MA1102R CALCULUS

Lesson 7
Wang Fei

[email protected]

Department of Mathematics
Office: S14-02-09
Tel: 6516-2937

Chapter 3:Derivatives 2
Derivative as Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Differentiable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Power Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
(sin x)′ (cos x)′ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Appendix 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1
Chapter 3:
Derivatives 2 / 28

Example
1
• Let f (x) = . Find f ′ (a) at each a ∈ R\{0}.
x
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h
1 1
−
= lim a+h a
h→0 h
−h
(a+h)a
= lim
h→0 h
−1
= lim
h→0 (a + h)a
1
= − 2.
a
◦ f ′ is therefore a function defined on R\{0}.

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Derivative as a Function
• The derivative of f at point x = a:
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim .
h→0 h
• The derivative of f as a function:
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h
dy df d
◦ f ′ (x) = y ′ = = = f (x) = Dx f (x) = · · ·
dx dx dx
dy ∆y
◦ := lim (Leibniz 1646—1716)
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
dy 
◦ f (a) =
′
 .
dx x=a
1 1
• Example. If f (x) = , then f ′ (x) = − 2 .
x x
4 / 28

2
Examples
1−x
• Let f (x) = .
2+x
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
1−(x+h)
2+(x+h)
− 1−x
2+x
= lim
h→0 h
−3h
= lim
h→0 h(2 + (x + h))(2 + x)
−3
= lim
h→0 (2 + (x + h))(2 + x)
−3
= .
(2 + x)2
◦ Domain of f : R\{−2}; Domain of f ′ : R\{−2}.

5 / 28

Examples
√
• Let f (x) = x, (x ≥ 0). Find f ′ .

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
√ h
√
x+h− x
= lim
√ h
h→0
√ √ √
( x + h − x)( x + h + x)
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
h
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1 1
= lim √ √ = √ (x > 0).
h→0 x+h+ x 2 x

The domain of f ′ may be smaller than the domain of f .

6 / 28

3
Differentiable Functions
• Definition. (We only consider the differentiability on open intervals)
◦ f is differentiable at a if
f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) := lim exists.
h→0 h

◦ f is differentiable on (a, b) if it is differentiable at every c ∈ (a, b).

• Questions.
◦ What’s the relation between differentiability and continuity?
◦ What kinds of functions are differentiable?
◦ How to construct new differentiable functions?
◦ How the derivative affects the original function?

7 / 28

Example
• Let f (x) = |x|. Find f ′ if it exists.
y

x
O a−h a a+h
|a + h| − |a|
f ′ (a) = lim
◦ If a > 0, h→0 h
(a + h) − a
= lim
h→0 h
h
= lim = lim 1 = 1.
h→0 h h→0

8 / 28

4
Example
• Let f (x) = |x|. Find f ′ if it exists.
y

x
a−h a a+h O
|a + h| − |a|
f ′ (a) = lim
◦ If a < 0, h→0 h
−(a + h) − (−a)
= lim
h→0 h
−h
= lim = lim (−1) = −1.
h→0 h h→0

9 / 28

Example
• Let f (x) = |x|. Find f ′ if it exists.
y

b
h a O h x

|h| − 0
◦ If a = 0, f ′ (0) = lim does not exist.
h→0 h
|h| h
• lim+ = lim+ = lim+ 1 = 1,
h→0 h h→0 h h→0
|h| −h
• lim = lim− = lim− (−1) = −1.
h→0− h h→0 h h→0

10 / 28

5
Example
• Let f (x) = |x|. Then

d  1, if x > 0,
′
f (x) = |x| = −1, if x < 0,
dx 
does not exist, if x = 0.
y

O x

◦ f (x) = |x| is continuous on R,

but f is NOT differentiable at x = 0.
◦ It seems that the condition of differentiability is “stronger” than the condition of continuity.

11 / 28

Differentiability Implies Continuity

• Theorem.
If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

• Proof. Suppose f ′ (a) = L. Then

f (x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = L ⇐⇒ lim =L
x→a x−a
⇓ how?
how? lim [f (x) − f (a)] = 0
x→a
m
f is continuous at a ⇐⇒ lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
f (x) − f (a)
lim [f (x) − f (a)] = lim · lim (x − a)
x→a x→a x−a x→a

= L · 0 = 0.
lim f (x) = lim (f (x) − f (a)) + lim f (a) = 0 + f (a) = f (a).
x→a x→a x→a

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6
Differentiation Formulas
• Let c be a constant.
(c)′ = 0
d c−c
◦ (c) = lim = lim 0 = 0.
dx h→0 h h→0

• Let f be a differentiable function, and c be a constant.

cf (x + h) − cf (x)
(cf )′(x) = lim
h→0
 h 
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim c
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= c lim
h→0 h
= cf ′ (x).

∴ (cf )′ = cf ′ .

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Differentiation Formulas
• Let f and g be differentiable functions.

(f + g)(x + h) − (f + g)(x)
(f + g)′(x) = lim
h→0 h
[f (x + h) + g(x + h)] − [f (x) + g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
[f (x + h) − f (x)] + [g(x + h) − g(x)]
= lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= f ′ (x) + g ′ (x).

∴ (f + g)′ = f ′ + g ′ .
(f − g)′ = [f + (−g)]′ = f ′ + (−g)′ = f ′ + (−g ′ )
= f ′ − g ′.
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7
Differentiation Formulas
• Let f and g be differentiable functions. What is (f g)′ ?

d [f (x + h)]2 − [f (x)]2
[f (x)]2 = lim
dx h→0 h
[f (x + h) − f (x)] · [f (x + h) + f (x)]
= lim
h→0 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim · lim [f (x + h) + f (x)]
h→0 h h→0
′
= f (x) · [f (x) + f (x)] (∵ f is continuous)
= 2f ′(x)f (x).

(f g)′ = 12 [(f + g)2 − f 2 − g 2]′

= 12 [2(f + g)′ (f + g) − 2f ′ f − 2g ′g]
= (f ′ + g ′ )(f + g) − f ′ f − g ′ g
= f ′ g + f g ′.
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Differentiation Formulas
• Let f and g be differentiable functions. What is (f /g)′ ?
Suppose g(x) 6= 0.
   
1 1
 ′
1 g
(x + h) − g
(x)
(x) = lim
g h→0 h
1 1 g(x)−g(x+h)
g(x+h)
− g(x) g(x)g(x+h)
= lim = lim
h→0
 h h→0 h 
g(x + h) − g(x) −1
= lim ·
h→0 h g(x)g(x + h)
g(x + h) − g(x) −1
= lim · lim
h→0 h h→0 g(x)g(x + h)
 ′
−1 g
= g ′ (x) · 2
= − 2 (x).
[g(x)] g

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8
Differentiation Formulas
• Let f and g be differentiable functions. What is (f /g)′ ?
Suppose g(x) 6= 0.
 ′  ′    ′
f 1 ′ 1 1
= f· =f · +f ·
g g g g
f ′
f · (−g )
′
= +
g g2
f ′g − f g′
= .
g2
◦ (cf )′ = cf ′
◦ (f ± g)′ = f ′ ± g ′
◦ (f g)′ = f ′ g + f g ′
 ′
f f ′g − f g′
◦ = , if g(x) 6= 0.
g g2
17 / 28

Differentiation of Power Functions

• Let n be a positive integer. What is (xn )′ ?

• Solution. Evaluate directly using Binomial Formula:

d n (x + h)n − xn
(x ) = lim
dx h→0
 n hn
n−1

x + 1 x h + n2 xn−2 h2 + · · · + hn − xn
= lim
h→0
n

n−1 n

n−2 2 h
x h + 2 x h + · · · + hn
= lim 1
h→0
   h 
n n−1 n n−2 n−1
= lim x + x h+···+h
h→0 1 2
= nxn−1 + 0 + · · · + 0
= nxn−1 .

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9
Differentiation of Power Functions
• Second Solution. Use factorization of polynomial:

d n y n − xn
(x ) = lim
dx y→x y − x

(y − x)(y n−1 + y n−2 x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1 )

= lim
y→x y−x
n−1


= lim y + y x + · · · + yxn−2 + xn−1
n−2
y→x
n−1
=x + xn−2 x + · · · + xxn−2 + xn−1
= |xn−1 + xn−1 + ·{z
· · + xn−1 + xn−1}
n copies
n−1
= nx .

∴ (xn )′ = nxn−1 for any n ∈ Z+ .

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Examples
• Let P (x) be a polynomial, say

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

Then P (x) is the sum of differentiable functions, so it is differentiable on R.

P (x)
• Let R(x) = be a rational function, where P, Q are polynomials with Q(x) 6= 0.
Q(x)
 ′
′ P (x) P ′ Q − P Q′
R (x) = = (x).
Q(x) Q2

• Proposition. Every polynomial and rational function is differentiable on its domain.

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10
Examples
u6 − 2u3 + 5
• Differentiate y = with respect to u.
u2
 6 ′
dy u − 2u3 + 5
=
du u2
(u6 − 2u3 + 5)′ u2 − (u6 − 2u3 + 5)(u2 )′
=
(u2 )2
(6u5 − 6u2 )u2 − (u6 − 2u3 + 5)(2u)
=
u4
(6u − 6u ) − (2u7 − 4u4 + 10u)
7 4
=
u4
7 4
4u − 2u − 10u
=
u4
10
= 4u3 − 2 − 3
u
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Examples
• We have shown that (xn )′ = nxn−1 for n ∈ Z+ .
What about if n is a negative integer?
◦ Let n ∈ Z− . Then m = −n ∈ Z+ .

 ′
n ′ 1 −(xm )′ −mxm−1
(x ) = = =
xm (xm )2 x2m
= −mx−m−1
= nxn−1 .

∴ (xn )′ = nxn−1 for all n ∈ Z

• Question: What can we say if the power is a rational number?

d r
(x ) =? if r ∈ Q.
dx
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11
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
• Recall that the trigonometric functions sin x and cos x are continuous on R.

◦ Are they differentiable on R?

◦ If yes, what are the derivatives (sin x)′ and (cos x)′ ?
sin θ
• Lemma A. lim = 1.
θ→0 θ
C
π
y
◦ Let 0 < θ < 2
. Then

1 A
2AOB < △BOC

◦ That is,
θ tan θ
area = θ
< .
2
2 2
θ

O B x

23 / 28

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

sin θ
• Lemma A. lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

Proof. Let 0 < θ < π2 . Then 0 < θ < tan θ.

As θ → 0+ , by Squeeze Theorem

sin θ
cos θ < < 1
θ
↓ ↓ ↓
1 ⇒ 1 ⇐ 1
) 
lim+ cos θ = 1 sin θ 

θ→0
⇒ lim+ =1 
 sin θ
lim+ 1 =1 θ→0 θ
θ→0 ⇒ lim =1
θ→0 θ
sin θ sin(−x) sin x 

lim = lim+ = lim+ =1 

θ→0− θ x→0 −x x→0 x
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12
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
sin θ
• Lemma A. lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

1 − cos θ
• Lemma B. lim = 0.
θ→0 θ
Proof.
1 − cos θ 2 sin2 (θ/2) sin2 (θ/2)
lim = lim = lim
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ θ→0 θ/2
 
sin(θ/2)
= lim · sin(θ/2)
θ→0 θ/2
sin(θ/2)
= lim · lim sin(θ/2)
θ→0 θ/2 θ→0

= 1 · 0 = 0.
25 / 28

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

sin θ
• Lemma A. lim = 1.
θ→0 θ

1 − cos θ
• Lemma B. lim = 0.
θ→0 θ
y y

y = sin θ
1 θ
bc

O
bc
θ

y = cos θ
θ
θ y = 1−cos
θ

26 / 28

13
Appendix 1: The Binomial Theorem
• Theorem. Let n be a positive integer. Then for any a, b,
n  
n
X n n−k k
(a + b) = a b
k=0
k
   
n n n−1 n n−2 2
=a + a b+ a b +···
1 2
 
n
+ abn−1 + bn ,
n−1
where  
n n!
=
k k!(n − k)!
n(n − 1) · · · (n − k + 2)(n − k + 1)
= .
1 · 2 · 3 · · · (k − 1)k
27 / 28

Appendix 2: Factorization of an − bn
• Let n be a positive integer.
◦ a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
◦ a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
◦ a4 − b4 = (a − b)(a3 + a2 b + ab2 + b3 )
◦ ························
In general,
an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + · · · + abn−2 + bn−1 )
• Proof.
(a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + · · · + abn−2 + bn−1 )
= an + an−1 b + an−2 b2 + · · · + a2 bn−1 + abn−1
− an−1 b − an−2 b2 − · · · − a2 bn−1 − abn−1 − bn
= an − bn .
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