14 Grammar

What, Why, and How?
14
GRAMMAR
Adjectives and Adverbs

Appositives
Articles
Commas
Contractions
Coordinators
Dangling Modifiers
Fragments
Possessives
Run-Together Sentences
Subject & Verb Identification
Subject-Verb Agreement
Subordinators
Verb Tenses
Grammar chapter overview:

Adjectives and Adverbs: These are words you can use to modifyto describe or add meaning toother
words. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. Examples: young, small, loud, short, fat, pretty. Adverbs modify
verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and even whole clauses. Examples: really, quickly, especially, early, well.
Appositives: Appositives modify nouns for the purpose of offering details or being specific. Appositives begin
with a noun or an article (a, an, the), they dont have their own subject and verb, and they are usually set off
with a comma. Example: The car, an antique Stingray, cost ten thousand dollars.
Articles: The English language has definite (the) and indefinite articles (a and an). The use depends on
whether you are referring a specific member of a group (definite) or to any member of a group (indefinite).
Commas: Commas have many uses in the English language. They are responsible for everything from
setting apart items in a series to making your writing clearer and preventing misreading.
Contractions: Apostrophes can show possession (the girls hamster is strange), and also can show the
omission of one or more letters when words are combined into contractions (do not = dont).
Coordinators: Coordinators are words you can use to join simple sentences to equally stress both ideas you
are connecting. You can easily remember the seven coordinators if you keep in mind the word FANBOYS
(For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So).
Dangling Modifiers: All modifiers, words that add clarity, describe, or add detail to other words in a
sentence, must be clearly and logically connected to their implied subjects, the grammatical subject of the
clause nearest to the modifier. When they are not logically connected, they are called dangling modifiers.
Fragments: A sentence must contain a subject-verb unit; a fragment is a group of words that pretends to be a
sentence but doesnt actually have a valid subject-verb unit. Example: Since they broke up.
Possessives: To show ownership of things, people or concepts, we use possessives. A common way to form
the possessive is to add apostrophe + s. Example: the books of the student the students books.
Run-Together Sentences: Run-together sentences are the result of combining two or more complete
sentences together without an acceptable joiner. Acceptable joiners for connecting independent clauses
include: coordinators, subordinators, and semi-colons ( ; ).
Subject & Verb Identification: Two of the most important parts of speech are subjects and verbs. Verbs
are words that indicate action or a state of being, words like: write, run, tell, have, be, look, feel. The subject of
a sentence performs the action(s) indicated by the main verb; that is, the subject is the doer of the action.
Subject-Verb Agreement: In the present tense verbs must agree with their subjects: both must be singular,
or both must be plural. Examples: I breathe the air. He breathes the air. You must add an s or es at the end
of the verb when the subject is a singular third person (he, she, it).
Subordinators: Like coordinators, subordinators can join simple sentences but they de-emphasize one of
the ideas. Sentences with a subordinator (words such as although, since, when, even though, because) need
to be connected to an independent sentence. Example: Since she studied, she got an A.
Verb Tenses: Tense refers to the form a verb takes in a sentence, whether to express the present, past or
future.
Adjectives & Adverbs

Connections
See also Commas
and Dangling
Modifiers.
What are they?

Adjectives and adverbs are words you can use to modifyto
describe or add meaning toother words.
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. Examples of some
common adjectives are: young, small, loud, short, fat, pretty.
You can also identify many adjectives by the following
common endings.
-able: honorable, useable
-al: parental, economical

-ful: forgetful, soulful
-ic: frantic, scientific

-ive: festive, disruptive
-ish: selfish, boyish
-less: ruthless, careless

-ous: joyous, rebellious
Adverbs, on the other hand, modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and even whole clauses.
Adverbs can tell us how something is done, when it is done, and where it is done. Examples of some
common adverbs are: really, quickly, especially, early, well, immediately, yesterday.
While many adverbs do end with ly, dont take this for granted: some adverbs, like almost and
very do not end this way, and some words that do end in ly, like lively, are actually adjectives.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Many adverbs and most adjectives generally have three forms: the normal form; the comparative
form, which you can use to compare two things; and the superlative form, which you can use to
compare three or more things. The following chart gives you some guidelines for forming the
comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs.
Examples
Rules
Short adjectives &

adverbs:
Add er for comparative
Add est for superlative
Normal
Comparative
Superlative
Green
Big
Hungry
Greener
Bigger
Hungrier
Greenest
Biggest
Hungriest
Soon
Late
Sooner
Later
Soonest
Latest
Rules
Longer adjectives & most
longer adverbs ending in
-ly:
Add more +
adjective/adverb for
comparative
Add most
+adjective/adverb for
superlative
Irregular adjectives and

adverbs have special
forms
Examples
Normal
Comparative
Superlative
Delicious
Incredible
More delicious
More incredible
Most delicious
Most incredible
Slowly
Easily
Brightly
More slowly
More easily
More brightly
Most slowly
Most easily
Most brightly
Good
Bad
Little (amount)
Many
Better
Worse
Less
More
Best
Worst
Least
Most
Well
Badly
Better
Worse
Best
Worst
When using comparative and superlative forms, keep the following in mind:
Many adverbs indicating time, place, and degree (i.e. tomorrow, here, totally) do not
have comparative or superlative forms.
Adjectives and adverbs that indicate an absolute or unchangeable quality should not
be used with comparative and superlative constructions. Such absolute modifiers
include words like final, main, impossible, perfect, unavoidable, unique.
Placement of Adjectives & Adverbs

Misplaced adjective or adverbs can cause confusion, as in the following example:
Shaken not stirred, James Bond drank his martinis.
The writer is probably referring to the martinis, but the way this sentence is written, it
implies that James Bond himself is shaken and not stirred.
For more information about misplaced adjectives and adverbs, see Dangling
Modifiers.
Adjectives
In order to avoid confusion, try to place adjectives as close as possible to the nouns or
pronouns they modify. Most one-word adjectives come right before the nouns they
modify. In the examples below, the adjectives are double-underlined and the nouns they
modify are in italics.
He made a delicious dinner.
The hungry girls

devoured it quickly.
Their full stomachs pushed against their jeans.
But they couldnt resist the incredible dessert.

One major exception to this rule is when an adjective follows a linking verb (i.e. is/are,
was/were, feel, smell, taste, look, believe). For example:
Dinner was delicious.
Their stomachs felt full.
The girls were hungry.
Dessert looked incredible.
Be careful. Sometimes writers will use adverbs with a linking verb when what they really want is an
adjective, or vice-versa. Choosing the adjective versus the adverb form of the same word has big
implications for the meaning of a sentence. For example:
Adjective
I feel bad. (I feel ill, depressed, apologetic)
Adverb
I feel badly (Im bad at feeling)
Multiple-word adjective phrases generally follow the noun or pronoun they modify, but occasionally
can come before.
The girl snoring in the next room woke up her roommate.
The customer annoyed with the slow service complained to the manager.
Proud of her youngest son, his mother showed his picture to strangers on the bus.
Adjective clauseseasy to identify because they start with the words who, whom, whose,
which, that, when, and where follow the noun they modify. For example:
She had a goat that she loved very much.
His favorite girlfriend, who he thought was coming over later that evening, had just received an
anonymous phone call.
Adverbs
As with adjectives, adverbs need to be placed where the reader can clearly understand the meaning
you intend. Adverbs are a bit more flexible, however. Both single-word and multiple-word adverb
phrases can generally be placed either before or after the words they modify. In the examples below,
the adverbs and adverb phrases are underlined and the words they modify are in italics. For example:
The lion jumped skillfully through the flaming hoop.
The lion skillfully jumped through the flaming hoop.
Before next Wednesday, she needed to cash her paycheck.
She needed to cash her paycheck before next Wednesday.
Punctuating Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives
To help you decide whether or not you should use a comma when separating two or more adjectives,
ask yourself the following two questions:
Can the order of the two adjectives be reversed?

Can the word "and" be put between the adjectives?
If either answer is yes, then the adjectives are coordinate, and you should use a comma. For
example:
Jessica is an ambitious, intelligent woman.

Jessica is an intelligent, ambitious woman. [order reversed]
Jessica is an intelligent and ambitious woman. [added "and"]
If you cannot reverse the order of the adjectives or add "and" to the adjectives, then they are
cumulative, and do not require a comma. For example:
Roger has fourteen silver horns.

Roger has silver fourteen horns. [The reversed order does not work.]
Roger has fourteen and silver horns. [The added "and" does not work.]
Adverbs
Place a comma at the end of an adverb phrase when it comes at the beginning of the sentence. For
example:
After some thought, she decided to buy her cousins used car.
For more detailed information on when to use commas with adjectives and adverbs, please see the
Commas.
PRACTICE
A) Identify the adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences by underlining the adjectives twice
and the adverbs once. .
For example: The one-eyed green aliens stepped cautiously out of their spaceship.
1. Their timid leader tentatively put one fat, calloused foot on the grass.
2. She then gingerly placed the other foot down.
3. She paused, thoughtfully scratched her forehead, and then started to waddle quite gracelessly
toward a dim light.
4. Soon the braver aliens followed her but the more cowardly aliens hung back inside the door of the
silver spaceship.
5. Suddenly, they heard a short, high-pitched yelp.

6. The youngest alien had stepped accidentally on the tail of a small furry creature, and both of them
cried out instinctively.
7. The little alien regained his composure right away and, curious about the strange creature, he
carefully reached down to pick up the frightened mouse.
8. The mouse, still terrified, dashed away.

9. It ran over the sensitive toes of several aliens who squealed loudly
10. The resulting commotion distracted the group, and they didnt notice the two young children slowly
riding up on their creaky three-speed bicycles.
B) Create more detailed sentences by adding your own adjectives and adverbs to modify the words in
italics. For example:
The star punched the photographer.
The reclusive movie star violently punched the pushy photographer.

1. The island was populated by birds that soared over the trees.
2. It was also populated by tourists who stayed at the resort and sat by the pool.
3. The man in a suit was reading a magazine on his morning commute to work.
4. The woman next to him sighed as the train stopped in a tunnel.
5. The neighbors gossiped about the people who lived in the house on the corner.
6. UPS delivered packages to the back door and strangers in cars visited.
7. The students in the computer lab talked to each other and worked on their essays.
8. The tutor helped the boy with his homework.
9. The children ate the ice cream.
10. A bully grabbed one of the cones and stuffed it in his mouth.
Appositives
What are they?

In your essays, you often want to use long, complex sentences to
draw your reader in, to avoid the choppiness that comes from a
series of short sentences, and to provide clear and vivid detail.
While adjectives can modify nouns (the blue car), sometimes
nouns themselvesappositivesalso modify nouns for the
purpose of offering details or being specific. Sometimes these
appositives will be called noun phrase appositives (or NPAs).
Connections
For more help
combining sentences,
see Adjectives and
Adverbs.
What does an appositive look like?
Examples:
It will begin with a noun or an article (a, an, the).

As a phrase, it will not have its own subject and verb.
It will be usually set off with a comma, but occasionally is separated with a colon (:) or
dash ().
The car, an antique Stingray, cost ten thousand dollars.
noun
appositive
Martha, Beths older sister, came to the open-mic night with her guitar.
To the baseball game Roger brought all his goodies: balls, a glove, a hat and a sign.
She took her medicationpain killers and cold medicineand hid them in her suitcase.
Create Your Own Appositives

Because you may be writing a whole new sentence to give just a little piece of information to your
reader, try to make your writing less choppy and repetitive by using an appositive to combine the
ideas.
You might have:
I wanted to give Droopy to the SPCA before she attacked.
Droopy is my sisters ferocious pit bull.
These sentences could easily be combined:
I wanted to give Droopy, my sisters ferocious pit bull, to the SPCA before she attacked.
What happened to create the appositive? The writer noticed that the second sentence, Droopy is my
sisters ferocious pit bull only gave more information about Droopy, who had already been introduced
in the previous sentence. That additional information is dropped into the first sentence after the noun
it modifies. Remember to use commas to set off the NPA.
A Note on Colons and Dashes

You may be wondering when a colon or dash is appropriate to set off an NPA. Most of the time a
comma will do just fine. Sometimes, though, you will wish to call more attention to the information in
appositiondraw the readers eyes to itand in those instances, a dash (which is made with two
PRACTICE
hyphens ) may do the trick. A colon is usually used when the NPA is a series or list of items (I
brought her favorite fruit: apples, oranges and peaches.)
Exercise 1 Noun Phrase Appositives Sentence Combining

Combine the following sentences using NPAs.
Example: I want to take the painting to the museum for donation. The painting is a Van Gogh.
CORRECT: I want to take the painting, a Van Gogh, to the museum for donation.
1. The lunch was cheap, served cold, and brought an hour late. The lunch was a bowl of soup.
2. Maxwells car topped fifty miles per hourbut barely. His car was a sleek Corvair.
3. The student body voted no on the resolution even though it would have benefited them
explicitly. The student body is a confused group of adults whose only interest in common was
the colleges location.
4. The pilot was stranded for twelve hours inside of his jet. The pilot was a former Air Force
mechanic. His jet was a Cessna Skylane.
5. I want to speak on the important subjects. The important subjects are philosophy, linguistics
and chemistry.
6. After six long years Alec finally achieved his lifelong goal. The goal was a scholarship to a
good college.
7. Even though youre willing to forfeit the prize, I think you should wait a week or twountil you
know you wont need the money. The prize would be my salary for a whole year.
8. The bear came to our tent, peeked in, and went on his merry way. The bear was a sleepy
grizzly.
9. Camped around the fire, each of us stared at the night sky. The fire was a glowing source of
warmth. The night sky was a bowl full of sparkling stars.
10. Mrs. Peterson warned us that we would have only one more day to hand in the assignment.
Mrs. Peterson is my least favorite teacher.
Exercise 2 NPAs Sentence Combining
For each of the following sentences, add one or more NPA to give the reader additional information.
Make up whatever you like! (Hint: find the noun(s) in the sentence to look to see what can take an
NPA.)
Example:
The textbook fell from my desk.
CORRECT: The textbook, a giant collection of poetry, fell from

my desk.
1. My best friend lost the race.

2. Bill Clinton took first prize for his book.
3. Joanne told Larry to go for a ride on his boat.
4. Napoleon discovered the trapple.
5. My binder contains one hundred papers and two pamphlets.
6. The dog bit Bill in the leg before he could run into a house.
7. Her shirt nearly blinded me.
8. Abe Lincoln probably didnt use Log Cabin syrup.
9. I like the schools newest building.
10. Cindy took the money to the bank.
Articles
What are they?
The English language has definite (the) and indefinite articles (a and an). The use depends on
whether you are referring to a specific member of a group (definite) or to any member of a group
(indefinite).
Indefinite Articles: a and an
Definite Article: the
You will use an indefinite article when

referring to any member of a group or
one your readers are not yet familiar
with.
You will use the definite article when

referring to a specific member of a
group.
The indefinite article a is used when the The consonant and vowel rules that
word following it (which may be a noun
apply to a and an do not apply to the
or an adjective) begins with a consonant use of the.
or with a consonant sound.
o the neighbors dog
o a dog
o the nice nephew
o a computer
o the mooing cows
o a onetime sale
o the building
o the red hairdryer
The indefinite article an is used when
o the airplane
the word following it begins with a vowel
(a, e, i, o, or u).
o an apple
o an ellipsis
o an umbrella
If you were to say, Juan set his keys on

a table, it would tell the reader that Juan
chose any table, an unspecific table, one
of many.
If you were to say, Juan set his keys on

the table, it would tell the reader that
Juan chose a specific table, one you
may have already mentioned.
If you were to say, Marcus goes

swimming in a lake on Fridays, the
reader understands that which lake
Marcus chose really isnt important, and
might even change from week to week.
If you were to say, Marcus goes

swimming in the lake on Fridays, the
reader understands that it is a specific
lake, and that he goes to the same place
each week.
Plural Indefinite Article - some

You will use the word some before a plural noun (or its modifying adjective):
o some hairs
o some boxes
The singular: I put all of my clothes in a box I found in the basement.
The plural: I put all of my clothes in some boxes I found in the basement.
Plural Nouns
Plural nouns do not require an indefinite article: I love apples, instead of I love an apples. (You
must use the definite article if you have already introduced the idea or are referring to a specific
member of a group: I love the apples grown across the street.)
Non-count Nouns
Non-count nouns, which include concepts and ideas that cannot be counted in number, may or may
not require an article: no one hard and fast rule applies. You can write Kindness spreads like
wildfire, instead of A kindness spreads like wildfire, or The kindness spreads like wildfire (unless
you are referring to a specific kindness mentioned elsewhere in your writing, as in the kindness you
showed me).
Proper Nouns
Proper nouns, which name a particular person, place or thing, sometimes take the article the and
sometimes do not.
o Soda is damaging to your teeth, but everyone still drinks it.
o The soda in my cup is flat, so I think I will throw it out.
o We are going to meet at the White House.
Do not use the before:
o names of countries (except the Netherlands, the United Arab Emirates, and the United
States)
o names of cities, towns or states
o names of streets
o names of lakes and bays (except a group of lakesthe Great lakes)
o names of mountains (except mountain rangesthe Rockies)
o names of continents
o names of islands (except island chainsthe Canary islands)
Do use the before:
o
o
o
o
names of rivers, oceans and seas

points on the globe
geographical areas
deserts, forests, gulfs and peninsulas
Adapted from:
http://www.owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslart.html 3/14/06 10:00AM &
The Brief Holt Handbook, Fourth Edition, Kirszner & Mandell, 2004
PRACTICE
Exercise 1 Definite and Indefinite Articles
Fill in the blank for each sentence using either a, an, or the, or leave the space blank if none is
needed.
Example:
I was going to
the
beach where my cousin Willie lost his board in the waves.
1. Last week _______ seagull dropped his fish onto my car.

2. Maria took out _______ garbage before reading.
3. _______ surfboard cut through the waves as she sped toward the beach.
4. Sculpture is _______ interesting art form, whether in metal, clay or uranium.
5. I love picnicsespecially when I remember _______ food.
6. My house is falling apart, _______ shutters are in disrepair, and _______ windows are broken.
7. The brothers met to discuss _______ possible solution.
8. I went to the lab to work on _______ computer, but they were all taken.
9. Well, professor, _______ alien came and stole my gray matter before I could finish my
homework.
10. This semester _______ same student violated his restraining order.
11. She passed him to avoid _______ confrontation involving _______ police.
12. I want to go to _______ part of Ukraine where they speak _______ Russian dialect.
13. The assistants found _______ theme that meant the most to them, and they wove it carefully
into _______ handbook they could be proud of.
14. _______ airplanes tires skidded down _______ Los Angeles Airports main runway before
knocking out _______ baggage cart and _______ fuel truck.
15. I am studying _______ American history in school, but only after I pass my Biology class and
ace _______ final exam.
Commas
What are they?

Connections
For more help
understanding sentence
combining, turn to
Coordinators and
Subordinators.
Commas have many uses in the English language. They are

responsible for everything from setting apart items in a series to
making your writing clearer and preventing misreading. Correct
comma use is a difficult skill to master since it requires a
combination of grammar knowledge and independent stylistic
judgment.
Sentence Combining
When you are joining ideas, phrases or clauses within a sentence, you often will use a comma for
punctuation.
An independent clause, also known as a simple sentence, is a group of words that contains a
subject and a verb AND can stand alone as a sentence. For example
The child went to the dentist.

His girlfriend is angry.
She will buy a new pair of shoes.
You can join an independent clause with another independent clause using a coordinator (FANBOYS)
and a comma:
Angelo rides his bike, and Mary takes the bus.

Marguerite grabbed the diamonds, but Oliver sold them on
You can easily remember

the seven coordinators by
keeping in mind the word
FANBOYS :
For
But
And
Or
Yet
Nor
So
the black market.
A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb BUT it cannot stand alone
because it starts with a subordinator, words like although, while, since, because, if, until, after. For
example:
When the child went to the dentist

Because his girlfriend is angry
Although she will buy new shoes
You will use a comma after a dependent clause to join it to the independent clause that finishes the
thought:
Even though Michael was allowed to go to the concert, his mother made sure he had completed all his
homework.
However, if you reverse the order and put the independent clause first and the dependent clause
second, you do not need a comma:
His mother made sure he had completed all his homework even though Michael was allowed to go to
the game.
Series
You will use commas to separate items in a series containing three or more coordinate elements.
Ron, Maria, and Jessica play soccer every day after school.
My favorite vegetables are Brussels sprouts, spinach, and cauliflower.
I want either fettuccini alfredo, eggplant parmesan, or the linguine with clams in a white sauce.
You will use commas to separate items in a series of two or more coordinate adjectivesadjectives
modifying the same idea independent of each other.
It should be a slow, lazy day.

Seven years passed in a destructive, whirling blur.
He brought his sleek, shiny bicycle.
Commas are not required when the adjectives are cumulative, or when they describe different
aspects of the same noun.
Donnie sold me ten gold bowling balls.

My favorites are the lazy white clouds.
He ordered a delicious chocolate cake for the party.
Comma-Adjective Rule
To help you decide whether or not you should use a comma when separating two or more
adjectives, ask yourself the following two questions:
Can the order of the two adjectives be reversed?

Can the word and be put between the adjectives?
If either answer is yes, then the adjectives are coordinate, and you should use a comma.
Jessica is an ambitious, intelligent woman.

o Jessica is an intelligent, ambitious woman. [order reversed]
o Jessica is an intelligent and ambitious woman. [added and]
If you cannot reverse the order of or add and to the adjectives, then they are cumulative, and do not
require a comma.
Roger has fourteen silver horns.

o Roger has silver fourteen horns. [The reversed order does not work.]
o Roger has fourteen and silver horns. [The added and does not work.]
Setting off Nonessential Elements

Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term,
while others are nonessential and do not restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential
elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas.
Nonessential
(Nonrestrictive)
Students, who use the majority of the

Health Centers services, claim to be
especially sick this year.
Essential
(Restrictive)
Students who play any school sport

will receive free tickets to final game.
Only students who play a school

All students claim to be sick this year. sport receive the tickets, not all
students.
The professor, with a wink, dismissed The professor with no students is
her class early.
good for very little.
Removing the phrase with a wink
doesnt change the meaning of the
sentence.
The prepositional phrase with no

students tells what kind of professor
is good for very little; it is essential.
Popular politicians, campaigning in

every small town in America, wave
the American flag and kiss babies.
The politician campaigning for

president has no time for a
meaningful personal life.
The Big Lebowski, a 1997 Coen

Brothers film, is a modern mystery
and a Western rolled into one.
The great American movie The Big

Lebowski popularized the nickname
Dude.
When deciding whether information is nonessential or essential, ask yourself this question:
Is the modifier essential to the meaning of the noun or subject it modifies?

NO: Nonrestrictive (use commas)
YES: Restrictive (no commas)
Transitional Words and Phrases

Transitional words and phrases qualify, clarify, and make connections between ideas. They are
usually set off with commas when they introduce, interrupt, or come at the end of a clause.
Transitions
however
therefore
thus
nevertheless
furthermore
for example
on the other hand
typically speaking
as a result
alternatively
Nevertheless, she took the bus knowing it would be late.

On the other hand, money is money and I have to pay my rent.
Rare horses, however, are something I would consider buying.
Note: When you use a transitional word to combine two independent clauses, you must use a
semicolon or punctuate them as two separate sentences.
Diamonds are rare; however, the coal that makes them is abundant.
The best dogs raced first; therefore, the spectators all went home before it rained.
Laughter is the best medicine; of course, penicillin also comes in handy sometimes.
I wanted to finish quickly. Unfortunately, I still had three exams afterward.
Quotations
In most cases, use commas to set off a direct quotation from the identifying tag (he said, she
screamed, I wrote and so on).
Thoreau said, To be awake is to be alive.

To be awake is to be alive, Thoreau said.
To be awake, Thoreau said, is to be alive.
To be awake is to be alive, Thoreau said. I have never yet met a man who was quite
awake.
If the quoted text contains an exclamation point or a question mark, do not use a comma in addition:
Should we bring the casserole tonight? he asked.

I love those children! the father screamed.
Adapted from:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_commaess.html 3/23/06 1:00PM &
The Brief Holt Handbook, Fourth Edition, Kirszner & Mandell, 2004
PRACTICE
Exercise 1 Commas Dependent & Independent Clauses
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will not require one.
Examples:
Although my mother told me not to get her a gift , I decided to make her a scrapbook.
I want to give more money to her charity, but I think the IRS already took too much of my salary.
1. Lately Katherine has wanted more companionship even though she rather likes to be alone.
2. Jerry vies for her attention but she has so much on her own mind as she suffers through this
ordeal.
3. But whereas Alec acts like a friend he also wants Katherines admiration.
4. So that she will be found innocent Miss Smatter will write anothers confession.
5. Jerry eats his sandwich as coolly as the others do yet he cant shake the feeling of deception
and mistrust.
6. Sabrina thinks that the apartments rent is trivial while Kelly thinks it crucial.
7. Although Rachel has little say in the matter her friends could use the advice.
8. Because her dog was hit by a car he walks with a substantial limp.
9. The doctor set it with pins and even though he didnt scratch at it he was still forced to wear a
giant collar.
10. Either the bill is paid within the month or the doctor will send a collection agency for the
money.
Exercise 2 Commas Series and Adjectives

Example:
I want to pick fragrant, colorful daffodils, roses, and lilies for my sisters birthday party.
1. Lately Martin has been picking giant swollen mushrooms from his yard.
2. Sue won the Vegetable Prize of the Day that included carrots turnips and leeks.
3. Most people dont know that their favorite chips contain preservatives artificial flavors and
MSG.
4. The three tall brothers took the brilliant shining vitamins before playing sports.
5. Watching movies reading books sleeping and exercising are my favorite weekend activities.
Exercise 3 Commas Essential and Nonessential Items

Example:
The racing fans, who rarely wave pennants, showed up in full force on Sunday.
1. Shelly my mothers step-sister gave me thirty dollars last week.

2. The campus police who rarely arrest any faculty members are responsible for patrolling all
night long.
3. The man walking his dog down the street looks like my great-uncle Ted.
4. My grandmother with a terrible scream alerted me to the fire in her closet.
5. Doug gave me three helpings of dessert which was a crme brle.
6. Speaking as if he was consumed with fury Louis yelled to the audience.
7. The actor with no siblings starred in the blockbuster movie Grammar Cop.
8. The helicopter a Grasker A-7 flew over the otherwise empty desert where two thousand troops
slept silently awaiting orders.
9. Without a warrant the police cannot enter your house provided you dont taunt them from
within.
10. Sonnys Blues the famous story by Baldwin contains rich allegory that weaves along with
fascinating symbolism a rich fabric of text accessible to most readers.
Exercise 4 Commas Transitions

Add commas and/or semicolons where necessary in the sentences below.
Example:
Nevertheless, I wanted to go to the farm to see the llamas.
1. I didnt want to see the whole country however I did want to visit the biggest states and
prettiest parks.
2. On the other hand Martin said that Oklahoma is worth skipping.
3. Alternatively I dream about the open road even if it is scary sometimes.
4. My car takes five quarts of oil typically speaking.
5. I made the motel reservations already therefore I should leave next week.
6. Pharmaceuticals as a result are becoming more and more expensive.
7. Thus I will need to buy a new car before I set off on Sunday.
Contractions
What are they?

Apostrophes can show possession (the girls hamster is strange),
and also can show the omission of one or more letters when
words are combined into contractions. You would use a contraction
to shorten and combine words. This is a list of the most common
contractions.
Long Form
I am
I had
I have
it is
we will
they will
we are
they are
do not
does not
did not
let us
is not
are not
should not
will not
cannot
would not
could not
you would
who is
Connections
For more help with
contractions, see
Possessives.
Contraction
Im
Id
Ive
its
well
theyll
were
theyre
dont
doesnt
didnt
lets
isnt
arent
shouldnt
wont
cant
wouldnt
couldnt
youd
whos
In formal writing, contractions are not used as frequently (if at all). Some instructors allow contractions
in assignments, and some do not. You should check with them about their policy if it is not clear from
the syllabus. If you do use contractions, however, be sure to include the apostrophe in place of the
letters you omit.
PRACTICE
Exercise 1 Contractions
In each of the sentences below, combine the words in long form into contractions.
Example: When John returns, he (will not) ___________ want to eat dinner.
Correct: When John returns, he wont want to eat dinner.
1. The team is busy typing at the desk, but (they are) _____________ not going to stay long.
2. It (is not) _________ that their parents are mean, but they (do not) _______ spend any time
with them.
3. (You would) ______________ have to be crazy to eat that fast food.
4. Paragraphs (are not) _____________ my favorite thing to study, but they beat spelling.
5. In two more days (we will) ____________ be sailing around the world.
6. The second student from the left (would not) ____________turn in his test on time.
7. (Let us) __________ see what (I am) _______ doing next week so I (do not) _________
double-book.
8. (Who is) ___________ coming to the party tomorrow?
9. This really (is not) ____________ what I envisioned when I agreed to get paid.
10. The co-op (does not) ______________ have any cereal unless (you are) __________ buying it
in bulk.
11. In fact, (it is) _________ cheaper, healthier, and (should not) ____________ be any less fresh.
12. (I have) ______________ had a good experience at that store.
13. The food I brought home (would not) ________________ ever go to waste.
14. (They will) ______________ bag it for you and (will not) _____________ drop anything.
15. (I am) ________ a fan of going to a co-op like this instead of the large chain stores.
Adapted from Fog City Fundamentals, Fourth Edition, Altman & Deicke, 1998
Coordinators
What are they?
Coordinators are words you can use to join simple sentences
Connections
See also the
Subordinators and
Commas.
(aka independent clauses) and show the logical connections

between ideas.
Use coordinators when you want to equally stress both ideas
you are connecting; if instead you want to de-emphasize one
of the ideas, use a subordinator.
You can easily remember the seven coordinators if you keep in mind the word FANBOYS:
Coordinators
Logical
Relationship
Sample sentences
FOR
Cause/Effect
I expect to see lots of green on Friday,

for it is St.Patricks Day.
AND
Addition
The Irish bars will be packed, and the

beer will be flowing.
NOR
Addition of negatives
I wont drink green beer, nor will I drink

a Shamrock Shake.
BUT
Contrast
I like the color green, but I dont think

its an appetizing color for a beverage.
OR
Alternative
Guinness is always a good choice, or

if youre driving, water is a better
choice.
YET
Condition
I have to wake up early the next

morning, yet I dont want to be antisocial.
SO
Cause/Effect
One of my friends is having a party, so

I will probably drop by for a while.
Punctuation
Unless the clauses are quite short, put a comma before the conjunction when it joins two independent
clauses.
She brought home a big bag of Halloween candy that should have lasted weeks, but by the
next day her little brother had eaten it all.
Hes tall but shes short.
Exercises
Join the following sentences with the coordinator that most clearly expresses the logical relationship
between the two ideas being connected. Hint: you should use each coordinator only once.
, but he he
For Example: Calvin had his heart set on being a physics major. He was horrible at math.
1. He could not understand geometry. He could not understand physics.
2. He took extra classes. The tutor couldnt seem to help.
3. He worked incredibly hard. Everyone in the math department was willing to help him.
4. He realized he would have to improve. He was going to have to give up his ambition to
become a great physicist.
5. The other students could build catapults out of popsicle sticks and rubber bands. Calvins
catapult couldnt even launch a pebble.
6. Calvins experiments were always unique. They proved that some basic law of nature no
longer existed.
7. Calvin finally realized that he did not have it in him to be the next Stephen Hawking. He
changed his major to English.
Dangling Modifiers
What are they?

All modifiers, words that add clarity, describe, or add detail to other
words in a sentence, must be clearly and logically connected to their
implied subjects, the grammatical subject of the clause nearest to
the modifier. For example, in the following sentences we can easily
connect the underlined modifiers with their implied subjects, which
are underlined twice.
Connections
See also the
Identifying Verbs &
Subjects and
Adjectives &
Adverbs.
Happy with her new hula hoop, the young girl skipped down the street.
Invigorated by the sunny weather, we decided to go on a picnic in Golden Gate Park.
Before buying a hybrid car, my brother used to ride a motorcycle.
But sometimes, when writers use modifiers carelessly, their implied subjects are illogical. For
example:
In examining his argument closely, the point at which he went wrong can be seen.
To network more effectively, Scientology is practiced by many actors.
Polite and respectful, the visiting teacher was impressed with the childrens manners.
The way the first two sentences are written, they imply that the point somehow examined his
argument and that Scientology is trying to network more effectively neither of these ideas make any
sense. The third sentence, while not as obviously illogical, suggests that the visiting teacher was
polite and respectful, not the childrenalmost certainly not what the writer intends.
Misleading or illogical constructions like these are called dangling modifiers. Dangling modifiers most
often come at the beginning of a sentence, as in the examples above, but they can also come at the
end of a sentence.
In my English class, attendance was stressed, taking off points for late arrivals and early
departures.
The way this sentence is written, it implies that attendance takes points off for late arrivals and early
departuresan illogical statement.
Fixing Dangling Modifiers
In order to fix a dangling modifier, you need to revise your sentence so that the implied subject
makes sense. You can do this by asking yourself who is logically doing the action of the
modifier? For example:
Original Sentence
In examining his argument closely, the
point at which he went wrong can be
seen.
Revised Sentence
Who is examining his argument? we
In examining his argument closely, we can
see the point at which he went wrong.
To network more effectively, Scientology Who is trying to network more effectively? actors
is practiced by many actors.
To network more effectively, many actors practice
Scientology.
Polite and respectful, the visiting
teacher was impressed with the
childrens manners.
Who is polite and respectful? the children
In my English class, attendance was

stressed, taking off points for late
arrivals and early departures.
Who stresses attendance? the teacher
Polite and respectful, the children

impressed the visiting teacher with their
manners.
In my English class, the teacher stressed

attendance, taking off points for late arrivals and
early departures.
PRACTICE
Read each sentence, underlining the introductory modifier and double-underlining the implied subject. Does
the modifier logically connect with the implied subject? If the implied subject does not make sense, revise the
sentence.
For example:Thought to have originated in the Indian Subcontinent, Eastern Europe is now home to
many Roma, better known as gypsies.
(Is Eastern Europe thought to have originated in India? No, the Roma are, so we need to revise this
sentence.)
Revised: Thought to have originated in the Indian Subcontinent, many Roma, better known as
gypsies, now live in Eastern Europe.
1. Reacting with suspicion and hostility to the Romas distinct culture and nomadic lifestyles, they have
historically been discriminated against by some native Europeans.
2. Taken to the extreme, persecution included enslavement and executions.
3. Known as the Porajmos, or the devouring, in World War II, the Nazis carried out an attempted genocide
that killed between 200,000 and 800,000 Roma.
4. Derogatory stereotypes are still perpetuated, characterizing the Roma as tramps and thieves.
5. Both embodying and transcending the sadness of this history, an important expression of traditional Rom
culture is music.
6. Developed in Spanish Roma communities, the outside world is probably most familiar with flamenco music.
7. Brought to the Americas, Roma music has contributed to Cuban salsa, mambo, rumba and guajira music:
Mexican mariachi music; and even American country music.
8. A celebration of the range and vitality of gypsy music, the Roma director Tony Gatlif made the excellent
documentary Latcho Drom.
Fragments
Connections
For a more detailed
discussion of these
In English, a sentence must contain a subject-verb unit; a fragment is a group
of words
that
terms,
see the
pretends to be a sentence but doesnt actually have a valid subject-verb unit.
Subjects & Verbs
and Subordinators.
Common Sources of Fragments
What are they?
1. The fragment is a dependent clause, a group of words that contains a subject-verb unit but
cannot stand alone because it begins with a subordinator. For example:
Since they broke up

Although I am her cousin
Unless you stop doing that
Because he was tired
Other common subordinators include: though, even though, while, whereas before, after, if,
when, as soon as.
2. The fragment is a phrase, a group of words that does not contain a subject-verb unit. Many
times, phrases are easy to identify. For example:
A long, strange trip

Lost in the supermarket
Jenny from the block
The richest man in Babylon
Two types of phrases can be a bit trickier to spot, however, because they contain words
that look like verbs but arent acting as part of a valid subject-verb unit:
A. -ing phrases: Without a form of the verb to be, ing words cannot be part of the
subject-verb unit. For example:
The man eating a fig

The coyote howling at the moon
B. Who, whom etc. phrases: Verbs that are separated from the subject by the words
who, whom, whose, when, where, that, and which cannot be part of the subjectverb unit. For example:
The woman who disobeyed

The apple that she ate
The garden which she had to leave
Strategies for Fixing Fragments

In order to turn a fragment into a complete sentence, you have a couple of options.
1. Often you simply need to combine a fragment with a neighboring sentence to produce a
grammatically complete sentence. For example:
Fragment (in italics)
Complete sentence
Rocio made that mistake too. But only

when she wasnt paying attention.
Rocio made that mistake too, but only

when she wasnt paying attention.
Daydreaming about the weekend. I missed Daydreaming about the weekend, I missed
my exit.
my exit.
My chatty next door neighbor. She loves to
gossip.
My chatty next door neighbor loves to

gossip.
Ive never been back to El Salvador. Since

I left ten years ago.
Ive never been back to El Salvador since I

left ten years ago.
2. Other times, youll need to complete the sentence by supplying the missing subject or verb, or by
attaching an independent clause
Fragment (in italics)
Complete sentence
A laboratory for the study of animal life in

the South Pacific.
A laboratory for the study of animal life is

situated in the South Pacific.
The girl who wanted an A in her English

class.
The girl who wanted an A in her English

class re-wrote each essay three times.
The man thoughtfully scratching his beard.
The man was thoughtfully scratching his

beard.
Since I only had a cookie for breakfast.
Since I only had a cookie for breakfast, I

was starving by lunchtime.
PRACTICE
A) Read the following groups of words and determine if they are grammatically complete
sentences or if they are fragments.
For example: Going to community college
fragment
1. A noticeable mistake which was on the flyer

2. Whenever I get tired of doing my math homework
3. The building across from the library is condemned
4. My roommate who intends to finish college in four years
5. My other roommate has been in college seven years
6. Before the semester began
7. The teacher who liked to listen to the sound of his own voice
8. Because mid-terms are just about to start
9. If I could be left alone to do my homework
10. Although I dont usually enjoy hard work, I love studying Japanese
11. Listening to tapes in the language lab is really time consuming
12. The boy typed on the Mac in the computer lab
13. The essay that I have to write
14. While I was eating my lunch at the campus center
B) Read the following sentences and fix any fragments you find.
For example: Sometimes, life is like a movie. A cheesy romantic comedy to be exact.
Sometimes, life is like a movie, a cheesy romance comedy to be exact.
1. Anxious about his love life. He decided to visit a fortune-teller.
2. The fortune-teller asked for fifty dollars. And the names of his favorite movie stars.
3. Consulted her astrology charts and closely examined his palms.
4. She predicted someone important would soon come into his life. A tall, dark stranger.
5. While he was skeptical that such a clichd prediction could come true.
6. The day that he would meet the stranger was cold and foggy. He was sipping hot chocolate at his
favorite caf.
7. The stranger who would change his life. She walked in the door and ordered a hot chai.
8. She asked if she could share his table. Because the other tables were full of students studying for
their midterms.
9. Looking up from his crossword. He smiled and said yes.
10. As she sat down in the table across from him.
C) Now, read the following paragraph and a) underline any sentence fragments that you find b) fix
these fragments by combining them with adjacent sentences or supplying missing words.
In The Lottery, author Shirley Jackson implies that human beings are mindless, static
creatures. Who cannot or will not free themselves from the domination of tradition. Even when a ritual
has lost all purpose or value. This theme is dramatized in her own tale of a towns annual selection of
one of its residents. For sacrifice at the hands of his or her neighbors. On June 27 th of every year, the
head of each household draws a lot from an old black box. To see whether someone in the household
is the fated one.
On the day of the storys action, the proceedings are supervised by Joe Summers. An old-timer
who oversees square dances, the teenagers club, and the Halloween program. The townsfolk are in
a festive mood. Approaching the oncoming massacre of a neighbor with no more concern than they
give to the milking of a cow. They are not troubled that they no longer know the reason for the ritual.
The purpose that prompted their forebears to initiate the proceedings. They simply consider the
drawing a necessity. One of the towns vital activities. Old Man Warner exemplifies the majority of the
villagers. Sheep-like, he follows the dictates of tradition unquestioningly. Theres always been a
lottery, he says. And, by implication, always will be.
Possessives
What are they?

To show ownership of things, people or concepts, we use
possessives. The possessive form looks like this:
The dog belonging to the boy shed hair on the floor.
The talent of the singer is apparent after seeing her show.
Connections
For additional
apostrophe-related
material, see
Contractions.
But a simpler, more common and concise way, is to change the noun that does the possessing:
The boys dog shed hair on the floor.
The singers talent is apparent after seeing her show.
With a few exceptions, the following two rules cover nearly all you need to know about forming
possessives:
1. To form the possessive of a noun, add apostrophe + s.
the books of the student the students books
the toys of the girl the girls toys
2. If the noun already ends in s, just add an apostrophe at the end of the word.
the books of the students the students books
the toys of the girls the girls toys
If a proper noun (a name) ends in -s, you may choose to add either apostrophe + s, or just the
apostrophe alone, depending on whether you would pronounce the extra -s.
Moses followers OR Mosess followers
Remember: Do not use -s when you are simply showing the plural form:
CORRECT:
Charbroiled eggplants are served here.
INCORRECT:
Charbroiled eggplants are served here.
PRACTICE
Exercise 1 Possessives
Rewrite each underlined group of words, using apostrophes to show possession.
Examples:
Nancy liked the shape of the laptop.

the laptops shape
Jo often borrowed the comb belonging to Nancy.

Nancys comb
1. Nancy was driving along with Jo in the car owned by Beth.

2. The tires of the car screeched to a halt after a confession.
3. Not even the defroster could fight the fog of the windows.
4. The two avoided the snow by walking underneath the leaves of the trees.
5. The hands of Jo were cold; warming them wasnt entirely out of the question.
6. The attitudes of people just arent ready for this, Nancy said.
7. The two looked to the snowflakes of the sky and saw white dusty stars floating by.
8. We should go home and sit before the heat of the fireplace, Jo said.
9. The mugs that belong to Beth should hold enough hot chocolate to warm us up.
Other Forms of Possessives

Joint Possession: The following pairs of nouns show joint ownership; two or more people own the
same thing.
the string belonging to Rich and Eddie

the children of Bob and Edward
Rich and Eddies duck

Bob and Edwards children
Rule: Nouns showing joint ownership have apostrophe + s added to the noun nearest the thing
possessed.
Individual Possession: The following pairs of nouns show individual ownership. (Rich and Eddie
probably do not own the same socks, nor do Bob and Edward use the same toothbrush.)
the socks belonging to Rich and Eddie
the toothbrushes of Bob and Edward
Richs and Eddies socks

Bobs and Edwards toothbrush
Rule: Nouns showing individual ownership have apostrophe + s added to each noun.
When NOT to use apostrophe + s:
Do not use s to form possessive pronouns:
Pronouns
Adjective
Possessive
Pronoun
Possessive
Pronoun
(requires a
subject to modify)
he
she
it
we
you
they
I
his
her
its
our
your
their
my
his
hers
n/a
ours
yours
theirs
mine
Which possessive pronouns belong in the following examples?

This is Kimberlys handbook. This is
her
handbook.
The handbook is
hers
Those are Jessies records. Those are ________ records.
The records are _________.
That is Frank and Todds car. That is _________ car.
The car is _________.
The tall vase belongs to you. The tall one is ______ vase.
The vase is _________.
Examples:
The flavor of the coffee was unusual.
the coffees flavor
I live in the home of my parents.
my parents home
We went to the wedding of Joe and Kay.
Joe and Kays wedding
He ironed the clothes of Pete and May.
Petes and Mays clothing.
1. The combined losses of the North and South were the greatest in any American war.
2. The president took away some of the responsibilities of the chief-of-staff.
3. We loved the shoes of George and Sara.
4. She was insulted by the rude remarks of her sister-in-law.
5. I couldnt stand the behavior of Alan and Jennifer.
6. The information of the ambassador was mostly incorrect.
7. The voyages of Magellan and Columbus were controversial.
8. The novels of Fitzgerald and Nabokov are among the most admired in modern literature.
9. One of the most famous events in American history is the journey west of Lewis and Clark.
10. Dont forget the birthday of your mother-in-law.
Adapted from Fog City Fundamentals, Fourth Edition, Altman & Deicke, 1998.
Run-Together Sentences (RTS)

What are they?
Contrary to popular belief, run-together sentences are not simply
sentences that are too long. Instead, run-together sentences are the
result of combining two or more complete sentences together
without an acceptable joiner.
Connections
See also the Subject
& Verb Identification,
Coordination, and
Subordination.
A complete sentence, also known as an independent clause, contains a subject-verb unit

and can stand alone.
Acceptable joiners for connecting independent clauses include:
Coordinators (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Subordinators (words such as although, since, when, even though, if)
Semi-colons ( ; )
Well look at these acceptable joiners more closely in a moment, but first lets take a look at
what CANNOT connect complete sentences. In the example sentences below, subjects are
underlined once and verbs underlined twice so you can see the different independent clauses.
Problem
Commas cannot connect two
complete sentencesthis type of
RTS also referred to as a comma
splice
RTS example:
His older sister hit him, the boy started to cry.
Transition words, with or without a

comma, cannot connect two
complete sentencesthis can be
another type of comma splice
He took four ibuprofen, then his headache faded away.
Not using anything to connect

complete sentences is also incorrect
this is also known as a run-on
sentence
My teacher writes RTS in the margins of my essay I do

not know what she means.
Since it is easy to confuse transition words with coordinators and subordinators, weve included a
chart on the next page to help you out.
Logical
Coordinators
Relatio
(CAN join
sentences)
nship
Subordinators
(CAN join
sentences)
Transition
Words
(CANNOT join
sentences)
and
also, further,
additionally,
furthermore,
moreover, similarly
Contrast
but, yet
although, while,
even though, even if,
whereas, though
however, still,
nevertheless,
otherwise, on the
other hand, instead,
nonetheless,
alternatively
Cause
for
because, since
Effect/ Result
so
so that, in that,
in order that
Choice/
Alternative
or, nor
Addition
therefore, thus,
consequently, hence,
as a result
on the other hand,
conversely
Condition
if, unless,
provided that
otherwise
Time
after, before,
as soon as, since,
when, while, until, as
then, next, previously,

subsequently,
afterwards
How to Fix Run-Together Sentences

Use a coordinator (also known as a conjunction)
One way to fix a run-together sentence is to insert a comma and a coordinator to join the two
independent clauses. For example:
Original RTS
Her older sister hit him, the boy started
to cry.
Grammatically Correct Sentence

His older sister hit him, so the boy started to
cry.
When you use a coordinator to fix a run-together sentence, make sure that you choose one that
indicates the correct logical relationship between the two ideas you are connecting; the chart on the
previous page can help you figure this out.
Use a subordinator
Another way to fix a run-together sentence is to use a subordinator to join the two independent
clauses. For example:
Original RTS
He took four ibuprofen, his headache

faded away.

His headache faded away as soon as he
took four ibuprofen.
As soon as he took four ibuprofen, his
headache faded away.
As you can see from the examples above, subordinators dont always need to be placed in the middle
of sentence; they can also come at the beginning. When you do place the subordinator at the
beginning of a sentence, you need to put a comma after the end of the first clause.
As with coordinators, when you use a subordinator to fix a run-together sentence, you need to make
sure that you choose one that indicates the correct logical relationship between the two ideas you are
connecting.
Use a semi-colon
A third way fix run-together sentences is by joining the two independent clauses with a semi-colon.
Original RTS
My teacher writes RTS in the margins
of my essay I do not know what she
means.

My teacher writes RTS in the margins of my
essay; (however) I dont know what she
means.
You can pair a semi-colon with a transition word, but remember that transition words alone cannot join
sentences. If you do use a transition word, be sure that it is one that indicates the correct logical
relationship between the ideas you are connecting.
Split the RTS into two sentences
One final way to fix a run-together sentence is to spit it up into two independent clauses. For
example:
Original RTS
My teacher writes RTS in the margins
of my essay I do not know what she
means.

My teacher writes RTS in the margins of my
essay. I dont know what she means.
When you fix run-together sentences in this way, just be careful that you dont end up with a series of
short, choppy sentences.
PRACTICE
A) Fix the following run-together sentences using one of the seven coordinators (FANBOYS: for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so).
yet
For example: I dont usually watch reality TV I do love a show called Project Runway.
1. At the beginning of the season there are fourteen aspiring fashion designers, in the end only three
people get to show at Olympus Fashion Week in New York.
2. The supermodel Heidi Klum hosts, famous designers serve as guest judges.
3. The contestants must take the design challenges seriously every week the loser goes home.
4. Some of the contestants have huge egos, they are unnecessarily competitive.
5. I dont have TiVo I am going to my friends house to watch the season finale.
B) Fix the following run-together sentences using a subordinator.
since
For example:
Many students have to cover their own living expenses, they work full-time.
1. She needed a part-time job, books and tuition were expensive this year.
2. She would have preferred not to have to work retail, the only job she could find was at a shoe
store in the mall.
3. The customers were frequently demanding and rude, she liked her co-workers.
4. She had been working for a month, her employee discount kicked in.
5. She paid off her credit card bill, she was planning to buy a new pair of shoes.
C) Fix the following run-together sentences using a semi-colon; you can also include an appropriate
transition word.
For example: As people get older they tend to get wiser ; sometimes they also get fatter.
1. Orville was almost thirty-five his tummy had started to stick out.
2. His wife worried that his eating habits were unhealthy, she tried to encourage him to eat more
fruits and vegetables.
3. Orville was not as concerned he would eat six cookies a meal without feeling guilty.
4. On the radio, Orville had heard that drinking green tea could help you lose weight he decided to
stop drinking coffee that very day and put his coffee machine away.
5. Only he didnt really stop drinking coffee, he just stopped making it at home and went to the
neighborhood caf instead.
D) The following sentences are taken from actual student essays. Fix the RTS errors using an
appropriate strategy; remember to think about the logical relationship between ideas when choosing a
strategy.
1. The legalization of prostitution would actually help reduce crime, the prostitute wouldn't be a
victim of extortion or beatings.
2. Police could stake out a street crime area instead of a brothel the effect would be safer streets
and more efficient use of the police.
3. Not everybody is going to be so ambitious and work many will probably do nothing.
4. At one time people had responsibilities to their families and communities, now you only have to
answer to yourself and no one else.
5. To some, divorce provides an easy out to their problems of getting along together, therefore they
dissolve the marriage rather than work it out.
E) Now that youve had a chance to correct isolated sentences, try to find and fix the run-together
sentences in the following paragraph.
Sleep is a subject we should all know a lot about, we spend one third of our lives sleeping.
Even though everyone sleeps, scientists have only recently begun to understand what goes on when
we sleep. They used to believe that the body repairs itself while asleep, there is some truth to this but
the body also does this while awake. The brain does not simply shut itself off at night, it goes through
a complicated series of chemical changes. Scientists have begun to chart these changes, working
with complex instruments that measure brain-wave patterns. They have found that we do not move
smoothly from being awake to being asleep, we pass through a cycle of four sleep stages. At each
stage blood pressure and pulse rate drop, the body temperature also goes down. In the second stage
the number and length of brain waves go up, while the sleepers eyes begin to move rapidly back and
forth behind their lids. Scientists call this activity rapid eye movements, or REMs, the activity that
accompanies most of our dreaming. If a person is deprived of REM sleep, that person will soon
become bad-tempered and irritable. A full nights sleep is not a single, unbroken state but consists of
four or five of these multi-stage sleep cycles. 1
Altman,PamandDoreenDeicke,Eds.FogCityFundamentals,4thed.PearsonCustomPublishing:Boston.
1998p.19.Sillneedtocorrectlyformatcitation.
1
F) One more time! Some of the sentences in the following paragraph are run-together; find these
sentences and fix them using the most appropriate strategy.
In 1867, a chef at a hotel in Saratoga Springs accidentally dropped some thinly sliced potatoes
into hot cooking oil, instantly the world found a new delicacy: the potato chip. At the time, Saratoga
Springs was Americas most fashionable resort, fads that started there usually found immediate
success. Almost overnight, the potato chip became Saratogas hottest item. The wide, tree-lined
avenues were filled with people eating potato chips, the huge veranda of the United States Hotel was
no different; it was filled with chip-eaters too. Some of the richest, most powerful people in the world
consumed them regularly, for instance, the Vanderbilts could often be seen daintily plucking chips
from paper cups on their stroll back to their mansion. The elegant Saratoga chips remained the
delicacy of the wealthy until 1925, when the first chip factory was constructed in Albany, New York.
The potato chip was no longer the snack of only the rich and famous, it became a common household
item. Of course potato chips have changed a great deal in the last hundred years, now they come in
various textures and flavors, some even stacked in paper tubes. Still, the next time you grab a
handful of greasy, flavor-dusted chips, you might pause to remember the noble origins of that humble
food.
Subject & Verb Identification

What are they?
Connections
See also the
Two of the most important parts of speech are subjects and verbs. Being able toVerb
identify
subjects and
Tenses.
verbs will allow you to create complete and clear sentences; it will also help you understand other
grammatical concepts like fragments and run-together sentences.
Identifying Verbs
Verbs are easy to identify because they are words that indicate action or a state of being, words like:
write, run, tell, have, be, look, feel. Verbs are the only part of speech that gets conjugated, that is,
that changes tense in order to indicate a particular time frame. This chart contains examples of some
of the more common verb tenses:
Present
I learn
Past
I learned
Present
Progressive
Future
I will learn
I am learning
Present
Per
Past Perfect
fec
t
I have learned
I had learned
For more a comprehensive description of verb tenses and guidelines for using them correctly, see
Verb Tenses.
Sentences can contain several types of verbs and verb-like words; what were interested in is finding
the main verbs, the words that drive the action of a sentence. While all verbs can be conjugated,
main verbs are the ones that actually do change when the entire sentence changes tense. To find
which words are acting as the main verbs in a sentence, then, try changing the tense. For example:
Original sentence:
New tense:
Running a marathon is not fun.
Running a marathon will not be fun.
Hoping to build up her portfolio, the

supermodel is going to Paris.
Hoping to build up her portfolio, the

supermodel went to Paris.
To escape their stress, Liz and Ryan have

been watching bad reality TV.
To escape their stress, Liz and Ryan will

be watching bad reality TV.
The bicycle had been left in the rain.
The bicycle was left in the rain.
Identifying Subjects
The subject of a sentence performs the action(s) indicated by the main verb; that is, the subject is
the doer of the action: the diva was singing (the diva is doing the action of singing), the glass broke
(the glass is doing the action of breaking), the audience started to applaud (the audience is doing
the action of applauding).
To identify the subject of the sentence, you can ask yourself who or what is (verb)?
In the following examples, the subjects have been underlined once and the verbs underlined twice.
Sentence
Question Subject
What is not fun? running
The supermodel is going to Paris.
Who is going to Paris? the supermodel
Liz and Ryan have been watching

bad reality TV.
The bicycle had been left in the

rain.
Who is watching TV? Liz and Ryan
What had been left in the rain? the bicycle
As you might have noticed, words that end in ing can are sometimes act like subjects:
and sometimes they act as verbs:
Liz and Ryan are watching bad reality TV.
As a general guideline, when an -ing word is preceded by a form of be (i.e. is, are, was, were), it is
acting as a verb.
PRACTICE
Find the subjects and main verbs in the following sentences. Underline the subject(s) once and the
main verb(s) twice.
For example: To cheer himself up, he watched old detective movies and ate ice cream.
1. After a long, rainy winter, the woman and her husband had become tired of their small apartment,
so they decided to drive to a seedy part of town in search of excitement.
2. The couple had been cruising slowly down a side street, looking for some local nightlife, when
they heard music coming from a small bar on the corner.
3. They had just left their car when some stray cats started fighting in a side alley.
4. When the couple walked in and sat down at the bar, nobody bothered to look up.
5. At one end of the bar, a tired-looking woman was languidly smoking her cigarette and expertly
blowing out smoke rings.
6. The bartender was wiping down the counter and softly whistling to himself.
7. Hunched over a table in the back corner, four men were enjoying a friendly game of cards.
8. A sad Billie Holiday tune had been playing softly from an old jukebox, but once the song was over,
the room went silent.
9. Suddenly, a man in the back stood and threw his cards down on the table, cursing loudly.
10. When he began to reach into his pocket, the couple looked at each other anxiously and then
hurriedly backed out the door.
Subject-Verb Agreement
What are they?
In the present tense verbs must agree with their subjects: both
must be singular, or both must be plural.
I
breathe the air.
You breathe the air.
They breathe the air.
He
She
It
breathes the air.

breathes the air.
breathes the air.
Connections
For more help identifying
subjects and verbs see,
Subject & Verb
Identification.
You must add an s or es at the end of the verb when the subject (or the entity performing the
action) is a singular third person: he, she, it, or words for which these pronouns could substitute.
Examples
He, She, It
All others
Roberto eats all of the oranges.
They eat everything but the rind.
She wonders which constellations are hidden.
I wonder if Leo has already passed.
It lasts for another three hours or until they

score.
Veronica and Kevin last as long as they can.
To Create the plural/singular

To make a noun plural, we usually add an s or es, as in the case of jar to jars or box to boxes.
A verb is singular, by contrast, when it is matched with a singular subject. A singular verb, then,
usually has an s or es ending, as in the case of talks and fixes.
Finding the subject and verb

To successfully determine whether or not your subjects and verbs agree, you need to be able to
locate them in your writing. The subject in a sentence is the agent that is doing whatever is done
in the sentence. The verb is the action--what is actually done. Look at this example:
The zebra runs down the street.

The zebra is the subject of this sentence, and runs is the verb.
Use Pronouns to Help

When the pronouns he, she or it are used as a subject in a sentence, the verb is always singular,
and therefore will contain an s or es ending.
He takes the money.
She stacks the papers.
It chimes hourly.
All other pronouns (I, you, we, they) require a plural verb (one without an s or es ending).
They skate until March if the ice holds.
We borrow money to pay our loans.
You can use these pronoun rules to determine whether your verb should be plural or singular.
Lets look at a variety of subjects, and see which pronouns can replace them.
Subject
John, Marion and Isaac
The community forest
Pronoun
substitute
They
Verb
grow.
It
The leading investigator
She
The Leaning Tower of Pisa
It
grows.
So, if you can substitute he, she or it for the subject, your verb ought to be singular (with an s or es).
Practice Exercises
Circle the correct verb for each sentence.
Tip: write the pronoun above the subject to help you identify whether the verb should be singular or
plural.
( He )
1. Jordan ( hang / hangs ) the picture upside down above his futon.
(
)
2. Starry Night ( contain / contains ) eleven stars and one swirling moon.
(
)
3. The hammers ( pound / pounds ) the nails until each corner is flush against the wall.
(
)
4. Van Goghs sister ( take / takes ) most of the credit for his genius.
(
)
5. The yellows in the painting ( swirl / swirls ) around the blue sky rather than the other way
around.
Complicated subjects
Some subjects include phrases that might confuse you into choosing the wrong verb. The verb
agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase.
Entire phrase
The person who loathes cats plays only with their tails.
Subject to match
One of the brothers is missing.

The computer building, including all of the labs, closes its doors promptly at seven.
Subjects connected by and require a plural verb. Subjects connected by or or nor require a
singular.
John and Jeff drive downtown.

A sandwich or muffin is fine.
Neither rain nor shine help the soccer field.
If a compound subject has both plural and singular nouns, follow the pronoun rule for the noun
closest to the verb.
One walnut or two acorns fill a squirrel for a day.
PRACTICE
Fill in the verb for each sentence.
Subject
Martin and his mother
The junior or senior
Verb
play
[to play]
[to march]
backgammon every day after work.

in the Homecoming parade.
A plum, and not the carrots,
[to provide]
valuable nutrients to the body.
Martha or Dans children
[to scribble]
on the wall to create their art.
The bananas peel
[to stretch]
Saving of electricity
[to take]
The group of friends
[to call]
across the floor to make them trip.

strong initiative, but benefits all of us.
each card aloud to win the game.
Agreement Practice Paragraph: The Supreme Court

Underline each subject once, each verb twice, and fix any incorrect verbs. The first sentence is done
for you.
The Supreme Court Justices rejoices after a particularly difficult decision. Though they usually lean on
the chief justice to announce the ruling (unless he is in the minority) each celebrate in his or her own
way. A reporter, speaking on the condition of anonymity, tells that in each session, the justices bickers
back and forth even when they seem to agree. One or two bicker more than the others, but no one
keep silent for long. All this bickering produces so much tension that when they finish a case, they all
must go their separate ways until at least the following week when they repeat the whole process.
Subordinators
Connections
See also the
Coordinators
Like coordinators (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), subordinators (see chart below) can join and
Fragments.
independent clauses, aka simple sentences, and can help you:
What are they?
Make your writing more fluid by connecting short sentences
Make your writing more precise by showing your reader the logical relationships between ideas.
Lets take a look at some of the most common subordinators. As you can see from the sample
sentences below, subordinators can appear either at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
Logical
Relation Subordinators Sample Sentence
ship
Contrast/
Concession
although, while,
Although the young blond heiress was often in the
even though, even
news, she had no talent.
if, whereas, though
because, since
He started to worry about fining a job because he

was almost finished with his last semester of
college.
so that, in that, in
order that
She enrolled in cooking school so that she could

become a pastry chef.
Condition
if, unless, provided

that
If it is sunny this weekend, they are planning to

have a barbeque.
Time
after, before, as
soon as, since,
when, while, until,
as
Until my brother pays me back for last time, I am

not lending him any more money.
Cause
Effect/ Result
Subordinators & Dependent Clauses (aka Subordinate Clauses)

Joining two independent clauses with a subordinator transforms one of themthe one which begins
with the subordinatorinto a dependent clause. Even though this clause will still contain a subjectverb unit, it cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Independent Clause
(a complete sentence)
Dependent clause
(no longer a complete sentence)
The young blond heiress was often in the

news.
Although the young blond heiress was

often in the news
He was almost finished with his last

semester of college.
Because he was almost finished with his

last semester of college
Dependent clauses pretending to be sentences are actually fragments, a grammar error you can
read more about the Fragments section.
Subordinators & Emphasis
Unlike coordinators, subordinators do not give equal emphasis to the ideas they connect; instead, the
clause that begins with a subordinatorthe dependent clause receives less emphasis. Compare
the following two sentences:
Although he wanted to see the movie, Guillermo did not want to spend ten dollars.
Although he did not want to spend ten dollars, Guillermo wanted to see the movie.
In the first sentence, the subordinator although de-emphasizes Guillermos desire to see the movie;
his reluctance to spend the money seems more important. In the second sentence, however, the
subordinator although de-emphasizes Guillermos reluctance to spend the money, and his desire to
see the movie seems more important.
Be careful, then, when deciding where to place the subordinatorthis placement can change the
meaning of your sentence.
Punctuation
When a subordinator introduces a sentence, put a comma after the first clause.
After she went to bed, she started to hear noises downstairs.
But if the subordinator comes in the middle of a clause, you dont need to set it off with a
comma.
She started to hear noises downstairs after she went to bed.
PRACTICE
A) Join the following sentences using an appropriate subordinator. For the first four sets of sentences,
youll see a hint about the logical relationship you should show.
For example: Some rodents and birds prey on cockroaches.
Man is their biggest foe. [CONTRAST]
While some rodents and birds prey on cockroaches, man is their biggest foe.
1. Cockroaches are a health menace to humans.
They carry viruses and bacteria that result in diseases from hepatitis to salmonella. [CAUSE]
2. Humans try to defeat cockroaches.

Cockroaches are very successful at surviving our attacks. [CAUSE]
3. Cockroaches are smaller than the humans who chase them.

They have extremely fast responses and sensitive receptors. [CONTRAST/CONCESSION]
4. There is no food.
Cockroaches subsist on glue, paper, and soap. [TIME]
5. They cant find glue, paper or soap.

They can draw on their body stores for three months.
6. Cockroaches are really desperate.

They will turn into cannibals.
7. Female Suriname cockroaches produce generation after generation of identical females.

They are able to clone themselves.
B) Join the following sentences with subordinators, making sure the word you choose indicates the
appropriate logical connection between ideas.
1. They sat down with Red Cloud to discuss the purchase of the Black Hills. Whatever calmness the
government commissioners still possessed must have been shaken.
2. Red Cloud calmly proposed that $600 million seemed like a fair price. The region was so valuable
to the Native Americans and appeared even more valuable to the commissioners.
3. The Native Americans had reconsidered their price tag. They suggested that $6 million would be a
reasonable offer.
4. The commissioners were too intimidated to negotiate. They returned to Washington and angrily
recommended teaching the Native Americans a lesson.
5. The government immediately ordered all Native Americans to come onto the reservation at once.
The demand was both illegal and impossible to comply with.
6. Most of the Native Americans could never know about the order. They were spread out all over the
Black Hills.
7. The deadline came. Only one small band of Native Americans had come in.
8. The other Native Americans were now assumed at war with the government. The Indian Bureau
turned the matter over to General Philip Sheridan.
9. It was a totally unprovoked war. No Sioux or Cheyenne had ever violated a treaty or actually
attacked a U.S. citizen.
Verb Tenses
What are they?
Tense refers to the form a verb takes in a sentence, whether to
express the present, past or future.
Connections
For more help
identifying subjects and
verbs, turn to Subject &
Verb Identification.
Examples
Simple Tenses
Present:
I learn.
Past:
I learned.
Future:
I will learn.
Progressive Tenses
Present progressive:
Past progressive:
Future progressive:
Present perfect progressive:
Past perfect progressive:
Future perfect progressive:
Perfect Tenses
Present perfect: I have learned.
Past perfect:
I had learned.
Future perfect: I will have learned.
I am learning.
I was learning.
I will be learning.
I have been learning.
I had been learning.
I will have been learning.
Simple Tenses
Present
The present tense indicates that an action is taking place at the time you express it, or an action that
occurs regularly.
o We wear organic cotton shirts [an action taking place when it is expressed].
o I watch the documentary on PBS each Sunday night [an action that occurs
regularly].
Past
The past tense indicates that an action is completed and has already taken place.
o Martin Luther King, Jr. gave his most famous speech in 1963 [an action
completed in the past].
o As a girl, she wondered how her college degree would help her career [an
action that occurred once or many times in the past but did not extend to the present].
Future
The future tense indicates that an action will or is likely to take place.
o Later today I will rinse the dishes [a future action that will definitely occur].
o
The defendant probably will plead innocent [a future action that is likely to occur].
Perfect Tenses
Perfect tenses designate actions that were or will be completed before other actions. You can form
the perfect tenses with the appropriate tense form of the helping, or auxiliary, verb have plus the past
participle.
Present perfect
The present tense indicates that an action is taking place at the time you express it, or an action that
occurs regularly.
o We have worn organic cotton shirts [an action that began in the past and is finished at the
present].
o She has donated extensively to UNICEF [an action that began in the past and extends into
the present].
Past perfect
The past perfect tense indicates an action occurring before a certain time in the past.
o By 1995, Doctor Harvey had built the first artificial brain.
Future perfect
The future perfect tense indicates that an action will be finished by a certain time.
o By Thursday, the President will have apologized for his mistake.
Progressive Tenses
The progressive tenses express continuing action. You can form them with the appropriate tense of
the verb be plus the present participle.
Present progressive
The present progressive tense indicates that something is happening at the time you express it.
o The worker is hammering, and her foreman is watching lazily.
Past progressive
The past progressive tense indicates two kinds of past action.
o Poes writing was becoming increasingly bizarre and dark [a continuing action
in the past].
o The mob tackled Jean-Luc Goddard while he was introducing the film [an action occurring at
the same time in the past as another action].
Future progressive
The future progressive tense indicates a continuing action in the future.
o The government will be monitoring the phones in the lab.
Present perfect progressive
The present perfect progressive tense indicates action continuing from the past into the present and
possibly into the future.
o The teacher has been grading since yesterday afternoon.
Past perfect progressive
The past perfect progressive tense indicates that a past action went on until another occurred.
o Before her promotion, Nico had been working on restoring open space on campus.
Future perfect progressive

The future perfect progressive tense indicates that an action will continue until a certain future time.
o On Tuesday I will have been working on this paper for six weeks.
Adapted from The Brief Holt Handbook, Fourth Edition, Kirsner & Mandell, 2004.
PRACTICE
Exercise 1 Simple Past Tense
Fill in each blank with the correct past tense form of the verb provided.
Example:
PLAY
We
played
dodge ball all afternoon.
FRY
1. We ___________ the fish we caught in the lake.
STUDY
2. All of us ________________ hard for the physics exam.
CRY
3. Mary ______________ on his shoulder all through the movie.
MARRY 4. She _______________ him on Tuesday and played slots that night.
TRY
5. Fred ____________ to get in the concert by posing as a security guard.
SHOP
6. I _______________ for all of my birthday presents at the art fair.
ADMIT
7. No one __________________ that he was tired.
PLAN
8. Marty and Isabel ________________ their marriage simply and loosely.
TERRIFY 9. The fireworks __________________ the younger children.

In each of the following sentences, underline any verbs that should have ed or d endings and
supply the missing letters. Watch for time expressions (last week, yesterday, years ago) that indicate
past time.
incorrect: The committee vote to adjourn yesterday.
correct: The committee voted to adjourn yesterday.
1. The driver ask for the exact fare last week.
2. Oliver use to live in Berkeley when he was a college student.
3. Katerina studied all the time and so she graduate from college last year.
4. College students are suppose to attend every class meeting.
5. Last Sunday, Laura listen to the drummers in the park.
6. Until I started school, I work twenty hours per week and study the rest of the time.
7. Finally Gayles cat return home.
8. Several years ago I witness a crime and identify the criminal.
Exercise 3 Perfect Tenses

Use the perfect tense to fill in the blank using the same time period (past, present, future) as the
sample.
Example: Joan licks the popsicle. (present tense)
Joan has licked the popsicle. (present perfect tense)
(Remember: Perfect tenses for the verb to run are:
Present: she has run
Past: she had run
Future: she will have run)
1. Eric took piano lessons.

Eric ____________________ piano lessons since he was ten years old.
2. Tara raises as many children as she can.
Tara _______________ as many children as she can.
3. Bill, on the other hand, will join the Coast Guard.
Bill, on the other hand, ____________________ the Coast Guard.
4. Alyssa gives a drawing to each of her friends.
Alyssa ________________ a drawing to each of her friends.
5. Chickens pecked at bugs and fruit in the garden.
Chickens ____________________ at bugs and fruit in the garden.
6. Each egg will travel a thousand miles before it lands on her lap.
Each egg _____________________ a thousand miles before it lands on her lap.
7. The wings had plenty of room to spread.
The wings _____________ plenty of room to spread.
8. Madison collects the hay in the morning after breakfast.
Madison ____________________ the hay in the morning after breakfast.
Exercise 4 Progressive Tenses

In the following sentences, change the simple tense verbs to progressive tense verbs using the same
time period (present, past, future). Avoid the perfect tense for this exercise.
Example: Martians land on the planet Earth. (present)
Martians are landing on the planet Earth. (present progressive)
(Remember: Progresssive tenses for the verb to run are:
Present: she is running
Past: she was running
Future: she will be running)
1. Ferdinand scoffed when his friends all left for college.

Ferdinand __________________ when his friends all left for college.
2. He enjoys his flowers, vegetables and herbs.
He ______________________ his flowers, vegetables and herbs.
3. The pumpkins ripened too long last year.
The pumpkins ____________________ too long last year.
4. His friends will call at the next holiday or break.
His friends ________________________ at the next holiday or break.
5. Ferdinand answers the phone saying What?
Ferdinand ______________________ the phone saying What?
6. He screened his calls last week to avoid bill collectors.
He ____________________ his calls last week to avoid bill collectors.
7. His money goes under his mattress until he needs it.
His money ___________________ under his mattress until he needs it.
8. He will go fishing next week if he gets his license.
He _______________________ next week if he gets his license.
ANSWER
S
The Grammar answer key is ordered alphabetically by grammar title:
Adjectives & Adverbs Answer Key

Exercise A
1. Their timid leader tentatively put one fat, calloused foot on the grass.
2. She then gingerly placed the other foot down.
3. She paused, thoughtfully scratched her forehead, and then started to waddle quite gracelessly
toward a dim light.
4. Soon the braver aliens followed her but the more cowardly aliens hung back inside the door of the
silver spaceship.
5. Suddenly, they heard a short, high-pitched yelp.
6. The youngest alien had stepped accidentally on the tail of a small furry creature, and both of them
cried out instinctively.
7. The little alien regained his composure right away and, curious about the strange creature, he
carefully reached down to pick up the frightened mouse.
[Curious about the strange creature is an adjective phrase that modifies he, and strange is an
adjective that modifies creature]
8. The mouse, still terrified, dashed away.
9. It ran over the sensitive toes of several aliens who squealed loudly
[Who squealed loudly is an adjective clause modifying aliens; within that clause, loudly is an
adverb modifying squealed]
10. The resulting commotion distracted the group, and they didnt notice the two young children slowly
riding up on their creaky three-speed bicycles.
Exercise B: Individual answers will vary.
Appositives Answer Key
ANSWER
S
Exercise 1 Noun Phrase Appositives Sentence Combining

Combine the following sentences using NPAs.
1. The lunch was cheap, served cold, and brought an hour late. The lunch was a bowl of soup.
The lunch, a bowl of soup, was cheap, served cold, and brought an hour late.
2. Maxwells car topped fifty miles per hourbut barely. His car was a sleek Corvair.
Maxwells car, a sleek Corvair, topped fifty miles per hourbut barely.
3. The student body voted no on the resolution even though it would have benefited them
explicitly. The student body is a confused group of adults whose only interest in common was
the colleges location.
The student body, a confused group of adults whose only interest in common
was the colleges location, voted no on the resolution even though it would
have benefited them explicitly.
4. The pilot was stranded for twelve hours inside of his jet. The pilot was a former Air Force
mechanic. His jet was a Cessna Skylane.
The pilot, a former Air Force mechanic, was stranded for twelve hours inside
of his jet, a Cessna Skylane.
5. I want to speak on the important subjects. The important subjects are philosophy, linguistics
and chemistry.
I want to speak on the important subjects: philosophy, linguistics and
chemistry.
6. After six long years Alec finally achieved his lifelong goal. The goal was a scholarship to a
good college.
After six long years Alec finally achieved his lifelong goal : a scholarship to a
good college.
7. Even though youre willing to forfeit the prize, I think you should wait a week or twountil you
know you wont need the money. The prize would be my salary for a whole year.
Even though youre willing to forfeit the prizemy salary for a whole yearI
think you should wait a week or twountil you know you wont need the
money.
8. The bear came to our tent, peeked in, and went on his merry way. The bear was a sleepy
grizzly.
The bear, a sleepy grizzly, came to our tent, peeked in, and went on his
merry way.
ANSWER
S
9. Camped around the fire, each of us stared at the night sky. The fire was a glowing source of
warmth. The night sky was a bowl full of sparkling stars.
Camped around the fire, a glowing source of warmth, each of us stared at

the night sky, a bowl full of sparkling stars.
10. Mrs. Peterson warned us that we would have only one more day to hand in the assignment.
Mrs. Peterson is my least favorite teacher.
Mrs. Peterson, my least favorite teacher, warned us that we would have only
one more day to hand in the assignment.
Exercise 2 NPAs Sentence Combining

For each of the following sentences, add one or more NPAs to give the reader additional information.
Make up whatever you like! (Hint: find the noun(s) in the sentence to see what can take an NPA.)
NOTE: Answers will vary but one of the underlined nouns must be modified in each sentence.
1. My best friend lost the race.
2. Bill Clinton took first prize for his book.
3. Joanne told Larry to go for a ride on his boat.
4. Napoleon discovered the trapple.
5. My binder contains one hundred papers and two pamphlets.
6. The dog bit Bill in the leg before he could run into a house.
7. Her shirt nearly blinded me.
8. Abe Lincoln probably didnt use Log Cabin syrup.
9. I like the schools newest building.
10. Cindy took the money to the bank.
Articles Answer Key

Exercise 1 Definite and Indefinite Articles
ANSWER
S
Fill in the blank for each sentence using either a, an, or the, or leave the space blank if none is
needed.
1. Last week
2. Maria took out

3.
The
seagull dropped his fish onto my car.

the
garbage before reading.
surfboard cut through the waves as she sped toward the beach.
4. Sculpture is
an
interesting art form, whether in metal, clay or uranium.
5. I love picnicsespecially when I remember

the
6. My house is falling apart,
7. The brothers met to discuss

8. I went to the lab to work on
9. Well, professor,
an
10. This semester
the
the
food.
shutters are in disrepair, and
the
windows are broken.
possible solution.
computer, but they were all taken.
alien came and stole my gray matter before I could finish my homework.
11. She passed him to avoid

12. I want to go to
the
same student violated his restraining order.

a
confrontation involving
part of Ukraine where they speak
the
a
police.
Russian dialect.
13. The assistants found

the
theme that meant the most to them, and they wove it carefully
into
a
handbook they could be proud of.
14.
The
airplanes tires skidded down
knocking out
a
baggage cart and
X
a
Los Angeles Airports main runway before

fuel truck.
15. I am studying
X
American history in school, but only after I pass my Biology class and
ace
the
final exam.
Commas Answer Key

Exercise 1 Commas Dependent & Independent Clauses
Add commas where necessary in the sentences below. Some sentences will
not require one.
ANSWER
S
1. Lately Katherine has wanted more companionship even though she rather likes to be alone.
2. Jerry vies for her attention, but she has so much on her own mind as she suffers through
this ordeal.
3. But whereas Alec acts like a friend, he also wants Katherines admiration.
4. So that she will be found innocent, Miss Smatter will write anothers confession.
5. Jerry eats his sandwich as coolly as the others do, yet he cant shake the feeling of deception
and mistrust.
6. Sabrina thinks that the apartments rent is trivial while Kelly thinks it crucial.
7. Although Rachel has little say in the matter, her friends could use the advice.
8. Because her dog was hit by a car, he walks with a substantial limp.
9. The doctor set it with pins, and even though he didnt scratch at it, he was still forced to wear a
giant collar.
10. Either the bill is paid within the month , or the doctor will send a collection agency for the
money.
ANSWER
S
Exercise 2 Commas Series and Adjectives

1. Lately Martin has been picking giant, swollen mushrooms from his yard.
2. Sue won the Vegetable Prize of the Day that included carrots , turnips, and leeks.
3. Most people dont know that their favorite chips contain preservatives , artificial flavors, and MSG.
4. The three tall brothers took the brilliant, shining vitamins before playing sports.
5. Watching movies, reading books, sleeping, and exercising are my favorite weekend activities.
Exercise 3 Commas Essential and Nonessential Items

1. Shelly, my mothers step-sister, gave me thirty dollars last week.
2. The campus police, who rarely arrest any faculty members, are responsible for patrolling all
night long.
3. The man walking his dog down the street looks like my great-uncle Ted.
4. My grandmother, with a terrible scream, alerted me to the fire in her closet.
5. Doug gave me three helpings of dessert , which was a crme brle.
6. Speaking as if he was consumed with fury, Louis yelled to the audience.

7. The actor with no siblings starred in the blockbuster movie Grammar Cop.
8. The helicopter, a Grasker A-7, flew over the otherwise empty desert, where two thousand
troops slept silently awaiting orders.
9. Without a warrant the police cannot enter your house , provided you dont taunt them from
within.
10. Sonnys Blues, the famous story by Baldwin, contains rich allegory that weaves, along with
fascinating symbolism, a rich fabric of text accessible to most readers.
Exercise 4 Commas Transitions

Add commas and/or semicolons where necessary in the sentences below.
Example:
ANSWER
S
Nevertheless, I wanted to go to the farm to see the llamas.
1. I didnt want to see the whole country; however, I did want to visit the biggest states and
prettiest parks.
2. On the other hand, Martin said that Oklahoma is worth skipping.
3. Alternatively, I dream about the open road even if it is scary sometimes.
4. My car takes five quarts of oil, typically speaking.
5. I made the motel reservations already; therefore I should leave next week.
6. Pharmaceuticals, as a result, are becoming more and more expensive.
7. Thus, I will need to buy a new car before I set off on Sunday.
Contractions Answer Key
Exercise 1 Contractions
1. The team is busy typing at the desk, but theyre not going to stay long.
2. It isnt that their parents are mean, but they dont spend any time with them.
3. Youd have to be crazy to eat that fast food.
4. Paragraphs arent my favorite thing to study, but they beat spelling.
5. In two more days well be sailing around the world.
6. The second student from the left wouldnt turn in his test on time.
7. Lets see what Im doing next week so I dont double-book.
8. Whos coming to the party tomorrow?
9. This really isnt what I envisioned when I agreed to get paid.
10. The co-op doesnt have any cereal unless youre buying it in bulk.
ANSWER
S
11. In fact, its cheaper, healthier, and shouldnt be any less fresh.
12. Ive had a good experience at that store.
13. The food I brought home wouldnt ever go to waste.
14. Theyll bag it for you and wont drop anything.
15. Im a fan of going to a co-op like this instead of the large chain stores.
Coordinators Answer Key

1. He could not understand geometry, nor could he understand physics.
ANSWER
S
2. He took extra classes, but/yet the tutor couldnt seem to help.
3. He worked incredibly hard, and everyone in the math department was willing to help
him.
4. He realized he would have to improve, or he was going to have to give up his ambition
to become a great physicist.
5. The other students could build catapults out of popsicle sticks and rubber bands ,
but/yet Calvins catapult couldnt even launch a pebble.
6. Calvins experiments were always unique, for they proved that some basic law of
nature no longer existed.
7. Calvin finally realized that he did not have it in him to be the next Stephen Hawking , so
he changed his major to English.
Dangling Modifiers Answer Key
ANSWER
S
1. Reacting with suspicion and hostility to the Romas distinct culture and nomadic lifestyles, some
native Europeans have historically discriminated against them.
2. No corrections needed.
3. In World War II, the Nazis carried out an attempted genocide known as the Porajmos, or the
devouring, that killed between 200,000 and 800,000 Roma.
4. Some people continue to perpetuate derogatory stereotypes, characterizing the Roma as tramps
and thieves.
5. Both embodying and transcending the sadness of this history, music is an important expression of
traditional Rom culture.
6. Developed in Spanish Roma communities, flamenco is probably the style of Roma music most
familiar to the outside world.
7. No corrections needed.
8. A celebration of the range and vitality of gypsy music, Latcho Drom, is an excellent documentary
by the Roma director Tony Gatlif.
OR
The Roma director Tony Gatlif made the excellent documentary Latcho Drom, a celebration of the
range and vitality of gypsy music.
Fragments Answer Key

Exercise A
ANSWER
S
1. A noticeable mistake which was on the flyer--fragment

2. Whenever I get tired of doing my math homework--fragment
3. The building across from the library is condemned. sentence
4. My roommate who intends to finish college in four years--fragment
5. My other roommate has been in college seven years--sentence
6. Before the semester began--fragment
7. The teacher who liked to listen to the sound of his own voice--fragment
8. Because mid-terms are just about to start--fragment
9. If I could be left alone to do my homework--fragment
10. Although I dont usually enjoy hard work, I love studying Japanese. --sentence
11. Listening to tapes in the language lab is really time consuming--sentence
12. The boy typed on the Mac in the computer lab--sentence

13. The essay that I have to writefragment
14. While I was eating my lunch at the campus centerfragment
Exercise B
1. Anxious about his love life, he decided to visit a fortune-teller.
ANSWER
S
2. The fortune-teller asked for fifty dollars and the names of his favorite movie stars.
3. She consulted her astrology charts and closely examined his palms.
OR
Consulting her astrology charts, she closely examined his palms.
4. She predicted someone important, a tall, dark stranger, would soon come into his life.
5. He was skeptical that such a clichd prediction could come true.
OR
While he was skeptical that such a clichd prediction could come true, he was secretly
hoping it would.
[Any independent clause that would complete the sentence is acceptable.]
6. No revisions necessary.
7. The stranger who would change his life walked in the door and ordered a hot chai.
8. She asked if she could share his table because the other tables were full of students studying
for their midterms.
9. Looking up from his crossword puzzle, he smiled and said yes.
10. As she sat down in the table across from him, she helped him find the answer to seven
across .
[Any independent clause that would complete the sentence is acceptable.]
ANSWER
S
Exercise C
In The Lottery, author Shirley Jackson implies that human beings are mindless, static
creatures who cannot or will not free themselves from the domination of tradition, even when a ritual
has lost all purpose or value. This theme is dramatized in her own tale of a towns annual selection of
one of its residents for sacrifice at the hands of his or her neighbors. On June 27 th of every year, the
head of each household draws a lot from an old black box to see whether someone in the household
is the fated one.
On the day of the storys action, the proceedings are supervised by Joe Summers, an old-timer
who oversees square dances, the teenagers club, and the Halloween program. The townsfolk are in
a festive mood, approaching the oncoming massacre of a neighbor with no more concern than they
give to the milking of a cow. They are not troubled that they no longer know the reason for the ritual,
the purpose that prompted their forebears to initiate the proceedings. They simply consider the
drawing a necessity, one of the towns vital activities. Old Man Warner exemplifies the majority of the
villagers. Sheep-like, he follows the dictates of tradition unquestioningly. Theres always been a
lottery, he says. And, by implication, there always will be.
Possessives Answer Key
ANSWER
S
1. Nancy was driving along with Jo in the car owned by Beth.
Beths car
2. The tires of the car screeched to a halt after a confession.
The cars tires
3. Not even the defroster could fight the fog of the windows.
the windows fog
4. The two avoided the snow by walking underneath the leaves of the trees.
the trees leaves.
5. The hands of Jo were cold; warming them wasnt entirely out of the question.
Jos hands
6. The attitudes of people just arent ready for this, Nancy said.
Peoples attitudes
7. The two looked to the snowflakes of the sky and saw white dusty stars floating by.
the skys snowflakes
8. We should go home and sit before the heat of the fireplace, Jo said.
the fireplaces heat
9. The mugs that belong to Beth should hold enough hot chocolate to warm us up.
Beths mugs
Which possessive pronouns belong in the following examples?

This is Kimberlys handbook.
This is
her
handbook.
hers
The handbook is
Those are Jessies records.

Those are
her
hers
records. The records are
That is Frank and Todds car.

That is
his
car.
The car is
his
The tall vase belongs to you.

The tall one is
your
vase.
The vase is
yours
ANSWER
S
Examples:
The flavor of the coffee was unusual.
the coffees flavor
I live in the home of my parents.
my parents home
1. The combined losses of the North and South were the greatest in any American war.
The Norths and Souths combined losses
2. The president took away some of the responsibilities of the chief-of-staff.
the chief-of-staffs responsibilities.
3. We loved the shoes of George and Sara.
Georges and Saras shoes.
4. She was insulted by the rude remarks of her sister-in-law.
her sister-in-laws rude remarks.
5. I couldnt stand the behavior of Alan and Jennifer.
Alan and Jennifers behavior.
6. The information of the ambassador was mostly incorrect.
The ambassadors information
7. The voyages of Magellan and Columbus were controversial.
Magellans and Columbuss voyages
8. The novels of Fitzgerald and Nabokov are among the most admired in modern literature.
Fitzgeralds and Nabokovs novels
9. One of the most famous events in American history is the journey west of Lewis and Clark.
Lewis and Clarks journey west
10. Dont forget the birthday of your mother-in-law.
your mother-in-laws birthday.
Run-Together Sentences Answer Key
ANSWER
S
Note that in correcting RTS errors, you will often have had a choice between two or more equally
logical coordinators or subordinators; therefore, where appropriate, several possibilities are given for
each sentence.
Exercise A
1. At the beginning of the season there are fourteen aspiring fashion designers, but/yet in the
end only three people get to show at Olympus Fashion Week in New York.
2. The supermodel Heidi Klum hosts, and famous designers serve as guest judges.
3. The contestants must take the design challenges seriously every week, for the loser goes
home.
4. Some of the contestants have huge egos, so they are unnecessarily competitive.
5. I dont have TiVo, so I am going to my friends house to watch the season finale.
Exercise B
Although the original order of sentences has been retained in this answer key, you could also
reasonably switch the order of ideas, so that the subordinate clause comes first, or vise-versa. This is
demonstrated with the first sentence.
1. She needed a part-time job because books and tuition were expensive this year.
OR
Because books and tuition were expensive this year, she needed a part-time job.
2. Although/even though/though/while she would have preferred not to have to work retail,
the only job she could find was at a shoe store in the mall.
3. Although/even though/though/while the customers were frequently demanding and rude,
she liked her co-workers.
4. When/after/as soon as she had been working for a month, her employee discount kicked in.
5. When/after/as soon as she paid off her credit card bill, she was planning to buy a new pair
of shoes.
ANSWER
S
Exercise C
In the following sentences, using a transition wordthe words in bracketsis optional.
1. Orville was almost thirty-five ; his tummy had started to stick out.
2. His wife worried that his eating habits were unhealthy ; [therefore] she tried to encourage him
to eat more fruits and vegetables.
3. Orville was not as concerned; he would eat six cookies a meal without feeling guilty.
4. On the radio, Orville had heard that drinking green tea could help you lose weight ; he decided
to stop drinking coffee that very day and put his coffee machine away.
5. Only he didnt really stop drinking coffee; [instead] he just stopped making it at home and
went to the neighborhood caf instead.
Exercise D
1. The legalization of prostitution would actually help reduce crime because the prostitute
wouldn't be a victim of extortion or beatings.
OR
The legalization of prostitution would actually help reduce crime, for the prostitute wouldn't be
a victim of extortion or beatings.
2. If police could stake out a street crime area instead of a brothel, the effect would be safer
streets and more efficient use of the police.
3. Not everybody is going to be so ambitious and work ; many will probably do nothing.
4. Although/even though/though/while at one time people had responsibilities to their
families and communities, now you only have to answer to yourself and no one else.
OR
At one time people had responsibilities to their families and communities, but/yet now you
only have to answer to yourself and no one else.
5. To some, divorce provides an easy out to their problems of getting along together ; therefore
they dissolve the marriage rather than work it out.
ANSWER
Exercise E
S
Only the run-together sentences from the original paragraph have been reproduced below.
1. Sleep is a subject we should all know a lot about, for we spend one third of our lives sleeping.
OR
Sleep is a subject we should all know a lot about because we spend one third of our lives
sleeping.
2. They used to believe that the body repairs itself while asleep; there is some truth to this, but the
body also does this while awake.
3. The brain does not simply shut itself off at night, but it goes through a complicated series of
chemical changes.
OR
The brain does not simply shut itself off at night; it goes through a complicated series of chemical
changes.
4. They have found that we do not move smoothly from being awake to being asleep, but we pass
through a cycle of four sleep stages.
OR
They have found that we do not move smoothly from being awake to being asleep; [instead,] we
pass through a cycle of four sleep stages.
5. At each stage blood pressure and pulse rate drop, and the body temperature also goes down.
OR
At each stage blood pressure and pulse rate drop; the body temperature also goes down. 2
Altman,PamandDoreenDeicke,Eds.FogCityFundamentals,4thed.PearsonCustomPublishing:Boston,
1998.
2
Exercise F
ANSWER
S
1. In 1867, when a chef at a hotel in Saratoga Springs accidentally dropped some thinly sliced
potatoes into hot cooking oil, instantly the world found a new delicacy: the potato chip.
OR
In 1867, a chef at a hotel in Saratoga Springs accidentally dropped some thinly sliced potatoes
into hot cooking oil; instantly the world found a new delicacy: the potato chip.
2. At the time, Saratoga Springs was Americas most fashionable resort, and fads that started there
usually found immediate success.
OR
At the time, Saratoga Springs was Americas most fashionable resort, so fads that started there
usually found immediate success.
3. The wide, tree-lined avenues were filled with people eating potato chips, and the huge veranda of
the United States Hotel was no different; it was filled with chip-eaters too.
OR
The wide, tree-lined avenues were filled with people eating potato chips. The huge veranda of the
United States Hotel was no different; it was filled with chip-eaters too.
4. Some of the richest, most powerful people in the world consumed them regularly; for instance, the
Vanderbilts could often be seen daintily plucking chips from paper cups on their stroll back to their
mansion.
5. The potato chip was no longer the snack of only the rich and famous, for it became a common
household item.
6. Of course potato chips have changed a great deal in the last hundred years; now they come in
various textures and flavors, some even stacked in paper tubes. 3
Ibid.
ANSWER
S
Subject & Verb Identification Answer Key

1. After a long, rainy winter, the woman and her husband had become tired of their small apartment,
so they decided to drive to a seedy part of town in search of excitement.
2. The couple had been cruising slowly down a side street, looking for some local nightlife, when
they heard music coming from a small bar on the corner.
3. They had just left their car when some stray cats started fighting in a side alley.
4. When the couple walked in and sat down at the bar, nobody bothered to look up.
5. At one end of the bar, a tired-looking woman was languidly smoking her cigarette and expertly
blowing out smoke rings.
6. The bartender was wiping down the counter and softly whistling to himself.
7. Hunched over a table in the back corner, four men were enjoying a friendly game of cards.
8. A sad Billie Holiday tune had been playing softly from an old jukebox, but once the song was over,
the room went silent.
9. Suddenly, a man in the back stood and threw his cards down on the table, cursing loudly.
10. When he began to reach into his pocket, the couple looked at each other anxiously and then
hurriedly backed out the door.
Subject-Verb Agreement Answer Key
ANSWER
S
Practice Exercises
Circle the correct verb for each sentence.
Tip: write the pronoun above the subject to help you identify whether the verb should be singular or
plural.
( He )
1. Jordan ( hang / hangs ) the picture upside down above his futon.
(
It
)
2. Starry Night ( contain / contains ) eleven stars and one swirling moon.
( They
)
3. The hammers ( pound / pounds ) the nails until each corner is flush against the wall.
(
She
)
4. Van Goghs sister ( take / takes ) most of the credit for his genius.
(
They
)
5. The yellows in the painting ( swirl / swirls ) around the blue sky rather than the other way
around.
Agreement Exercise
Fill in the verb for each sentence.
Subject
Martin and his mother
Verb
play
[to play]
backgammon every day after work.
The junior or senior
marches
[to march]
A plum, and not the carrots,
provides
[to provide]
valuable nutrients to the body.
Martha or Dans children
scribble
[to scribble]
on the wall to create their art.
The bananas peel
stretches
[to stretch]
Saving of electricity
takes
[to take]
The group of friends
calls
[to call]
in the Homecoming parade.
across the floor to make them trip.

strong initiative, but benefits all of us.
each card aloud to win the game.
Agreement Practice Paragraph: The Supreme Court
ANSWER
S
Underline each subject once, each verb twice, and fix any incorrect verbs. The first sentence is done
for you.
The Supreme Court Justices rejoices after a particularly difficult decision. Though they usually lean on
the chief justice to announce the ruling (unless he is in the minority), each celebrates in his or her
own way. A reporter, speaking on the condition of anonymity, tells that in each session, the justices
bickers back and forth even when they seem to agree. One or two bicker more than the others, but no
one keeps silent for long. All this bickering produces so much tension that when they finish a case,
they all must go their separate ways until at least the following week when they repeat the whole
process.
Subordinators Answer Key
ANSWER
S
Note that in joining the two sentences, you will often have had a choice between two or more equally
logical subordinators; therefore, several possibilities are given for each sentence. Note too that
although the original order of sentences has been retained in this answer key, you could also
reasonably switch the order of ideas, so that the subordinate clause comes first, or vise-versa. This is
demonstrated with the first example in exercise A.
Exercise A:
1. Cockroaches are a health menace to humans because/since they carry viruses and
bacteria that cause diseases from hepatitis to salmonella.
OR
Because/since they carry viruses and bacteria that cause diseases from hepatitis to
salmonella, cockroaches are a health menace to humans.
2. Even though/although/though humans try to defeat cockroaches, they are very
successful at surviving our attacks.
3. Although/even though/though cockroaches are smaller than the humans who chase
them, they have extremely fast responses and sensitive receptors.
4. If/when there is no food, cockroaches subsist on glue, paper, and soap.
5. If/when they cant find glue, paper or soap, they can draw on their body stores for three
months.
6. If /when cockroaches are really desperate, they will turn into cannibals.
7. Female Suriname cockroaches can produce generation after generation of identical females
because/since they are able to clone themselves.
ANSWER
S
Exercise B:
1. When they sat down with Red Cloud to discuss the purchase of the Black Hills, whatever
calmness the government commissioners still possessed must have been shaken.
2. Because/since the region was so valuable to the Native Americans, Red Cloud calmly proposed
that $600 million seemed like a fair price.
3. After the Native Americans had reconsidered their price tag, they suggested that $6 million would
be a reasonable offer.
4. Because/sincecommissioners were too intimidated to negotiate, they returned to Washington
and angrily recommended teaching the Native Americans a lesson.
5. The government immediately ordered all Native Americans to come onto the reservation at once
even though/although/though the demand was both illegal and impossible to comply with.
6. Most of the Native Americans could never know about the order because/since they were
spread out all over the Black Hills.
7. When the deadline came, only one small band of Native Americans had come in.
8. Because/sincethe other Native Americans were now assumed at war with the government, the
Indian Bureau turned the matter over to General Philip Sheridan.
9. It was a totally unprovoked war because/since no Sioux or Cheyenne had ever violated a treaty
or actually attacked a U.S. citizen.
Verb Tenses Answer Key

Fill in each blank with the correct past tense form of the verb provided.
Example:
PLAY
We
played
dodge ball all afternoon.
ANSWER
S
fried
FRY
1. We
STUDY
2. All of us
CRY
3. Mary
studied hard for the physics exam.

cried
married
MARRY 4. She
tried
TRY
5. Fred
SHOP
6. I
ADMIT
7. No one
PLAN
8. Marty and Isabel
shopped
on his shoulder all through the movie.

him on Tuesday and played slots that night.
to get in the concert by posing as a security guard.
for all of my birthday presents at the art fair.
admitted
TERRIFY 9. The fireworks

COMPILE
the fish we caught in the lake.
that he was tired.
planned
terrified
10. The assistants
their marriage simply and loosely.

the younger children.
compiled
the materials into a great handbook.
ANSWER
S
In each of the following sentences, underline any verbs that should have ed or d endings and
supply the missing letters. Watch for time expressions (last week, yesterday, years ago) that indicate
past time.
incorrect: The committee vote to adjourn yesterday.
correct: The committee voted to adjourn yesterday.
1. The driver asked for the exact fare last week.

2. Oliver used to live in Berkeley when he was a college student.
3. Katerina studied all the time and so she graduated from college last year.
4. College students are supposed to attend every class meeting.
5. Last Sunday, Laura listened to the drummers in the park.
6. Until I started school, I worked twenty hours per week and study the rest of the time.
7. Finally Gayles cat returned home.
8. Several years ago I witnessed a crime and identify the criminal.
ANSWER
S
Exercise 3 Perfect Tenses

Use the perfect tense to fill in the blank using the same time period (past, present, future) as the
sample.
Example: Joan licks the popsicle. (present tense)
Joan has licked the popsicle. (present perfect tense)
(Remember: Perfect tenses for the verb to run are:
Present: she has run
Past: she had run
Future: she will have run)

1. Eric took piano lessons.
Eric
had taken
piano lessons since he was ten years old.
2. Tara raises as many children as she can.

Tara
has raised
as many children as she can.
3. Bill, on the other hand, will join the Coast Guard.

Bill, on the other hand,
will have joined
the Coast Guard.
4. Alyssa gives a drawing to each of her friends.

Alyssa
has given
a drawing to each of her friends.
5. Chickens pecked at bugs and fruit in the garden.

Chickens
had pecked
at bugs and fruit in the garden.
6. Each egg will travel a thousand miles before it lands on her lap.
Each egg
will have traveled
a thousand miles before it lands on her lap.
7. The wings had plenty of room to spread.

The wings
had had
plenty of room to spread.
8. Madison collects the hay in the morning after breakfast.

Madison
has collected
the hay in the morning after breakfast.
Exercise 4 Progressive Tenses
ANSWER
S
In the following sentences, change the simple tense verbs to progressive tense verbs using the same
time period (present, past, future). Avoid the perfect tense for this exercise.
1. Ferdinand scoffed when his friends all left for college.

Ferdinand
was scoffing
when his friends all left for college.
2. He enjoys his flowers, vegetables and herbs.
He
is enjoying
his flowers, vegetables and herbs.
3. The pumpkins ripened too long last year.

The pumpkins
were ripening
too long last year.
4. His friends will call at the next holiday or break.

His friends
will be calling
at the next holiday or break.
5. Ferdinand answers the phone saying What?

Ferdinand
is answering
the phone saying What?
6. He screened his calls last week to avoid bill collectors.

He
was screening
his calls last week to avoid bill collectors.
7. His money goes under his mattress until he needs it.

His money
is going
under his mattress until he needs it.
8. He will go fishing next week if he gets his license.

He
will be going fishing
next week if he gets his license.

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What, Why, and How?

Adjectives and Adverbs

Grammar chapter overview:

Adjectives & Adverbs

What are they?

-al: parental, economical

-ic: frantic, scientific

-less: ruthless, careless

Short adjectives &

Irregular adjectives and

Placement of Adjectives & Adverbs

Shaken not stirred, James Bond drank his martinis.

He made a delicious dinner.

The hungry girls

Their full stomachs pushed against their jeans.

But they couldnt resist the incredible dessert.

Dinner was delicious.

Their stomachs felt full.

The girls were hungry.

Dessert looked incredible.

The girl snoring in the next room woke up her roommate.

She had a goat that she loved very much.

The lion jumped skillfully through the flaming hoop.

The lion skillfully jumped through the flaming hoop.

Before next Wednesday, she needed to cash her paycheck.

She needed to cash her paycheck before next Wednesday.

Punctuating Adjectives and Adverbs

Can the order of the two adjectives be reversed?

Jessica is an ambitious, intelligent woman.

Roger has fourteen silver horns.

5. Suddenly, they heard a short, high-pitched yelp.

8. The mouse, still terrified, dashed away.

The star punched the photographer.

The reclusive movie star violently punched the pushy photographer.

4. The woman next to him sighed as the train stopped in a tunnel.

8. The tutor helped the boy with his homework.

9. The children ate the ice cream.

What are they?

What does an appositive look like?

It will begin with a noun or an article (a, an, the).

Create Your Own Appositives

A Note on Colons and Dashes

Exercise 1 Noun Phrase Appositives Sentence Combining

Exercise 2 NPAs Sentence Combining

The textbook fell from my desk.

CORRECT: The textbook, a giant collection of poetry, fell from

1. My best friend lost the race.

Indefinite Articles: a and an

Definite Article: the

You will use an indefinite article when

You will use the definite article when

If you were to say, Juan set his keys on

If you were to say, Juan set his keys on

If you were to say, Marcus goes

If you were to say, Marcus goes

Plural Indefinite Article - some

names of rivers, oceans and seas

beach where my cousin Willie lost his board in the waves.

1. Last week _______ seagull dropped his fish onto my car.