MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 11
Wang Fei

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Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Chapter 4: Application of Differentiation 2

Increasing Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
First Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Concavity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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Chapter 4: Application of Differentiation 2 / 23

Increasing Test
• Recall our examples:
y
y

y = x2 − 8x + 9 y = −x3 + 2x2 − x + 1

b
y = 2x − 8 b

x
O x
O

b
y = −3x2 + 4x − 1


 f “turns” ⇔ f ′ = 0,
It seems that f is increasing ⇔ f ′ > 0,
f is decreasing ⇔ f ′ < 0.


• We have seen that “f turns”+“f ′ exists” ⇒ f ′ = 0 .

How about the other two cases?

3 / 23

Increasing Test
• Recall the definition of increasing function:
◦ f is increasing if x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
y b

O x1 c x2 x

◦ Suppose f is differentiable. By mean value theorem, there exists c ∈ (x1 , x2 ) at which

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
• f ′ (c) = .
x2 − x1
◦ We want f ′ (c) > 0. This leads to the Increasing Test.

4 / 23

2
Increasing Test
• Increasing Test.
Let f be continuous on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b).
◦ If f ′ (x) > 0 for any x ∈ (a, b),
◦ then f is increasing on [a, b].
• Proof. Let x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] with x1 < x2 .
We want to show that f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
◦ f is continuous on [x1 , x2 ], differentiable on (x1 , x2 ).
By Mean Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (x1 , x2 ) with

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f ′ (c) = > 0 ⇒ f (x2 ) > f (x1 ).
x2 − x1
∴ f is increasing on [a, b].

5 / 23

Increasing Test
• Decreasing Test.
Let f be continuous on [a, b], differentiable on (a, b).
◦ If f ′ (x) < 0 for any x ∈ (a, b),
◦ then f is decreasing on [a, b].
• Proof. Recall the definition of decreasing:
◦ x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
Let x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] with x1 < x2 . Then
◦ f is continuous on [x1 , x2 ], differentiable on (x1 , x2 ).
By Mean Value Theorem, there exists c ∈ (x1 , x2 ) with

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
f ′ (c) = < 0 ⇒ f (x2 ) < f (x1 ).
x2 − x1
∴ f is decreasing on [a, b].

6 / 23

3
Examples
• Let f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5.
◦ f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 − 24x = 12(x + 1)x(x − 2).

y
y = f (x)
10

−1 O 1 2 3 x

′
y = f (x) −10
x+1 x
Interval x−2 f ′ (x) f (x)
(−∞, −1) − − − − ց −20

(−1, 0) + − − + ր
(0, 2) + + − − ց
(2, ∞) + + + + ր

7 / 23

Remarks on Increasing/Decreasing Test

• In the condition, the [a, b] on which f is continuous can be replaced by any interval: (a, b), (a, b],
[a, b), (a, ∞), . . .
• The converse of Increasing/Decreaing Test fails:
◦ f is increasing ; f ′ (x) > 0;
◦ f is decreasing ; f ′ (x) < 0.
Note that f is not necessarily differentiable.
Even if f is differentiable, f ′ may be zero at some points.
◦ Let f (x) = x3 . Then f is increasing on R.
• f ′ (x) = 3x2 ⇒ f ′ (0) = 0.
y

y = x3

O x

8 / 23

4
Remarks on Increasing/Decreasing Test
• Theorem. Let f be differentiable on an open interval I .
◦ f is increasing ⇒ f ′ ≥ 0 on I ,
◦ f is decreasing ⇒ f ′ ≤ 0 on I .
• Proof. Suppose f is increasing and let c ∈ I .
Our aim is to check that f ′ (c) ≥ 0.
◦ x > c ⇒ f (x) > f (c); x < c ⇒ f (x) < f (c)
f (x) − f (c)
For any case > 0.
x−c
◦ Let x → c both sides.

f (x) − f (c)
f ′ (c) = lim ≥ 0.
x→c x−c
• “increasing” can be replaced by “non-decreasing”.
◦ That is, a ≥ b ⇒ f (a) ≥ f (b).

9 / 23

First Derivative Test

• Let f be a continuous function. Recall that
◦ if f has a local max or local min at c,
◦ then c is a critical number of f .
Now suppose c is a critical number of f .
How to check if f hasy a local max or local min at c?
max
max

no
no

min

O a b c d e f g x
f′ > 0 f′ > 0 f′ < 0 f′ > 0 f′ < 0 f′ < 0

10 / 23

5
First Derivative Test
• First Derivative Test.
Let f be continuous and c a critical number of f .
Suppose f is differentiable near c (except possibly at c).
◦ If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c,
then f has a local maximum at c.
′
◦ If f changes from negative to positive at c,
then f has a local minimum at c.
′
◦ If f does not change sign at c,
then f has no local max/min at c.
• Proof. If f ′ changes from positive to negative at c, then
◦ f is increasing on the left of c, and
◦ f is decreasing on the right of c.
So f has a local maximum at c.
Other two cases can be shown similarly. (Exercise)

11 / 23

Examples
• f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5
◦ f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 12x2 − 24x = 12(x + 1)x(x − 2).
Interval (−∞, −1) (−1, 0) (0, 2) (2, ∞)
f (x)
′
− + − +
f (x) ց ր ց ր
◦ local maximum: x = 0;
◦ local minimum: x = −1, x = 2.
y

10

−1 O 1 2 3 x

−10

−20

12 / 23

6
Examples
• f (x) = x1/3 (x − 4). Find its local max and local min.
◦ Where are the critical numbers?
4 4 4x−1
f ′ (x) = (x4/3 − 4x1/3 )′ = x1/3 − x−2/3 = .
3 3 3 x2/3
• f (x) does not exists: x = 0;
′

• f (x) = 0: x = 1.
′

Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 1) (1, ∞)

f ′ (x) − − +
f (x) ց ց ր
y

local min f (1) = −3

O 4 x

−3

13 / 23

Concavity
• Consider two graphs with the same end points:
y y

y = f (x)

y = g(x)

O a x O a x
b b
Concave Up Concave Down

◦ They are both increasing functions, but look different.

◦ We shall to define concavity to distinguish the two types of (differentiable) functions.

14 / 23

7
Concavity
• Definition. Let f be differentiable on an open interval I .
◦ If the graph lies above all its tangent lines on I ,
then it is said to be concave up.
◦ If the graph lies below all its tangent lines on I ,
then it is said to be concave down.
y

O a b c d e p q x

down up down up up down

15 / 23

An Algebraic Definition of Concavity

• We defined concavity on interval I graphically.
However, it cannot be used directly in application.
◦ Do we have a method to “compute” if the graph of a differentiable function is concave up?
y

f (x) b

b
f ′ (c)(x − c) + f (c)

f (x)

O c x

f (x) > f ′ (c)(x − c) + f (c) for any distinct x, c ∈ I

16 / 23

8
An Algebraic Definition of Concavity
• An Alternative Definition of Concavity.
The graph of f is concave up on open interval I if
◦ f (x) > f ′ (y)(x − y) + f (y) for any x 6= y in I .
The graph of f is concave down on open interval I if
◦ f (x) < f ′ (y)(x − y) + f (y) for any x 6= y in I .
• Now we can check the concavity by computation.
◦ Example. Let f (x) = x2 . Choose x 6= y .
f (x) − f (y) − f ′ (y)(x − y) = x2 − y 2 − (2y)(x − y)
= x2 − 2xy + y 2 = (x − y)2 > 0.
Therefore, f (x) = x2 is concave up on R.
◦ Example. Let g(x) = sin x on (0, π).
• The computation seems tedious. Is there a shortcut?

17 / 23

An Algebraic Definition of Concavity

• The graph of f is concave up on open interval I if
◦ f (x) > f ′ (y)(x − y) + f (y) for any x 6= y in I .
• Let f be concave up on interval I . Take a < b in I .
y

f ′ (b)
f (b)−f (a) b
b−a (b, f (b))
′
f (a)
b

O x
(a, f (a))
f (b) − f (a)
◦ f (b) > f ′ (a)(b − a) + f (a) ⇒ f ′ (a) < ;
b−a
f (b) − f (a)
◦ f (a) > f ′ (b)(a − b) + f (b) ⇒ f ′ (b) > .
b−a
∴ f ′ (a) < f ′ (b)

18 / 23

9
An Algebraic Definition of Concavity
• Theorem. Let f be differentiable on open interval I .
◦ The graph is concave up ⇒ f ′ is increasing.
◦ The graph is concave down ⇒ f ′ is decreasing.
• How about the converse of the statement?
◦ The converse holds!
• Theorem. Let f be differentiable on open interval I .
◦ The graph is concave up ⇔ f ′ is increasing.
◦ The graph is concave down ⇔ f ′ is decreasing.
Example. If f and g are concave up on interval I , then f + g is concave up on I .

f is C.U. ⇒ f ′ ր
◦ ⇒ (f + g)′ ր⇒ f + g is C.U.
g is C.U. ⇒ g ′ ր
19 / 23

An Algebraic Definition of Concavity

• Theorem. Let f be differentiable on interval I .
◦ f ′ is increasing ⇔ the graph is concave up.
◦ f ′ is decreasing ⇔ the graph is concave down.
• Proof. Suppose f is differentiable & f ′ is increasing on I .
Our aim is to check that f (b) > f ′ (a)(b − a) + f (a) for all a 6= b in I .
◦ If a < b, applying Mean Value Theorem on [a, b],
there is c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c) > f ′ (a).
b−a
Then f (b) − f (a) > f ′ (a)(b − a).

That is, f (b) > f ′ (a)(b − a) + f (a).

20 / 23

10
An Algebraic Definition of Concavity
• Theorem. Let f be differentiable on interval I .
◦ f ′ is increasing ⇔ the graph is concave up.
◦ f ′ is decreasing ⇔ the graph is concave down.
• Proof. Suppose f is differentiable & f ′ is increasing on I .
Our aim is to check that f (b) > f ′ (a)(b − a) + f (a) for all a 6= b in I .
◦ If a > b, applying Mean Value Theorem on [b, a],
there is c ∈ (b, a) such that

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (c) < f ′ (a).
b−a
Then f (b) − f (a) > f ′ (a)(b − a).

That is, f (b) > f ′ (a)(b − a) + f (a).

21 / 23

Concavity Test
• Suppose f is twice differentiable on an open interval I .
◦ If f ′′ > 0 on I , by Increasing Test f ′ is increasing,
then the graph of f is concave up.
◦ If f < 0 on I , by Decreasing Test f ′ is decreasing,
′′

then the graph of f is concave down.

• The Concavity Test. Let f be a twice differentiable function on an open interval I .
◦ If f ′′ > 0 on I ,
then the graph of f is concave up on I .
◦ If f ′′ < 0 on I ,
then the graph of f is concave down on I .
• Remark. Concavity only requires f to be differentiable.
◦ The graph of f is concave up ; f ′′ > 0.
◦ The graph of f is concave down ; f ′′ < 0.

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11
Appendix
• Problem. Evaluate the sum of the following numbers:

−1 0 0 0 0 ··· −1
1
2
−1 0 0 0 ··· − 12
1 1
4 2
−1 0 0 ··· − 14
1 1 1
8 4 2
−1 0 ··· − 18
1 1 1 1 1
16 8 4 2
−1 · · · − 16
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . .
0 0 0 0 0 ···

∴ The sum is −2. But the sum can also be 0.

• In general, we may NOT be able to rearrange the order of an infinite sum.

23 / 23

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