Gauss' Law + Examples 2. Conductors in Electric Field

Lecture 4
1. Gauss Law
+ Examples
2. Conductors in Electric Field
Gauss Law
Electric Flux
We have used electric field lines to visualize electric fields and
indicate their strength.
We are now going to count the
number of electric field lines passing
through a surface, and use this
count to determine the electric field.
The electric flux passing through a surface is the number of

electric field lines that pass through it.
Because electric field lines are drawn

arbitrarily, we quantify electric flux
like this: E=EA, except that
If the surface is tilted, fewer lines cut

the surface.
Later well learn about magnetic flux, which is
why we will use the subscript E on electric flux.
We define A to be a vector having a

magnitude equal to the area of the
surface, in a direction normal to the
surface.
The amount of surface perpendicular

to the electric field is A cos .
Because A is perpendicular to the surface, the amount of A

parallel to the electric field is A cos .
A = A cos so E = EA = EA cos .
Remember the dot product? E E A
If the electric field is not uniform, or the surface is not flat

divide the surface into
infinitesimally small
surface elements and
add the flux through
each
A
dA
E lim
Ai 0
E A
i
E E dA
If the surface is closed (completely encloses a volume)
we count* lines going

out as positive and lines
going in as negative
E
dA
E dA
a surface integral, therefore a

double integral
Gauss Law
Mathematically*, we express the idea two slides back as
q enclosed
E E dA
o
Gauss Law
We will find that Gauss law gives a simple way to calculate

electric fields for charge distributions that exhibit a high
degree of symmetry
and save more complex and realistic charge distributions
for advanced classes.
To see how this works, lets do an example.

Example: use Gauss Law to calculate the electric field from an
isolated point charge q.
To apply Gauss Law, we construct a Gaussian Surface
enclosing the charge.
The Gaussian surface should mimic the symmetry of the charge
distribution.
For this example, choose for our Gaussian surface a sphere of
radius r, with the point charge at the center.
Lets work the rest of the example
Strategy for Solving Gauss Law Problems

Select a Gaussian surface with symmetry that matches the
charge distribution.
Draw the Gaussian surface so that the electric field is either
constant or zero at all points on the Gaussian surface.
Use symmetry to determine the direction of E on the Gaussian
surface.
Evaluate the surface integral (electric flux).

Determine the charge inside the Gaussian surface.
Solve for E.
Worked Example 1
Compute the electric flux through a cylinder with an axis parallel to the electric
field direction.
The flux through the curved surface is zero since E is perpendicular

to dA there. For the ends, the surfaces are perpendicular to E, and E
and A are parallel. Thus the flux through the left end (into the
cylinder) is EA, while the flux through right end (out of the cylinder)
is +EA. Hence the net flux through the cylinder is zero.
Gausss Law
Gausss Law relates the electric flux through a closed surface
with the charge Qin inside that surface.
Qin
E dA
This is a useful tool for simply determining the electric

field, but only for certain situations where the charge
distribution is either rather simple or possesses a high
degree of symmetry.
Worked Example 2
Starting with Gausss law, calculate the electric
field due to an isolated point charge q.
We choose a Gaussian surface that is a

sphere of radius r centered on the point
charge. I have chosen the charge to be
positive so the field is radial outward by
symmetry
and
therefore
everywhere
perpendicular to the Gaussian surface.
E
dA
E dA E dA
E dA
E dA
Qin
Symmetry tells us that the field is

constant on the Gaussian surface.
2
E
dA
E
dA
E
4
Gausss law then gives:
so E
q
q
k
e 2
4 0 r 2
r
Worked Example 3
An insulating sphere of radius a has a uniform charge density and a total
positive charge Q. Calculate the electric field outside the sphere.
Since the charge distribution is spherically

symmetric we select a spherical Gaussian
surface of radius r > a centered on the
charged sphere. Since the charged sphere
has a positive charge, the field will be
directed radially outward. On the Gaussian
sphere E is always parallel to dA, and is
constant.
dA
Left side:
Right side:
Qin
E dA
E 4 r
Q
0
2
E
dA
E
dA
E
4
Q
Q
or E
ke 2
2
4 0 r
r
Worked Example 3 contd
Find the electric field at a point inside the sphere.

Now we select a spherical Gaussian surface
with radius r < a. Again the symmetry of the
charge distribution allows us to simply evaluate
the left side of Gausss law just as before.
Left side:
E dA
2
E
dA
E
dA
E
4
The charge inside the Gaussian sphere is no longer Q. If we

call the Gaussian sphere volume V then
3
4 3
Q
4
r
Right side: Qin V r
E 4 r 2 in
3
0
3 0
4 r 3
Q
1 Q
Q
E
r but
so E
r ke 3 r
3
2
4
3 0
4 0 a
a
3 0 4 r
a3
3

Q
We found for r a , E ke 2
r
ke Q
and for r a , E 3 r
a
Lets plot this:
Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
By electrostatic equilibrium we mean a situation
where there is no net motion of charge within the
conductor
The electric field is zero everywhere inside
the conductor
Any net charge resides on the conductors
surface
The electric field just outside a charged
conductor is perpendicular to the conductors
surface
Conductors in Electrostatic
Equilibrium
The electric field is zero everywhere inside the
conductor
Why is this so?
If there was a field in the conductor the charges
would accelerate under the action of the field.
++++++++++++
---------------------
The charges in the conductor

move creating an internal
electric field that cancels the
applied field on the inside of
the conductor
Ein
The charge on the right is twice the magnitude of the

charge on the left (and opposite in sign), so there are
twice as many field lines, and they point towards the
charge rather than away from it.
Combinations of charges. Note that, while the lines are less

dense where the field is weaker, the field is not necessarily
zero where there are no lines. In fact, there is only one point
within the figures below where the field is zero can you
find it?
When electric charges are at rest, the electric

field within a conductor is zero.
The electric field is always perpendicular to the

surface of a conductor if it werent, the
charges would move along the surface.
The electric field is stronger where the surface is

more sharply curved.
Worked Example 4
Any net charge on an isolated conductor must reside on its surface and
the electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to its
surface (and has magnitude /0). Use Gausss law to show this.
For an arbitrarily shaped conductor we
can draw a Gaussian surface inside the
conductor. Since we have shown that the
electric field inside an isolated conductor
is zero, the field at every point on the
Gaussian surface must be zero.
Qin
E dA
From Gausss law we then conclude that the

net charge inside the Gaussian surface is
zero.
Since the surface can be made
arbitrarily close to the surface of the
conductor, any net charge must reside on the
conductors surface.

We can also use Gausss law to determine the electric field just outside
the surface of a charged conductor. Assume the surface charge density
is .
Since the field inside the conductor is
zero there is no flux through the face
of the cylinder inside the conductor. If
E had a component along the surface
of the conductor then the free charges
would move under the action of the
field creating surface currents. Thus E
is perpendicular to the conductors
surface, and the flux through the
cylindrical surface must be zero.
Consequently the net flux through the
cylinder is EA and Gausss law gives:
E EA
or E
0
0
0
Qin
Worked Example 5
A charged rod of radius a has a net charge +Q per unit length
distributed uniformly over its surface. Find the Electric field at any point
outside the cylinder. Use Gausss law to find the electric field
everywhere, and to determine the charge distribution on the a shell.
a
+Q
b
Based on symmetry, E is everywhere directed radially outwards. If we
chose the Gaussian surface with a cylinder radius r, and of unit length h.
On the curved surface, E is constant magnitude and perpendicular to the
surface. The flux of E is therefore equal to the produce E times the
surface area. As h is unit length:
2r E = Q/o
=> E = Q/2r o
Maxwells first of four equations!!

Gauss' law can be written in a mathematically elegant form by formally
representing the electric flux through a closed surface, S, as a surface
integral.
E.dS Q
But, we know that: D = E
D.dS Q
S
Gausss law now gives the first of

Maxwells equations:
This also gives rise to Laplace
Equation which states:
.E
0 r
2 .V
0 r
.D
Summary
Two methods for calculating electric field
Coulombs Law
Gausss Law
Gausss Law: Easy, elegant method for symmetric

charge distributions
Coulombs Law: Other cases
Gausss Law and Coulombs Law are equivalent for
electric fields produced by static charges

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Lecture 4

The electric flux passing through a surface is the number of

Because electric field lines are drawn

If the surface is tilted, fewer lines cut

We define A to be a vector having a

The amount of surface perpendicular

Because A is perpendicular to the surface, the amount of A

If the electric field is not uniform, or the surface is not flat

If the surface is closed (completely encloses a volume)

we count* lines going

a surface integral, therefore a

We will find that Gauss law gives a simple way to calculate

To see how this works, lets do an example.

Strategy for Solving Gauss Law Problems

Evaluate the surface integral (electric flux).

The flux through the curved surface is zero since E is perpendicular

This is a useful tool for simply determining the electric

We choose a Gaussian surface that is a

Symmetry tells us that the field is

Gausss law then gives:

Since the charge distribution is spherically

Worked Example 3 contd

Find the electric field at a point inside the sphere.

The charge inside the Gaussian sphere is no longer Q. If we

Worked Example 3 contd

Lets plot this:

The charges in the conductor

The charge on the right is twice the magnitude of the

Combinations of charges. Note that, while the lines are less

When electric charges are at rest, the electric

The electric field is always perpendicular to the

The electric field is stronger where the surface is

From Gausss law we then conclude that the

Worked Example 4 contd

Maxwells first of four equations!!

But, we know that: D = E

Gausss law now gives the first of

Gausss Law: Easy, elegant method for symmetric

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