E- Content in Mathematics

Algebra and Trigonometry

Theory of Equations - Part

Objectives
From this unit a learner is expected to achieve the following
1. Learns the concept of
2. Understands that
3. Familiarizes with

Sections
1. Introduction
2. Reciprocal Equations
3. Nature of Roots
4. Newtons Method of Approximation
5. Particular Cases of Taylors Theorem
6. Newtons Method of Approximation
7. Horners Process

1. Introduction
In this session we study the definition of reciprocal equation. We also familiarize with some
methods for solving a reciprocal equation. We will see that to determine the nature of some of the
roots of a polynomial equ ation it is not always necessary to solve the equation. We describe
Newtons method of approximation to find approximate roots of of a given polynomial equation.
Horners process is also described.
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2. Reciprocal Equations
Definition (reciprocal equation) If an equation remains unaltered when x is changed into its
reciprocal, it is called a reciprocal equation.
An example of a reciprocal equation is
2 x 4 3 x3 100 x 2 3 x 2 0.
Definition (Standard reciprocal equation) A reciprocal equation of the first type and even
degree is called a standard reciprocal equation. It has the following form:

a0 x 2 m a1 x 2 m1 L am 1 x m1 am x m am1 x m 1 L a1 x a0 0.
An example of a standard reciprocal equation is
2 x 4 3 x3 100 x 2 3 x 2 0.
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Remark It is obvious that if is a root of a reciprocal equation, then
is also root.

Example 1 Solve the reciprocal equation 60 x 4 736 x 3 1433 x 2 736 x 60 0.

Solution
The given is a reciprocal equation and dividing throughout by x 2 , we obtain
1

1
60 x 2 2 736 x 1433 0.
x

x
Now let
1
z x .
x
Then
2
1
1

z2 x x2 2 2 ,
x
x

so that
1
x 2 2 z 2 2,
x
and hence Eq.(1) becomes
60( z 2 2) 736 z 1433 0.
(6 z 13)(10 z 101) 0.
i.e.,
13
101
z
.
This gives
or z
10
6
1 13
1 101
x
.
i.e.,
or x
x 10
x 6
i.e.,
6 x 2 13 x 6 0 or 10 x 2 101x 10 0
Solving the two quadratic equations, we obtain
2

(1)

2 3
1
x , , 10,
3 2
10
and they are the roots of the given equation.
Example 2 Solve 6 x5 11x 4 33x 2 11x 6 0.
Solution
By inspection, one root is 1. Dividing by x 1 , we obtain
6 x 4 5 x3 38 x 2 5 x 6 0,

a reciprocal equation.
Dividing the last obtained equation by x 2 and grouping the terms, we obtain
1

1
6 x 2 2 5 x 38 0.
x

x
1
x

If z x , this equation becomes

6 z 2 2 5 z 38 0,

that is
and x is given by

6 z 2 5 z 50;
5
10
z or z ,
2
3
x

1 5
10
, .
x 2
3

Hence
x 2,

Hence the roots are

1
1
, 3, .
2
3
1
1
1, 2, , 3, .
2
3

5
4
3
2
Example 3 Solve 3 x 10 x 3x 3x 10 x 3 0.

Solution

One root is 1. Dividing by x 1 , we obtain

3 x 4 13 x3 10 x 2 13x 3 0.
Dividing by x 2 and grouping the terms, we obtain
1

1
3 x 2 2 13 x 10 0.
x

x
If z x

1
, this becomes
x

3 z 2 2 13 z 10 0,

that is

3 z 2 13z 4 0;
1
Hence z 4 or z , and x is given by
3
1
1 1
x 4, or x .
x
x 3

Hence
x 2 3,

1
(1 i 35)
2

Hence the roots are

1, 2 3,

1
(1 i 35).
2

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3. Nature of Roots
To determine the nature of some of the roots of a polynomial equation it is not always necessary to solve
it; for instance, the truth of the following statements will be readily admitted.
1.

If the coefficients of a polynomial equation are all positive, the equation has no positive root; for
example, the equation

x 4 3x 2 3 0

cannot have a positive root.

2. If the coefficients of the even powers of x are all of one sign, and the coefficients of the odd
powers are all of the opposite sign, the equation has no negative root; thus for example, the
equation

x8 x 7 x 5 2 x 4 x3 3x 2 7 x 3 0
cannot have a negative root.
3. If the equation contains only even powers of x and the coefficients are all of the same sign, the
equation has no real root; thus for example, the equation

x8 2 x 4 3 x 2 3 0

cannot have a real root.

4. If the equation contains only odd powers of x, and the coefficients are all of the same sign, the
equation has no real root except x 0; thus the equation

x 7 x 5 3x 3 8 x 0
has no real root except x 0.

Suppose that the signs of the terms in a polynomial are ; the number of
changes of sign is 7. We shall show that if this polynomial is multiplied by a binomial (corresponding
to a positive root) whose signs are , there will be at least one more change of sign in the product than
in the original polynomial.

Writing down only the signs of the terms in the multiplication, we have the following:
4

__________________

__________________

Here in the last line the ambiguous sign is placed wherever there are two different signs to be
added.
Here we see that in the product
(i) an ambiguity replaces each continuation of sign in the original polynomial;
(ii) the signs before and after an ambiguity or set of ambiguities are unlike;
(iii) a change of sign is introduced at the end.
Let us take the most unfavourable case (i.e., the case where the number of changes of sign is
less) and suppose that all the ambiguities are replaced by continuations; then the sign of the
terms become
,
The number of changes of sign is 8.
We conclude that if a polynomial is multiplied by a binomial (corresponding to a positive root)
whose signs are , there will be at least one more change of sign in the product than in the original
polynomial.
If then we suppose the factors corresponding to the negative and imaginary roots to be already
multiplied together, each factor x a corresponding to a positive root introduces at least one

change of sign; therefore no equation can have more positive roots than it has changes of sign.
Again, the roots of the equation

f ( x) 0 are equal to those of f ( x ) 0 but opposite to

them in sign; therefore the negative roots of f ( x) 0 are the positive roots of f ( x) 0; but the
number of these positive roots cannot exceed the number of changes of sign in f ( x); that is,
the number of negative roots of f ( x) 0 cannot exceed the number of changes in sign in
f ( x).
All the above observations are included in the following result, known as Descartes Rule of
Signs.
An equation f ( x) 0 cannot have more positive roots than there are changes of sign in f ( x),
and cannot have more negative roots than there are changes of sign in f ( x ).
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Example 4 Discuss the natrue of roots of the equation x 9 5 x8 x 3 7 x 2 0.

Solution
Here there are two changes of sign, therefore there are at most two positive roots.
Again f ( x) x9 5 x8 x 3 7 x 2,

and here there are three changes of sign, therefore

the given equation has at most three negative roots, and therefore it must have at least four
imaginary roots.
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5. Particular Cases of Taylors Theorem
We now recall Taylors Theorem of the Differential Calculus. It is a method or formula by
which we can expand a given function in ascending integral powers of x. The method (formula)
is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The expansion of the function in ascending powers of the variable is possible.
(ii) All the higher derivatives of the function exist and finite.
(iii)

The infinite series is convergent.

Theorem 1: Taylors Theorem: The Taylor series is

2
n
f ( x h) f ( x) hf '( x ) h f ''( x) L h f ( n ) ( x) L ,
2!
n!
where h is small and also provided that the series converges.
We now give a particular case of Taylors Theorem.
Theorem 2 The value of f ( x h) , when f ( x) is a polynomial function of x is given by
f ( x h) f ( x) h f '( x)
Proof.

h2
h3
h n ( n)
f ''( x )
f ( x) L
f ( x).
2!
3!
n!

Let
f ( x) p0 x n p1 x n1 p2 x n 2 L pn 1 x pn ;

then
f ( x h) p0 ( x h) n p1 ( x h) n 1 p2 ( x h ) n 2 L pn 1 ( x h ) pn .

Expanding each term and arranging the result in ascending powers of h, we have

(2)

p0 x n p1 x n 1 p2 x n 2 L pn 1 x pn h n p0 x n 1 (n 1) p1x n 2 L pn 1
h2
n(n 1) p0 x n 2 (n 1)(n 2) p1 x n 3 L 2 pn 2
2!
L

hn
n(n 1)(n 2)L 2 1 p0
n!
The above gives

h2
h3
h n ( n)
f ''( x )
f ( x) L
f ( x).
2!
3!
n!
Remark Replacing h by h , the above gives
n
h2
h3
n h

f ( x h) f ( x) h f '( x)
f ''( x)
f ( x) L ( 1)
f ( n ) ( x).
2!
3!
n!
f ( x h) f ( x) h f '( x)

The function f ( x h) is evidently symmetrical with respect to x and h ; hence

x2
h3
x n ( n)

f ( x h) f (h) x f '(h)
f ''(h)
f ( x) L
f (h).
2!
3!
n!
Here the expressions f '(h), f ''(h), f ( x), K denote the results obtained by writing h in
the place of x in the successive derived functions f '( x), f ''( x ), f ( x), K
Example 5 Let f ( x ) 2 x 4 x 3 2 x 2 5 x 1, find the value of f ( x 3).
Solution
We use formula given in Equation (2) with h 3.
Here
f ( x) 2 x 4 x 3 2 x 2 5 x 1, so that f (3) 131;
f ( x ) 8 x 3 3 x 2 4 x 5, so that f (3) 182;
f ( x)
f (3)
12 x 2 3 x 2, so that
97;
2!
2!
f ( x)
f (3)
8 x 1, so that
23;
3!
3!
f (iv ) ( x)
f (iv ) (3)
2, so that
2.
4!
4!

Thus
f ( x 3) 2 x 4 23x 3 97 x 2 182 x 131.

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5. Newtons Method of Approximation
Suppose that one root of the equation f ( x ) 0 is nearly equal to a where the correct value of
the root be a y, so that
f (a y ) 0.
But, by Taylors Theorem of the Differential Calculus, we obtain
f (a y ) f (a ) y f (a ) terms in higher powers of y.
Since a is an approximate value of the root, y is small. So the second and higher
powers of y will be much smaller. Neglecting them, we see that approximately
f (a) y f (a ) 0.
f (a )
y
.
Hence
f (a )
This determines y, which added to a gives a better value of the root.
Taking a y as the new approximate value of the root, the above process can be
repeated to find a still better value of the root and so on.
Example 6 Using Newtons method of approximation find the approximate root of
x 3 x 2 x 100 0, which is approximately equal to 4.
Solution
Step 1: Take a 4. Now to get a value of y, we proceed as follows:
and

f ( x) x 3 x 2 x 100
f ( x) 3 x 2 2 x 1.

Hence
and

f (4) 43 4 2 4 100 16
f (4) 3(42 ) 2 4 1 57.

Thus

f (a )
f (4)
16

0.3.
f (a )
f (4)
57

Hence the root is approximately equal to a y 4 0.3 4.3.

Step 2: Now to get a better approximation we take 4.3 as new a.
f (a ) f (4.3) 2.3
f (a) f (4.3) 65.1.
and
Hence

f (a )
f (4.3)
2.3

0.036.
f ( a )
f (4.3)
65.1
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Hence a better approximation to the root is given by a y 4.3 0.036 4.264.

The process can be continued. But, we stop in two steps and accept 4.264 as an approximate
root.
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7. Horners Process
Let
f ( x ) p0 x n p1 x n 1 L pn 1 x pn .

Put x y h, and suppose that f ( x) then becomes the polynomial

q0 y n q1 y n 1 L qn 1 y qn .
Now y x h; and hence we have the identity
p0 x n p1 x n 1 L pn 1 x pn q0 ( x h)n q1 ( x h )n 1 L qn 1 ( x h ) qn ;
therefore qn is the remainder found by dividing f ( x) by x h ; also the quotient arising from
the division is
q0 ( x h) n 1 q1 ( x h) n 2 L qn 1.
Similarly, qn 1 is the remainder found by dividing the last expression by x h ; also the quotient
arising from the division is
q0 ( x h) n 2 q1 ( x h) n 3 L qn 2 ;
and so on. Thus qn , qn 1 , K may be found and the last quotient is q0 and is obviously equal to
p0 .
Example 7 Using Horners Process, find the new polynomial as a result of changing x into
x 3 in the expression
2 x 4 x3 2 x 2 5 x 1.
Solution
Here
f ( x) 2 x 4 x 3 2 x 2 5 x 1 p0 x 4 p1 x 3 p2 x 2 p3 x p4 .

Put x y h y 3, and suppose that f ( x ) then becomes

q0 y 4 q1 y 3 q2 y 2 q3 y q4 .
Now y x 3; hence we have the identity
p0 x 4 p1 x 3 p2 x 2 p3 x p4 q0 ( x 3)4 q1 ( x 3)3 q2 ( x 3) 2 q3 ( x 3) q4 .
Here to find q4 , q3 , K we divide f ( x) successively by x 3 and the last quotient is q0 and is
obviously equal to p0 2.

2 1 2 5 1
6 15 39 132
5 13 44 131 q4
6 33 138
11 46 182 q3
6 51
17 97 q2
6
23 q1

and q0 p0 2.
Hence the required equation is

2 x 4 23 x 3 97 x 2 182 x 131.
We state some results without giving proof.
Theorem 3 If f ( x) is a polynomial and f ( a) and f (b) are of opposite signs then one root of
the equation f ( x) 0 must lies between a and b. [A special case is shown in Fig. 1]

Theorem 4 If the expressions f (a ) and f (b) have opposite signs, an odd number of roots of
f ( x ) 0 will lie between a and b; and if f (a ) and f (b) have the same sign, either no root or
an even number of roots will lie between a and b.
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