MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 12
Wang Fei

[email protected]

Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Chapter 4: Application of Differentiation 2

Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Curve Sketching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2nd Derivative Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Inflection Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Taylor’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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Chapter 4: Application of Differentiation 2 / 21

Mid-Term Test
• Mid-Term Test:
◦ 29th September, Tuesday, 6:00 – 7:30pm, MPSH2.
◦ Tutorial 1 – 4, Lesson 1 – 9; (Not free seating).
• Formula Sheet & Use of Calculator:
◦ Closed book; Standard formula sheet is provided.
◦ No advantage by using Graphical Calculator; Scientific Calculator is recommended.
• Questions in Test:
◦ There will be both routine and challenging problems.
◦ There will be both computation and proof problems.
◦ The proofs of existing theorems are not tested, but the techniques used in their proof might be
useful.
• Extra Problem Sets will be provided soon.

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Graph f using f ′ and f ′′

• Sketch the graph of f (x) = x4 − 4x3 .
◦ f ′ (x) = 4x2 (x − 3).
Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 3) (3, ∞)
f (x)
′
− − +
f (x) ց ց ր
So f (x) has local minimum at x = 3.

◦ f ′′ (x) = 12x(x − 2).

Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 2) (2, ∞)
f (x)
′′
+ − +
Concavity Up Down Up

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2
Graph f using f ′ and f ′′
• Sketch the graph of f (x) = x4 − 4x3 .

Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 3) (3, ∞)

f (x) ց ց ր
Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 2) (2, ∞)
Concavity Up Down Up
y

O x
−1 1 2 3 4
−10

−20

−30
decreasing decreasing increasing

up down up

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Graph f using f ′ and f ′′

• Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)1/3 .
4−x
◦ f ′ (x) = .
x1/3 (6 − x)2/3
Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 4) (4, 6) (6, ∞)
f ′ (x) − + − −
f (x) ց ր ց ց

−8
◦ f ′′ (x) = .
x4/3 (6− x)5/3
Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 6) (6, ∞)
f (x)
′′
− − +
Concavity Down Down Up

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3
Graph f using f ′ and f ′′
• Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2/3 (6 − x)1/3 .

Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 4) (4, 6) (6, ∞)

f (x) ց ր ց ց
Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 6) (6, ∞)
Concavity Down Down Up
y
4

O x
−2 2 4 6
−2

−4
decreasing increasing decreasing decreasing

down down up

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The Second Derivative Test

• Suppose f ′′ > 0 on interval I . Then f is concave up.

y = f (x)

(c, f (c))
b

◦ If f ′ (c) = 0 at some c,
then the tangent line of f at c is y = f (c).
•Since f is concave up,
the graph of f lies above y = f (c).
• In other words, f (x) > f (c) for all x 6= c.
∴ f has the minimum at c.

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4
The Second Derivative Test
• The Second Derivative Test.
◦ f ′ (c) = 0 & f ′′ (c) > 0 ⇒ f has a local min at c.
◦ f ′ (c) = 0 & f ′′ (c) < 0 ⇒ f has a local max at c.
f ′ (x) − f ′ (c)
• Proof. Suppose f (c) > 0, i.e., lim
′′
> 0.
x→c x−c
f ′ (x) − f ′ (c)
◦ Then > 0 for all x near c. (See Ex.)
x−c
• If x is near c and x < c, then f (x) < f (c) = 0,
′ ′

so f is decreasing on the left of c.

• If x is near c and x > c, then f (x) > f (c) = 0.
′ ′

so f is increasing on the right of c.

◦ Therefore, f has a local minimum at c.
• Note. The test is inconclusive if f ′ (c) = f ′′ (c) = 0.
◦ At x = 0: min y = x4 , max y = −x4 , neither y = x3 .

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Examples
• Find local max and local min of f (x) = x4 − 4x3 .
◦ f ′ (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 = 4x2 (x − 3).
• f ′ (x) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 3.
◦ f ′′ (x) = 12x2 − 24x.
• f ′′ (3) = 36 > 0 ⇒ f has a local min at x = 3.
• f ′′ (0) = 0 ⇒ Inconclusive!
• Remark. Comparing with the 1st derivative test, the 2nd derivative test is easier in computation.
However, it requires that
◦ f ′′ exists at critical numbers, and that
◦ f ′′ is nonzero at critical numbers.
Sometimes the 2nd derivative test may NOT work as good as the 1st derivative test.

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5
Inflection Point
• Definition. A point P on the curve of y = f (x) is called an inflection point if
◦ f is continuous at P , and
◦ the concavity of the curve changes at P .
y

O a b c d e p q x

down up down up up down

• Note. At inflection point, f may not be differentiable or twice differentiable.

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Inflection Point
• Theorem. Suppose f has an inflection point at c.
◦ If f is twice differentiable at c, then f ′′ (c) = 0.

• Proof. Suppose f changes from concave up to concave down at c. Note that f ′ continuous at c.
◦ f ′ is increasing on the left of c.
Fix x < c. Then for any x < y < c, f ′ (x) < f ′ (y).
Let y → c− . Then f ′ (x) ≤ lim f ′ (y) = f ′ (c).
y→c−
◦ f is decreasing on the right of c.
′

Fix x > c. Then for any c < y < x, f ′ (x) < f ′ (y).
Let y → c+ . Then f ′ (x) ≤ lim f ′ (y) = f ′ (c).
y→c+
◦ Therefore, f ′ has a local maximum at c.
By Fermat’s Theorem, f ′′ (c) = (f ′ )′ (c) = 0.

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6
Some Inequalities
√ 1
• Show that for all positive x 6= 1, 2 x > 3 − .
x
√ √
 
1 1
◦ Let f (x) = 2 x − 3 − =2 x−3+ .
x x
1 1 1  √ 
• f (x) = √ −
′
2
= 2 x3 − 1 .
 ′ x x x
f (x) > 0, if x > 1,
•
 f (x) < 0, if 0 < x < 1.
′

f is increasing on [1, ∞),

•
f is decreasing on (0, 1].
◦ Then for any positive x 6= 1, f (x) > f (1) = 0.
That is,
√ 1
2 x>3− .
x
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Some Inequalities
π
• We have seen that sin x < x for all 0 < x < .
2
2 π
Show that x < sin x when 0 < x < .
π 2
sin x π
◦ Let g(x) = on (0, ].
x 2
 ′
sin x cos x(x − tan x)
• g (x) = = < 0.
′
x x2
π
• By Increasing Test, g is decreasing on (0, ].
2
π π sin(π/2) 2
◦ For any 0 < x < , g(x) > g( ) = = .
2 2 π/2 π
That is,
2x
sin x > .
π
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7
Some Inequalities
π
• Recall that sin x < x < tan x for all x ∈ (0, ).
2
π
tan x + 2 sin x and 3x, which one is bigger on (0, )?
2
• Let f (x) = tan x + 2 sin x − 3x.
◦ f ′ (x) = sec2 x + 2 cos x − 3.
f ′′ (x) = 2 sec2 x tan x − 2 sin x > 0
π
◦ f ′ is increasing on [0, ).
2
π
Then for any x ∈ (0, ), f ′ (x) > f ′ (0) = 0.
2
π
• f is increasing on [0, ).
2
π
Then for any x ∈ (0, ), f (x) > f (0).
2

∴ tan x + 2 sin x > 3x.

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Approximation
• Suppose all the derivatives of f exist. By MVT,
◦ f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (c)(x − a) for a c between a and x.
If x → a, then c → a, and f ′ (c) → f ′ (a).
When x is close to a, we may approximate f (x) by
◦ f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a).
√
• Example. f (x) = 1 + x.
1 1
◦ f ′ (x) = √ and f ′ (0) = .
2 1+x 2
√ x
◦ 1 + x ≈ f (0) + f ′ (0)(x − 0) = 1 + .
2
√
• 1.1 ≈ 1.05.
What is the remainder of the approximation?

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Approximation
• By Rolle’s Theorem (Challenge Problem 5)
f ′′ (c)
◦ f (x) − f (a) − f ′ (a)(x − a) = (x − a)2
2
for some c between a and x.
• We may have a better approximation for x close to a:
f ′′ (a)
◦ f (x) ≈ f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 .
2
√
• Example. f (x) = 1 + x.
1 1
◦ f ′′ (x) = − p and f ′′ (0) = − .
4 (1 + x)3 4
√ f (0) 2
′′
x x2
◦ 1 + x ≈ f (0) + f ′ (0)x + x =1+ −
2 2 8
√
• 1.1 ≈ 1.04875.

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Taylor’s Theorem (Textbook 812, 818 – 819)

• Taylor’s Theorem. Let f be n + 1 times differentiable.
f ′′ (a) f (n) (a)
◦ f (x) = f (a) + f ′ (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n + Rn ,
2 n!
f (n+1) (c)
• Rn = (x − a)n+1 for a c between x & a.
(n + 1)!
• Remarks.
◦ Brook Taylor (1685 – 1731) English Mathematician.
• Taylor’s Theorem is stated by Taylor in 1712, but it is first discovered by James Gregory in
1671.
◦ James Gregory (1638 – 1675) Scottish Mathematician.
◦ If n = 0, Taylor’s Theorem is reduced to MVT.
So Taylor’s Theorem is a generalization of MVT.
◦ If Rn → 0 as n → ∞, then
∞ f (n) (a)
(x − a)n ,
P
• f (x) =
n=0 n!
which is known as the Taylor series.

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9
Example
• Find the Taylor series of f (x) = sin x at x = 0.

f (x) f ′ (x) f ′′ (x) f ′′′ (x)

sin x cos x − sin x − cos x
f (0) f ′ (0) f ′′ (0) f ′′′ (0)
0 1 0 −1
(4) (5) (6) (7)
f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x)
sin x cos x − sin x − cos x
f (4) (0) f (5) (0) f (6) (0) f (7) (0)
0 1 0 −1

f (n+1) (c) n xn as n→∞

◦ Rn = x ⇒ |Rn | ≤ −−−−−→ 0.
(n + 1)! (n + 1)! exercise
x3 x5 x7 P∞ (−1)n x2n+1
◦ sin x = x − + − +··· = .
3! 5! 7! n=0 (2n + 1)!

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Exercise
• Suppose lim g(x) = L > 0. Show that g(x) > 0 for x near a.
x→a

c
b
L

O a x

◦ Let ǫ = L > 0. There exists δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − a| < δ ⇒ |g(x) − L| < ǫ = L

⇒ −L < g(x) − L < L
⇒ g(x) > 0.

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10
YES or NO?
• If f is differentiable at 0, then f is continuous near 0.

x2 , if x ∈ Q,
◦ Answer: False. f (x) = 0, if x ∈ R\Q.

• If f ′ (0) > 0, then f is increasing near 0.

(
1
x + 3x2 sin , x 6= 0,
◦ Answer: False. f (x) = x
0, x = 0.
• If f has a local maximum at 0, then near 0
f is increasing on the left of 0, decreasing on the right of 0.
(
1
2 − x2 (2 + sin ), x 6= 0,
◦ Answer: False. f (x) = x
2, x = 0.

• Let f be differentiable. If f ′ (a) < 0 and f ′ (b) > 0 (a < b), then there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that
f ′ (c) = 0.
◦ Answer: True. Can you prove it?

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