The flexing action of thermal fatigue produces multiple surface cracks,

laterally across the tube which results in a thick edge fracture. The fatigue is
caused by
Sudden cooling of the tube metal, either from within or externally
Rapid change in the feed water temperatures to the economiser, i.e.
maloperation of the pre-boiler system
12.

Corrosion Fatigue (Fig. 2.12)

Like the previous fatigue mechanism, cyclic stresses produce a series of

parallel surface cracks, however this time the corrosive environment adds to the
deterioration by forcing an oxide wedge into the cracks, further leveraging the
fracture. The thick edge fracture will be coated with an oxide layer. Pits can often
be found on the inside surface of the cracks. The causes have two key ingredients,
corrosion and stress

 There is either induced stress from the way the tube connects to another
pressure part or, there is induced stress from the way the tube is tied to a
structural support,
There is residual stress left over from fabrication
Internal pits from dissolved oxygen or acidic corrosion from the pre-boiler
circuit aggravate the cracking process in the water cooled tubes.
External corrosion in steam cooled units aggravates the cyclic flexing where
the tube enters the header.
13.

Maintenance Cleaning Damage (Quality Control) (Fig. 2.13)

When accumulations need to be removed with force, it is possible that tubes will
be gouged, or dented. This point of stress will be a weak link that eventually gives
way. Some of the most common causes are
Hammering on a tube or its supporting lug
Chiseling at fused material
Poking and vacuuming ash/dust/debris out of tight spaces
Aqua-blasting
14.

Chemical Excursion Damage (Quality Control) (Fig. 2.14)

Initially, the damage will appear as a general pitting of the tubes' internal

surface, but in time the chemical contamination will act on the most sensitive
locations and result in such mechanisms as hydrogen damage, stress corrosion
cracking, caustic corrosion, corrosion fatigue, etc. The causes are
Mal operation or mechanical malfunctions of the pre-boiler water treatment
system.
Insufficient neutralization of boiler wash chemicals prior to returning a unit
to service.

15.

Material Defects (Quality Control) (Fig. 2.15)

When the wrong material is installed, the result can be a stress rupture, and

if the defect is a flaw, the failure may appear as a fatigue failure. In either case,
the cause is Poor QA on the part of the manufacturer
Material fabrication
Storage
Installation
16.

Welding Defects (Quality Control) (Fig. 2.16)

If the defect is most notable on the inside, it can become a failure from the

internal scale build-up, and resultant corrosion, or corrosion fatigue failure. If the
defect is with the integrity of the weld itself, the failures often appear as a brittle
failure, where stress is concentrated in a small area. Causes again relate to quality
control
The procedure
Weld material used
Preparation of the tube ends before the first pass
17.

Steam/Condensate Erosion
When a failure is allowed to continue for several hours or days, the result

can amount to more time and energy needed to make repairs. The root cause is
Decision making in how quickly a unit is brought off-line once a failure is
found
Insufficient documentation to justify the economics of not waiting to bring
the unit off-line to attend to the tube failure.

18.

Exfoliation (Fig. 2.17)

The above list of 17 failure mechanism does not necessarily include all

possible failure modes, and some tubing problems do not necessarily reduce
availability by virtue of a tube failure, as in the example shown below. The
spalling of the indigenous oxide on superheater, reheater tubes and steam piping is
referred to as exfoliation. With exfoliation, the tube wastage is from the inside out,
and the damaged component is in the turbine's internals. The root cause is not
known, however, consider the following
Bottling-up of stream in the tube when the unit trips, resulting in forced
migration of steam into the black oxide scale layer within the tube.
Difference in the coefficient in expansion between the internal magnetite
layer and the tube metal, resulting in spalling of scale when the unit cycles
Quenching of the tube internals when the unit is in a start-up mode.

Chapter 3

METALLURGICAL FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS OF

BOILER TUBES IN THERMAL POWER PLANTS
INTRODUCTION
Although failures/leakages may occur in a relatively low percentage of the
total boiler tubes used in a power plant, they may cause a critical breakdown
resulting in forced shutdown of generation. Failures are of extreme importance to
plant operators, maintenance Engineers, fabricators and suppliers alike. People
learn by mistakes and hence a correct diagnostic analysis of failure help in their
future prevention.
All of the types of failures that may occur and all of the conditions that
promote them are too numerous to list. However, in a broad generalization one
may say that the following factors may cause service failures :
i)

Deficiencies in design lay out, manufacture and erection of the

equipment;

ii)

Poor material quality and deficiencies in fabrication;

iii)

Incorrect material selection;

iv)

Deficiencies in operating conditions;

v)

Deficiencies in maintenance.

Often a combination of the above factors may be responsible for failures.

A failure investigation and subsequent analysis should determine the
primary cause of failure, and based on the determination, corrective action should
be initiated that will prevent similar failures.

Stages of an analysis
Although the sequence is subject to variation depending on the nature of specific
boiler tube failures, the principal stages that comprise the investigation and
analysis of a failure are as follows:
i)

Collection of background data and history

ii)

Visual or preliminary examination of the damaged/failed tube

iii)

Non-destructive inspection

iv)

Selection of specimens from the tubes :

a) For microscopic examination and analysis (fracture surface,
secondary cracks and other surface phenomena);
b) For mechanical testing including hardness and tensile testing
c) Chemical Assessing (bulk, local surface corrosion products, deposits
or coatings, etc.);

v)

Analysis of the evidence, formulation of conclusions and drafting the

report.

SPECIFIC CASE STUDIES

Case I: Failures Involving Tube Ruptures
Sudden rupture of a tube in a steam generator is a serious failure, because the
steam generator must be shut down immediately to avoid (a) Erosion and steam-cut on adjacent tubes by escaping steam;
(b) Overheating of other tubes banks because of a loss of boiler circulation;
(c) Damage to other components in the system resulting from loss of working fluid.
Such sudden ruptures can be caused by overheating.
a) Economiser Intermediate Box Drain Tube
The economiser intermediate box drain tube in the power plant had suffered a
rupture along the longitudinal axis of the tube (Fig. 1). The length of the ruptured
portion was approximately 330 mm. The tube had opened out in the manner of a

'thick-lip' rupture. There was a tightly adhering 'black-scale' on the outer surface of
the tube. Boiler quality carbon steel, conforming to the specification B.S. 36021962 grade Hot Finished Seamless 27, was used as the material of construction
for the economiser tube.
Metrological measurement of the tube had established considerable amount
of 'thinning and bulging" out of the wall of the subject tube.
Microstructural examination of the specimen selected judiciously from the
extreme edge of the rupture covering the external surface revealed "inter
crystalline penetration of oxide scales (oxide-rooting) to an appreciable depth
from the external surface of the tube (Fig. 2).
It also exhibited considerable decarborization of the material, Microstructure
in and around the rupture area of the tube represented globular carbides indicating
"spherodization" of the carbide constitute of pearlite within and at the boundary of
the ferrite grains (Fig. 3). Further, the microstructure away from the ruptured zone
illustrated a ferrite-pearlite structure which is normal of this type of steel (Fig. 4).
In the present case, the economiser tube was placed horizontally. Sometimes
"Steam Blanket" preferentially might be formed inside the tube wall. This in turn,
might have deteriorated the heat transfer characteristics of the subject tube
material, and caused localized 'over heating'.
The tube had failed as a result of prolonged localized overheating. Due to
'overheating' and consequential 'oxidation' and spheroidization the material could
not withstand the working stress, and failure occurred. This type of failure can be
minimized by improving upon the tube layout design. The economiser tube may
be changed into a vertical position instead of horizontal as in the present case to
avoid possible formation of steam-blanket in the pipe wall.

b) Secondary Superheater Tube

The boiler in the power plant used pulverized coal as fuel.

For the

construction of superheater tubes, boiler quality steel (specification B.S. 3059/12)

was used. The tube had ruptured characteristically with a 'fish mouth' type which
was about 39 cms. long and 8 mm wide at its maximum. The rupture had
extended along the length of the tube and was accompanied by noticeable localize
dwelling (Fig. 5). The characteristic features of the rupture indicated that the
rupture had taken place after localized 'ballooning' of the tube wall. There were no
seals either on the outside or inside surface of the tube. Further, variation in wall
thickness in the zone rupture was noticed.
Microscopic examination of the specimens taken from the vicinity of rupture
showed coalescence of fine particles of alloy carbides in the matrix of ferrite
(Fig. 6), while normal microstructures consisting of fine dispersion of alloy carbide
particles in a matrix of ferrite at the areas away from the ruptured zone (Fig. 7).
This evidence clearly indicates that the effected area has been continuously heated
below the lower critical temperature (A1) of the steel for a prolonged period in a
much localized area of the material. Due to 'spheroidization', the material strength
in the affected region could not cope-up with the operating stress at the elevated
temperature for long duration. Thus the tube material was subjected to slow and
progressive plastic deformation under the influence of operating stress and
temperature, which resulted in the weakening of the tube, and its eventual rupture.
To minimize the occurrences of such failures, proper temperature monitoring
systems by installing built-in thermocouples on the tube walls should be
incorporated.

Case II Poor material Quality and Deficiency in Fabrication

The present case documents an interesting analysis of failure of secondary
superheater tube in a power plant due to poor material quality and processing
defects.
The material used for the secondary superheater tube conforms to ASTM A
335 (Grade P5) Boiler quality steel. The damaged tube had a crack of about
53 cms long, and had extended along the length of the tube. There were no seals
either on the outside or inside surface of the tube. No swelling was observed in the
cracked zone.
Further, on dissection of the tube longitudinally, typical crack on the bore
surface was noticed .The bore surface of the tube was also found to be uneven and
noticeable ribs (alternate elevation and depression on the tube wall) were detected.
It was also evident

that longitudinal and discontinuous crack propagated along

one of the pronounced ribs. There was no evidence of corrosion or fitting on the
bore of tube.
Microstructural analysis of the samples selected from the vicinity of crack
and away from it revealed almost identical structures, i.e. fine dispersion of alloy
carbides particles in a matrix of ferrite (Fig. 10). This illustrated that the tube was
not overheated as the microstructure was quite agreeable to this class of material as
developed in commercial production of the tubes.
To substantiate the case of failure, metrological measurements in regard to
the well thickness at different locations of the tube in the vicinity of crack and at its
sound portion as well as the roundness error on the inside diameter at the sound
portion were done. The observations showed heterogeneity in measured values.

The roundness error on the inside diameter of the round region of the cracked tube
was in the order of 0.60 mm. This is represented graphically in Fig.11.
Development of ribs on the bore surface of the tube during tube production
might have a contributory effect towards the failure of this nature during services.
In addition to above causes, leakages/ruptures of boiler tubes in the power plants
can occur due to (a) embrittlement arising out of hydrogen damage, (b) water side
corrosion by feed water, (d) fire side corrosion resulting from combustion of fossil
fuel, (d) abrasives erosion of superheater tubes results from impact by particles of
fly ash entrained in the flue gases, (e) stress corrosion cracking of the tubes where
feed or condensate can collect.
Remarks
The foregoing illustrations have discussed many causes related to failure. Many
failures in steam systems involve more than one failures process the so called
multiple mode failures. Certainly many types of failures were not discussed and
no attempt could be made to illustrate all the types of failures possible. The causes
that promote failures can indeed be many and complex and attempt has been made
to illustrate and discuss some of the more common failures and the related causes.
Usually the most spectacular or dramatic failures are carefully studied while
little emphasis is placed on the common failures. Many analyses of plant or
operational failures usually add upto high separational costs due to time loss
resulting from make-shift maintenance or repairs in order to continue operation.
Thus metallurgical analysis of such failures is all the more important.

Chapter - 4

SOME CAUSES OF BOILER TUBE FAILURE WHEN SEEN

THROUGH A POWER STATION CHEMIST'S EYE
INTRODUCTION
In power plant operation a Chemist is intimately mixed up with tube
failures. It may be due to faulty water conditioning or improper operation. In
general , every tube failure may be due to any of the following three reasons :
a) Material failure
b) Mal - operation
c) Improper water conditioning
In case of material failure, blame goes to the manufacturer, for maloperation and improper water conditioning it is human error.

In the present

chapter, based on experience, it has been tried to show how improper water
conditioning can cause tube failures.
NEED FOR WATER CONDITIONING
1. The main need is to protect the internals from corrosion which cause ultimate
failure. There are several types of corrosion possible, like
i)

Dissolved O2 pitting

ii)

Stress corrosion

iii)

Ductile corrosion

iv)

H2 embrittlement etc.

There are three zones, where same water is conditioned differently. They are
a) Feed System
b) Drum
c) Steam and Condensate

Various parameters are laid by the boiler manufacturers, time to time,

depending upon the metallurgy of the surfaces through which water/steam flows.
These parameters vary depending upon the pressure of boiler and temperature of
the Steam Cycle. In the table below, effective parameters are shown.
Boiler Pressure 60 kg/cm2 and under

Particulars

Boiler Pressure from 60 kg/cm2 and above

PH

Cond.

Silica

PH

Cond.

Silica

7.0

0.5

Nil

Nil

7.0

0.5

Nil

Nil

Feed

8.8 9.0

Upto 4.0

Nil

Nil

8.9 9.0

Upto 2.5

Nil

Nil

Drum

9.5 9.9

Upto 100

Nil

9.3 9.5

Upto 25

Nil

Steam

8.8 9.0

Upto 4.0

Nil

0.02

8.9 9.0

Upto 2.5

Nil

0.02

Condensate

8.5-8.7

Upto4.0

Nil

Nil

8.5 8.7

Upto 2.5

Nil

Nil

Make up

Scale :

Cond. : Conductivity in Micromhos , Silica in ppm, silica, hardness in ppm CaCO 3.

* : As per pressure silica curve

The change of pH 7.0 in make-up to 9.5 in drum is maintained by dosing

suitable chemicals at different places of the water cycle. The parameters are
designed to suit the internals of the system, so that a corrosion free surface is
maintained. The dosings are mainly of two types volatile and non-volatile.
Sr.
No.
1.

Type of
Dosing
Volatile

Chemical Dosed

Place of Dosing

Ultimate Effect

Ammonia
Morpholine
Cyclohexyl amine
Hydrazine hydrate
inhibited or treated
hydrazine

Feed System at the

suction of feed pump

To increase pH

2.

Volatile

Feed System at the

suction of feed pump
&
In condensers at the
suction of Extraction
pump
Drum

To scavange oxygen
&
To increase pH

3.

Nonvolatile

Tri-sodium Phosphate
Sodium Hydroxide

4.

Nonvolatile

Sodium Hydroxide &

Sodium-di hydrogen
Phosphate, Hexameta
Phosphate

Drum

To increase pH to
maintain residual
phosphate.
To decrease pH, to
maintain residual
phosphate

When dosed properly, the required parameters can be obtained and

conditioning becomes proper, resulting in a trouble free service.
MAIN CAUSE OF TUBE FAILURES EVEN AFTER PROPER DOSING
There can be two types of main causes of failures. These are
a) Improper Chemicals
b) Excess or incorrect amount of dosing
Improper chemicals not only deviate main aim of water conditioning it raise
complication also, the effect of improper chemical dosings are summerised as
under with particular reference to the probable impurities.
Chemical
Ammonia

Possible Impurities
Hardness, Silica

Effect or Dosing
Very slow increase in pH
Rapid increase in conductivity.
Injection of silica in System/

Phosphate

Free Sodium Hydroxide and chloride

Unstable pH condition
Increase in conductivity
Foaming action in drum,
Free sodium hydroxide in Steam

All above conditions lead to tube failure,

Effect of Excess Dosing
Chemical
Ammonia

Normal Reaction
Simple addition
NH4OH + H2O NH4OH H2O

Hydrazine

Phosphate

Remarks on effect
Caustic corrosion

N2H4 + O2 = N2 + 2H2O

Effect
High pH &
Conductivity
(Dilution)
Oxygen Scavenging

2N2H4 = N2 + H2 + 2NH3

Hydrogen in steam

Stress corrosion

2N2H4 +H2O = 2NH4OH + N2

Ammonia formation
Na3PO4 + H2O = NaOH + High pH &
NaH2PO4
Conductivity

None
None
Caustic attack carry
over foaming causing
starvation

When we analyse the remarks on last column following points are raised on
tube failure:
a) Caustic attack
b) Hydrogen attack
Caustic Attack
Although the pH of the media is high and safe for most of the tubes, yet
excess of it may cause soap-bubble effect at a particular point leading to carryover
and or volatile caustic carryover from drum and improper distribution of heat flux
at any point due to the same.
The caustic attack due to sodium hydroxide is very much deteriorating than
due to ammonia. Whereas, excess of ammonia may give raise to a possible
formation of nitric acid as :
NH3 + 202 = HNO3 + H2O
The possibility is very less due to the presence of excess hydrazine hydrate,
which takes care of any oxygen available in the system.
The caustic attack due to the presence of excess sodium hydroxide is very
much harmful due to the phenomenon known as steam blanketing, resulting static
or slow moving slug of steam generation causing rupture in the tube due to
irregular heat transfer.
Hydrogen Attack
This is very serious, sometimes we find unnecessary increase in hydrogen
level in steam, this leads to corrosion as per per-oxide theory.
The H2 released combines immediately with free O2 to from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This reacts with Fe(OH)2 and forms Fe(OH)3.

2Fe(OH)2 + H2O2 = 2Fe(OH)3

But hydrogen aid polarization which reduces electro-chemical reaction.
OTHER FACTORS LEADING TO TUBE FAILURE
The main amongst this is unnecessary increase in dissolved oxygen level.
Dissolved oxygen, tends to create hydroxyl ions with the available electrons.
O2 + 2H2O + 4= 4 (OH)
And each hydroxyl ions so form, tends to stabilize with positively charged metal
ions aiding to corrosion/deposit,
M(Metal) = M+ + e
M+ + (OH) = M(OH)
The metal hydroxide which is relatively less soluble has a tendency of forming a
deposit, resulting improper heat transfer and failure of tubes.
Dissolved carbon dioxide present in water/steam forms H2CO3 commonly known
as carbonic acid, this then forms metal carbonates and ultimately forms metal
hydroxide. The effect of CO2 on iron (Fe) is as under
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3
2Fe + 2H2CO3 = 2Fe CO3 + 2H2
2FeCO3 + 5H2O + O = 2Fe (OH)3 + 2H2CO3
as H2CO3 is double in volume the process multiplies leading to further corrosion.
CORROSION
Control of the water and/or steam environment inside economiser, boiler,
superheater and reheater tubes is a pre-requisite for trouble free performance of a
fossil-fired steam generator. When water and steam chemistry are not maintained

within limits recommended by the boiler manufacturer or a qualified consultant,

corrosion damage may occur in water walls and economiser tubes.
Water wall corrosion problems generally can be avoided in boiler if
1.

Recommended water treatment controls are followed;

2.

Corrosion products formed in the feed water system are kept within specified
limits;

3.

Feed water oxygen concentration is properly controlled and

4.

Precautions are taken during chemical cleaning operations to prevent metal

attack.

Deposition problems can be avoided if

1.

Hydraulic test water, superheater fill water, and desuperheater spray water are
free of solids. It is preferable to use DM water for these operations.

2.

Drum internal and drum water level controls are maintained in good working
order.

3.

Silica concentration in the boiler water is held within acceptable limits.

The iron oxide coating in the internal surfaces of boiler tubes is to be

maintained. This oxide (magnetite Fe 3O4) is normal product that forms on steel
exposed to boiler water. It protects the surface from corrosion. The magnetite
coating is damaged most often by boiler water salt that becomes corrosive when
concentrated. Graph 1 show the relative corrosion rate of carbon steel as acid and
alkaline concentrations varies in the boiler water.
In the pH range from low acid to low-alkaline concentrations the oxides on
boiler tubes are fully protective. When the pH is excessively high or low, the
protective oxide is consumed by the corrosive action of the acid or alkaline salts in
the water.

Corrosion rates under these conditions accelerate with increasing

concentration. Thus the primary purpose of a boiler water treatment program is to

maintain a low concentration of potentially corrosive salts, so that the oxide

coating remains intact.
LOW-pH DAMAGE
Corrosion failure occurs when acid or alkaline salts are concentrated.
Hydrogen induced brittle fracture occurs beneath a relatively dense deposit and is
most likely to occur when boiler water pH is too low. Though some metal loss
may be caused by corrosion mechanisms, the steam generator tube usually
fractures long before it has corroded to the point at which tensile failure would
occur.
Some of the hydrogen produced in the corrosion reaction diffuses into the
tube metal where it combines with carbon in the steel. Methane is formed and it
exerts internal pressures within the steel, causing grain-boundary fissuring. Brittle
fracture occurs along the partially separated boundaries. In many cases an entire
section is blown out of the damaged tube. Restoration of proper boiler water
treatment may not be sufficient to prevent further hydrogen attack, unless the dense
corrosion product deposits are removed.

Even repeated chemical cleanings

sometimes will not remove them. Arbitrary replacement of tubes, in the general
areas where metal attack exists, becomes necessary. Generally, hydrogen damage
is difficult to detect using non-destructive means. Ultrasonic thickness checks may
pinpoint some damaged areas, but positive identification of all failure prone tube is
not possible.
HIGH-pH DAMAGE
Ductile failures caused by a gouging type of corrosion usually occur when
the concentration of hydroxide salts such as sodium hydroxide in the boiler water
is too high. Ultrasonic tube-wall thickness checks can detect tubes with metal loss.
Proper boiler water treatment can minimize further corrosion.

MINIMISING CORROSIVE ATTACK

Corrosion concentrations of salts generally exist at tube surfaces only when
these inter-related conditions are present.
a)

An acidic or alkaline producing environment prevails.

b) The boiler operates outside of the established boiler water treatment

recommendations, allowing abnormal acidic or alkaline conditions to persist.
c)

A means of concentrating the acidic or alkaline salts exists.

CAUSES OF HIGH AND LOW pH

The primary cause of acidic and caustic boiler water condition is condenser
leakage. Raw cooling water that leaks into the condenser essentially ends up in the
boiler water. The water source determines whether the in-leakage is either acid
producing or caustic producing. Fresh water from lakes and rivers, for example,
usually provides dissolved solids that hydrolyze in the boiler water environment to
form a caustic, such as Sodium Hydroxide. By contrast, sea water and water from
Re circulating cooling water systems, with cooling towers contain dissolved solids
that hydrolyze to form acidic compounds.
Strict tolerance levels on condenser leakage should be established for all
high pressure boilers. Set a limit of 0.5 ppm for short periods only. Shut down the
steam generator immediately if the plant's surface condenser leakage produces
more than 2 ppm of dissolved solids in the feed water.
Another potential source of acidic and caustic contaminants is the make up
demineralizer, where regenerate chemicals such as sulphuric acid and caustic soda
may inadvertently enter the feed water system. Chemicals incorrectly applied
during boiler water treatment also can be corrosive.

For example, Sodium

hydroxide is used in conjunction with sodium-phosphate compound to treat boiler

water. Corrosion can occur if the sodium hydroxide and sodium phosphate are not
added to the water in the proper proportion.

WATER TREATMENT CONTROLS

To protect steam generator tubes against corrosion two widely used boiler
water treatments are available, however, even in the event of moderate
contamination. They are volatile and coordinated phosphate/pH control.
Briefly, volatile treatment uses a volatile neutralizing amine, such as ammonia, to
maintain a pH that will not disrupt the magnetite coating on the boiler tubes. It
does not contribute additional dissolved solids to the boiler water. Thus, it
minimizes the amount of solids that can be carried into the superheater by the
steam. But it does not give any protection against contaminants, such as salts
carried into the boiler by condenser cooling water.
Phosphate treatment in drum type units maintains pH in the proper alkaline
range to protect the magnetite film and it reacts with salt contaminants to prevent
the formation of free caustic or acidic compounds. Coordinated phosphate/pH
control is maintained by using a combination of di-sodium phosphate and trisodium phosphate or sodium hydroxide to give a residual phosphate concentration
of upto 10 ppm, with a corresponding pH as shown in the Graph 2.
If the phosphate and pH control points are below the curve no potentially
damaging free caustic is produced. The concentrating mechanism most often
responsible for corrosion damage involves internal deposits. As heat is transferred
through the tube wall to the water/steam mixture in the tube, a temperature
gradient is established. That is, the temperature of the internal surface of the tube is
slightly higher than that of the bulk fluid. When boiler water evaporates, dissolved
solids such as sodium hydroxide, concentrate in the thin film between the tube wall
and the bulk fluid. Graph 3 & 4 show that with only 15oF difference between the
bulk fluid and tube wall temperatures, sodium hydroxide might concentrate
dramatically at the tube surface. When porous internal deposits are formed in areas
of high heat absorption, it is possible to produce very high stable concentrations,
because the deposit acts as a diffusion barrier.
This concentration mechanism explains why corrosion damage normally
occurs on the tube internal surface facing the fire and tends to be most severe in the
highest heat absorbing area.

Pre-boiler corrosion occurs when oxygen and pH values deviate from

established limits. Oxygen control is, perhaps more critical than pH-especially
during start-up, shut-down, and idle periods. Low pressure feed water heaters and
related extraction piping often is under negative pressure during low load
operation. Thus any leaking valves, pumps, flanges, etc. provide a path for air into
the system.

Idle units may even become saturated with oxygen if proper

precautions are not exercised. Oxygen concentration in feed water should be

maintained at less than about 5 ppb during unit operation to minimise the
formation of pre-boiler corrosion products. The following are few of the ways to
minimise oxygen infiltration during idle and start up periods and to reduce the
transport of corrosion products to the boiler.
1. The boiler and as much of the pre-boiler system as possible should be
blanketed with steam or nitrogen when the unit is out of service. If a long
outage is contemplated, fill the boiler and feed water system to the greatest
extent possible with the corrosion inhibitor.

Excellent results have been

obtained with solutions containing 200 ppm of hydrazine and 10 ppm of

ammonia for lay up period of more than one year. For pre-boiler systems
containing copper alloys, reduce the dosage to 50 ppm of hydrazine and 0.5
ppm of ammonia to avoid copper attack by ammonia.
2. Make sure an adequate supply of steam is available to the deaerator during unit
start-up so that oxygen can be purged from the feed water. If no adequate
auxiliary steam source is available, peg the deaerator with steam from the
boiler drum until turbine extraction steam is available.
3. Introduce aerated storage water into the feed water system only through the
dearerating section of the condenser, if all deaeration is accomplished there.
4. Connect aerated storage water into the feed water system only through the
dearerating section of the condenser, or through the aerator.

5. Consider a partial flow condensate polisher for cycling units. Its use together
with that of the pre-boiler systems recycles line, permits removal of both
erosion products and oxygen from the feed water during steam-generator startup operations.
Importance of Water Analysis
A comprehensive water analysis program should be maintained to assure
that feed water and boiler water chemistry are held within prescribed limits, and
conduct water tests as per programmed schedule, for pH, oxygen, silica, copper
and total iron, and total solids.
The gas side corrosion occurs in oil fired boilers.

High temperature

corrosion occurs due to the presence in oil of sodium and vanadium, the oxides of
which form flux with the protective oxide of the material, thereby causing further
attack on the material by the gas. This can be prevented by using low vanadium
content oil or by employing certain additives like MgO powder in the oil. The
MgO powder can be sprayed through a separate nozzle into the furnace or
magnesium wires can be burnt in the furnace. Low temperature or dew point
corrosion occurs in oil fired boilers in the air heaters or economizers if the flue gas
temperature approaches the dew point temperature. Sulphur in the oil transforms
to SO3 in the furnace and then to sulphuric acid with the water vapour in the flue
gas at low temperatures and causes corrosion. Low temperature corrosion can be
avoided by controlling the inlet temperature of the feed water to the economizer, or
counter flow existing in economizer with respect to gas is made as reversed or
parallel flow of water, which gets higher temperature at low temperature gas end
and helps preventing low temperature corrosion.
Minimizing Pitting of Boiler Tubes
Excessive dissolved oxygen in the boiler water and excessive temperature
during chemical cleaning can cause severe local attack pitting. Crevices, like those

formed by backing rings, or minor variations in metallurgical structure, may act to

promote localized corrosion. Normal, but higher than the average peak stress also
can contribute to preferential pitting. Pitting attack of various types can affect the
internal surfaces of all tubes. The pitting attack usually is quite shallow and does
not adversely affect the tube integrity, but occasionally it may be locally severe and
even penetrate the tube wall. Crack like interconnected pitting is a common form
of attack, too. Penetrations of this type can develop into corrosion fatigue cracks,
but it is not unusual for them to propagate through the wall as a result of corrosion
alone. Most leaks associated with corrosion pitting are like to occur at or near
weld or attachments.
Prevention
Pitting caused by dissolved oxygen can be prevented by maintaining feed
water oxygen level within the 5 ppm limit while attack by chemical cleaning
solvents can be eliminated by carefully following the cleaning procedures. During
shut-down periods, it is necessary to protect all internal surfaces, wet lay up,
together with a positive nitrogen pressure cap of about 3 5 psig, will protect
metal surfaces from corrosion. Some of the pitting attack may have been caused
by the presence of oxygen and moisture during shut down periods. Those that do
occur usually can be attributed to improper wet lay up, or to the introduction of
contaminants into the heat transfer sections.
Avoiding Steam side Deposition
A more common problem affecting the internal surfaces of steam side
components, such as the superheater and reheater, deposits.

They can cause

overheating failures by insulating the tube from the cooling effect of the steam.
Such failures usually occur as creep blisters at the low spot in pendant surfaces.
But deposits also have caused failures on vertical tubes.

Occasionally, they

partially or totally block steam flow in a particular circuit. Solids carried by the
steam into the turbine also can be damaging.
Boiler manufacturers help limit solids carry over by paying considerable
attention to the design of drum components. To avoid solids contamination from
operational point of view three factors are of particular importance.
1.

The need for high quality Hydrostatic Test Water

Water used for hydrostatic tests will be evaporated from non-drainable
sections during the next firing period, and the solids or salts in the water will
concentrate. Hence, water added to the superheater or reheater should be of
condensate quality and dosed with hydrazine (200 ppm) and ammonia to
produce a pH of 10.

2.

The need for High Quality De-superheating spray water

Any solids in the spray water will adhere to superheater surfaces or be
carried through the unit in the steam and be deposited in the turbine. Since
the source of spray water is the boiler feed water system, feed water should
be treated only with volatile chemicals for pH control. All solid chemicals
used for treatment must be introduced into the system down stream of where
the spray water is removed.
In the event condenser leakage causes the total amount of dissolved solids in
the hot well to exceed 500 ppb, increase the rate of blow down and
discontinue the use of spray water. Use other means for controlling steam
temperature including load reduction until the condenser is repaired and the
total solids level in the hot well is below 500 ppb.

3.

The third and most important operating factor is to keep solids contained in
the boiler feed water from entering the superheater. Steam drum internals
reduce the mechanical carry over of moisture content upto 0.1%. Vapors

carry over is completely selective since it depends on the solubility or

volatility of a specific constituent in the steam. Except silica vaporous carry
over of solids dissolved in the boiler water is negligible below an operating
pressure of 2600 psig assuming that the concentration of solids are within
recommended limits. The volatility of silica is much higher than that of
other solids and it increases exponentially with boiler pressure.
In conclusion, you can avoid many potential operating problems by
continuously monitoring steam quality. Increase in solids level even if
within prescribed limits, may provide an early indication of some carryover
abnormality.
Failures Due to Manufacturing Defects
Raw Material Defect
Either mix up of material or raw material defect also accounts to tube failures.
Due to mix up of material of different specification than designed one comes to the
service and failure occurs. And raw material defect comes in the rolling of tubes
itself and a lap or eccentricity formed thus causes tube failures at elevated
temperatures.
Material defect due to defective rolling of tubes is shown in figures below :

Eccentric Rolling Defects

Lap Formed Tube

Sufficient care during rolling of tubes and correct material selection can
avoid failures due to such defects.

Procedures for failure investigations and collection of failed sample

The causes for failures are evaluated by removing carefully the failed
material (e.g. tube) along with deposits if present. It is preferable to pack them
with polythene wrappers and box, such that no corrosion and mechanical damage
occur during transit. If the deposits are loose, water side and fire side deposits are
collected in separate polythene bags with rigid tags. The flame cut region should
be at least 200 mm away from the region of failure since heat produced during
flame cutting will change the microstructure, if the cut region is close to failed
region. For comparison, it is preferable to have a good portion (about 300 mm) of
the tube (along with deposits if it is present) which is considerably away from
failed region. The samples of materials which failed due to brittle fracture should
be taken out (if it possible) and the fractured facets should be protected by using
rust preventive coatings. In some cases in site micro-examination is carried out
when the specimen could not be removed. This technique is also used for fracture
investigations. In certain cases it becomes essential for the metallurgist or chemist
to visit the site and have first hand information regarding the location and overall
nature of failed tubes or any other components. He has to watch the performance
under the existing condition at site. This will help in the interpretation of complex
failures.
Procedures for Metallurgical Investigations
The tools and techniques for failure investigations are chosen as to suit the
individual requirements. Generally the following procedures are followed:
a)

Dimension and thickness measurement at important locations comparison

with the original or good material.

b)

Standard mechanical tests; usually tensile, drift flattening, hardness etc.

c)

Spectral and chemical analysis of deposits, water, fuel, ash etc.

d)

Investigations with microscope for evaluating the nature of failures special

corrosion tests for stainless steel components.

e)

Advanced techniques; Electron microscopy for detailed information on fine

structures and creep damages, x-ray diffraction for the analyzing of ash,
deposits, scales etc., creep testing and burst testing for the determination of
residual creep life etc. are used for complex case histories.

Data Required for Investigation

The log book is to be referred at site for one or more of the following
information which will be required for effective investigation of failed
components.
a)

Operating pressure and temperature of the pressure parts close to failed

region location of the failed tube, data of failure etc.

b)

Composition of the fuel

c)

Composition of the flue gas

d)

Amount of excess combustion air

e)

Analysis of feed water and steam condensate type and amount of

contaminants in make up water

f)

Normal power output and fluctuation in steam demand

g)

Frequency and method of cleaning water side and fire side surfaces of tubes.
-o0o-

REPAIR GUIDELINES
Introduction
All plant personnel should bear in mind the legal formalities involved in the
repair of boiler pressure parts. The responsible parties, before making repairs or
alterations of a pressure part, must notify the legally responsible inspection agency
and obtain approval before starting the work. The responsible inspection agency
may be the boiler insurance carrier or state or municipal inspection agency. In
some cases, it may be a federal agency. The responsible parties must follow this
procedure even though a pressure part fails during the manufacturer's warranty
period. The boiler manufacturer may recommend a repair procedure, but it must
be approved by the responsible inspection agency. Generally, the manufacturer's
recommendation will be accepted, but the inspection agency still has the legal
responsibility for approval.
Welding Repair or Low Carbon Steel Tubes
Cut out a damaged tube at least 50 mm (2') on each side of the defective
area. The minimum replacement tube length should be not less than 152 mm (6').
Do not use backing rings to weld any heat-absorbing tubes carrying water or a
mixture of steam and water. Without a backing ring, make the first pass of the
weld using gas tungsten arc or oxyacetylene. The weld passes may be completed
by either process, or by shielding metal arc. If access is difficult, use window
welds for repair work. The first pass of a window weld must be made by gas
tungsten arc of oxyacetylene (Fig. 1).
Fit-up of the weld joints is important. Although it is difficult to obtain
accurate cuts on furnace tubes, it is important to get the existing tube ends squared
and correctly chamfered and to cut the replacement tube to the correct length. Use
a tube-end scarfing tool when possible. Allow for shrink in welding. Remember

that the weld metal and parent metal are melted in the welding process and the
molten metal shrinks as it solidifies.
A butt weld in a tube will shorten the total length about 1.6 mm (1/16").
Use a clamp or guide lug to hold one end of the replacement tube in
alignment while the first weld is made.
Do not tack weld both ends of the replacement tube, particularly if the
existing tubes are rigidly supported.
As a general rule, first complete the weld at the lower end of the
replacement tube.
Do not start welding the upper end of the replacement tube until both the
replacement and existing tubes have cooled to ambient temperature.
Alloy Tube Repairs
If a damaged alloy tube must be replaced, it is always preferable to weld the
replacement tube to an existing tube end of the same alloy and the same wall
thickness.

Before removing the damaged tube, check the manufacturer's unit

material diagram and locate shop welds used to join the damaged length to tubes of
different material or different wall thickness. If at all possible, make the cuts to
remove the damaged tube at least 152 mm (6") from the shop weld, thus leaving a
"Safe end".
If necessary to cut out a shop weld joining tubes of different material and/or
wall thickness, pay special attention since all qualified but-welding procedures
require the two tube ends to have the same internal diameter (ID) as the weld root.
In some cases, the thicker wall tube may be bored to match the ID of the
thinner wall tube

 But the thicker wall tube may be bored only if the strength of the tube, after
reducing the wall thickness, is at least equal to the strength of the thinner
wall tube at the same operating temperature.
A ferritic alloy tube must not be bored to match a thinner wall austenitic
alloy tube.
The only satisfactory method is to use a connector of austenitic alloy tube
having the same wall thickness as the ferritic alloy tube.
One end of the connector is bored to match the wall thickness of the existing
austenitic alloy tube.
Shrinkage in welding alloy tubes is similar to that for carbon steel tubes.
Allowance must be made for expansion from preheating which will close the root
gap slightly.
For shielded metal arc welding with a backing ring, it is essential that the root
gap opening be sufficient to assure full penetration and fusion with the backing
ring during the first pass.
For gas tungsten arc welding, a zero root gap opening is permitted.
There must be no pressure exerted between the two tubes.
It is advisable to allow enough clearance to avoid actual contact at the root
gap opening after the two tubes are preheated.
3.

Repair of Tube Blisters

Internal deposits cause blisters on the furnace wall or boiler tubes.
Generally, they occur in boilers operated with a high percentage of make-up
feed water.
A blister forms because an internal deposit increases tube metal temperature
until metal creep occurs.

 As the heated area swells, the internal deposit cracks off and the tube metal
temperature returns to normal.
The process may be repeated several times before the blister ruptures.
Commonly, a large number of tubes are blistered and not noticed until one of
the blisters cracks open. To avoid a massive tube replacement job, particularly
where replacement tubes are not immediately available, work the blisters down to
the original tube radius. Follow these general guidelines :
Remove the damaged tube, then carefully cut away enough of the bar or fin
to allow chamfering the tube end for welding around the sides of the replacement
tube joint
After the tube welds are completed, weld the bar or fin to the replacement
tube.
If the gas between bar or fin is too great for easy bridging, insert a low
carbon steel welding rod for a fin is too great for easy bridging, insert a low
carbon steel welding rod for a filler.
The spaces in the bars or fins, at the tube joints, are built up with deposited
weld metal.
Be sure no cracks exist in the these deposits before making the final weld to
the tubes.

Chapter 5

CAUSES OF TUBE FAILURE

1. Overheating.
2. Erosion.
3. Corrosion.
4. Material Defects.
5. Manufacturing Defects.
Overheating
Overheating can be localised, extensive, prolonged or of a short duration.
Metallographic analysis indicates the approximate temp. to which the tube was
subjected before failure occured. Observation of the grain growth & microstructure
of the failed tube material also indicates if the overheating was of a prolonged or
short duration.
Waterwall tube failure results in a burst with a fish mouth opening.
Occasionally cracks will also appear up to length of 2 Mts. on either side of the
burst.
This may lead the power station authorities to apprehend that the tube is of
the CRW type. Bursting occurs due to excessive reactive force cause by change of
state from water to steam. In case of SH tube failure takes the form of a narrow
opening with multiple stallite cracks.
The reasons for overheating of water wall or SH tubes are,
1. Chocking with foreign material.
2. Starvation due to,
a) Improper circulation.
b) Insufficient flow

3. Flame impingement
4. Secondary burning of fuel.
5. Other causes.
Choking with foreign materials
Foreign materials like mill scales, weld slag, sand, electrodes bits, rust products,
chips, small tools, nuts etc. Which collect at the bends or weld joints where the
internal cross section is restricted will cause choking of tubes. These materials
enter the tube during various stages of manufacture, shipping and / or erection.
Choking of tube with foreign materials will impede the flow fully or partially &
cause overheating.
Precautions can be taken to mitigate tube choking at various stages of
manufacture, shipping, storage & erection. By using TIG root welding for all
SH coils at shop & site, the problem of choking can be minimised by
eliminating the construction at the weld joints due to excessive weld penetration
to check the blocking of tube with foreign material an instrument called
contract flow meter (developed by CE research lab UK, & manufactured by
Land Pyrometers LTD, UK) can be used. This meter can be used during the
commissioning of new boiler to ensure that there is not blockage of & in the
case of operating boiler, it can be used during overheating.
Starvation due to improper circulation:Insufficient circulation in the water walls may lead to departure from onset of
nucleate boiling & may lead to overheating. Which in turn will result in tube
failures. Where the failure are traced to improper circulation, the same can be
improved in the region of water wall by providing additional downcorners /
spider tubes to the existing downcomers.

 Starvation due to insufficient flow:Starvation can occurs in SH tubes due to an insufficient flow resulting in
overheating. This is generally observed in the binder tubes of the platen SH.
These binder coils have a number of bends & are longer in length than the other
coils in the platen. The flow through these binder coils is, therefore, inadequate.
The prolong overheating in such tubes results in creep failure.
Such failures can be avoided by replacing the long binder tubes with shorter
tubes, which in turn increases internal flow, & prevents overheating.
Overheating can also be avoided by allowing cooler steam through the wrapper
tubes of platen to better cooling of the tube materials.
The materials of the bottom portion of the outermost coils of platen can also be
replaced by stainless steel to enhance their life since the bottom most portion
faces direct radiation from the furnace.
Flame Impingement
Water wall failures occurs mostly near the burners. This is due to the flame
impingement from burners, which get distorted in service. To avoid such
failures new burner nozzles such as honeycomb types, which resist distortion,
are now used.
Additional peep holes can also be provided for better monitoring of the flame &
observation of the burner tip.
Arrangements could be made to supply mellowing air to bring down air
temperature wherever necessary so that the combustion front can be kept away
from the burner nozzles.
Secondary burning of fuel:In certain cases oil from the oil gun may flash on to the tubes & then burning
takes place which results in overheating the tubes. Even in coal fired boilers, the

unburnt fuel particles may catch fire at the top of the furnace or in the second
pass causing secondary combustion, explosion, or overheating of the tubes. This
can be avoided by proper control of the atomisation of oil, coal particle size &
the firing rate.
Excessive air
Excess air plays an important role in the heat absorption pattern of various
zones of the boiler. Too much of excess air leads to cooler furnace & higher
heat absorption rates in convective paths. Too little of excess air leads to higher
furnance temperature resulting in higher radiation, heat absorption & slagging
problems.
In oil fired boilers too much of excess air is favourable to the formation of SO3
due to the increased availability of O2 thereby promoting a higher rate of low
temp. corrosion. To avoid such failure O2 content in flue gases should be
measured periodically during operation & adjustments made to achieve design
values as closely as possible. Further, to avoid overheating the flue gas
temperature in different zones should be closely monitored & kept within the
design limits.
Internal Deposits
Inferior quality of feed water leads to internal deposits of salts & silica in the
water wall tube. This internal deposit will cause overheating of water wall
tubes leading to failure. To avoid this, the feed water of boiler water quality
should be maintained within the allowable limits as per the international
standards.
The carryover of salts by steam can cause deposits in the tubes with consequent
overheating & failure. To avoid this, the salts, content in the drum water should

be maintained as per the standard operation with high water levels in drum
could lead to carryover of water drops & dissolved solids leading to internal
tube deposits in SH tubes. These deposits hinder heat transfer & lead to increase
in metal temperature & consequent tube failure. Hence it is necessary to restrict
the drum WATER LEVEL TO THE prescribed limits under all operating
conditions.
Other causes
Mal-operation can sometimes leads to overheating & results in tube failure.
When high-pressure heaters are out of service, the convection SH O/L
temperature can shoot up leading to overheating of tubes. This can be avoided
by suitable control of the excess air & the boiler load. During hot restart if the
flow of auxiliary steam from the drum tap off point is high it will result in a
reduced flow through the SH which in turn will lead to overheating.
EROSION
Erosion is a second major cause of tube failure. The tube wall thickness gets
reduced due to erosion & when the thickness is not sufficient to withstand the
operating pressure and temperature of the tube, the tube will fail.
Erosion of SH & economiser tube may be due to following reasons
i)

Flue gas erosion.

ii)

Erosion due to steam or water.

Flue gas Erosion

The rate of erosion is proportional to the cube of velocity. The ash content of
the Indian coals is of more abrasive in nature containing high silica & alumina.
Due to the above, if the velocity of the flue gas at narrow gaps between coils &
walls & SH coils and ash hoppers below them is high, then erosion may occurs in
these zones. Therefore the boiler have to be designed with 15m/s velocities as for
as possible.

A typical ash analysis data is given below :

Silica

-- 55.5 to 56.5%

Alumina

-- 27.3 to 27.9%

Unburnt carbon

-- 4.4 to 6.2%

FeO

-- 5.3 to 6.7%

Lime

-- 1.37 to 2.16%

Sulphates

-- 0.5 to 0.68%

The flue gas erosion in the horizontal SH & economiser can be prevented by
providing baffles. The flue gas erosion in the bands of the convection SH in the
horizontal pass can be prevented by increasing the height of refractory lining of the
ash hoppers in front of the coils.
Erosion due to steam or water
Whenever there is a tube failure the water or steam from the faulty tube
escapes in the form of a high velocity jet & when it impinges on the adjacent tube
they get eroded. If the boiler is not shutdown immediately after detection of the
failure & allowed operating for a protected period the damage due to steam or
water erosion will be considerable.
Additionally, sometimes leakage from the soot blowers or wall blowers
causes erosion of water wall, SH or economiser tubes. In some boiler, vertical bar
type soot blowers have caused tube failures in the horizontal SH & RH & to
overcome this the sort blowers should be moved from the ceiling to the sidewalls.
Corrosion
This can be mainly grouped into two types
1) External corrosion due to depositing of chemicals.
2) Internal corrosion taking place inside the tube due to impurities in steam and
water.

1) External corrosion due to depositing of chemicals carried by ash.

On review of ash analysis detailed under flue errosion, it can be seen that ash
consists of sulfate up to 0.5 to 0.681. This type of corrosion results mainly from the
deposits of ash on tube surface. The deposits may be classified either as slagging or
fouling.
Slagging
This is the deposition of molten or partially fused particles of fuel
constituents (non-combustible) on furnace tube surface. Though it is usually is
associated on furnace tube surface, slagging can also occurs in screen tube and in
the super heater when molten ash carried over into these solutions and is exposed
to excessively high gas temperature.
Fouling
Fouling on other hand is the condensation of combustible constituents such
as sodium sulphate on fly ash particles and on boiler tube in area of the unit where
temperature are such that the constituents are remain in the liquid state. The
combustibles, fly ash, and flue gas react chemically to form the deposit.
Phosphate deposit
This is also similar to the sodium deposits fouling, which are initiated by the
attack of acidic phosphorous compounds on the tube metal & the fly ash particles.
Indian coals do not contain phosphorous as one of the major constituents and as
such this type of corrosion is rarely expected.
Low Temperate Corrosion
This is caused by sulphuric acid, & can occur in the economisers of some
units if the feed water temp. is lower than about 150C. However the feed water
temperature is most of the utility boilers & the sulphur content of the coal burnt are

such that dew point problems already rarely encountered. Condensation problem
further down stream where lower temperature exists may corrode air heater,
precipitator, hoppers, fans, ducts & stacks. As the sulpher content is more in the
fuel oil & also as the flue gas temperature will be low during starting usually the
air preheaters will be experiencing the cold corrosion problems. To overcome this
problem, steam coiled Air preheater should be kept in service till flue gas
temperature rises above 300C.
Remedy
All the deposits, which cause corrosion of the above types, are easily soluble
in water & will be loose also. This deposit can be cleaned by normal operation of
soot blowers. When this method is not totally effective, water washing during
outage is recommended. It is very important to schedule water washing so that the
tube surfaces can be dried out immediately after cleaning, as otherwise corrosion
will occur. A good approach is to water just before returning a boiler to service. If
this is not possible, fire at a low rate until tubes are dry.
Design Improvements
In coal fired boilers most major corrosion problems are caused by coal ash
with in a specific temp. range certain coal produce liquid ash compounds that are
very corrosive to all conventional boiler materials. This temp. range normally
extend from about 1000F to 1200F essentially restricts attack to the SH & RH .
Engineers weigh carefully the four major factors that influence the severity
of coal ash corrosion viz. Ash properties, ash deposition rate, tube external
temperature, & tube chromium content, before finalizing the design of SH & RH
surfaces. If the high temp. Corrosion occurs inspite of design efforts, the option for
correcting the problems are limited; for example the following remedial measures
may be resorted to.

1) Replace damaged tubes with one of higher Chromium Content.

2) Switch to a fuel with more favourable ash characteristics.
3) Install stainless steel tube shields. These shields will effectively
keep the liquid ash from the tube surface & operate at temperature
above that at which liquid phase can exist. Extensive shielding
however, inhibits heat transfer performance.
Internal corrosion due to impurities in water & steam
Internal corrosion is mainly due to improper feed water treatment. The most
prevalent forms of waterside attack in the drumtype utility boiler are,
i)

Hydrogen damage.

ii)

Bulks under deposit corrosion.

iii)

Corrosion fatigue.

iv)

Stress corrosion.

v)

Steam blanketting.

vi)

Oxidation.

vii) Pitting.
viii) Galvanic attack.
ix)
i)

Caustic embrittlement.
Hydrogen Damage
This induces brittle fracture & will occur beneath a relatively dense deposit

when boiler water pH is too low. The accepted thereby of this type of attacks is that
the hydrogen atoms are produced between the deposit and the tube surface. They in
turn react with cementite a hard brittle iron compound at the grain boundaries of
the tube material to form molecular methane gas, which removes carbon from
metal weakening it by creating fissures in its grain structure.

The pressure of the gas that is formed literally blows the material apart. This
damage is most common where condenser leakage occurs in units cooled by sea
water. Some metal loss may be caused by corrosion mechanism, but the tube
which failure would occur.
ii)

Bulk Under deposit Corrosion

This is caused by the concentration of traces amounts so soluble corrosive

compounds usually strong alkalies, such as sodium hydroxide between the tube
walls & a relatively porous deposit. (60-90 % porosity compared to theoretically
dense magnetite). The term caustic gouging is sometimes used to describe this
form of corrosion, which is characterised by rapid attack & subsequent tube
failure.
iii)

Corrosion Fatigue
Material that undergoes cyclic strain may suffer fatigue failure. The strain

can be mechanical in nature such as vibration or thermal such as soot blower

condense quenching, corrosion or oxidation can accelerate failure in other words,
failure may occur after fewer cycles at a lower level or strain in a corrosive
environment.
iv) Stress Corrosion Cracking
Portion of austenitic stainless steel SH elements containing residual stress
such as stress supports & ring welds are susceptible to cracking in high temp. water
containing chloride or hydroxide compounds & oxygen. Though such condition are
relatively uncommon, they do occurs after because of operator error. Stress
corrosion attack on the secondary SH tube was caused by inadvertent use of a boil
out cleaning solution containing caustic. The boiler was fired only a few hours, but
the damage was significant, and tube replacement was required.

v)

Steam Blanketting: Steam blanketting phenomenon occurs in tubes, which are slightly inclined,

for example flow started slag screen tubes since the steam flow in some what
restricted resulting in obstruction for heat transfer. In such environment if the feed
water possesses caustic soda, it may give rise to general wasting of the crown of
the tube or the formation of grooves at the water line.
vi)

Oxidation
Oxidation of low alloy ferritic steels operating at temp. above about 450C

is a natural phenomenon in the boiler water side environment. All materials used in
high temp. SH & RH tubing are subjected to oxidation, although at different rates.
Problems arise when oxide scale on the tubes internal surface become so thick that
differential expansion between the oxide and the parent metal results in spalling of
the oxide from the metal surface a process called exfoliation. The loose flakes
are hard & brittle & generally range from the size of a match HEAD to that of a
quarter. Loose scale can clog tubes at bends causing their failure by overheating.
Pitting
This is mainly due to the difference in effective electrode potential between
adjacent areas of the metal surface. This can result due to the following reasons.
1. Differential heat treatment resulting in localised difference in stress
concentration.
2. Surface

irregularities

such

as

scratches

&

cuts

developing

during

manufacturing.
3. Different concentration in dissolved compounds. The effect of individual factor
depends upon their relative magnitude & most of them are independent.

Galvanic Attack
The corrosion of the less noble member of a pair of metal which are joined
together is called Galvanic corrosion or Dissimilar metal corrosion. The
effects of galvanic corrosion are often serious especially in sea water power station
as feed water conditions are conductive, since at temperature that occurs in the
high pressure boiler tubing, are very high Galvanic attack will be more severe in
these areas.
Caustic embrittlement
This is due to the caustic ALKALINITY formed in the drum & the scale of
this caustic soda reacts with the metal & may result in cracking at welding joints
where the welding is weak
Material Defects
Some of the tube failures in the boiler may be due to the usage of the
defective raw materials. Though different quality control measurement are adopted
in various stages of the manufacturing, defective materials may find there way in
rare cases and cause failure. High quality of the materials can be ensured by
selecting tubes, which have undergone ultrasonic tests, & by resorting to strict
quality control inspection procedure. Successful waterside corrosion control
requires careful selection of the material used throughout the steam cycle
including the feed water heaters & condensers.
Manufacturing defects
Tube failure may occur due to the defect in the manufacturing process, such
as weld defect, & improper heat treatment. Mix up of material sometimes lead to
failure because of the wrong usage of materials.

Creep and fatigue are very important factors while designing the thermal
power plant equipment. Metals undergoing high temperature will also be subject
both creep and fatigue.
Creep
When metal stressed at sufficiently high temperature it will continue to
deform with time although at a relatively low rate. This process is known as
creep and is of major importance in selecting metals for service in power plant.
This is because at temperature much above 350C (660F) steels are subjected to
this phenomenon. The figure illustrated that the creep process can be viewed in
three stages. The primary stage in which the initially high rate of strain remain
constant over a period of time, the second stage in which strain rate remain
constant over a period of time, and the tertiary stage in which strain rate increases
continuously and which culminates in rupture.
This behaviour may be explained in terms of a balance between the effect of
straining which are to be strengthen the material and increase its resistance to
further deformation and effect of heating which are to be soften the material and
decrease resistance to deformation. Thus strain hardening predominates initially
until the strain rate falls to level at which the opposing influence are in balance
accompanied by continuous deformation until the tertiary stage is reached, where
loss of strength leads to fracture.
Fatigue
Metals undergoing high temperature service may also be subjected to
fatigue. This process is one in which failure may arise exposer to many cycle of
alternating stress, with or without super imposition of mean stress. This type of
failure is comparatively rare in power plant. The predominant failure is creep not
fatigue.

In power plant, it is possible to encounter situation that are classified as

thermal fatigue. In these frequency of straining is given by the number of stops and
starts endured the full life of plant (say 5000 to 10,000). The level of strain is
enhanced by the creation of thermal gradient during operation, and/or by geometric
strain concentration. This problem is believed to involve both creep and fatigue
process.
Factors affecting fatigue life
The rate of cycle loading has only small effect on fatigue strength. Fatigue
strength increase with increasing rate of cycling probably because of the increased
strain rate.
i)

The form of the stress cycle such as square, triangular or sinusoidal wave
has no effect on the fatigue life.

ii)

The environment in which component undergoes stress reversal has marked

effects on fatigue life. The fatigue life in vacuum is about 10 times more
than that in moist air. This clearly indicates that the environment has a
corrosive effect and reduce the fatigue life. Fatigue occurring under the
specific corrosive environmental is caused corrosion fatigue.

iii)

Size of component has no effect on fatigue life if component is identical one

another in all respects such as defect microstructure, inclusion, etc. except
size. However in certain cases it has been observed that larger size less is a
fatigue life. The decrease fatigue strength is more for high strength material.
This is due to more chance of imperfection or stress rises in large size
components.

iv)

Stress gradient has strong effect on fatigue life. Higher stress gradient, lesser
is fatigue life.

v)

An increase in temperature above room temperature decrease the fatigue life

to increase in the crack growth rate. Decrease in temperature below room
temperature increase the fatigue life.

Procedure For Failure Investigation & Collection Of Failed Samples

The causes for failures are evaluated by removing carefully the failed
material (eg. Tube) along with deposits if present. It is preferable to pack them
with polythene wrappers & box, such that no corrosion & mechanical damage
occur during transits. If the deposits are loose, water side & fire side deposit are
collected in separate polythene bags with rigid tags. The flame cut region should be
at least 200mm away from the region of failure since heat produced during flame
cutting will change the microstructure, if the cut region is closed to fail region. For
comparison, it is preferable to have good portion (about 300mm) of the tube (along
with the deposit if it is present) which is considerably away from the failed region.
The samples of material, which failed due to brittle fracture, should be taken
out (if it is possible) & using rust preventive coatings should protect fractured
facets. In some cases in site micro examination is carried out when specimen could
not be cut or removed. This technique is also used for fracture analysis. In certain
cases it becomes essential for the metallurgist or chemist to visit the site & have
first hand information regarding the location and overall nature of failed tubes or
any other components. These have to watch the performance under the existing
condition at site. This will help in the interpretation of complex failures.
Procedure of Metallurgical Analysis
1. Visual Inspection.
2. Hardness Test.
3. Dimension & thickness measurement at critical section.

4. Then take the sample of tube of unfractured zone and fractured zone. Then with
the help of grinder, grind it to remove rust and scale & then polish it to get
scratch free surface. The polishing method is known as buffing.
For which Diamond paste & metsesfluid (lubricant) is used & after that
apply etching agent (nitol or picrol) for 30sec & then clean the surface by acetone.
Then watch the prepared sample under microscope.
Analysis to Find out Cause of Failure
The metallurgist can conclude the cause of failure by studying the
microstructure of the material of both, fractured & unfractured zone.
The normal microstructure of the material consist of ferrite & pearlite, with
the dispersed grain boundaries. In case of failure the microstructure of the material
changes & depending upon the change of microstructure, metallurgist can conclude
the cause of failure.
1. Corrosion
Due to corrosion the normal structure of the material which consists of
ferrite & pearlite will change from ferrite to ferritic & spheroidisition of carbides
occur along the grain boundaries.
2. Erosion
Due to erosion the normal structure will change from pearlite to pearritic &
spheroidisition of carbides occur along the grain boundaries.
3. Creeps
Due to creep the grain growth occurs along the boundaries which weakness
the material strength & due to which the voids are formed along the boundaries &
in case of prolonged period these voids combine & fracture takes place.

Remedial Measures
The corrosion in general is resulting due to the oxygen present in feed water
& the pH value of feed water. Oxygen may be carried over into boiler through
make up water leaks, etc. Even the minute quantity of O2 is capable of causing
sever corrosion in the boiler working at high pressure. Since the O2 content
carried over the steam will go on increasing as the pressure of the boiler increases.
The table below shows how the O2 content carried over to steam increases as
the pressure increases.
Boiler pressure kg/cm2
12.6
42
70
140

O2 in feed water: O2 in steam

5000:1
5000:3.2
5000:5.3
5000:10

Corrosion related problems could generally be avoided if,

1. Recommended water treatment controls are followed.
2. Corrosion products formed in the feed water system are kept within specific
limit.
3. Feed water O2 concentration properly controlled.
4. Proper precautions are taken during chemical cleaning operation to prevent
metal attack.
5. Drum internal & drum level controls are maintained in good condition.
6. Silica concentration in the boiler is controlled within limits
7. Corrosion products formed in the feed water system should be minimised by
proper phosphate dozing & hydrazine dosing.
8. Feed water O2 concentration should be controlled by proper deaeration
employing effective deaerator.

In modern boiler hydrazine dosing is adopted to effectively remove the

oxygen.
N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
The possible measure to minimise fire side corrosion/erosion
1) Modifying the physical or chemical characteristics of deposits with the addition
of chemicals. They may be introduced either by adding with fuel or injecting
into the furnace or sprayed to external surfaces of the tubes. Addition such as
silica based compound, lime, magnesia etc. have been reported to be useful by
way of either raising ash softening temperature or fixing SO2 from high sulphur
coal.
2) Use of coating to improve corrosion or erosion resistance.
3) Periodic removal of deposits by blowing of compressed air or steam.
4) Design modification such as avoidance of sharp bends in the path of flue gas to
avoid local high velocity, decreasing the flue gas velocity to an optimum level
improving combustion condition etc.
5) Reducing the ash content of the coal by using washed or blended coal.
6) Use of thicker tubes or faceted tubes in the corrosion zone.
7) Replacement of tubing with more corrosion resistant tubing.
8) Resistance to erosion should require a hard brittle tube material, which would
be unsuitable for pressure part use. For this reason the pressure part are required
to be designed to allow for a rate of material removal by erosion within their
design life.
Conclusion
It is observed from the various failures at various power stations. Research
Institute suggests them to follow the following practices during operation to avoid
frequent failure of boiler tubes & thus prevents the frequency of outages.

1. Proper operation of boiler whithin the permissible limits of various parameters.

2. Shrouding, shielding the areas, which are prone to erosion & proper inspection
of tube elements during overhaul, may help to reduce the outages.
3. Particular care for operation of oil guns, proper distribution of secondary air and
total airflow & proper soot blower operation may help to reduce outages.
4. Soot blowers operation, proper care to be taken from retraction or leaky poppet
valve to avoid erosion of nearby tubes may help to reduce tube failure
considerably. Wall soot blowers should be properly aligned for hot operation of
the blower considering the expansion of furnace & structure.
5. Sudden variation of loads & abnormal operation beyond permissible limits
should be avoided.
6. Proper purging of boiler should be carried out during start up & after every
shutdowns.
7. Feed water quality should be maintained within permissible limit.
8.

Start up fuel automisation should be checked for its proper operation.