Process Design Manual For Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater

PA 625/1-81-013
(COE EM1110-1-501)
PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL

FOR
LAND TREATMENT OF
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

U. S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
October 1981
Pub1ished by
U. S. Envi ronmental P r o t e c t i o n Agency
Center f o r Environmental Research I n f o r m a t i o n
C i n c i n n a t i , Ohio 45268
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This manual presents the state-of-the-art on process design

for land treatment systems., It replaces the process design
manual with the same title, published in October 1977.
Preparation of this manual was sponsored by th.e U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Research
and Development, and Office of Water; the U.S.ArmyCclrps of
Engineers; the U.S. Department of the Interior (USDI),Office
of Water Research and Technology;
and the U.S. Depa.rtment,
of Agriculture (USDA), Office of Environmental Quality and
Farmers Home Administration.
An interagency,coordinating
committee representing these sponsors was established; this
committee then selectedateamof contract authors. Contract
administration was provided by EPA CERI, Cincinnati, Ohio.
PROJECT OFFICER: Dr. JameslE. Smith Jr., EPA, CERI.
Dr. Smith was also chairmanlothe interagency coordi.nating
committee.
Assistance in contract administration was
provided by Enviro Control, Inc., under the direction of
Mr. Torsten Rothman
I
CONTRACTOR:
Metcalf
&
Eddy! Inc., Sacramento, California.
Supervision and Principal ~uthors:

Ronald W. Crites, ~ r o j e c t : ~ a n a g e r ,
E.L. Meyer and R.G. Smith1
Staff Authors:
M. Walker, K. Alston, M. Alpert, C. Stein
I
I
Editing and Review:

F. Burton, J. Miller, C. Iound
Consultant Authors:
Dr. A. Wallace, University of Idaho; Dr. W. Nutter,
University of Georgia; Mr. D. Hinrichs, Culp/Wesner/
Culp; Mr. B. Whitson, Mr. D. Deemer, Dr. 0. Aly, and
Mr. L. Gilde, Campbell Soup Company; Dr. E. Myers,
Williams & Works, Inc.; Mr. D. Hirschbrunner and
Ms. D. Parkes, Bruce Gilmore & Associates, Inc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A technical workgroup composed of members from the sponsoring agencies,

as well as other invited experts,
was
formed. In addition, arnultidisciplinary group of engineers
and scientists also furnished technical review.
Under the
direction of its chairman, the workgroup defined the scope
reof the effort, supervised the work of the contractor,
viewed the manual, and provided technical editing and input
to the manual.
CHAIRMAN:
Sherwood C. Reed, USA CRREL
WORKGROUP :
EPA:
U. S. Army:
Mr.
Dr.
Mr.
Dr.
Dr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Dr.
Mr.
Mr.
Dr.
USDA:
USDI :
USDOE :
NSF :
Academic
Dr. M.
Dr. R.
Dr. M.
Mr.
Dr.
Mr.
Mr.
Ms.
Dr.
R.E. Thomas, Dr. J.E. Smith Jr.,

C. Harlin, Mr. W. Whittington,
R. Bastian, Dr. H. Thacker,
N. Kowal, Mr. R. Dean, Mr. J. Ariail,
C. Enfield, Mr. J. Roesler,
W. Huang, Mr. J. Smith
N. Urban, Mr. D. Lamont,
W. Medding, Mr. P. Carmichael,
I. Iskandar, Mr. J. Martel,
J. Bouzoun, Dr. R. Lee,
M. Cullinane, Mr. J. Bauer,
S. Schaub, Dr. H. McKim
P. Smith, Mr. C. Rose, Mr. G. Deal,
H. Bouwer, Mr. W. Opfer, Dr.D.Urie,
R. Phillips, Dr. D. Clapp
.R. Madancy
3. Broomfield
E. Bryan
Institutions and State Agencies:

Kirkham, Dr. E. Lennette, Dr. W. Sopper,
Smith, Dr. A. Overman, Dr. R. Abernathy,
Overcash, Dr. A. Erickson, Mr. D. Kendrick
Invited Technical Reviewers:

Mr. B. Seabrook, Mr. T. Jenkins, Mr. J. Kreissl,
Mr. A. Palazzo, Dr. E. Smith, Ms. H. ~arquhar,
Dr. R. Lewis, Dr. T. Asano, Mr. T. Rothman,
Mr. R. Sletten, Mr. G, Abele
ABSTRACT
t
This manual presents a rattonal procedure for the design of

land treatment systems. Slow rate, rapid infiltration, and
overland flow processes for the treatment of municipal
wastewaters are discussed in detail, and the design concepts
and criteria are presented. A two-phased planning approach
to site investigation and selection is also presented.
The manual includes examples of each process
design.
Information on field investigations is presented along with
special considerations for small scale systems. Equations
and procedures are included to allow calculations of energy
requirements for land treatment systems. Potential health
and
environmental effects and corresponding mitigation
measures are discussed.
1
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I1
ABSTRACT
CONTENTS
FIGURES
TABLES
ii
iii
iv
v
xv
xviii
INTRODUCTION AND PROCESS CAPABILITIES

-..
Purpose
Scope
Treatment Processes
Slow Rate Process
1.4.1 Process Objectives
1.4.2 Treatment Performance
Rapid Infiltration
1.5.1 Process Objectives
Overland Flow
1.6.1
Process Objectives
Combination Systems
Guide to Intended Use of the Manual
References
PLANNING AND TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT

2.1
Planning Procedure
2.2
Phase 1 Planning
2.2.1 Preliminary Data
2.2.2 Land Treatment System Suitability
2.2.3
Land Area Requirements
2.2.4 Site Identification
2.2.5 Site Screening
2.3
Phase 2 Planning
2.3.1 Field Investigations
2.3.2 Selection of Preliminary
Design Criteria
2.3.3 Evaluation of Alternatives
2.3.4 Plan Selection
2.4
Water Rights and Potential Water
Rights Conflicts
2.4.1 Natural Watercourses
2.4.2 Surface Waters
2.4.3 Percolating Waters (Ground Waters)
2.4.4 Sources of Information
2.5
References
~
CONTENTS (Continued)
Chapter
3
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Introduction
3.1
Physical Properties
3.2
3.2.1 Shallow Profile Evaluation
3.2.2 Profile Evaluation to
Greater Depths
Hydraulic Properties
3.3.1 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
3.3.2 Infiltration Capacity
3.3.3
Specific Yield
3.3.4 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity
3.3.5 Profile Drainage
Infiltration Rate Measurements
3.4.1 Floodang Basin Techniques
3.4.2 Cylinder Infiltrometers
3.4.3 Sprinkler Infiltrometers
Measurement of Vertical Hydraulic
Conductivity ,
3.5.1 Double-Tube Method
3.5.2 Air Entry Permeameter
Ground Water
3.6.1 ~epth/Hydrostatic Head
3.6.2 Flow
3.6.3 Ground Water Quality
Soil Chemical Properties
3.7.1 Interpretation of Soil
Chemical Tests
3.7.2 Phosphorus Adsorption Test
References
I
I
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Introduction
Process Performance
4.2.1 BOD and Suspended Solids Rem0va.L
4.2.2 Nitrogen
4.2.3 Phosphorus
4.2.4 Trace Elements
4.2.5 Microorganisms
4.2.6 Trace organics
Crop Selection
4.3.1 Guidelines for Crop Selection
4.3.2 Crop Characteristics
Preapplication Treatment
4.4.1 Preapplication Treatment for
Storage and During Storage
4.4.2 Preapplication Treatment to
Protect Distribution Systems
I
Page
Chapter
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
5
4.4.3 Industrial Pretreatment

Loading Rates and Land Area Requirements
4.5.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate Based
on Soil Permeability
4.5.2 Hydraulic Loading Rate Based
on Nitrogen Limits
4.5.3 E[ydraulic Loading Rate Based
on Irrigation Requirements
4.5.4 Land Area Requirements
Storage Requirements
4.6.1 Estimation of Volume Requirements
Using Storage Water Balance
Calculations
4.6.2 Estimated Storage Volume
Requirements Using Computer
Programs
4.6.3 Final Design Storage Volume
Calculations '
4.6.4 Storage Pond Design Considerations
Distribution System
4.7.1 Surface Distribution Systems
4.7.2 Sprinkler Distribution Systems
4.7.3 Service Life of.Distribution
System Components
D r a i n a g e a n d Runoff
Page
4-28
4-28
4-28
4-30
4-34
4-35
4-37
4-37
4-39
4-41
4-43
4-44
4-44
4-45
4-53
4-53
Control
4*.8.1 Subsurface Drainage Systems

4-53
4.8.2 Surface Drainage and Runoff Control 4-56
System Management
4-58
4.9.1 Soil Management
4-58
4.9.2 Clrop Management
4-61
4-64
System Monitoring
4-65
4.10.1 Water Quality Monitoring
4-65
4.10.2 Soils Monitoring
4-66
4.10.3 Vegetation Monitoring
4-66
Facilities Design Guidance
4-68
References
RAPID INFILTRATION PROCESS DESIGN

5.1
Introduction
5.1.1 RI Hydraulic Pathway
5.1.2 Site Work
5.2
Process Performance
5.2.1 BOD and Suspended Solids
5.2.2 Nitrogen
5.2.3 Phosphorus
5.2.4 Trace Elements
5.2.5 Microorganisms
5-2.6 Trace Organics
vii
Chapter
Page
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
,
5.8
5.9
5.10
~eterminationof Preapplication
Treatment Level
5.3.1
EPA Guidance
5.3.2
Water,Quality Requirements
and Treatment Goals
~eterminationof Hydraulic
Loading Rate
5.4.1
Measured Hydraulic Capacity
5.4.2
Selection of Hydraulic Loading
Cycle and Application Rate
5.4.3
Other Considerations
Land Requirements
~nfiltrationBasin Area
5.5.1
5.5.2
~acilities
5.5.3
Other Land Requirements
Infiltration System Design
5.6.1
Distribution and Basin Layout
5.6.2
Storage and Flow Equalization
5.6.3
Cold Weather Modifications
Drainage
5.7.1
Subsurface Drainage to
Surface Waters
5.7.2
Ground Water Mounding
5.7.3
Underdrains
5.7.4
Wells'
Monitoring an? Maintenance Requirements
5.8.1
Monitoring
5.8.2 . Maintenance
Design and Construction Guidance
References
I
I
OVERLAND FLOW PROCESS DESIGN

6.1
Introduction '
6.1.1
Site Characteristics and
Evaluation.
6.1.2
Water Quality Requirements
6.1.3
Design and Operating Parameters
6.2
Process Performance
6.2.1
BOD Removal
6.2.2
Suspended Solids Removal
6.2.3
Nitrogen Removal
6.2.4
Phosphorus Removal
6.1.5
Trace Element Removal
6.2.6
Mircroorganism Removal
6.2.7
Trace Organic's Removal
6.2.8
Effect of Rainfall
I
!viii
Chapter
Page
6.2.9
E:ffect of SlopeGrqde
6.2.10 Performance During Startup
Preapplication Treatment,
Design Criteria Selection
6.4.1
Hydraulis Loading Rate
6.4.2
Application Rate
6.4.3
Application Period
6.4.4
Application Frequency
6.4.5
Constituent Loading Rates
6.4.6
Slope Length
6.4-7
Slope Grade
6.4.8
ItandRequirements
6.5.1
Storage Requirements fbr
Cold Weather
6.5.2
Storaqe for Stormwater Runoff
6.5,3
storage for Equalization
Distribution
6.6.1
Surface Methods
Low Pressure Sprays
6.6.2
6.6.3
High Pressure Sprinklers
6.6.4
Buried Versus Aboveground Systems
6.6.5
Automation
Vegetative Cover
6.7.1
Vegetative dover Function
6.7.2
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
7
Vegetative Cover Selection
Slope Con.struction
6.8.1
System Layout
6.8,2
Grading Operations
6.8-3
Seeding and Crop Establishment
Runoff Collection
System Monitoring and Management
6.10.1 Monitoring
6.10.2 System Management
Alternative Design Methods
6.11.1 CRREL Method
6.11.2 University of California,
Davis, (UCD) Method
6.11.3 Comparison of Alternative Methods
References
SMALL SYSTEMS
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Facility Planning
7.2.1
Process Considerati~ns
7.2.2
Site Selection
7.2.3
Site Investigations
CONTENTS; (Continued)
Chapter
7.3
7.4
7.5
Facility Design
7.3.1
and storage
7.3.2
Hydraulic Loading Rates
7.3.3
Land Area Requirements
7.3.4
Distribution Systems
Typical Small,Community Systems
7.4.1
Slow Rate Forage System
7.4.2
Slow Rate Forest System
7.4.3
Rapid Infiltration
7.4.4
Overland Flow
References
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND CONSERVATION

8.1
Introduction
8.2
Transmission Pumping
8.3
General Process Energy Requirements
8.3.1
Slow Rate
8.3.2
Rapid Infiltration
8.3.3
Overland Flow
8.4
Energy Conservation
- 8.4.1
Areas of Potential Energy Savings
8.4.2
Example: Energy Savings in
Slow Rate Design
8.4.3
Summary
8.5
Procedures for Energy Evaluations
8.5.1
Slow Rate
8.5.2
Rapid Infiltration
8.5.3
Overland Flow
8.5.4
Examples
8.6
Equations for Energy Requirements
8.6.1
8.6.2
Land Treatment Processes
8.7
References
,
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

9.1
Introduction
9.2
Nitrogen
9.2.1
Crops
9.2.2
Ground Water
9.2.3
Surface Water
9.3
Phosphorus
'
9.3.1
Soils
9.3.2
Crops
9.3.3
Ground Water
9.3.4
Surfacewater
Page
7-9
Page
Chapter
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
Appendix
A
Dissolved Solids
9.4.1
Soils
9.4.2
Crops
9.4.3
Ground Water
Trace Elements
9.5.1
Soils
9.5.2 .Crops
9.5.3
Ground Water
Microorganisms
9.6.1
Soils
9.6.2
Crops
9.6.3
Ground Water
9.6.4
Surface Water
9.6.5
Aerosols
Trace Organics
9.7.1
Soils.
9.7.2
Crops
9.7.3
Ground Water
9.7.4
Surface Water
References
SLOW RATE DESIGN EXAMPLE

A. 1
Introduction
A.2
Statement of Problem
A. 2.1
Background
A.2.2
Population and Wastew9ter
Characteristics
A.2.3
Discharge Requirements
A.2.4
Site Characteristics
A. 2.5
Climate
A.3
Slow Rate System Selection
A.3.1
Preapplication ~reatment
A.3.2
Crop Selection
A. 4
System Design
A.4.1
Forage Crop Alternative
A.4.2
Deciduous Forest Crop Alternative
A.4.3
Selected SR Design
A. 4.4
Energy Requirements
RAPID INFILTRATION DESIGN EXAMPLE
B.l
Introduction
B.2
Design Considerations
B.2.1
Design Community
B.2.2
Wastewater Quality and Quantity
B.2.3
Existing Wastewater
Treatment Facilities
B- 1
B- 1
B- 1
B- 1
B- 2
II
Appendix
Page
B.2.4
Climate
Site and Process Selection
Site Investigations
B.4.1
SoilCharacteristics
B.4.2
Ground Water Characteristics
B. 4.3
Hydraulic Capacity
Determination of Wastewater Loading Rate
B.5.1
Preapplication Treatment Level
~ydraulicLoading Rate
B.5.2
B. 5.3
Hydraulic Loading Cycle
B.5.4
Effect of Precipitation on
Wastewater Loading Rate
B.5.5
Underdrainage
B.5.6
Nitrification
Land ~ e ~ u i r e m e n t s
B.6.1
Facilities
B.6.2
Infiltration Basins
System Design
B.7.1
General Requirements
B.7.2
Underdrainage
Maintenance and Monitoring
B.8.1
Maintenance
B.8.2
Monitoring
System Costs
Energy Budget
References
I
OVERLAND FLOW DESIGN EXAMPLE

C. 1
Introduction
C.2
Statement of the Problem
C.3
C.3.1
Wastewater Characteristics
and Discharge Requirements
C. 3.2
Climate
C.4
Site Evaluation and Process Selection
C.4.1
General Site Characteristics
C. 4.2
Soil Characteristics
C.4.3
Process Selection
C.5
Distribution Method
C.6
C.7
Wastewater Storage
C.7.1
Storage Requirement
C.7.2
Storage Facility Description
C.8
Selection of Design Parameters
C.8.1
Hydraulic Loading Rate
C.8.2
Application Period and Frequency
'
xii
C-1
C- 1
C- 1
C-1
C- 2
C- 2
C-2
C-4
C- 4
C- 4
C- 4
C- 5
C- 5
C- 5
C- 6
C- 6
C-6
Page
Appendix
C.9
C.10
C.11
C.12
C.13
C.14
C.15
C.16
C. 17
D
C. 8.3
Slope Length and Grade
C.8.4
Application Rate
C. 8.5
Land Requirements
Distribution System
Preliminary System Layout
System Design
C. 11.1 Treatment Slopes
C.11.2 Runoff Channel Design
C.11.3 Collection Waterways
C. 11.4 Pumping System
C.11.5 Monitoring and Collection System
Land Requirements
Cover Crop Selection
System Costs
Energy Budget
Alternative Design Methods Design Example
C.16.1 CRREL Method
C.16.2 University of California,
Davis, Method
C.16.3 Comparison of Methods
References
LOCATION OF LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

D. 1
Slow Rate Systems
D.2
Rapid Infiltration Systems
D.3
Overland Flow Systems
'
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN FOR SLOW RATE

E. 1
Introduction
E.2
General Design Considerations
E. 2.1
Depth of Water Applied
E.2.2
E.2.3
Application Rate
E.2.4
Application Period
E.2.5
Application Zone
E. 2.6
System Capacity
E.3
Surface Distribution System
E.3.1
Ridge and Furrow Di*stribution
E.3.2
Graded Border Distribution
E.4
Sprinkler Distribution Systems
Application Rates
E. 4.1
E.4.2
Solid Set Sprinkler Systems
E.4.3
Move-Stop Sprinkler Systems
E.4.4
Continuous Move Systems
References
E .5
xiii
CONTENTS (Concluded)
Appendix
F
Page
ESTIMATED STORAGE DAYS FOR LAND TREATMENT

USING EPA COMPUTER PROGRAMS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 1
CONVERSION FACTORS I
xiv
FIGURES
No.
Page
Slow Rate Hydraulic Pathways
Rapid Infiltration Hydraulic Pathways
Overland Flow
Examples of Combined Systems
Two-Phase Planning Process
Potential Evapotranspiration Versus Mean
Annual Precipitation
Estimated Design Percolation Rate as a
Function of Soil Permeability for SR and
RI Land Treatment
Winter Operation of Rapid Infiltration
at Lake George, New York
Estimated Wastewater Storage Days Based
only on Climatic Factors
Total Land Required (Includes Land for
Application, Roads, Storage, and Buildings)
Example Area of Soil Map to be Evaluated
Example Suitability Map for Soils
in Figure 2-7
Staffing Requirements for Land Treatment
Components (not Including Sewer System or
Preapplication Treatment) far Municipally
Owned and Operated Systems
Dominant Water Rights Doctrines and Areas
of Water Surplus or Deficiency
Flow Chart of Field Investigations
Infiltration Rate as a Function of
Time for Several Soils
Parosity, Specific Retention, and Specific
Yield Variations with Grain Size,
South Coastal Basin, California
General Relationship Between Specific Yield
and Hydraulic Conductivity
Typical Pattern of the Changing Moisture
Profile During Drying and Drainage
Flooding Basin Used for Measuring Infiltration
Groove Preparation for Flashing (Berm)
Schematic of Finished Installation
Infiltration Rate and Cumulative Intake Data Plot
Cylinder Infiltrometer in Use
Layout of Sprinkler Infiltrometer
Schematic of Double-Tube Apparatus
Schematic of Air-Entry Permeameter
Well and Piezometer Installation
Vertical Flows Indicated by Piezometers
Definition Sketch for Auger-Hole Technique
!
.
FIGURES ! (continued)
Page
Experimental Setup for:Auger-Hole Technique
Slow Rate Design Procedure
Nitrogen Uptake Versus Growing Days for
Annual and Perennial Crops
Determination of Storage by EPA Computer
Programs According to'Climatic Constraints
Surface Distribution Methods
Fan Nozzle Used for Spray Application at
West Dover, Vermont
Solid Set Sprinklers wkth Surface Pipe
in a Forest System
Rapid Infiltration Design Procedure
Effect of Infiltration Rate on Nitrogen Removal
Infiltration Basin Outlet and Splash Pad
Interbasin Transfer Structure with
Adjustable Weir
I
Natural Drainage of Renovated Water
'
Into Surface Water
Example Design for subsurface Flow to Surface Water
Schematic of Ground Water Mound
Mounding Curve for Center of a Square
Recharge Area
Mounding Curve for Center of a Rectangular
Recharge Area at ~ifferentRatios of
Length (L) to Width (W)
Rise and Horizontal Spread of Mound Below a
Square Recharge Area
Rise and Horizontal Spread of Mound Below a
Rectangular Recharge Area Whose Length
I
is Twice its Width
Centrally Located Underdrain
Underdrain System Using Alternating
Infiltration and Drying Strips
Parameters Used in Drain Design
Well Configurations
Overland Flow Design ~iocedure
Surface Distribution Using Gated Pipe for OF
Distribution for OF Using Low Pressure
Fan Spray Nozzles
Alternative Sprinkler donfigurations for
Overland Flow Distribution
Land Plane Used for Final Grading
Land Area Estimates fon Preliminary Planning
Process (Including Land fox Preapplication
Treatment)
Typical Annual ~ ~ d r a u l +Loading Rate of
Small SR and OF Systems
FIGURES (Concluded)
No.
'
Typical Annual Hydraulic Loading Rate of

Small SR Systems
Overflow Control Structure for Pond Discharge
to SR System
Treatment Facility Layout - Kennett Square,
Pennsylvania, SR System
SR Facilities at Kennett Square, Pennsylvania
Center Pivot System
Automatic Surface Irrigation System
Soils Map
System Layout: Forage Crop Alternative
System Layout: Forest Crop Alternative
Soils Map, Sites 1 and 2
Ground Water Contours
Intake Curves - Infiltration Basin 1
Community B Rapid Infiltration System Flowsheet
Community B Site Layout
Underdrain Location
Proposed Overland Flow Treatment Site
Typical Overland Flow Slope
Contour Map of Proposed Overland Flow
Treatment System
Overland Flow System Layout
Surface Distribution Methods
Aluminum Hydrant and Gated Pipe at
Sweetwater, Texas
Outlet Valve for Border Strip Application
Solid Set Sprinkler System
Move-Stop Sprinkler Systems
Side Wheel Roll Sprinkler System
Continuous Move Sprinkler Systems
Hose-Drag Traveling Gun Sprinkler
Center Pivot Rig
Center Pivot Irrigation System
Page
TABLES
No.
Page
Comparison of Typical Design Features for
Land Treatment ~roceskes
Comparison of Site characteristics for
Expected Quality of Treated Water from
Important Constituents in Typical
Domestic Wastewater
Comparison of Trace Elements in Water
and Wastewaters
Typical BOD Loading Rates
National Interim Primary Drinking
Water Standards, 1977'
Summary of Climatic Analyses
Land Use Suitability ~hctorsfor
Identifying Land Treatment Sites
Grade Suitability Factors for
Identifying Land Treatment Sites
Soil Textural Classes and General
Terminology Used in Soil Descriptions
Typical Soil Permeabilities and Textural
Classes for Land Treatment Processes
Site Selection Guidelines
Rating Factors for Site Selection
Characteristics of Soil Series
Mapped in Figure 2-7
Example Use of Rating Factors for Site Selection
Applicability of Recovery Systems for
Renovated Water
Lease/Easement Requirements for Construction
Grants Program Funding
Potential Water Rights Problems for
Land Treatment Alternatives
Summary of Field Testslfor Land
Treatment Processes
Comparison of Infiltration -Measurement Techniques
Sample Comparison of Infiltration
Measurement Using Flooding and
Sprinkling Techniques
Suggested Vertical Placement of
Tensiometers in Basin Infiltrometer Tests
Measured Ratios of Horizontal to
Vertical Conductivity,
Interpretation of SoillChemical Tests
BOD Removal Data for Selected SR Systems
Nitrogen Removal Data for Selected SR Systems
I
TABLES (Continued)
No.
Page
Phosphorus Removal Data for Typical SR Systems
Trace Element Behavior During SR Land Treatment
Suggested Maximum Applications of
Trace Elements to Soils Without
Further Investigations
Coliform Data for Several SR Systems
Benzene, Chloroform, and Trichloroethylene
in Muskegon Wastewater Treatment System
Relative Comparison of Crop Characteristics
Summary of Operational Forest Land Treatment
Systems in the United States Receiving
Municipal Wastewater
Height Growth Response of Selected Tree Species
Nutrient Uptake Rates for Selected Crops
Estimated Net Annual Nitrogen Uptake in the
Overstory and Understory Vegetation of Fully
Stocked and Vigorously Growing Forest
Ecosystems in Selected Regions of the
United States
Biomass and Nitrogen Distribution by Tree
Component for Stands in Temperate Regions
Examples of Estimated Monthly Potential
Evapotranspiration for Humid and
Subhumid Climates
Consumptive Water Use and Irrigation Requirements
for Selected Crops at San Joaquin Valley,
California
Summary of Wastewater Constituents Having
Potential Adverse Effects
Water Balance to Determine Hydraulic Loading
Rates Based on Soil Permeability
Estimating of Storage Volume Requirements
Using Water Balance Calculations
Summary of Computer Programs for Determining
Storage from Climatic Variables
Final Storage Volume Requirement Calculations
Surface Distribution Methods and
Conditions of Use
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sprinkler
Distribution Systems Relative to
Surface Distribution Systems
Sprinkler System Characteristics
Suggested Service Life for Components of
Distribution System
Recommended Design Factors for
Tailwater Return Systems
xix
TABLES (Continued)
No.
Page
Approximate Criticall Levels of Nutrients
in Soils for Selected Crops in California
Grazing Rotation cycles for Different
Numbers of Pasture Areas
Recommended Soil Con-tactPressure
BOD Removal for Selected RI Systems
Nitrogen Removal Data for Selected RI Systems
Phosphorus Removal Data for Selected RI Systems
Comparison of Trace Element Levels to
Irrigation and Drinlting Water Limits
Heavy Metal Retention in an Infiltration Basin
Fecal Coliform Removal Data for Selected
RI Systems
Reported Isolations of Virus at RI Sites
Recorded Trace Organic Concentrations at
Selected RI Sites
Suggested Preapplication Treatment Levels
Typical Hydraulic Loading Rates for RI Systems
Suggested Annual Hydraulic Loading Rates
Typical Hydraulic Loading Cycles
Suggested Loading Cycles
Minimum Number of Basins Required for
Continuous Wastewater Application
OF Design and Operating Parameters
Summary of Process Operating Parameters,
BOD and SS Performance at OF Systems
Summary of Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Performance at OF Systems
Removal Efficienciesof Heavy Metals at
Different Hydraulic Rates at Utica, Mississippi
Overland Flow Design Guidelines
Types and Sources of Data Required for Design
of Small Land Treatment Systems
General Characteristics of Small
Land Treatment Systems
Typical Staffing Requirements at Small Systems
Recommended Level of Preapplication Treatment
Typical Design Parameters for Several
Types of Ponds
Nitrogen Uptake Rates for Selected Crops
Design Information for SR System
Design Information for Chapman RI System
Wastewater Flows to Chapman RI System
Treatment Performance of Carbondale OF System
Energy Requirements for Crop Production
Most Common Unit Energy Requirements for
Land Treatment of Mynicipal Wastewater
4-59
4-62
4-67
5-4
5-5
5-6
5-7
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-10
5-11
5-13
5-14
5-16
5-17
5-25
6-3
6-4
6-5
6-9
6-12
7-2
7-3
7-6
7-9
7-10
7-14
7-19
7-27
7-29
7-31
8-4
8-5
TABLES (Continued)
No.
Page
Example System Characteristics
Comparison of Conventional and Automated Ridge
and Furrow Systems for 38,000 m3/d
Comparison of Impact and Drop-Type Center Pivot
System Nozzle Designs on Energy Requirements
Total Annual Energy for Typical 3,785 m3/d System
Land Treatment Methods and Concerns
Relationship of Pollutants to Health Effects
EPA Long-Term Effects Studies
Tolerance of Selected Crops to Salinity in
Irrigation Water
Mass Balance of Trace Elements in OF System
at Utica, Mississippi
Trace Element Content of Forage Grasses at
Selected SR Systems
Trace Element Drinking and Irrigation
Water Standards
Virus Transmission Through Soil at RI Systems
Aerosol Bacteria at Land Treatment Sites
Aerosol Enteroviruses at Land Treatment Sites
Comparison of Coliform Levels in Aerosols at
Activated Sludge and Slow Rate Land
Treatment Facilities
Trace Organics Removals During Sand Filtration
Trace Organics Removals at Selected SR Sites
Removal of Refractory Volatile Organics by
Class at Phoenix RI Site
Chloroform and Toluene Removal During OF
Population and Wastewater Characteristics
Climatic Data for the Worst Year in 5
Hydraulic Loading Rates Based on Soil
Permeability: Forage Crop Alternative
Design Hydraulic Loading Rate
Storage Volume Determination: Forage
Crop Alternative
Final Determination of Storage Volume
Design Criteria for Storage Lagoons:
Slow Rate System Design Data: Forage
Crop Alternative
Cost Estimate Criteria: Forage Crop Alternative
Cost Estimate Calculations:
Summary of Costs: Forage Crop Alternative
Initial Determination of Storage Volume:
xxi
T A B ~ E S (Concluded)
I
No.
Page
Design Data for storAge Pond: Forest
Crop Alternative
Design Data: ForestlCrop Alternative
Summary of Cost: Deciduous Forests
Projected Wastewater Characteristics
Surface Water Discharge Requirements
Average Meteorological Conditions
General Soil Characteristics: Sites 1 and 2
Typical Log of Test Hole
Ground Water Quality
Cost of Community B RI System
Raw Wastewater Characteristics
Average Meteorological Conditions
Land Requirements
Cost of Community C OF System
Optimum Furrow Spacing
Suggested Maximum Lengths of Cultivated Furrow::;
for Different SoilsJ Grades, and Depths of
Water to be Applied
Design Guidelines for Graded Border Diskribution,
Deep Rdoted Crops
Design Guidelines for Graded Border Distribution,
Shallow Rooted Crops
Recommended Reductions in Application Rates
Due to Grade
Recommended Spacing df Sprinklers
Factor (F) by Which Pipe Friction Loss is
Multiplied to 0btaid Actual Loss in a Line
with Multiple Outlets
Recommended Maximum Lane Spacing for
Traveling Gun Sprinklers
Storage Days Using EPA-1 for 20 Year (5%)
and 10 Year (10%) Return Intervals
xxii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND PROCESS CAPABILITIES
1.1
Purpose
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s m a n u a l i s t o p r o v i d e c r i t e r i a and
s u p p o r t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f o r p l a n n i n g and p r o c e s s d e s i g n o f
l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s . Recommended p r o c e d u r e s f o r p l a n n i n g
and
design
a r e presented
along
with
state-of-the-art
information on t r e a t m e n t performance, energy c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,
and h e a l t h and e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s .
C o s t c u r v e s a r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s m a n u a l , a l t h o u g h some
c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n i s i n c l u d e d i n C h a p t e r 2.
Costs f o r
p l a n n i n g may b e o b t a i n e d f r o m c o s t c u r v e s i n r e f e r e n c e s [ I r
21 , o r t h r o u g h t h e CAPIIET c o m p u t e r s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d by t h e
C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s f o r EPA.
CAPDET c o m p u t e r t e r m i n a l s a r e
a v a i l a b l e i n EPA r e g i o n a l o f f ices.
T h i s d o c u m e n t i s a r e v i s i o n o f t h e P r o c e s s D e s i g n Manual
f o r Land T r e a t m e n t o f M u n i c i p a l Wastewater s p o n s o r e d by t h e
U . S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n Agency, U . S. Army C o r p s o f
E n g i n e e r s , a n d U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e , a n d p u b l i s h e d
i n 1977.
The r e v i s i o n i s n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e
amount o f r e s e a r c h d a t a , c r i t e r i a , a n d o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e
t h a t h a s become a v a i l a b l e i n r e c e n t y e a r s .
A s a r e s u l t of
PL 92-500 a n d PL 95-217, t h e i n t e r e s t i n a n d u s e o f l a n d
t r e a t m e n t c o n c e p t s h a s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y and i s
expected t o continue t o increase.
1.2
Scope
Land t r e a t m e n t i s d e f i n e d a s t h e c o n t r o l l e d a p p l i c a t i o n o f
wastewater o n t o t h e l a n d s u r f a c e t o a c h i e v e a d e s i g n e d deg r e e o f t r e a t m e n t t h r o u g h n a t u r a l p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , and
biological processes within the plant-soil-water matrix.
The s c o p e o f t h i s m a n u a l i s l i m i t e d t o t h e t h r e e m a j o r l a n d
treatment processes:
Slow r a t e (SR)
O v e r l a n d f l o w (OF)
T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e d e f i n e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r and d i s cussed i n d e t a i l i n t h e design chapters.
The t i t l e s were
a d o p t e d f o r t h e o r i g i n a l 1977 manual t o r e f l e c t t h e r a t e of
wastewater
application
{nd
the
flow path w i t h i n
the
process.
P r i o r t o t h e 19,77 m a n u a l , t h e t e r m " i r r i g a t i o n "
was o f t e n u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e s l o w r a t e p r o c e s s .
The p r e s e n t t e r m w a s chosen t o focus a t t e n t i o n on wastewater treatment r a t h e r t h a n on i r r i g a t i o n o f c r o p s .
S u b s u r f a c e s y s t e m s , w e t l a n d s , and a q u a c u l t u r e were d i s c u s s e d
b r i e f l y i n t h e 1 9 7 7 manual. b u t a r e d e l e t e d h e r e s i n c e t h e y
a r e now c o v e r e d i n d e t a i l i n o t h e r d o c u m e n t s [ 3 , 4:l.
Land
a p p l i c a t i o n of s l u d g e , i n j e c t i o n w e l l s , e v a p o r a t i o n ponds,
and o t h e r f o r m s o f t r e a t m e n t o r d i s p o s a l t h a t i n v o l v e t h e
s o i l m a t r i x are a l s o e x c l u d e d .
I
Most o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h i s manual i s a p p l i c a b l e t o
medium-to-large
systems.
For
small
systems,
up
to
1 , 0 0 0 m3/d
( 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 . g a l / d ) , many o f t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s
can be s i m p l i f i e d .
Special considerations for these small
s y s t e m s and a number o f t y p i c a l e x a m p l e s a r e d i s c i x s s e d i n
C h a p t e r 7.
Case s t u d i e s f o r l a r g e r systems a r e a v a i l a b l e i n
[5-91
T h i s manual a d d r e s s e s l a n d
other publications
t r e a t m e n t of m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r , n o t i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s .
Under c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s , however, l a n d t r e a t m e n t o f many
t y p e s o f i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e w a t e r s and e v e n h a z a r d o u s m a t e r i a l s
c a n be b o t h t e c h n i c a l l y and e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e .
A l t h o u g h t h e p r i n c i p a l f o c u s i n t h e manual i s o n t h e t h r e e
b a s i c p r o c e s s e s (SR, R I , O F ) , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f clombining
two o r more o f t h e c o n c e p l t s i n a c o n t i n u o u s systern s h o u l d
O v e r l a ~ n d f l o w c o u l d be a p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
n o t be overlooked.
s t e p f o r e i t h e r SR o r R I , o r d i f f e r e n t p r o c e s s e s c o u l d b e
u s e d i n c o l d and warm w e a t h e r .
1.3
Treatment PFocesses
Typical design
f e a t u r e s f o r t h e three land treatment
p r o c e s s e s a r e compared i n T a b l e 1-1. The m a j o r s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e compared f o r e a c h p r o c e s s i n T a b l e 1-2.
These
a r e d e s i r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and n o t l i m i t s t o be a d h e r e d
t o r i g o r o u s l y , a s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 2.
The e x p e c t e d q u a l i t y o f t r e a t e d w a t e r f o r biochemica:L oxygen
demand ( B O D ) , s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( S S ) , n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s ,
f o r each process i n
and f e c a l c o l i f o r m s is p r e s e n t e d
T a b l e 1-3.
The a v e r a g e and e x p e c t e d u p p e r r a n g e va.:Lues a r e
v a l i d f q r t h e t r a v e l d i s t a n c e s and a p p l i e d w a s t e a r a t e r a s
indicated.
The f a t e of1 t h e s e m a t e r i a l s ( p l u s m e t a l s ,
v i r u s e s , and t r a c e o r g a n i c s ) i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e c h a p t e r s
t h a t follow.
TABLE 1-1
COMPARISON OF T Y P I C A L DESIGN FEATURES
FOR LAND TREATMENT PROCESSES
Feature
Application techniques
Annual loading
rate, m
Field area
required, hab
Typical weekly
loading rate, cm
Minimum preapplication
treatment provided in
the United States
Disposition of
applied wastewater
Need for vegetation
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Slow rate
Rapid infiltration Overland flow
Sprinkler
or surfacea
Usually surface
Sprinkler or
surface
Primary
sedimentatione
Grit removal and

comminutione
1.3-10
Primary
sedimentationd
Evapotranspiration Mainly
and percolation
percolation
Required
Optional
Surface runoff and

evapotranspiration
with some
percolation
Required
Includes ridge-and-furrow and border strip.

Field area in hectares not including buffer area, roads, or ditches for
3,785 m3/d (1 Mgal/d) flow.
Range includes raw wastewater to secondary effluent, higher rates for higher
level of preapplication treatment.
With restricted public access: crops not for direct humai consumption.
With restricted public access.
Note:
See Appendix G for metric conversions.
'TABLE 1 - 2
COMPARISON OF S I T E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
FOR LAND TREATMENT PROCESSES
Slow rate
Grade
Soil
permeability
Rapid infiltration
Less than 20% on

Not critical; excessive
cultivated land;
grades require much
less than 40% on
earthwork
noncultivated land
Moderately slow to Rapid (sands, sandy loams)
moderately rapid
0.6-1 m (minimum) ' l m during flood cycleb;

Depth to
1.5-3 m during drying cycle
ground water .
None (possibly modify
Storase often
Climatic
operation in cold weather)
restrictions needed for cold
weather and during
heavy precipitation
a.
b.
c.
Overland flow
Finish slopes 2-8%a
Slow (clays, silts,

and soils with
impermeable barriers)
Not criticalC
Storage usually needed
for cold weather
Steeper grades might be feasible at reduced hydraulic loadings.

Underdrains can be used to maintain this level at sites with high ground
water table.
Impact on ground water should be considered for more permeable soils.
TABLE 1-3
EXPECTED Q U A L I T Y OF TREATED WATER
FROM LAND TREATMENT P R O C E S S E S ~
mg/L U n l e s s O t h e r w i s e Noted
Slow ?ateb
Constituent
Averaqe
BOD
Suspended solids
Ammonia nitrogen as N
Total nitrogen as N
Total phosphorus as P
Fecal coliforms, No./100 mL
<2
<1
~0.5
3e
~0.1
0
<5
1<5
<2
i<8e
1<0.3
imo
Average
5
2
0.5
10
1
10
Upper
range
Average
<10
<5
<2
<20
<5
(200
10
10
<4
gf
4
200
Upper
range
<15
<20
<8
<lof
<6
<2,000
Quality expected with loading rate$ at the mid to low end of the range
I
shown in Table 1-1.
Percolation of primary or secondary effluent through 1.5 m (5 ft) of
I
unsaturated soil.
t
Percolation of primary or secondary effluent through 4.5 m (15 ft) of
unsaturated soil; phosphorus and fecal coliform removals increase with
distance (see Tables 5-3 and 5-6).
Treating comminuted, screened wastewater using a slope length of 30-36 m
I
(100-120 ft)
Concentration depends on loading,rate,andcrop.
Higher values expected when operating through a moderately cold winter or when
using secondary effluent at high rptes.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
1.4
upper
range
Rapid infiltrationC Overland flowd
Slow R a t e P r o c e s s
Slow r a t e l a n d t r e a t m e n t is1 t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r t o
a vegetated land s u r f a c e with t h e applied wastewater being

A
t r e a t e d a s it f l o w s t h r o u g h t h e p l a n t - s o i l m a t r i x .
p o r t i o n of t h e f l o w p e r c o l a t e s t o t h e ground w a t e r and some
i s used by t h e v e g e t a t i o n .
O f f s i t e s u r f a c e r u n o f f of t h e
Schematic
a p p l i e d water is g e n e r a l l y avoided i n design.
views o f t h e t y p i c a l h y d r a u l i c pathways f o r SR t r e a t m e n t a r e
Surface a p p l i c a t i o n techshown i n F i g u r e 1 - l ( a ) ( b ) ( c ) .
n i q u e s i n c l u d e r i d g e - a n d - f urrow and b o r d e r s t r i p f 1.ooding.
A p p l i c a t i o n by s p r i n k l e r s c a n be from f i x e d r i s e r s o r from
moving s y s t e m s , s u c h a s c e n i t e r p i v o t s .
I
1.4.1
P r o c e s s 0bj e c k i v e s
Slow r a t e p r o c e s s e s c a n bei o p e r a t e d t o a c h i e v e a number of

objectives including:
I
1.
T r e a t m e n t of a p p l i b d w a s t e w a t e r
2.
Economic r e t u r n frlom u s e o f w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s t o

produce m a r k e t a b l e crops ( i r r i g a t i o n )
IRATION
P E R C O L A T l ON
(a)
A P P L I C A T I O N PATHWAY
(b) RECOVERY PATHWAYS
'
( c ) SUBSURFACE PATHWAY
FIGURE 1-1
SLOW RATE HYDRAULI C PATHWAYS
3.
Water c o n s e r v a t i o n b b y r e p l a c i n g p o t a b l e w a t e r w i t h
treated effluent, for irrigation
4.
P r e s e r v a t i o n a n d e n l a r g e m e n t o f g r e e n b e l t s and o p e n
space
are
very
stringent
for
nitrogen,
When
requirements
p h o s p h o r u s , BOD, S S , p a t h o g l e n s , m e t a l s , a n d t r a c e o r g a n i c s ,
N i t r o g e n is
t h e y c a n b e m e t u s u a l l y w ~ i t h SR t r e a t m e n t .
o f t e n t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r I f o r SR d e s i g n b e c a u s e o f EPA
:I:n a r i d
d r i n k i n g water l i m i t s o n g r o u n d w a t e r q u a l i t y .
r e g i o n s , however, m a i n t a i n i n g c h l o r i d e s and t o t a l d i s s o l v e d
s a l t s a t a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s f o r c r o p p r o d u c t i o n may b e
limiting.
Management a p p r p a c h e s t o m e e t t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s
w i t h i n t h e SR p r o c e s s a r e d i s c u s s e d u n d e r t h e t o p i c s
(1) wastewater t r e a t m e n t , ( 2 ) a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s , ( 3 ) t u r f
s y s t e m s , and ( 4 ) f o r e s t s y s t e m s .
1.4.1.1
Wastewater T r e a t m e n t
I
When t h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e of t h e SR p r o c e s s i s t r e a t m e n t ,
t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g i s u s u a l l y l i m i t e d e i t h e r by t h e hyd r a u l i c c a p a c i t y of
t h e s o i l or t h e n i t r o g e n removal
Underdrains are
c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l - v e g e t a t i o n m a t r i x .
s o m e t i m e s needed f o r development o f s i t e s w i t h h i g h ground
water t a b l e s , o r w h e r e p e r c h e d water t a b l e s o r i m p e r m e a b l e
l a y e r s prevent deep percolation.
P e r e n n i a l g r a s s e s are
o f t e n chosen f o r t h e v e g e t a t i o n because of t h e i r h i g h
n i t r o g e n u p t a k e , a l o n g e r wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n s e a s o n , a n d
t h e a v o i d a n c e of a n n u a l p l a n t i n g and c u l t i v a t i o n .
Corn and
o t h e r c r o p s w i t h h i g h e r m a r k e t v a l u e s a r e a l s o grown o n
Muskegon,
s y s t e m s w h e r e t r e a t m e n t is t h e major o b j e c t i v e .
Michigan [ l o ] i s a n o t e d example i n t h e United S t a t e s w i t h
o v e r 2,000 h e c t a r e s (5,000 acres) of c o r n under c u l t i v a t i o n .
I
1.4.1.2
~ g r i c u l t h r a lS y s t e m s
I n t h e more a r i d w e s t e r n p d r t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t ' e s , t h e
water i t s e l f ( n o t t h e n u t r i e n t c o n t e n t ) i s t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e
Crops are s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i r
c o m p o n e n t o f t h e wastewater.
maximum m a r k e t p o t e n t i a l a n d t h e l e a s t p o s s i b l e amount o f
wastewater n e e d e d f o r i r r i g a t i o n .
A p p l i c a t i o n rates between
2 t o 8 cm/wk ( 0 . 8 t o 3 . 1 i n + / w k ) a r e common. T h i s is e n o u g h
water t o s a t i s f y c r o p n e e d s ; p l u s a l e a c h i n g r e q u i r e m e n t t o
m a i n t a i n a d e s i r e d s a l t b a l a n c e i n t h e root zone.
I n t h e more humid e a s t , t h e water c o m p o n e n t may b e c r i t i c a l
a t c e r t a i n t i m e s of t h e y e a r and d u r i n g extended d r o u g h t
p e r i o d s , b u t t h e n u t r i e n t s l i n t h e wastewater a r e t h e m o s t
v a l u a b l e component.
Systqms are d e s i g n e d t o promote t h e
n u t r i e n t u p t a k e by t h e c r o p and i n c r e a s e y i e l d s .
At
Muskegon, M i c h i g a n , f o r e x a m p l e , c o r n y i e l d s i n 1 9 7 7 were
6 . 5 m3/ha ( 7 5 b u s h e l s p e r a c r e ) c o m p a r e d t o 5 . 2 m3/ha ( 6 0
b u s h e l s p e r a c r e ) f o r t h e n o n w a s t e w a t e r f a r m i n g i n t h e same
area [ l o ]
R e g a r d l e s s o f g e o g r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n , wastewater
irrigation
can
benefit
crop
production
by
providing
n u t r i e n t s and m o i s t u r e .
1.4.1.3
Turf Systems
G o l f c o u r s e s , p a r k s , a n d o t h e r t u r f e d a r e a s a r e u s e d i n many
p a r t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r SR s y s t e m s , t h u s c o n s e r v i n g
p o t a b l e water s u p p l i e s .
T h e s e areas h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e
p u b l i c access a n d t h i s r e q u i r e s s t r i c t c o n t r o l o f p a t h o g e n i c
organisms.
T h i s c o n t r o l c a n be a c h i e v e d by d i s i n f e c t i o n or
by n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s i n b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t ponds o r
s t o r a g e ponds.
1.4.1.4
F o r e s t Systems
Slow r a t e f o r e s t s y s t e m s e x i s t i n many s t a t e s i n c l u d i n g
Oregon, Washington, Michigan, Maryland, F l o r i d a , Georgia,
I n addition, experimental
Vermont, and New Hampshire.
l o c a t i o n s are b e i n g s t u d i e d
systems i n a v a r i e t y of
to
determine
permissible
loading
rates,
extensively
r e s p o n s e s of v a r i o u s tree s p e c i e s , and e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s
(see C h a p t e r 4 ) .
Forests o f f e r several advantages
sites f o r land treatment:
t h a t make
them d e s i r a b l e
1.
Forest soils o f t e n e x h i b i t higher

rates t h a n a g r i c u l t u r a l soils.
2.
S i t e a c q u i s i t i o n costs f o r f o r e s t l a n d are u s u a l l y
lower t h a n s i t e a c q u i s i t i o n c o s t s f o r p r i m e a g r i c u l t u r a l land.
3.
During c o l d w e a t h e r , s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s are o f t e n
higher i n forestlands than i n agricultural lands.
4.
S y s t e m s c a n b e d e v e l o p e d o n steeper g r a d e s i n t h e
f o r e s t as c o m p a r e d t o a g r i c u l t u r a l s i t e s .
The p r i n c i p a l l i m i t a t i o n s
f o r e s t e d SR s y s t e m s are:
1.
Water n e e d s a n d
may b e l o w .
to
the
use
tolerances of
of
infiltration
wastewater
for
some e x i s t i n g t r e e s
2.
N i t r o g e n r e m o v a l s a r e r e l a t i v e l y low u n l e s s . young,
d e v e l o p i n g f o r e s t s a r e used o r c o n d i t i o n s c o n d u c i v e
to d e n i t r i f ication a r e present.
3.
Fixed s p r i n k l e r s , hhich a r e expensive, a r e u s u a l l y

necessary.
I
4.
F o r e s t s o i l s may bg r o c k y o r v e r y s h a l l o w .
1.4.2
Treatment Performance
The SR p r o c e s s i s c a p a b l e o p r o d u c i n g t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e of
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t of a l l t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s .
The
q u a l i t y v a l u e s shown i n T a b l e 1-3 c a n be e x p e c t e d f o r most
w e l l - d e s i g n e d and w e l l - o p e r a t e d s y s t e m s .
O r g a n i c s a r e r e d u c e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y by SR l a n d t r e a t m e n t
w i t h i n t h e t o p 1 t o 2 cm ( 0 . 4 t o 0.8 i n . )
of s o i l .
F i l t r a t i o n and a d s o r p t i o n a r e t h e i n i t i a l s t e p s i n BOD
removal, b u t b i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n is t h e u l t i m a t e t r e a t m e n t
mechanism.
F i l t r a t i o n i s t h e m a j o r removal mechanism f o r
suspended s o l i d s .
R e s i d u e s r e m a i n i n g a f t e r o x i d a t i o n and
t h e i n e r t s o l i d s become p a r t of t h e s o i l m a t r i x .
N i t r o g e n i s removed p r i m a r i l l y by c r o p u p t a k e , which v a r i e s
TO remove
w i t h t h e t y p e o f c r o p grown and t h e c r o p y i e l d .
t h e n i t r o g e n e f f e c t i v e l y , I t h e c r o p must be h a r v e s t e d .
D e n i t r i f i c a t i o n c a n a l s o be s i g n i f i c a n t , e v e n i f t h e s o i l i s
i n a n a e r o b i c c o n d i t i o n most o f t h e t i m e .
Other n i t r o g e n
removal
mechanisms
include
ammonia
volatilization
and
storage i n the soil.
I
P h o s p h o r u s i s removed from s o l u t i o n by f i x a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n
t h e s o i l , s u c h a s a d s o r p t i o n and c h e m i c a l p r e c i p i k a t i o n .
Removal e f f i c i e n c i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y v e r y h i g h f o r SR s y s t e m s
and a r e more d e p e n d e n t o n t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s t h a n on t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e phosphorus a p p l i e d .
Residual. phosphorus c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e p e r c o l a t e w i l l g e n e r a l l y be
l e s s t h a n 0.1 mg/L [ l l ] . A , s m a l l b u t s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of
t h e p h o s p h o r u s a p p l i e d i s t a k e n up and removed w i t h t h e
I
crop.
1.5
Rapid I n f i l t r a t i o n P r o c e s s
I n R I land t r e a t m e n t , m o s t , of t h e a p p l i e d wastewater perc o l a t e s t h r o u g h t h e s o i l , and t h e t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t d r a i n s

The
n a t u r a l l y t o s u r f a c e w a t e r s or j o i n s t h e ground w a t e r .
w a s t e w a t e r i s a p p l i e d t o m o d e r a t e l y and h i g h l y p e r m e a b l e
s o i l s ( s u c h a s s a n d s and lloamy s a n d s ) , by s p r e a d i n g i n '
b a s i n s o r by s p r i n k l i n g , ' a n d i s t r e a t e d a s i t t r a v e l s
through t h e soil matrix.

V e g e t a t i o n is n o t u s u a l l y p l a n n e d ,
b u t t h e r e a r e some e x c e p t i o n s , a n d e m e r g e n c e o f w e e d s a n d
g r a s s e s u s u a l l y does n o t c a u s e problems.
The s c h e m a t i c view i n F i g u r e 1 - 2 ( a ) shows t h e t y p i c a l
h y d r a u l i c pathway f o r r a p i d i n f i l t r a t i o n .
A much g r e a t e r
p o r t i o n o f t h e a p p l i e d wastewater p e r c o l a t e s t o t h e g r o u n d
water t h a n w i t h S R l a n d t r e a t m e n t .
T h e r e is l i t t l e o r n o
c o n s u m p t i v e u s e by p l a n t s .
E v a p o r a t i o n r a n g e s from a b o u t
0 . 6 m/yr ( 2 f t / y r ) f o r cool r e g i o n s t o 2 m/yr ( 6 f t / y r ) f o r
hot a r i d regions.
T h i s is u s u a l l y a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rates.
I n many c a s e s , r e c o v e r y o f r e n o v a t e d w a t e r i s a n i n t e g r a l
p a r t of t h e system.
T h i s can be accomplished u s i n g underd r a i n s o r w e l l s , a s shown i n F i g u r e 1 - 2 ( b ) .
I n some c a s e s ,
t h e water d r a i n s n a t u r a l l y t o a n a d j a c e n t s u r f a c e water
(Figure 1-2(c)).
Such s y s t e m s c a n p r o v i d e a h i g h e r l e v e l o f
treatment than m o s t mechanical systems discharging t o t h e
same s u r f a c e w a t e r .
1.5.1
Process Objectives
T h e o b j e c t i v e o f R I i s wastewater t r e a t m e n t .
t r e a t e d water c a n i n c l u d e :
Uses
for the
1.
Ground w a t e r r e c h a r g e
2.
R e c o v e r y of r e n o v a t e d water b y w e l l s or u n d e r d r a i n s
w i t h subsequent reuse or discharge
3.
R e c h a r g e of
g r o u n d water
4.
Temporary s t o r a g e of r e n o v a t e d water i n t h e a q u i f e r
surface
streams
by
interception
of
I f g r o u n d water q u a 1 i t . y i s b e i n g d e g r a d e d b y s a l t w a t e r
i n t r u s i o n , g r o u n d w a t e r r e c h a r g e by R I c a n h e l p t o c r e a t e a
b a r r i e r and p r o t e c t t h e e x i s t i n g f r e s h ground water.
In
many cases, t h e major t r e a t m e n t g o a l i s c o n v e r s i o n o f
ammonia n i t r o g e n t o n i t r a t e n i t r o g e n p r i o r t o d i s c h a r g e t o
s u r f ace w a t e r s .
T h e 131 p r o c e s s o f f e r s a c o s t - e f f e c t i v e
method f o r a c h i e v i n g t h i s g o a l w i t h r e c o v e r y o r r e c h a r g e a s
d e s c r i b e d i n i t e m s 2 and 3 above.
Return of t h e renovated
water t o t h e s u r f a c e b y w e l l s , u n d e r d r a i n s , o r g r o u n d w a t e r
i n t e r c e p t i o n may b e n e c e s s a r y o r a d v a n t a g e o u s when d i s c h a r g e
t o a p a r t i c u l a r s u r f a c e water b o d y i s c o n t r o l l e d b y w a t e r
r i g h t s , o r when e x i s t i n g g r o u n d w a t e r q u a l i t y is n o t compatA t Phoenix,
i b l e w i t h e x p e c t e d r e n o v a t e d water q u a l i t y .
A r i z o n a , f o r e x a m p l e , r e n o v a t e d water i s b e i n g w i t h d r a w n b y
w e l l s t o allow r e u s e o f t h e water f o r i r r i g a t i o n .
APPLIED
WASTEWATER
(a)
H Y D R A U L I C PATHWAY
I
FLOODIN6 BASINS
RECOVERKD WATER
UNDERDRAINS
WELLS
FLOOD l N Q B A S I N
( c ) NATURAL DRAIWAGE I N T O SURFACE WATERS
FIGURE 1-2
RAPID INF 1 LTRATI ON HYDRAULIC PATHWAYS
1.5.2
Removals of w a s t e w a t e r c o n s t i t u e n t s b y t h e f i l t e r i n g a n d
s t r a i n i n g a c t i o n of t h e s o i l a r e e x c e l l e n t .
Suspended
and f e c a l c o l i f o r m s a r e a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y
s o l i d s , BOD,
removed.
N i t r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r is e s s e n t i a l l y comp l e t e when a p p r o p r i a t e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g c y c l e s a r e u s e d .
T h u s , f o r c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t h a v e ammonia s t a n d a r d s i n t h e i r
d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s , R I c a n p r o v i d e a n e f f e c t i v e way t o
meet s u c h s t a n d a r d s .
G e n e r a l l y , n i t r o g e n removal a v e r a g e s 50% u n l e s s s p e c i f i c
o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d t o maximize d e n i t r i f i cation.
These procedures i n c l u d e o p t i m i z i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
c y c l e , r e c y c l i n g t h e p o r t i o n s of t h e r e n o v a t e d w a t e r t h a t
contain
high
nitrate
concentrations,
reducing
the
and
supplying an additional
carbon
i n f i l t r a t i o n rate,
source.
Using t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s i n s o i l column s t u d i e s ,
average n i t r o g e n removals of
80% have been a c h i e v e d .
N i t r o g e n removal by d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n c a n be s i g n i f i c a n t i f
t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s a t t h e mid r a n g e o r below t h e
v a l u e s i n T a b l e 1-1 a n d t h e BOD t o n i t r o g e n r a t i o i s 3 o r
more.
P h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l s c a n r a n g e f r o m 70 t o 9 9 % , d e p e n d i n g o n
As
t h e p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s o i l .
w i t h S R s y s t e m s , t h e p r i m a r y removal mechanism is a d s o r p t i o n
w i t h some c h e m i c a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n , s o t h e l o n g - t e r m c a p a c i t y
is l i m i t e d b y t h e mass and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o i l i n
contact with t h e wastewater.
Removals a r e r e l a t e d a l s o t o
t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e of t h e wastewater i n t h e s o i l , t h e t r a v e l
d i s t a n c e , and o t h e r climatic and o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
1.6
Overland Flow Process
I n OF l a n d t r e a t m e n t , w a s t e w a t e r i s a p p l i e d a t t h e u p p e r
r e a c h e s of g r a s s c o v e r e d s l o p e s a n d a l l o w e d t o f l o w o v e r t h e
The O F
vegetated surface to runoff c o l l e c t i o n ditches.
p r o c e s s is b e s t s u i t e d t o s i t e s h a v i n g r e l a t i v e l y impermeable s o i l s .
However, t h e p r o c e s s h a s b e e n u s e d w i t h
soils with r e l a t i v e l y
s u c c e s s on moderately permeable
impermeable s u b s o i l s .
The w a s t e w a t e r i s r e n o v a t e d b y
p h y s i c a l , c h e m i c a l , a n d b i o l o g i c a l means a s i t f l o w s i n a
A s c h e m a t i c view o f
t h i n f i l m down t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s l o p e .
OF t r e a t m e n t i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 - 3 ( a ) , a n d a p i c t o r i a l v i e w
A s shown i n
o f a t y p i c a l s y s t e m i s shown i n F i g u r e 1 - 3 ( b ) .
Figure
1-3(a),
there
is r e l a t i v e l y
l i t t l e percolation
i n v o l v e d e i t h e r b e c a u s e of
a n impermeable s o i l or a
subsurface b a r r i e r to percolation.
WASTEWATER
GRASS A N D
VEGETATIVE L I T T E R
EVAPOTRANSPIRATIOW
PERCOLATION
( a ) H Y O R A U ~ L I C PATHWAY
I
(b)
P I C T O R I A L V I E ~OI F S P R I N K L E R A P P L I C A T I O N
FIGURE 1-3
OVERLAND FLOW
I n t e r e s t b y m u n i c i p a l i t i e s and d e s i g n e n g i n e e r s h a s s p u r r e d
r e s e a r c h and demonstrat:ion p r o j e c t s i n S o u t h C a r o l i n a , N e w
Hampshire,
Mississippi,
Oklahoma,
Illinois,
and
California.
Cold-weather o p e r a t i o n h a s been demonstrated
Rational
t h r o u g h s e v e r a l w i n t e r s a t Hanover, New Hampshire.
d e s i g n e q u a t i o n s have been developed based on r e s e a r c h a t
H a n o v e r and a t D a v i s , C a l i f o r n i a .
1.6.1
Process Objectives
The o b j e c t i v e s o f OF a r e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t a n d , t o a
minor e x t e n t , c r o p p r o d u c t i o n .
T r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i v e s may b e
either:
1.
To a c h i e v e s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y when a p p l y i n g
screened
raw w a s t e w a t e r ,
primary
effluent,
or
t r e a t m e n t pond e f f l u e n t .
2.
To a c h i e v e
removals.
high
levels
of
nitrogen,
BOD,
and
SS
T r e a t e d w a t e r i s c o l l e c t e d a t t h e toe o f t h e O F s l o p e s and
Overcan be e i t h e r r e u s e d or d i s c h a r g e d t o s u r f a c e w a t e r .
land
flow
can a l s o be used
f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of
greenbelts.
1.6.2
B i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n , s e d i m e n t a t i o n , and f i l t r a t i o n a r e t h e
p r i m a r y removal mechanisms
f o r o r g a n i c s and
suspended
solids.
Nitrogen removals a r e a combination of
p l a n t uptake,
d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n , a n d v o l a t i l i z a t i o n o f ammonia n i t r o g e n .
The d o m i n a n t m e c h a n i s m i n a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n w i l l d e p e n d
on t h e forms of n i t r o g e n p r e s e n t i n t h e w a s t e w a t e r , t h e
amount o f c a r b o n a v a i l a b l e , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e , and t h e r a t e s
and s c h e d u l e s of w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n .
Permanent n i t r o g e n
removal by t h e p l a n t s is o n l y p o s s i b l e i f t h e c r o p is h a r v e s t e d a n d removed f r o m t h e f i e l d .
Ammonia v o l a t i l i z a t i o n
c a n b e s i g n i f i c a n t i f t h e pH o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r i s a b o v e 7 .
N i t r o g e n removals u s u a l l y r a n g e from 75 t o 90% w i t h t h e f o r m ,
of
runoff
nitrogen
dependent
on
temperature
and
on
L e s s removal of n i t r a t e and
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s and s c h e d u l e .
ammonium may o c c u r d u r i n g c o l d w e a t h e r a s a r e s u l t o f
r e d u c e d b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y and l i m i t e d p l a n t u p t a k e .
P h o s p h o r u s i s removed b y a d s o r p t i o n a n d p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n
e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same manner a s w i t h t h e S R a n d R I m e t h o d s .
T r e a t m e n t e f f i c i e n c i e s a r e somewhat l i m i t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e
l i m i t e d c o n t a c t between t h e w a s t e w a t e r and t h e a d s o r p t i o n
sites within t h e soil.

Phdsphorus removals u s u a l l y range
I n c r e a s e d r e m o v a l s may b e
f r o m 50 t o 7 0 % o n a mass b a s i s .
o b t a i n e d b y a d d i n g a l u m o r f e ' r r i c c h l o r i d e t o t h e wastc,,> w a t e r
j u s t p r i o r t o a p p l i c a t i o n on t h e s l o p e .
1.7 Combination Systems
I n a r e a s where e f f l u e n t
m u s t be v e r y g o o d , o r w h e r e
a h i g h d e g r e e o f t r e a t m e n t r e l i a b i l i t y m u s t be m a i n t ; ! i n e d ,
c o m b i n a t i o n s o f l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s may be d e s i r a b l e .
For example, e i t h e r a n S R , R I , o r a wetlands t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m c o u l d f o l l o w a n OF s y s t e m and would r e s u l t i n b e t t e r
o v e r a l l t r e a t m e n t t h a n t h e QF a l o n e .
In particular, these
c o m b i n a t i o n s c o u l d b e u s e d t d i m p r o v e BOD, s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ,
n i t r o g e n , and phosphorus removals.
S i m i l a r l y , OF c o u l d b e u s e d p r i o r t o R I t o r e d u c e n i tzrogen
levels
to acceptable
levels.
This
combinatiorn
was
d e m o n s t r a t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n a p i l o t s c a l e s t u d y a t . Ada,
Oklahoma, u s i n g s c r e e n e d r a w ) w a s t e w a t e r f o r t h e OF p o r t i o n
[121
R a p i d i n f i l t r a t i o n may a l s o p r e c e d e SR l a n d t r e a t m e n t : . .
In
t h i s combination, renovated w a t e r q u a l i t y following R I is
e x p e c t e d t o b e h i g h e n o u g h t h a t e v e n t h e most r e s t r i c t i v e
r e q u i r e m e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e u s e o f r e n o v a t e d w a t e r orr f o o d
c r o p s c a n be m e t .
A l s o , t h e g r o u n d w a t e r a q u i f e r c a n be
used t o store renovated w a t e r t o correspond w i t h c r o p
i r r i g a t i o n schedules.
Some o f t h e s e c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e shown
s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 1-4.
1.8
G u i d e t o I n t e n d e d U s e od t h e Manual
T h i s manual i s o r g a n i z e d s i m i l a r l y t o t h e o r i g i n a l 1977
e d i t i o n e x c e p t t h a t t h e de,sign e x a m p l e s a r e i n c l u d e d a s
appendixes.
C o m p l e t e l y ney f e a t u r e s i n t h i s manual a r e
c h a p t e r s o n e n e r g y , and h e a l t h and e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s .
C h a p t e r s 2 through 6 follow, i n sequence, a logical. proc e d u r e f o r p l a n n i n g and d e s ~ i g n of l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s .
The p r o c e d u r e commences ( C h a p t ' e r 2 ) w i t h s c r e e n i n g of t h e
e n t i r e s t u d y a r e a t o idenkify p o t e n t i a l land treatment
sites.
The P h a s e 1 p l a n n i n g 'is based on e x i s t i n g i n f o r mation and d a t a on l a n d u s e , w a t e r r i g h t s , topog:raphy,
s o i l s , and geohydrology.
I potentially suitable sites
e x i s t , t h e Phase 2 planninp t h e n involves d e t a i l e d s i t e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s (Chapter 3 ) to determine process s u i t a b i l i t y
and p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n c r i t e r i a ( C h a p t e r s 4, 5 , and 6).
Process s e l e c t i o n f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n is' influenced
by h e a l t h a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s s u e s ( C h a p t e r 9 ) a n d b y e n e r g y
needs ( C h a p t e r 8 ) . Thus, Phase 2 p l a n n i n g r e q u i r e s t h e u s e

of a l l t h e t e c h n i c a l c h a p t e r s i n t h e manual.
I
Small communities ( u p to 3,500 p o p u l a t i o n ) do n o t u s u a l l y

n e e d t h e same l e v e l o f p l b n n i n g a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t i s
e s s e n t i a l f o r l a r g e systems.
Nor d o t h e y a l w a y s need t h e
l e v e l o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n t h a t i s n o r m a l l y p r o v i d e d , i n terms
o f e q u i p m e n t a n d management p r o c e d u r e s , f o r l a r g e s y s t e m s .
P r o c e d u r e s and s h o r t c u t s , t h a t a r e unique t o s m a l l land
t r e a t m e n t systems a r e d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 7.
Typical
examples a r e i n c l u d e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e l e v e l of e f f o r t
n e e d e d i n f i e l d work and d e ' s i g n .
The f i n a l d e s i g n of a l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m n e e d s o n l y t o
draw on t h e p e r t i n e n t c h a p t e r ( 4 , 5 , o r 6 ) f o r t h e i n t e n de d
process.
Some a d d i t i o n a l f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( C h a p t e r 3 )
may b e n e c e s s a r y t o o p t i m i z e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s and
The
design
e n s u r e p r o p e r s u b s u r f a c e flow c o n d i t i o n s .
c h a p t e r s d o n o t p r e s e n t c o m p l e t e d e t a i l on t h e h a r d w a r e
e
pumps,
pipe
materials,
sprinkler
rigs,
etc.)
involved.
O t h e r s o u r c e s w i l l be needed f o r t h e s e d e s i g n
details.
The c o s t i n f o r m a t i o n i n r e f e r e n c e [ l ] o r i n t h e
CAPDET p r o g r a m i s s u i t a b l e f o r p l a n n i n g , c o m p a r i s o n o f
The? f i n a l
alternatives,
and p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n o n l y .
c o s t e s t i m a t e s h o u l d be d e r i v e d
in
the
construction
c o n v e n t i o n a l way ( b y m a t e r i ~ lt a k e - o f f , e t c . ) f r o m t h e f i n a l
plans.
A p p e n d i x e s A , B , a n d C p r o v i d e d e s i g n e x a m p l e s o f SR, R I ,
and
OF
and
are
intended
to demonstrate the
design
procedure.
E n e r g y b u d g e t s hnd c o s t s a r e p r o v i d e d a l o n g w i t h
~ p ~ e n d iDx c o n t a i n s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
t h e process design.
list
of
currently
operating
municipal
(also
federal
government and s e l e c t e d i n d u s t r i a l ) land t r e a t m e n t systems
i n t h e United S t a t e s .
Appendix E p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n on d e s i g n i n g i r r i g a t i o n
The l e v e l o f d e t a i l i n t h i s
systems f o r S R f a c i l i t i e s .
a p p e n d i x i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d e v e l o p p r e l i m i n a r y l a y o u t s and
s i z i n g f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m components.
Appendix F cont a i n s a l i s t of c o m m u n i t i e s f o r w h i c h t h e EPA p r o g r a m s t h a t
determine
storage
requirements
based
on
climate
( S e c t i o n 4.6.2 ) have been r u n .
The f i n a l a p p e n c l i x , G ,
p r o v i d e s a g l o s s a r y o f terms a n d c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s f r o m
metric t o U.S. c u s t o m a r y u n i t s f o r a l l f i g u r e s and t a b l e s .
The d e s i g n a p p r o a c h f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t h a s b e e n e s s e n t i a l l y
i.e.,
o b s e r v a t i o n of
s u c c e s s f u l performance
empirical,
followed
by
derivation
of
criteria
and
mathematical
e x p r e s s i o n s t h a t d e s c r i b e o v e r a l l performance.
Essentially
t h e same a p p r o a c h was u s e d t o d e v e l o p d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r
'
'
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e and o t h e r b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s .
The
physical,
chemical,
and
biological
reactions
and
interactions occurring i n a l l treatment processes are quite
Such
complex and a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d e f i n e m a t h e m a t i c a l l y .
d e f i n i t i o n is s t i l l e v o l v i n g f o r a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a s w e l l a s
As
a result,
the design procedures
land
treatment.
p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s manual a r e s t i l l c o n s e r v a t i v e and a r e
based on s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i n g experience.
More r a t i o n a l
design procedures
however,
a r e becoming
a v a i l a b l e (see S e c t i o n 6 . 1 1 ) .
In addition, there are
m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s a v a . i l a b l e t h a t may be u s e d t o e v a l u a t e
the
response
to
a
particular
constituent
(nitrogen,
phosphorus, e t c . ) o r used i n combination t o d e s c r i b e t h e
A b r i e f summary o f m o d e l s t h a t
e n t i r e system performance.
a r e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e is included i n r e f e r e n c e [ 1 3 ] .
A
more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f
s p e c i f i c models f o r land
t r e a t m e n t c a n be found i n r e f e r e n c e [ 1 4 ] .
1.9
References
1. Reed, S.C.,
et al.
Cost o f Land T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m s .
U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
EPA-430/9-75-003,
MCD 1 0 .
September 1979.
Water R e u s e a n d R e c y c l i n g .
2. Culp/Wesner/Culp.
U.S.D. I . OWRT/RU-7!3/2.
1979.
3.
Vol.
2.
U.S.
Environmental
P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
Aquaculture
Systems f o r Wastewater Treatment:
Seminar Proceedings
and Engineering Assessment.
Off i c e o f W a t e r P r o g r a m
EPA-430/9-80-006,
MCD
67.
September
Operations.
1979.
4. U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
D e s i g n Manual f o r
Onsite
Wastewater
Treatmept
and
Disposal
Systems.
EPACenter of Environmental Research Information.
645/1-80-012.
O c t o b e r 1980.
5.
U.S.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
Slow R a t e Land
A Recycle Technology.
O f f i c e o f Water ProTreatment:
gram O p e r a t i o n s .
EPA-430/9-80-Olla,
MCD 70.
October
1980.
6. U. S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
Rapid I n f i l t r a t i o n Land T r e a t m e n t :
A Recycle Technology.
Office of
Water P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s .
EPA-430/9-80-Ollb,
MCD 71.
( I n P r e s s ) 1981.
7. Proceedings of
t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium ,on Land
Hanover, New
T r e a t m e n t o f W a s t e w a t e ~ . Volumes 1 a n d 2.
Hampshire.
A u g u s t 20-25, 1 9 7 8 .
8. H i n r i c h s , D . J . , e t a l . , A s s e s s m e n t o f C u r r e n t I n f o r m a t i o n o n O v e r l a n d Flow T r e a t m e n t .
U.S.
Environmental
Office
of
Water
Program
Protection
Agency.
EPA-430/9-80-002,
MCD 6 6 .
September 1980.
Operations.
'
I
9.
L e a c h , L.E., C.G. E n f i b l d , a n d C . C . H a r l i n , J r . Summary

o f Long-Term R a p i d I n f i l t r a t i o n S y s t e m S t u d i e s .
U.S.
O f f i c e o f Research and
EPA-600/2-80-165.
July
Development.
Ada, Oklahoma.
1980.
10. Walker, J . M .
Wastewatdr:
Is Muskegon C o u n t y ' s l i j o l u t i o n
Your S o l u t i o n ?
u . S . I ~ n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
EPA-905/2-76-004,
MCD-3'4.
August 1979.
11. J e n k i n s , T.F. a n d A . J . P a l a z z o .
Wastewater T r e a t m e n t by
a S l o w R a t e Land T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m .
U.S. Army C o r p s o f
Engineers,
Cold
Regions
Research
and
Engineering
New
Laboratory.
CRREL
Report
81-14.
Hanover,
Hampshire.
August 1981.
q e a s i b i l i t y o f O v e r l a n d Flow f o r
1 2 . Thomas, R . E . , e t a l .
U . S.
T r e a t m e n t o f Raw D o m e s t i c Wastewater.
EPA-66/2-74-08,?.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o l n Agency.
1974.
13. I s k a n d a r , I . K .
Overvie'w o n M o d e l i n g Wastewater
R e n o v a t i o n b y Land T r e a t m e n t .
USACRREL, S p e c i a l R e p o r t .
1981.
USACRREL, H a n o v e r , N e w H a m p s h i r e .
14. I s k a n d a r , I . K . ( e d . ) .
M o d e l i n g Wastewater R e n o v a t i o n :
Wiley I n t e r s c i e n c e , New York.
1981.
Land T r e a t m e n t .
CHAPTER 2
PLANNING AND TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT
2.1
Planning Procedure
A d e q u a t e p l a n n i n g m u s t p r e c e d e a n y wastewater t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m d e s i g n t o e n s u r e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e
p r o c e s s t h a t is f e a s i b l e f o r t h e s i t u a t i o n u n d e r c o n s i d e r ation.
I n many cases, g u i d e l i n e s o r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e
p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e are p r o v i d e d by t h e agency r e s p o n s i b l e
for t h e p r o j e c t .
The p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r is t o p r e s e n t
t h o s e a s p e c t s of t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e d u r e t h a t are e i t h e r
or
require
special
emphasis
because
of
land
unique
treatment.
P r o c e s s s e l e c t i o n f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s i s more d e p e n d e n t o n s i t e c o n d i t i o n s t h a n are mechanical t r e a t m e n t a l t e r natives.
T h i s c a n mean t h a t t h e r e is a n e e d f o r e x t e n s i v e
a n d , i n some cases, e x p e n s i v e s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d f i e l d
t e s t i n g programs.
To a v o i d u n n e c e s s a r y e f f o r t a n d e x p e n s e ,
a two-phase p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h h a s been d e v e l o p e d and a d o p t e d
A s shown i n F i g u r e 2-1, P h a s e 1
b y most a g e n c i e s c o n c e r n e d .
involves i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l sites v i a screening of
If p o t e n t i a l sites
a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e .
f o r any of t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s are i d e n t i f i e d , t h e
s t u d y moves i n t o P h a s e 2.
This phase includes f i e l d invest i g a t i o n s and a n e v a l u a t i o n of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s .
2.2
Phase 1 Planning
E a r l y d u r i n g P h a s e 1, b a s i c d a t a t h a t a r e common t o a l l
wastewater t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s m u s t b e c o l l e c t e d a n d
analyzed along with land treatment system requirements to
d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r l a n d t r e a t m e n t is a f e a s i b l e c o n c e p t .
If
no l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s are i d e n t i f i e d t h a t would e l i m i n a t e l a n d
t r e a t m e n t from f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e n e x t s t e p s are t o
i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l l a n d t r e a t m e n t sites and t o e v a l u a t e t h e
f e a s i b i l i t y of each site.
2.2.1
Preliminary D a t a
S e r v i c e a r e a d e f i n i t i o n , p o p u l a t i o n f o r e c a s t s , wastewater
q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y p r o j e c t i o n s , a n d water q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s are u s u a l l y e i t h e r s p e c i f i e d or d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g
procedures e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e r e s p o n s i b l e a u t h o r i t y .
With
t h e e x c e p t i o n o f water q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e d a t a a r e
g e n e r a l l y t h e same f o r a l l f o r m s o f wastewater t r e a t m e l , ~ . A
few a s p e c t s a r e s p e c i f i c t o l a n d t r e a t m e n t a n d a r e d i s c u s s e d
i n t h i s section.
E S T I M A T I O N OF LAND
PHASE 1
I
I
SITE IOENTlFlCATlON
I
ti
LAND TREATMENT
NOT F E A S I B L E BECAUSE
OF L I M I T I N G FACTORS OR
PROJECT REQU I R E U E N T S
LAND A P P L I C A T I O N
NOT F E A S I B L E I F
THERE ARE NO
POTENTIAL S I T E S
-,
1 - 1
FIELD lNVESTl6ATlONS
P R E L I M INA'RY DES IGN

C R I T E R I A ~ N DCOSTS
PHASE 2
PLAN S E L E C T l ON
I N I T I A T I O N OF LAND
TREATMEHT D E S I G N
FIGURE 2-1
TWO-PHASE PLANN l NG PROCESS
I
LAN0 APPLl CATION

NOT F E A S I B L E FOR
OTHEd REASONS OR OTHER
A L T E R N A T I V E S MORE
COST E F F E C T I V E
2.2.1.1
Wastewater Q u a l i t y a n d L o a d i n g s
M a j o r c o n s t i t u e n t s i n d o m e s t i c wastewater a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T r a c e e l e m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a n g e s a r e shown i n
T a b l e 2-1.
T a b l e 2-2.
T h e v a l u e s i n t h e s e t a b l e s may b e u s e d f o r pl'ann i n g p u r p o s e s when a c o m m u n i t y l s w a t e r q u a l i t y h a s n o t b e e n
determined.
Other important parameters i n land treatment
d e s i g n c a n i n c l u d e t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s , pH, p o t a s s i u m ,
s o d i u m , c a l c i u m , magnesium, b o r o n , b a r i u m , s e l e n i u m , f l u o r i d e , and s i l v e r .
TABLE 2-1
IMPORTANT CONSTITUENTS I N TYPICAL
DOMESTIC WASTEWATER [ I ]
mg/L
Type of wastewater
Constituent
Strong
Medium
Weak
BOD
Suspended solids
Nitrogen (total as N)
Organic
Ammonia
Nitrate
Phosphorus (total as PI
Organic
Inorganic
400
350
85
35
50
0
15
5
10
220
220
40
15
25
0
8
5
110
100
20
8
12
0
4
1
3
Total organic carbon
290
160
80
F o r m u n i c i p a l l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s , BOD a n d s u s p e n d e d
s o l i d s l o a d i n g s seldom l i m i t system c a p a c i t y .
T y p i c a l BOD
l o a d i n g r a t e s a t m u n i c i p a l s y s t e m s a r e shown i n T a b l e 2-3
a n d a r e much lower t h a n r a t e s u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n l a n d
t r e a t m e n t o f f o o d p r o c e s s i n g wastewaters.
Suspended s o l i d s
l o a d i n g s a t t h e s e i n d u s t r i a l s y s t e m s would b e similar t o t h e
BOD l o a d i n g s shown i n T a b l e 2-3.
I n c o n t r a s t , i f n i t r o g e n removal is r e q u i r e d , n i t r o g e n loadi n g may l i m i t t h e s y s t e m c a p a c i t y .
Nitrogen removal
c a p a c i t y depends o n t h e c r o p grown, i f any, and o n s y s t e m
management p r a c t i c e s .
The e n g i n e e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t S e c t i o n s
to determine whether nitrogen loading w i l l
4.5 and 5.4.3.1
govern
system
capacity
and,
therefore,
land
area
requirements.
TABLE 2-2
COMPARISON OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN
WATER AND WASTEWATERS
mg/L
Element
Untreated
wastewatera
Maximum recommended
concentrations f r
/ irrigation waterg
0.1
0.5-2.0
0.01
0.1
0.2
5.0
5.0
0.2
NO standard
0.2
2.0
Arsenic
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Zinc
a.
b.
c.
EPA recommended
drinking
water standardsC
0.05
NO standard
0.01
0.05
1.0
0.3
0.05
0.05
0.002
No standard
5.0
The concentrations presented encompass the range of values

reported in references [2-61.
Based on unlimited irrigation.at 1.0 m/yr(3 ft/yr).
Reference I71 :
TABLE 2-3
TYPICAL BOD LOADING RATES
kg/ha yr
Range for
municipal
wastewater
Note:
Slow rate
Rapid infiltration
overland flow
370-1;830
8,000-46,000
2,000-7,500
In some cases, other wastewater constituents such as phosphorus or trace elements may control design. For example,
if wastewater trace element concentrations exceed t:.hemaximum recommended concentrations for irrigation water (Table
2-2), SR systems may be infeasible or may require special
precautions.
This is rare, however, and most atunicipal
systems will be limited either by hydraulic capacity or
nitrogen loading.
2.2.1.2
Water Quality Requirements
Land treatment systems , have somewhat unique discharge

requirements because man$ of these systems do not have
c o n v e n t i o n a l p o i n t d i s c h a r g e s t o r e c e i v i n g s u r f a c e waters.
I n t h e p a s t , t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e s o i l t o t r e a t w a s t e w a t e r was
A s a r e s u l t , d i s c h a r g e s t a n d a r d s were
not w e l l recognized.
o f t e n imposed o n a w a s t e w a t e r p r i o r t o i t s a p p l i c a t i o n o n
l a n d , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t r e a t m e n t costs a n d e n e r g y r e q u i r e ments w i t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y improving o v e r a l l t r e a t m e n t
More r e c e n t l y , l a n d h a s b e e n r e c o g n i z e d a s a n
performance.
i m p o r t a n t component i n t h e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s .
For t h i s
r e a s o n , d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s now a p p l y t o w a t e r q u a l i t y
following land treatment.
F o r s y s t e m s t h a t d i s c h a r g e t o r e c e i v i n g w a t e r s , s u c h as OF
s y s t e m s a n d some u n d e r d r a i n e d o r n a t u r a l l y d r a i n i n g SR a n d
R I s y s t e m s , r e n o v a t e d w a t e r q u a l i t y must m e e t s u r f a c e d i s F o r systems where t h e r e n o v a t e d w a t e r
charge requirements.
r e m a i n s u n d e r g r o u n d , EPA h a s e s t a b l i s h e d g u i d a n c e f o r t h r e e
c a t e g o r i e s of g r o u n d w a t e r d i s c h a r g e t h a t meet t h e c r i t e r i a
treatment.
These
three
for
best
p r a c t i c a b l e waste
c a t e g o r i e s are as f o l l o w s :
Case 1
The g r o u n d w a t e r c a n p o t e n t i a l l y b e u s e d f o r
d r i n k i n g water s u p p l y .
The c h e m i c a l and p e s t i c i d e l e v e l s i n T a b l e 2-4
s h o u l d n o t be e x c e e d e d i n t h e g r o u n d water.
If the
e x i s t i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e ground w a t e r of an
i n d i v i d u a l parameter exceeds t h e standards, t h e r e
s h o u l d be no f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
of t h a t parameter r e s u l t i n g f r o m l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n
of wastewater.
Case 2
The g r o u n d w a t e r i s u s e d f o r d r i n k i n g w a t e r s u p p l y .
T h e same c r i t e r i a a s , C a s e 1 a p p l y a n d t h e b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l q u a l i t y c r i t e r i o n f r o m T a b l e 2-4
also
a p p l i e s i n c a s e s w h e r e t h e g r o u n d water i s u s e d
without disinfection.
Case 3
b
U s e s o t h e r t h a n d r i n k i n g water s u p p l y .
Ground water c r i t e r i a s h o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e
Regional A d m i n i s t r a t o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h approp r i a t e s t a t e a g e n c i e s based on t h e p r e s e n t or
p o t e n t i a l u s e o f t h e g r o u n d water.
F o r e a c h ground water c a t e g o r y , d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s must
be m e t a t t h e b o u n d a r y of t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o j e c t .
T#BLE 2-4
NATIONAL INTERIM PRIMARY
DRINKING WATER STANDARDS, 1977 [7,8]
Constituent
or characteristic
valuea
Physical
Turbidity, units
Chemical, mg/L
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Fluoride
Lead
Mercury
Nitrates as N
Selenium
Silver
sodiumd
Bacteriological
Total coliforms,
MPN/100 mL
lb
--
Pesticides, mg/L
Endrin
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene
2,4-D
2,4,5-TP
a.
b.
c.
d.
0.05
1.0
0.01
0.05
1.4-2.4C
0.05
0.002
10
0.01
0.05
Reason
for standard
Aesthetic
Health
Health
Health
Health
Health
Health
Health
Health
Health
Cosmetic
Health
Disease
0.0002
0.004
0.1
0.005
0.1
0.01
Health
Health
Health
Health
Health
Health
The latest revisions to the constituents

and concentrations should be used.
Five mg/L of suspended solids may be
substituted if it can be demonstrated
that it does not interfere with
;
disinfection.
Dependent on ambi.ent air temperature;
higher limits for lower temperatures.
Ground water dripking supplies must be
monitored at least once every 3 years;
surface water supplies must be monitored
at least annually.
For SR systems, individual states of ten have additional,

crop-specific preapplication treatment requirements, These
requirements are usually based on the method of wastewater
application, the degree of public contact with the site, and
the disposition of the crop. For example, crops for human
consumption generally require higher levels of prleapplication treatment than forage crops.
I
Local and state water quality requirements may also apply to

site runoff. Generally, al,l wastewater runoff must be contained onsite and reapplied or treated.
Stormwater runoff
requirements will vary from site to site and will depend on
t h e e x p e c t e d q u a l i t y o f t h e r u n o f f and t h e q u a l i t y o f local
s u r f ace waters.
S t a t e a n d l o c a l water q u a l i t y a g e n c i e s
s h o u l d b e c o n t a c t e d f o r more s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s .
2.2.1.3
Regional C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
C r i t i c a l r e g i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s i n c l u d e c l i m a t e , s u r f ace water
h y d r o l o g y a n d q u a l i t y , a n d g r o u n d water q u a l i t y .
, Climate
, L o c a l c l i m a t e may a f f e c t (1) t h e water b a l a n c e ( a n d t h u s t h e

a c c e p t a b l e wastewater h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e ) , ( 2 ) t h e
l e n g t h o f t h e g r o w i n g s e a s o n , ( 3 ) t h e number o f d a y s p e r
y e a r t h a t a l a n d t r e a t m e n t system c a n n o t be o p e r a t e d ,
(4) t h e s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e m e n t , ( 5 ) t h e l o a d i n g c y c l e
For
o f R I s y s t e m s , and ( 6 ) t h e amount o f s t o r m w a t e r r u n o f f .
this
reason,
local
precipitation,
evapotranspiration,
t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d wind v a l u e s m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d b e f o r e
d e s i g n criteria can be e s t a b l i s h e d .
Whenever p o s s i b l e , a t
l e a s t 1 0 y e a r s of d a t a s h o u l d b e u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e s e
values.
T h r e e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f The N a t i o n a l O c e a n i c a n d A t m o s p h e r i c
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (NOAA) p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t d a t a f o r most communities.
The . ~ o n t h l ) Summary o f C l i m a t i c Data p r o v i d e s
total precipitation,
tembasic
information,
including
p e r a t u r e maxima a n d m i n i m a , a n d r e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y , f o r e a c h
d a y o f t h e month a n d e v e r y w e a t h e r s t a t i o n i n a g i v e n
area.
Whenever a v a i l a b l e , e v a p o r a t i o n d a t a a r e i n c l u d e d .
An a n n u a l summary o f c l i m a t i c d a t a , e n t i t l e d Local C l i m a t o l o g i c a l D a t a , i s p u b l i s h e d f o r a s m a l l number o f major
weather s t a t i o n s .
Included i n t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n are t h e
n o r m a l s , means, and e x t r e m e s o f a l l t h e d a t a on r e c o r d t o
date f o r each station.
The C l i m a t e . Summary o f t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s p r o v i d e s 1 0 y e a r summaries of t h e monthly climatic
data.
O t h e r d a t a i n c l u d e d are:
Total precipitation
period.
f o r e a c h month o f
the 10 year
Mean number o f d a y s t h a t p r e c i p i t a t i o n e x c e e d e d
0.25 a n d 1.3 c m (0.10 and 0.50 i n . ) d u r i n g e a c h
month
T o t a l s n o w f a l l f o r e a c h month o f t h e p e r i o d
Mean t e m p e r a t u r e f o r e a c h month o f t h e p e r i o d
Mean d a i l y t e m p e r a t u r e maxima a n d m i n i m a f o r e a c h
-month
'
Mean number o f d a y s p e r month t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e

O F )
or greater
w a s less t h a n o r e q u a l t o 0 O C ( 3 2
t h a n o r e q u a l t o 32.5 O C ( 9 0 OF)
A f o u r t h reference t h a t can be helpful
S e a s o n a l P r e c i p i t a t i o n P r o b a b i l i t i e s [9]
includes
precipitation
probabilities
throughout t h e united S t a t e s .
i s EPA1s A n n u a l a n d
This p m i - c a t i o n
for
93
stations
Data r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p l a n n i n g p u r p o s e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n
The amount o f water l o s t b y e v a p o t r a n s p : i . r a t i o n
T a b l e 2-5.
s h o u l d a l s o b e e s t i m a t e d , e i t h e r by u s i n g p a n e v a p o r a t i o n
d a t a s u p p l i e d b y NOAA o r b y u s i n g t h e o r e t i c a l methods
( S e c t i o n 4.3.2.3).
The l e n g t h o f t h e g r o w i n g s e a s o n f o r
p e r e n n i a l c r o p s i s u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t o b e t h e number o f c o n t i n u o u s d a y s p e r y e a r t h a t t h e maximum d a i l y t e m p e r a t u r e i s
above f r e e z i n g .
S p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n on growing s e a s o n s can
also be o b t a i n e d from t h e local c o u n t y a g e n t .
TABLE 2-5
SUMMARY OF CLIMATIC ANALYSES
Factor
Precipitation
R a i n f a l l storm
Temperature
Wind
Evapo t r a n spiration
Data r e q u i r e d
Annual a v e r a g e ,
maximum, minimum
Intensity, duration
Days w i t h a v e r a g e
below f r e e z i n g
Velocity, d i r e c t i o n
Annual, monthly
average
Analysis
Use
Frequency
Water b a l a n c e
Frequency
Frost f r e e
period
Runoff e s t i m a t e
-Annual
distribution
Storage, treatment efficiency,

c r o p growing s e a s o n
Cessation of sprinkling
Water b a l a n c e
S u r f a c e Water H y d r o l o g y
F o r S R s y s t e m s ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 f o r d e t a i l s ) b e s t management
(::ontour
p r a c t i c e s f o r control- of s t o k m w a t e r s h o u l d be used.
p l a n t i n g ( i n s t e a d o f s t r a i g h t - r o w p l a n t i n g ) and incorpor a t i n g p l a n t residues i n t o t h e soil to increase t h e soil
o r g a n i c c o n t e n t w i l l a l s o m i n i m i z e s e d i m e n t and n u t r i e n t
losses.
When d e s i g n i n g d r a i n a g e a n d r u n o f f c o l 1 e c t i c : l n s y s t e m s , a 1 0 y e a r r e t u r n e v e n t s h o u l d b e t h e minimum i n t e r v a l
considered.
Ground Water H y d r o l o g y
I n f o r m a t i o n t h a t should be o b t a i n e d i n c l u d e s s o i l s u r v e y s ,
g e o l o g i c a n d g r o u n d water r e s o u r c e s s u r v e y s , w e l l d r i l l i n g
l o g s , g r o u n d water l e v e l m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d c h e m i c a l a n a l y s e s
Numerous f e d e r a l , s t a t e , c o u n t y , ,
and
o f t h e g r o u n d water.
c i t y a g e n c i e s have t h i s t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n as w e l l E n s univ e r s i t i e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l and t e c h n i c a l societies, and p r i v a t e
c o n c e r n s w i t h g r o u n d water r e l a t e d i n t e r e s t s .
particularly
good s o u r c e s a r e t h e U.S. G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y (USGS), s t a t e
w a t e r r e s o u r c e s d e p a r t m e n t s , and c o u n t y w a t e r c o n s e r v a t i o n
and f l o o d c o n t r o l d i s t r i c t s .
Much o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d from t h e s e a g e n c i e s and e n t i t i e s w i l l a l s o be u s e f u l
during the s i t e identification step.
( F i g u r e 2-1).
2.2.2
Land T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m S u i t a b i l i t y
F a c t o r s t h a t s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t e r m i n i n g s u i t a b i l i t y
o f a p a r t i c u l a r l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s are:
P r o c e s s a b i 1 i t . y t o meet
( r e f e r t o C h a p t e r 1)
treatment
requirements
S t u d y a r e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t may d i c t a t e
eliminate c e r t a i n land treatment processes
or
Secondary p r o j e c t o b j e c t i v e s , such a s a d e s i r e f o r
increased water supplies f o r i r r i g a t i o n o r recreation
Once a p r e l i m i n a r y d e c i s i o n r e g a r d i n g p r o c e s s s u i t a b i l i t y
h a s b e e n made, t y p i c a l h y d r a u l i c and n u t r i e n t l o a d i n g r a t e s
Minimum p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
c a n be u s e d t o estimate l a n d a r e a .
t r e a t m e n t , s t o r a g e , and o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e n d e t e r m i n e d , and t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f e a c h t y p e o f l a n d t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s is evaluated.
2.2.2.1
Process ~ o a d i n gRates
Slow R a t e P r o c e s s
The amount o f w a s t e w a t e r t h a t c a n be a p p l i e d t o a g i v e n S R
s i t e p e r u n i t a r e a and p e r u n i t t i m e i s t h e w a s t e w a t e r hyd r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , which c a n b e e s t i m a t e d by u s i n g t h e
following water balance equation:
.precipitation
+
=
applied wastewater
evapotranspiration
(2-1
percolation
Runoff i s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e e q u a t i o n s i n c e S R d e s i g n i s
based on having no runoff of a p p l i e d wastewater.
The p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e i s t h e volume o f w a t e r t h a t m u s t t r a v e l t h r o u g h
t h e s o i l , p e r u n i t a p p l i c a t i o n a r e a and u n i t t i m e , and i s
e s t a b l i s h e d during system design.
To e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e i s
no r u n o f f , t h e d e s i g n p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e s h o u l d n e v e r e x c e e d
t h e s a t u r a t e d h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , or p e r m e a b i l i t y , o f
. , the
t h e most r e s t r i c t i v e l a y e r i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e e
minimum s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y ) .
potential evapotranspiration
v a l u e s have been c a l c u l a t e d f o r v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e
united States.
These e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n v a l u e s have been
used a l o n g w i t h l o c a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n r e c o r d s t o p l o t t h e
d i f f e r e n c e between p o t e n t i a l l e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n and p1:ecipit a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of l o c a t i o n [ l o ] .
This p l o t , included
a s F i g u r e 2-2, c a n be used , t o d e t e r m i n e r o u g h e s t i m a t e s o f
t h e d i f f e r e n c e between e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n and p r e c i p : i . t a t i o n
a t any s i t e i n t h e mainland United S t a t e s .
E x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t t h e maximum d e s i g n p e r c c ) l a t i o n
r a t e s h o u l d e q u a l no more t h a n a f r a c t i o n o f t h e rninimum
s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y o r h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y measured w i t h
c l e a r water and u s i n g t y p i c a l f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y p r o c e d u r e s ( S e c t i o n s 3.4 and 3 . 5 ) .
For planning purposes, t h e
E r a c t i o n r a n g e s from a b o u t 4 t o 1 0 % o f t h e minimum h y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e u n i f o r m i t y of t h e s o i l and t h e
d e g r e e of c o n s e r v a t i v e n e s s ( S e c t i o n s 4.5.1,
5.4.1).
Based
o n t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h e recommended maximum p e r c o l a t i o n
r a t e is p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 2--3 a s a f u n c t i o n o f minimum s o i l
TO u s e t h e p l o t
p e r m e a b i l i t y a s measured w i t h c l e a r w a t e r .
d u r i n g P h a s e I , s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y must be e s t i m a t e d from
soil survey information.
Then, t h e r a n g e o f recornmended
inaximum p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e s is r e a d from t h e g r a p h .
The
recommended r a n g e o f a n n u a l w a s t e w a t e r h y d r a u l i c :I.oading
r a t e s i s e s t i m a t e d u s i n g E q u a t i o n 2-1, by a d d i n g t h e . d i f f e r e n c e between e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n and p r e c i p i t a t i o n ( t a k e n
from F i g u r e 2-2) t o t h e r a n g e of p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e s i d e n t i ~ u r i n gP h a s e 2 , h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y
f i e d i n F i g u r e 2-3.
m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o u l d be c o n d u c t e d a t s e l e c t e d s i t e s arid used
to e s t i m a t e maximum p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e s .
The r a n g e o f p e r c o l a t i o n ratfes t h a t have been used i r k p r a c t i c e i s b r o a d e r t h a n t h e maximum recommended r a n g e shown i n
F i g u r e 2-3.
The. r a n g e i s g r e a t e r b e c a u s e parameter:; o t h e r
t h a n s o i l h y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y , such a s n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g , c r o p
r e q u i r e m e n t s , and c l i m a t e , o f t e n l i m i t t h e a l l o w a b l e p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e o f SR s y s t e m s .
For p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n n i n g
p u r p o s e s , l o a d i n g r a t e s and l a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e s t-imated
by a s s u m i n g t h a t c o r n o r sorghum o r f o r a g e g r a s s e s w i l l b e
grown.
N i t r o g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e s e c r o p s a r e di:;cussed
i n S e c t i o n 4.3.
Ranid I n f i l t r a t i o n P r o c e s s
Wastewater h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s f o r R I systems a r e based
o n t h e h y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l and on t h e u n d e r l y i n g
s o i l geology.
During P h a s e 1, h y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y i s e s t i mated from s o i l s u r v e y d a t a and o t h e r p u b l i s h e d s o u r c e s .
Then, t h e r a n g e o f p e r c o l a t l i o n r a t e s t o u s e d u r i n g p r e l i m - This f i g u r e (2-3)
i n a r y p l a n n i n g i s r e a d from F i g u r e 2-3.
s h o u l d n o t be used f o r desigin.
I
CLEAR WATER TEII(IEA8ILITY.

"HITS
in./h
~LI.
-0.01
SL8W
S 8 I L CHISERVATI8U SERVICE DESCRI?TIVE TEl(lS
m8BERATELY SL811
m.r-r.nO.20-0.60
WBERATE
m88ERATELY ~ ~ p l o R H I @
8.88-2.8
2.8-6.8
8.8-n.8
W R Y 110ld)
n . 8
P E R M E A B I L I T Y O F MOST R E S T R I C T I V E LAYER I N S O I L P R O F I L E
FIGURE 2 -3
EST 1 MATED DES l GN PIERCOLAT I ON RATE AS A FIPNC1"ION
OF $01 L PERMEAB I L I TY FOR SR AND R I LAND TREATMENT
~ u r i n gP h a s e 2 , d e s i g n p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y
measuring a t least one of t h e following parameters:
I n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e using a p p r o p r i a t e tests ( S e c t i o n
3.4)
a
Hydraulic conductivity (permeability) of t h e s o i l ,

usually i n vertical direction
d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 5.4.1,
the design percolation rate
w i l l a l w a y s be a f r a c t i o n o f t h e t e s t r e s u l t s .
Considerat i o n s o f n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l a n d c o l d w e a t h e r o p e r a t i o n may
require adjustments i n the design percolation r a t e .
As
Overland Flow P r o c e s s
~ u r i n g P h a s e 1 a n d P h a s e 2 p l a n n i n g , t h e e n g i n e e r c a n assume a h y d r a u l i c
loading
r a t e o f 6 . 3 t o 20 cm/wk ( 2 . 5 t o
8 i n . / w k ) f o r s c r e e n e d r a w wastewater a n d a r a t e o f 1 0 t o
25 cm/wk ( 4 t o 1 0 i n . / w k )
for primary e f f l u e n t ( S e c t i o n
6.4).
O f t e n , OF i s u s e d t o p o l i s h wastewater e f f l u e n t f r o m
biological treatment processes.
I n s u c h cases, assumed
wastewater l o a d i n g r a t e s may b e a s h i g h a s 20 t o 40 cm/wk ( 8
t o 1 6 i n ./wk)
2.2.2.2
S t o r a g e Needs
F o r SR a n d OF s y s t e m s , a d e q u a t e s t o r a g e m u s t b e p r o v i d e d
when c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s h a l t o p e r a t i o n s o r r e q u i r e r e d u c e d
Most R I b a s i n s a r e o p e r a t e d y e a r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rates.
r o u n d , e v e n i n areas t h a t e x p e r i e n c e c o l d w i n t e r w e a t h e r
( F i g u r e 2-4).
R a p i d i n f i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s may r e q u i r e c o l d
w e a t h e r s t o r a g e d u r i n g p e r i o d s when t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e
w a s t e w a t e r t o b e a p p l i e d is n e a r f r e e z i n g and t h e a m b i e n t
a i r t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e s i t e is below f r e e z i n g .
Generally,
t h e p r o b l e m o c c u r s o n l y when p o n d s a r e u s e d f o r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n treatment.
Land t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s a l s o may n e e d
storage
for
flow
equalization,
system
backup
and
r e l i a b i l i t y , and s y s t e m management, i n c l u d i n g c r o p h a r v e s t i n g (SR a n d OF) a n d s p r e a d i n g b a s i n m a i n t e n a n c e ( R I ) .
Reserve a p p l i c a t i o n areas c a n be used i n s t e a d o f s t o r a g e f o r
t h e s e s y s t e m management r e q u i r e m e n t s .
D u r i n g t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s , F i g u r e 2-5 may b e u s e d t o obt a i n a p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e o f s t o r a g e n e e d s f o r SR a n d OF
systems.
T h i s f i g u r e w a s developed from d a t a c o l l e c t e d and
a n a l y z e d by t h e N a t i o n a l C l i m a t i c C e n t e r i n A s h e v i l l e , North
Carolina.
The d a t a were u s e d t o d e v e l o p c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s
t h a t e s t i m a t e s i t e s p e c i f i c wastewater s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s
b a s e d o n c l i m a t e [ l l ] , w h i c h , i n t u r n , were u s e d t o p l o t
F i g u r e 2-5.
The map i s b a s e d o n t h e number o f f r e e z i n g d a y s
p e r y e a r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a 20 y e a r r e t u r n p e r i o d .
If
rates
are
reduced
during
cold
weather,
application
a d d i t i o n a l s t o r a g e may b e r e q u i r e d .
Should t h e r e be a need
f o r more d e t a i l e d d a t a , t h e e n g i n e e r s h o u l d c o n t a c t :
Director
N a t i o n a l ~ l i j n a t i cC e n t e r
Federal Building
A s h e v i l l e , North C a r o l i n a
(704) 258-2850
28801
Any c o m m u n i c a t i o n s s h o u l d r e f e r t o c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s EPA-1,
2, a n d 3 ( S e c t i o n 4 . 6 . 2 a n d A p p e n d i x F ) .
Each o:li t h e s e
p r o g r a m s costs $ 2 2 5 f o r a n i n i t i a l c o m p u t e r r u n ( J a n u a r y
1981).
FIGURE 2-4
WINTER OPERATION OF R A P I D INFILTRATION
AT LAKE GE'ORGE, NEW YORK
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , f o r OF a n d SR s y s t e m s , -4 OC ( 2 5 OF) c a n b e
a s s u m e d a s t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h a systti3m w i l l
s u c c e s s f u l l y operate.
Reapily available temperature d a t a
SHAD INO DENOTES- REBIONS WHERE
it' ...
THE P R I N C I P A L C L I M A T I C CONSTRAINT
TO A P P L I C A T I O N OF WASTEWATER
I S PROLONBED WET SPELLS
PJadkdYO
SCALE
KlLOMETERS
FIGURE 2-5
ESTIMATED WASTEWATER STORAGE DAYS BASED ONLY ON C L l M A T l C FACTORS
11 11
may be u s e d by a s s u m i n g ' t h a t s y s t e m s d o n o t 0 p e r a t . e below

T h e n , t h e r e q u i r e d , s t o r a g e volume i s e s t i m a t e d from
-4 OC.
t h e a v e r a g e c o l d w e a t h e r f l o w and t h e number o f d a y s i n
w h i c h t h e mean t e m p e r a t u r e js l e s s t h a n -4 OC.
I
2.2.3
Land A r e a R e q u i r e m e n t s
The amount of l a n d r e q u i r l e d f o r a l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m
i n c l u d e s t h e a r e a needed f o r b u f f e r z o n e s , p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t , s t o r a g e , a c c e s s r o a d s , pumping s t a t i o n s , a n d
m a i n t e n a n c e and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u i l d i n g s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
land a c t u a l l y required f o r ,treatment.
Depending o n g r o w t h
p a t t e r n s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a , and o n t h e a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e
l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e , a d d i t i o n a l l a n d may be r e q u i r e d f o r
f u t u r e expansion or f o r p l a n t emergencies.
D u r i n g p l a n n i n g , t h e t o t a l ,amount o f l a n d r e q u i r e d , e x c l u d i n g a n y b u f f e r z o n e s t h a t may be r e q u i r e d by s t a t e a g e n c i e s ,
c a n be r o u g h l y a p p r o x i m a t e b f r o m F i g u r e 2-6.
To u s e t h e
nomograph shown i n t h i s f i g u r e , t h e d e s i g n w a s t e w a t e r f l o w
F i r s t , t h e wastewater hydraulic loading r a t e
m u s t b e known.
is e s t i m a t e d ( S e c t i o n 2.2.2).
T h e n , t h e w a s t e w a t e r f l o w and
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e a r e l o c a t e d on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e a x e s
a n d a l i n e i s drawn p a s s l i n g t h r o u g h them t o t h e p i v o t
line.
N e x t , t h e number o f weeks p e r y e a r t h a t t h e s y s t e m
w i l l n o t o p e r a t e , due t o w e a t h e r , c r o p h a r v e s t i n g , or o t h e r
A s e c o n d l i n e i s drawn fr:*om t h e
r e a s o n s , is e s t i m a t e d .
The p o i n t
p i v o t p o i n t t o t h e number o f n o n o p e r a t i n g w e e k s .
a t which t h i s second l i n e c r o s s e s t h e a x i s l a b e l e d " t o t a l
area" c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e e s t i m a t e d r e q u i r e d a r e a .
2.2.4
Site Identification
P o t e n t i a l land treatment sites a r e i d e n t i f i e d using e x i s t i n g

s o i l s , t o p o g r a p h y , h y d r o g e o l o g y , and l a n d u s e d a t a , shown by
p a r a m e t e r o n i n d i v i d u a l s t u d y a r e a maps.
EventualII.y, t h e
d a t a a r e combined i n t o c o m p o s i t e s t u d y a r e a maps t h a t
i n d i c a t e a r e a s o f h i g h , m o d e r a t e , and l o w l a n d t r l e a t m e n t
suitability.
P o t e n t i a l l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d u s i n g a deducF i r s t , a n y c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t might l i m i t
t i v e a p p r o a c h [131.
site s u i t a b i l i t y are identi'fied.
I n most s t u d y a r e a s , a l l
l a n d w i t h i n t h e a r e a s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d f o r e a c h l a n d
treatment process.
The n e x t s t e p i s t o c l a s s i f y b r o a d a r e a s
of
land
near
t h e a r e a where w a s t e w a t e r
is generated
according to t h e i r land treatment s u i t a b i l i t y .
Factors t h a t
s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n c l u d e c u r r e n t a n d p l a n n e d l a n d u s e ,
t o p o g r a p h y , and s o i l s .
H Y D R A U L I C L O A D I N G R A T E , m/yr
D E S I G N FLOW, m 3 / d
\
0
0
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UI
0
0
I' 1
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I 1
1 1 1
01
0
0
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0
0
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0
::
0"
PlYOT L I N E
I l l
1 1 1 1
\
1
TOTAL AREA W l THOUT B U F F E R , ha
ui
I I
UI
1 llll
I l l llll
A
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UI
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I lllll
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wk
NONOPERATIHG T I M E ,
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2.2.4.1
Land U s e
Land u s e i n most communiti'es i s r e g u l a t e d b y l o c a l , c o u n t y ,

Land t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s m u s t
and r e g i o n a l zoning laws'.
For t h i s
comply w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e zoning r e g u l a t i o n s .
r e a s o n , t h e p l a n n e r s h o u l d b e f u l l y aware of t h e a c t u a l l a n d
u s e s and proposed l a n d u s e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a .
The p l a n n e r
s h o u l d attempt t o d e v e l o p l a n d t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t
conform t o local l a n d u s e g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s .
Land t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s c a n c o n f o r m w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g l a n d
use objectives:
Protection
treatment
P r o d u c t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l o r f o r e s t p r o d u c t s u s i n g
r e n o v a t e d water o n t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e
Reclamation of l a n d by using renovated

e s t a b l i s h vegetation on s c a r r e d land
I
,
Augmentation o f p a r k l a n d s by i r r i g a t i n g such l a n d s
w i t h r e n o v a t e d water
Management of f l o o d p l a i n s
areas f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t ,
development on such sites
F o r m a t i o n of b u f e r a r e a s
f a c i l i t i e s , s u c h as a i r p o r t s
of
open
space
that
is
used
for
land
water
to
by using f l o o d p l a i n
thus precluding land
around
major
public
To e v a l u a t e p r e s e n t a n d p l a n n e d l a n d u s e s , c i t y , c o u ~ ? t y , a n d
r e g i o n a l l a n d u s e p l a n s should be c o n s u l t e d .
Because such
p l a n s o f t e n d o n o t reflect a c t u a l c u r r e n t land use, site
v i s i t s are recommended t o d e t e r m i n e e x i s t i n g l a n d u s e .
A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h i c maps may b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e S o i l Cons e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e (SCS) o r t h e l o c a l a s s e s s o r ' s o f f i c e .
O t h e r u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n may b e a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e IJSGS a n d
t h e EPA, i n c l u d i n g t r u e c o l o r , f a l s e c o l o r i n f r a r e d , a n d
color i n f r a r e d a e r i a l p h o t o s o f t h e s t u d y a r e a .
Once t h e c u r r e n t a n d p l a n n e d l a n d u s e s h a v e b e e n d e t ~ : ? r m i n e d ,
t h e y s h o u l d b e p l o t t e d o n a s t u d y area map.
T h e n , Itand u s e
s u i t a b i l i t y may b e p l o t t e d u s i n g t h e f a c t o r s shown i n
T a b l e 2-6.
Both l a n d a c q u i s i t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m operat i o n a r e s i m p l i f i e d when f e w l a n d p a r c e l s a r e i n v o l v e d a n d
c o n t i g u o u s p a r c e l s are used.
T h e r e f o r e , p a r c e l s i z e is a n
Usually, information on p a r c e l s i z e
i m p o r t a n t parameter.
c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m c o u n t y assessor o r c o u n t y r e c o r d e r
maps.
A g a i n , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d b e p l o t t e d o n a map o f
t h e s t u d y area.
TABLE 2-6
LAND USE SUITABILITY FACTORS FOR
IDENTIFYING LAND TREATMENT SITES [ 1 4 ]
Type o f system
-
- -
Land u s e f a c t o r
Agricultural
s f ow r a t e
Forest
slow r a t e
Overland
flow
Rapid
infiltration
Open o r c r o p l a n d
High
Moderate
High
High
P a r t i a l l y forested
Moderate
Moderately
high
Moderate
Moderate
Heavily f o r e s t e d
Low
High
Low
Low
B u i l t upon
(residential,
commercial, o r
industrial)
Low
Very low
Very low
Very low
2.2.4.2
Topograph'y
S t e e p g r a d e s l i m i t a s i t e ' s p o t e n t i a l b e c a u s e t h e amount o f
r u n o f f and e r o s i o n t h a t w i l l o c c u r is i n c r e a s e d , c r o p c u l t i v a t i o n is m a d e ' m o r e d i . f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , a n d s a t u r of
steep
slopes
may
lead
to
unstable
soil
ation
conditions.
T h e maximum a c c e p t a b l e g r a d e d e p e n d s o n s o i l
characteristics
and
the
land
treatment
process
used
(Table 1-2).
G r a d e a n d e l e v a t i o n i n f o r m a t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m USGS
t o p o g r a p h i c maps, w h i c h u s u a l l y h a v e s c a l e s o f 1: 2 4 , 0 0 0
(7.5 m i n u t e series) o r 1:62,500 (15 m i n u t e s e r i e s ) .
Grade
s u i t a b i l i t y may b e p l o t t e d u s i n g t h e c r i t e r i a l i s t e d i n
T a b l e 2-7.
TABLE 2-7
GRADE SUITABILITY FACTORS FOR IDENTIFYING
LAND TREATMENT SITES [ 1 4 ]
Slow r a t e s y s t e m s
Overland
flow
Rapid
infiltration
High
High
High
Low
High
Moderate
Low
Very low
Moderate
Eliminate Eliminate
Grade f a c t o r
Agricultural
0 t o 12%
High
12 t o 20%
>20%
Forest
R e l i e f is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t t o p o g r a p h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i . o n and
is t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n between one p a r t of a l a n d
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m and a n o t h e r .
The p r i m a r y i m p a c t o f r e l i e f
i s i t s e f f e c t o n t h e c o s t ' o f c o n v e y i n g wastewater t o t h e
O f t e n , t h e e c o n o m i c s o f pumping
land application site.
wastewater t o a n e a r b y s i t e : m u s t b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h . e c o s t
o f c o n s t r u c t i n g g r a v i t y c o n v e y a n c e t o more d i s t a n t s i t e s .
site's s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o flooding also can a f f e c t its

desirability.
The f l o o d i n g , h a z a r d o f e a c h p o t e n t i a l s i t e
s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d i n t e r m s of b o t h t h e p o s s i b l e s e v e r i t y
and f r e q u e n c y o f f l o o d i n g as w e l l as t h e a r e a l e x t e n t o f
flooding.
I n some a r e a s , i t may b e p r e f e r a b l e t o allow
f l o o d i n g o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n b i t e p r o v i d e d o f f s i t e s t o r a g e is
available.
F u r t h e r , c r o p s 'can b e grown i n f l o o d p l a i n s i f
f l o o d i n g i s i n f r e q u e n t e n o u g h t o make f a r m i n g economic:al.
Overland f l o w s i t e s can be l o c a t e d i n f l o o d p l a i n s provided

t h e y are p r o t e c t e d from d i r e c t f l o o d i n g which c o u l d e r o d e
the slopes.
Backwater from f l o o d i n g , i f it d o e s n o t l a s t
more t h a n a few d a y s , s h o u l d n o t b e a p r o b l e m .
Flood p l a i n
sites f o r R I b a s i n s s h o u l d b e p r o t e c t e d from f l o o d i n g by t h e
use of levees.
Summaries o f n o t a b l e f l o o d s and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s e v e r e
f l o o d s a r e p u b l i s h e d e a c h y e a r a s t h e USGS W a t e r S u p p l y
Papers.
Maps o f c e r t a i n areas i n u n d a t e d i n p a s t f l o o d s a r e
p u b l i s h e d a s H y d r o l o g i c I n v e s t i g a t i o n A t l a s e s b y t h e USGS.
T h e USGS a l s o h a s p r o d u c e d more r e c e n t maps o f f l o o d p r o n e
areas f o r many r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t y as p a r t o f t h e Clniform
N a t i o n a l P r o g r a m f o r Managing F l o o d Losses.
T h e s e - ma.ps a r e
based on standard 7.5 minute (1:24,000) topographic s h e e t s
a n d i d e n t i f y areas t h a t l i e w i t h i n t h e 1 0 0 y e a r f l o o d
plain.
A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on f l o o d i n g s u s c e p t i b i l i t y is
a v a i l a b l e f r o m l o c a l o f f i c e s o f t h e U.S. Army C o r p s of Engin e e r s and local f l o o d c o n t r o l d i s t r i c t s .
2.2.4.3
Soils
Common s o i l - t e x t u r e t e r m s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t . h e SCS
t e x t u r a l c l a s s names a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2-8.
F i n e - t e x t u r e d s o i l s d o n o t d r a i n w e l l a n d r e t a i n water f o r
T h u s , i n f i l t r a t i o n i s slower a n d c r o p
long p e r i o d s of t i m e .
management is more d i f f i c u l t t h a n f o r f r e e l y d r a i n e d s o i l s
s u c h as loamy soils.
Fine--textured s o i l s are b e s t s u i t e d
Loamy or m e d i u m - t e x t u r e d soi:Ls a r e
f o r t h e OF p r o c e s s .
d e s i r a b l e f o r t h e SR p r o c e s s , a l t h o u g h s a n d y s o i l s may b e
u s e d w i t h c e r t a i n c r o p s t h a t grow w e l l i n r a p i d l y d r a i n i n g
soils.
S o i l s t r u c t u r e and s o i l t e x t u r e are i m p o r t a n t characteristics t h a t relate t o / p e r m e a b i l i t y and a c c e p t a ~ b i l i t y
f o r land treatment.
S't.ructure r e f e r s t o t h e d e g r e e of s o i l
p a r t i c l e aggregation.
, A w e ' l l s t r u c t u r e d s o i l is g e n e r a l l y
more p e r m e a b l e t h a n u n s t r u c t u r e d m a t e r i a l o f t h e same
type.
T h e R I p r o c e s s is s u i t e d f o r s a n d y o r l o a m y s o i l s .
TABLE 2-8
SOIL TEXTURAL CLASSES AND GENERAL TERMINOLOGY
USED I N SOIL DESCRIPTIONS
General terms
Basic s o i l t e x t u r a l
c l a s s names
Common name
Texture
Sandy s o i l s
Coarse
Sand
Loamy s a n d
Moderately coarse
Sandy loam
F i n e s a n d y loam
Medium
Very f i n e s a n d y loam
Loam
S i l t loam
Silt
Moderately f i n e
C l a y loam
Sandy c l a y loam
S i l t y c l a y loam
Fine
Sandy c l a y
Silty clay
Clay
Loamy s o i l s
Clayey s o i l s
S o i l s u r v e y s a r e u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e SCS.
S o i l surv e y s n o r m a l l y c o n t a i n maps s h o w i n g s o i l s e r i e s b o u n d a r i e s
a n d t e x t u r e s t o a d e p t h o f a b o u t 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) . The s c a l e o f
t h e s e maps r a n g e s f r o m 1 : 3 1 , 6 8 0 t o 1 : 1 5 , 8 4 0 a n d e v e n 1 : 7 , 9 2 0
i n some l o c a t i o n s .
I n a s u r v e y , l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n on
chemical p r o p e r t i e s , grades, drainage, erosion p o t e n t i a l ,
g e n e r a l s u i t a b i l i t y f o r l o c a l l y grown c r o p s , a n d i n t e r p r e I n s o m e areas,
t i v e a n d management i n f o r m a t i o n is p r o v i d e d .
p u b l i s h e d s u r v e y s are n o t a v a i l a b l e or e x i s t o n l y as
d e t a i l e d r e p o r t s w i t h maps r a n g i n g i n s c a l e f r o m 1 : 1 0 0 , 0 0 0
t o 1:250,000.
Additional information on soil characteristics and on s o i l s u r v e y a v a i l a b i l i t y can be o b t a i n e d from
t h e SCS, t h r o u g h t h e l o c a l c o u n t y a g e n t .
Although s o i l d e p t h , p e r m e a b i l i t y , and chemical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t s i t e s u i t a b i l i t y , d a t a on t h e s e
parameters a r e o f t e n n o t a v a i l a b l e b e f o r e t h e s i t e i n v e s t i If t h e s e d a t a are a v a i l a b l e , t h e y should be
g a t i o n phase.
p l o t t e d o n a s t u d y a r e a map a l o n g w i t h s o i l t e x t u r e .
In
i d e n t i f y i n g p o t e n t i a l s i t e s , t h e p l a n n e r s h o u l d k e e p i n mind
t h a t a d e q u a t e s o i l d e p t h is needed f o r root development and
f o r t h o r o u g h wastewater t r e a t m e n t .
Further, permeability
requirements
vary
among
the land treatment processes.
D e s i r a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y r a n g e s a r e shown b y p r o c e s s i n T a b l e
2-9 t o g e t h e r w i t h d e s i r e d s o i l t e x t u r e .
T h e SCS p e r m e a b i l i t y c l a s s d e f i n i t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 2-3.
Certain geological
formations are of
interest:: during
P h a s e 1. D i s c o n t i n u i t . i e s and f r a c t u r e s i n b e d r o c k may c a u s e
flow
s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g o r o t h e r u n e x p e c t e d g r o u n d wal:er
patterns.
Impermeable or s e m i p e r m e a b l e l a y , e r s of r o c k ,
clay,
o r hardpan c a n r e s u l t i n perched ground w a t e r
tables.
The USGS and many s t a t e g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y s h a v e
maps i n d i c a t i n g t h e p r e s e n c e and e f f e c t s of gci?ological
formations.
T h e s e maps dnd o t h e r USGS s t u d i e s may be used
t o p l o t l o c a t i o n s w i t h i n ; t h e s t u d y a r e a w h e r e gci?ological
f o r m a t i o n s may l i m i t t h e s u i t a b i l i t y f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t .
TABLE 2-9
TYPICAL SOIL PERMEABILITIES AND TEXTURAL

CLASSES FOR LAND TREATMENT PROCESSES
Principal processes
Slow rate
Rapid
infiltration
Overland
flow
Soil permeability
range, cm/h
20.15
permeability
class range
Modera$ely slow to
moderately rapid
Rapid
S lpw
Textural
class range
Clay loams to
sandy loams
Sand and
sandy loams
Clays and
clay loams
Unified Soil
Classification
GM-d, SM-dl ML,

OL, MH,, PT
GW, GP, SW,

SP
GM-u, GC,
SM-u, SC ,
CL, OL, C H I OH
Once e a c h o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s h a v e b e e n mapped, t h e maps a r e merged i n t o a

c o m p o s i t e map t h a t i n d i c a t e s a r e a s w i t h h i g h , m o d e r a t e , and
low s u i t a b i l i t y .
Map o v e r l a y s may be u s e f u l d u r i n g t h i s
process.
2.2.5
S i t e Screening
D u r i n g t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f P h a s e 1, e a c h p a r t o f t h e s t u d y
area t h a t a p p e a r s t o be s u i t a b l e f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t m u s t b e
e v a l u a t e d and r a t e d i n terms o f t e c h n i c a l s u i t a b i : L i t y and
f e a s i b i l i t y . R a t i n g i s o f t e n a c c o m p l i s h e d by w e i g h t i n g e a c h
of t h e s i t e s e l e c t i o n f a c t o r s and u s i n g a n u m e r i c a l
system.
The r e s u l t i n g r a t i n g s a r e u s e d t o i d e n t i f y s i t e s
t h a t h a v e h i g h o v e r a l l s u i t a b i l i t y and t h a t s h o u l d be i n v e s If
suitable s i t e s are not
t i g a t e d more t h o r o u g h l y .
available,
no f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n is given t o land
treatment.
Site selection factors and weightings should vary to suit

the needs and characteristics of the community.
Several
factors that should be considered are listed in Table 2-10.
A sample rating system is shown in Table 2-11. This system
may be varied by the planner to reflect available
information.
TABLE 2-10
SITE SELECTION GUIDELINES
Characteristic
Process
Remarks
High permeability soils are more suitable

to other processes.
Rapid infiltration Hydraulic loading rates increase with
permeability.
and slow rate
Soil permeability
Overland flow
Potential ground
water pollution
Rapid infiltration Affected by the (1) proximity of the site to

a potential potable aquifer, (2) presence of
and slow rate
an aquiclude, (3) direction of ground water
flow, and (4) degree of ground water recovery
by wells or underdrains.
Ground water storage

and recovery
Rapid infiltration Capability for storinq percolated water and

recovery by wells or underdrains is based
on aquifer depth, permeability, aquiclude
continuity, effective treatment depth, and
ability to contain the recharge mound within
the defined area.
Existinq land uses
All processes
Involves the occurrence and nature of conflicting land use.
Future land use
A1 1 processes
Future urhan develo~mentmay affect the ability

to expand the system.
Size of site
All processes
If there are a number of small parcels, it is

of ten difficult to purchase or lease the
needed area.
Flooding hazard
All processes
May exclude or limit site use.
Slope
All processes
Water rights
Steep grades may (1) increase capital expenditures for earthwork, and (2) increase the
erosion hazard during wet weather.
Rapid infiltration Steep grades often affect ground water
flow pattern.
Steep grades reduce the travel time over the
Overland flow
treatment area and treatment efficiency. , Flat
land requires extensive earthwork to create
grades.
May require disposal of renovated water in a
All processes
particular watershed within a particular
stretch of surface water.
TABLE 2 - 1 1
RATING FACTORS
POR S I T E S E L E C T I O N [14., 151

-.
Slow rate systems
Characteristic
Agricultural
Forest
Overland
flow
Rapid
infiltration
Soil depth, ma
Minimum depth to
ground water, m
Permeability, cm/hc
Grade, %
Existing or planned land use

Industrial
High density residential/urban
Low density residential/urban
Forested
Agricultural or open space
Overall suitability ratingd
LOW
Moderate
High
Note:
a.
b.
c.
d.
The higher the maximum number in each characteristic, the more important
the characteristic; the higher'the ranking, the greater the suitability.
Depth of the profile to bedrock.
Excluded; rated as poor.
Permeability of most restrictive layer in soil profile.
Sum of values.
EXAMPLE 2-1:
USE OF RATING FACTORS TO DETERMINE

SITE SUITABILITY
An example of the use of rating factors is presented in the following two

figures and tables. Example soil types are shown in Figure 2-7 as presented
in a portion of a county SCS soil survey. Characteristics of the three soil
types and existing land uses are presented in Table 2-12. The characteristics
are then compared to the rating factors in Table 2-11 to obtain the numerical
values in Table 2-13. For example, the Bibb silt loam in Table 2-12 has'a
depth of soil above bedrock of 1.5 to 3 m (5 to 10 ft). From Table 2-11,
this would correspond to values of 8 for SR, 7 for OF, and 4 for RI. These
values are entered into Table 2-13.
When all factors are evaluated, the numerical values are added together to
obtain a total and to determine the suitability rating. The high suitability
areas are presented in the soils map in Figure 2-8. By applying this procedure
to all soils within a given radius of the community, the most suitable sites
(generally 3 to 5) are identified for further field investigation and costeffectiveness evaluation.
EoB
FIGURE 2-7
EXAMPLE AREA OF S O I L MAP TO BE EVALUATED
TABLE 2-12
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOIL SERIES MAPPED IN FIGURE 2-7
Bibb silt loam

Map symbol
Soil depth, m
Depth to ground water, m
Permeability, cm/h
Grade, %
Land use
Bm
1.5-3.0
<1.2
<0.15
0- 5
Agricultural
Sassafras fine
sandy loam
Evesboro
loamy sand
SaB
0.6-1.5
1.2-3.0
1.5-5.0
0-5
Forested
Eo3
>3.0
1.2-3
>5.0
0-5
Industrial
TABLE 2-13
EXAMPLE USE OF RATING, FACTORS FOR S I T E SELECTION
Sgil type
Bibb
s i l t loam
(Bm)
Sassafras
System
type
SR
OF
RI
Depth
8
7
4
2
4
Ground Permewater
.ability
Land
use
Total
Suitability
0
2
E
1
10
E
8
8
8
4
4
4
21
31
- -
Moderate
High
Eliriinate
8
1
6
8
8
1
1
1
24
18
--a
Moderate
Moderate
Eliminate
8
E
9
8
8
8
0
0
0
29
--a
27
High
Eliminate
High
f i n e sandy
loam ( S a B )
SR
OF
RI
4
4
2
Evesboro
loamy s a n d
(EoB)
SR
OF
RI
9
7
8
4
4
2
a.
Grade
T o t a l n o t d e t e r m i n e d b e c a u s e s i t e was c l e a r l y e l i m i n a t e d (E) f o r t h i s
t y p e o f l a n d t r e a t m e n t b a s e d on one o r more s i t e f a c t o r s .
SR o r R l HlGH S U I T A B I L I T Y
OF HlGH S U I T A B I L I T Y
SR MODERATE SU I TAB I L I TY
FIGURE 2-8
EXAMPLE SU l TAB I L l T Y MAP FOR SO l LS I N F I GURE 2-7
2.3
Phase 2 Planning
Phase 2, t h e s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n phase, o c c u r s o n l y i f sites

w i t h p o t e n t i a l h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n P h a s e 1.
During
Phase 2, f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are conducted a t t h e s e l e c t e d
sites t o determine whether land t r e a t m e n t is t e c h n i c a l l y
feasible.
When s u f f i c i e n t d a t a h a v e b e e n c o l l e c t e d , p r e l i m inary design c r i t e r i a a r e calculated f o r each p o t e n t i a l
site.
Using t h e s e c r i t e r i a , c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i o n and maintenance c o s t s a r e estimated.
T h e s e c o s t e s t i m a t e s and o t h e r
nonmonetary f a c t o r s are used t o e v a l u a t e t h e s i t e s s e l e c t e d
On t h e b a s i s of t h i s
d u r i n g Phase 1 f o r c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
e v a l u a t i o n , a l a n d t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e is s e l e c t e d f o r
design.
2.3.1
Field Investigations
F i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g P h a s e 2
include :
C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e s o i l p r o f i l e t o a n approxim a t e d e p t h o f 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) f o r SR, 3 m ( 1 0 ft) f o r
R I , and 1 m ( 3 f t ) f o r OF
Measurements
q u a 1i t y
Infiltration
measurements
a
of
ground
r a t e and
water
depth,
flow,
and
s o i l hydraulic conductivity
Determination of s o i l chemical p r o p e r t i e s
Methods f o r t h e s e a n a l y s e s a r e d e t a i l e d i n C h a p t e r 3.
2.3.2
S e l e c t i o n o f P r e l i m i n a r y Design C r i t e r i a
From i n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d d u r i n g t h e f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,
t h e engineer can confirm t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e sites f o r
t h e i d e n t i f i e d land treatment process(es)
Using t h e l o a d i n g r a t e s d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y ( F i g u r e 2-3, S e c t i o n 2 . 2 . 2 ) ,
t h e engineer should then s e l e c t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e h y d r a u l i c
loading rate f o r each land treatment process t h a t is s u i t Based o n t h e
a b l e f o r e a c h s i t e under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
l o a d i n g rate e s t i m a t e s , land area, p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t ,
s t o r a g e , and o t h e r s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e e s t i m a t e d .
Reuse/recovery o p t i o n s should a l s o be o u t l i n e d a t t h i s t i m e .
2.3.2.1
reapplication T r e a t m e n t
Some d e g r e e o f w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r i o r t o l a n d a . p p l i c a t i o n i s u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y , [ f o r o n e o r more o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
reasons:
1
a v o i d u n n e c e s s a r y wear on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
s y s t e m , and i n p a r t i c u l a r , pumps i n t h e s y s t e m
To
To a l l o w w a s t e w a t e r s t o r a g e p r i o r t o l a n d t r e a t m e n t
without creating nuisance conditions
0
To m i n i m i z e p o t e n t i a l p u b l i c h e a l t h r i s k s
To r e d u c e s o i l c l o g g i n g i n R I l a n d t r e a t m e n t
To o b t a i n
treatment
higher
overall
level
of
wasbewater
I n d u s t r i a l p r e t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d when i n d ~ . l s t r i a l
waste c o n t a i n s m a t e r i a l s t h a t (1) c o u l d h i n d e r t h e t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s e s ; ( 2 ) c o u l d a c c u m u l a t e i n q u a n t i t i e s t h a t would be
d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e s o i l - p l a n t system; o r ( 3 ) could p a s s
t h r o u g h a l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m and r e s t r i c t t h e b e n e f i c i a l
u s e s o f t h e r e n o v a t e d water o r t h e n a t i v e ground w a t e r .
I n d u s t r i a l c o n t a m i n a n t s o f c o n c e r n i n c l u d e t r a c e oirganics
and t r a c e e l e m e n t s .
G e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s and t i m e s c h e d u l e s
f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l waste p r e t r e a t m e n t p1::ograms
c a n b e o b t a i n e d from t h e EPA r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s .
2.3.2.2
R e c o v e r y q f Renovated Water
The c o l l e c t i o n of r e n o v a t e d w a s t e w a t e r f o l l o w i n g l a n d t r e a t m e n t may be e i t h e r n e c e s s a r y o r d e s i r a b l e .
I f t h e renovated
w a s t e w a t e r c a n be r e c l a i m e d f o r b e n e f i c i a l u s e s , rc:!covery
may e v e n b e p r o f i t a b l e .
I n many l o c a t i o n s , w a t e r r i g h t s may
n e c e s s i t a t e r e c o v e r y of renovated water f o r disposal. a t a
s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n i n a given watershed.
I n some l o c a t i o n s ,
u n d e r d r a i n a g e may b e n e e d e d t o c o n t r o l g r o u n d water e l e v a t i o n s and a l l o w s i t e d e v e l o p m e n t .
Methods u s e d t o r e c o v e r r e n o v a t e d w a s t e w a t e r i n c l u d e u n d e r d r a i n s , r e c o v e r y w e l l s , s u r f a c e r u n o f f c o l l e c t i o n , ancl t a i l water r e t u r n .
Wastewater c a n a l s o be r e c o v e r e d t h r o u g h
s p r i n g s and s e e p s t h a t r e s u l t from l a n d t r e a t m e n t o r by
s u b s u r f a c e f l o w from t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e t o t h e :i;urface
water. T h e s e m e t h o d s and t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o e a c h o f t h e
in
t h r e e m a j o r t y p e s o f l a n d t r e a t m e n t a r e summari:i!ed
T a b l e 2-14.
D e s i g n o f r e c o v e r y s y s t e m s is d i s c u s s e d j..n more
d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r s 4 , 5, and1 6.
TABLE 2-14
APPLICABILITY OF RECOVERY SYSTEMS FOR RENOVATED WATER

Recovery system
Slow r a t e
Rapid i n f i l t r a t i o n
Overland flow
Springs, seeps, o r
n a t u r a l drainage
Often used t o
maintain water
rights
Ground w a t e r ' c o n t r o l
and e f f l u e n t r e u s e
Often used t o
maintain water r i g h t s
NA
Ground w a t e r c o n t r o l
NA
Recovery w e l l s
Usually NA
Ground w a t e r c o n t r o l
NA
S u r f a c e runoff
Effluent
Stormwater
NA
Sediment c o n t r o l
NA
C o l l e c t , dischargea
Collect, dischargea
NA
25-50% of a p p l i e d
flow
NA
NA
Underdrains
Tailwater
Sprinkler application
Surface application
NA
a.
NA
NA
not applicable.
D i s i n f e c t i f r e q u i r e d b e f o r e d i s c h a r g e ; p r o v i d e f o r s h o r t - t e r m r e c y c l i n g of wastew a t e r a f t e r extended p e r i o d s of shutdown i f e f f l u e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s t r i n g e n t .
2.3.3
Evaluation of A l t e r n a t i v e s
Land t r e a t m e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d o n t h e b a s i s
o f c a p i t a l c o s t s , o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s ( i n c l u d i n g
e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n ) , and o t h e r n o n m o n e t a r y f a c t o r s , s u c h a s
p u b l i c a c c e p t a b i l i t y , e a s e of implementation, environmental
i m p a c t , w a t e r r i g h t s , a n d t r e a t m e n t c o n s i s t e n c y and r e l i a bility.
2.3.3.1
Costs
F o r c o s t a n a l y s e s , t h e EPA c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n 4OCFR 3 5 , Appendix A , m u s t b e u s e d i n

s e l e c t i n g a n y m u n i c i p a l wastewater management s y s t e m t h a t
w i l l b e f u n d e d u n d e r PL 92-500 [161.
For nongrant funded
projects,
t h e EPA a n a l y s i s may b e m o d i f i e d t o f i t a
community's s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s .
The most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e
a l t e r n a t i v e is d e f i n e d as f o l l o w s [ 1 6 ] :
The most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s h a l l b e t h e w a s t e
t r e a t m e n t management s y s t e m w h i c h t h e a n a l y s i s d e t e r m i n e s t o h a v e t h e lowest p r e s e n t w o r t h o r e q u i v a l e n t
a n n u a l v a l u e u n l e s s nonmonetary c o s t s are o v e r r i d i n g .
The most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e m u s t a l s o meet t h e
minimum
requirements
of
applicable
effluent
limitations,
groundwater
protection,
or
other
a p p l i c a b l e s t a n d a r d s e s t a b l i s h e d under t h e A c t .
costs may be found i n r e f e r e n c e [ 1 7 ] , o r ' t h e CAPDE'I:' s y s t e m

c a n be u s e d f o r a p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e .
C o s t comparisons should
i n ~ c l u d et h e c o s t of preappl-ication
t r e a t m e n t and s l u d g e h a n d l i n g a s w e l l a s l a n d t r e a t m e n t
p r o c e s s components, i n c l u d i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n , s t o r a g e , f i e l d
The c o s t s
p r e p a r a t i o n , r e n o v a t e d w a t e r r e c o v e r y , and l a n d .
of
r e s o l v i n g a n y w a t e r r i g h t s p r o b l e m s a l s o n w s t be
included.
The EPA c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s g u i d e l i n e s r e q u i r e
t h a t grant-funded p r o j e c t s use t h e following g e n e r a l s e r v i c e
lives:
l
Land
Permanent
Structures
P r o c e s s equipment
1 5 t o 30 y e a r s
A u x i l i a r y equipment
10 t o 1 5 y e a r s
30 t o 50 y e a r s
C a p i t a l c o s t s f o r l a n d w i l l v a r y from s i t e t o s i t e .
Land
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s must h a v e a d e q u a t e l a n d f o r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s , s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s , wastewater. a p p l i c a t i o n , b u f f e r z o n e s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and l a b o r a t o r y b u i l d i n g s , t r a n s m i s s i o n p i p e e a s e m e n t , and o t h e r f a c i , l i t i e s .
Costs of r e l o c a t i n g r e s i d e n c e s and o t h e r b u i l d i n g s depend o n
t h e l o c a t i o n b u t a l s o s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n c a p i t a l c o s t
Army C o r p s o f
estimates.
The l o c a l o f f i c e s of t h e U . S .
E n g i n e e r s , U.S.
Bureau of R e c l a m a t i o n , and s t a t e highway
d e p a r t m e n t s c a n p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on r e l o c a t i o n c o s t
estimates.
S e v e r a l o p t i o n s are a v a i l a b l e f o r a c q u i s i t i o n o r c o n t r o l o f
t h e l a n d used f o r wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g :
Outright purchase (fee-simple a c q u i s i t i o n )
Long-term l e a s e o r e a s e m e n t
P u r c h a s e and l e a s e b a c k of l a n d ( u s u a l l y t o f a r m e r
f o r i r r i g a t i o n ) w i t h no d i r e c t . m u n i c i p a l i n v o l v e ment i'n l a n d management.
'
F o r l a r g e r p r o j e c t s , f e e - s i m p l e l a n d a c q u i s i t i o n is f a v o r e d
by most f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s , s t a t e s , and c o m m u n i t i e s .
Further,
o u t r i g h t purchase provides t h e h i g h e s t degree of c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e and e n s u r e s u n i n t e r r u p t e d
land a v a i l a b i l i t y .
Estimates i n d i c a t e t h a t land l e a s i n g has
been
cost
effective
for
several
hundred
projects
nationwide.
Generally, these projects a r e i n a r i d or s e m i a r i d a r e a s w h e r e r e n o v a t e d w a t e r h a s a h i g h v a l u e and l a n d a
Leasing o r easement arrangements a l s o
r e l a t i v e l y l o w value.
c a n be v e r y a t t r a c t i v e f o r s m a l l e r c o m m u n i t i e s .
C a p i t a l c o s t s of l a n d f o r b o t h l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s and
s t o r a g e p r i o r t o land a p p l i c a t i o n a r e e l i g i b l e f o r f e d e r a l
C o n s t r u c t i o n G r a n t s Program f u n d i n g a s s p e c i f i e d i n EPA
g u i d a n c e [181
During t h e c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n a l y s e s , t h e
e n g i n e e r must k e e p i n mind t h a t , u n l i k e many o t h e r t r e a t m e n t
components, l a n d h a s a s a l v a g e v a l u e .
In addition, current
EPA g u i d a n c e a l l o w s t h e l a n d v a l u e t o a p p r e c i a t e 3 % p e r
y e a r . T h u s , t h e s a l v a g e v a l u e a f t e r 20 y e a r s is:
(1
0 . 0 3 ) ~x~ p r e s e n t p r i c e = ( 1 . 8 0 6 ) ( p r e s e n t p r i c e )
The p r e s e n t w o r t h of t h i s
the prevailing interest
rate.
Long-term e a s e m e n t s
cation processes a l s o a r e
Program f u n d i n g , p r o v i d e d
T a b l e 2-15 a r e m e t .
salvage value is c a l c u l a t e d using

r a t e , n o t t h e 3% a p p r e c i a t i o n
o r l e a s e s of l a n d f o r l a n d a p p l i e l i g i b l e f o r Construction Grants
t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s summarized i n
TABLE 2-15
LEASE/EASEMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSTRUCTION
GRANTS PROGRAM F U N D I N G [ 1 8 ]
Limit the purpose of the lease or easement to land application and activities
incident to land application.
Describe explicitly the property use desired.
Waive the landowner's right to restoration of the property at the termination
of the lease/easement.
Recognizing the serious risk of premature lease termination, provide for full
recovery of damages by the grantee in such an event. The grantee must insure
the capability to operate and meet permit requirements for the useful life of
the project.
Provide for payment of the lease/easement in a lump sum for the full value of
the entire term.
Provide for leases/easements for the useful life of the treatment plant,
with an option of renewal for additional terms, as deemed appropriate.
O p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s i n c l u d e l a b o r , m a t e r i a l s ,
For
and s u p p l i e s ( i n c l u d i n g c h e m i c a l s ) , and power costs.
c o s t c o m p a r i s o n p u r p o s e s , t h e y a r e a s s u m e d , t o be c o n s t a n t
during t h e planning period.

However, i f a v e r a g e w a s t e w a t e r
flows a r e expected t o i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y during t h e
p l a n n i n g p e r i o d , o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s s h o u l d be
Operation
d e v e l o p e d f o r e a c h y e a r of t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s .
and m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t c u r v e s may be found i n r e f e r e n c e s
[ 1 7 r 191.
To e s t i m a t e l a b o r c o s t s , s t a f f i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b o t h
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and l a n d t r e a t m e n t must be d e t e r mined.
S t a f f i n g requiremei?ts f o r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t
S t a f f i n g requiremnents a t
c a n be found i n r e f e r e n c e [ 1 9 ] .
m u n i c i p a l l y owned and o p e r a t e d l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s have
b e e n p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of f l o w i n F i g u r e 2-9.
Land
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s t h a t a r e 'owned a n d / o r o p e r a t e d by f a r m e r s
w i l l have lower municipal s t a f f i n g requirements.
Annual c o s t s s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e c o s t o f l e a s i n g l a n d f o r
w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n , when a p p r o p r i a t e .
Annual c o s t e s t i m a t e s a l s o s h o u l d t a k e i n t o ' c o n s i d e r a t i o n r e v e n u e s from c r o p
s a l e s , s a l e of r e n o v a t e d w , a t e r , s a l e o f e f f l u e n t f o r l a n d
a p p l i c a t i o n , o r l e a s e b a c k of p u r c h a s e d l a n d f o r f a r m i n g o r
o t h e r purposes.
Because o f t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n e s t i m a t i n g
t h e s e r e v e n u e s , t h e y s h o u l d be used t o o f f s e t o n l y a p o r t i o n
of t h e o p e r a t i n g c o s t s i n t h e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n a l y s i s .
P r e v a i l i n g m a r k e t v a l u e s f o r c r o p s u s u a l l y c a n be o b t a i n e d
Prefrom s t a t e u n i v e r s i t y c o o p e r a t i v e e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s .
l i m i n a r y y i e l d e s t i m a t e s s h o u l d be b a s e d on t h e p r o p o s e d
a p p l i c a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s and on t y p i c a l y i e l d s i n t h e l o c a l
area.
A n o t h e r s o u r c e of r e v e n u e may be t h e s a l e of r e c o v e r e d r e n ovated water,
particularly
runoff
from OF s y s t e m s o r
Markets f o r
r e n o v a t e d w a t e r from R I s y s t e m r e c o v e r y w e l l s .
r e n o v a t e d w a t e r must be i n v e s t i g a t e d o n a community by community b a s i s .
Methods o f a s s e s s i n g t h e r e l a t i v e v a l u e of
r e n o v a t e d w a s t e w a t e r f o r v , a r i o u s u s e s and potentia.:L r e u s e
c a t e g o r i e s are d i s c u s s e d i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 0 ] .
2.3.3.2
Energy
B a s i c e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r u n i t p r o c e s s e s and o p e r a t i o n s
h a v e been d e s c r i b e d and q u a n t i f i e d i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 1 J . The
d a t a i n t h e r e p o r t w e r e used t o compare l a n d t r e a t m e n t
e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t s and
t o develop equations f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e energy requirements
of each u n i t process [22].
Equations i n Chapter 8 can be
used t o g e n e r a t e a c c u r a t e power c o s t e s t i m a t e s f o r t h e c o s t effectiveness analysis.
387
(0.1)
3,875
(1 .O)
FLOW m3/d
38,750
( 1 0)
(Mpal/d)
FIGURE 2-9
STAFF l NG REQU I REMENTS FOR LAND TREATMENT COMPONENTS (NOT l NCLUD l NG SEWER SYSTEM
OR PREAPPLI CAT l ON TREATMENT) FOR MUN l C l PA LLY OWNED AND OPERATED SYSTEMS [I 91
2.3.3.3
Nonmonetary C o n s i d e . r a t i o n s
I
According t o t h e
EPA g u i d e l i n e s ,
a
cost-effect.iveness
a n a l y s i s must a l s o c o n s i d e r nonmonetary f a c t o r s s u c h a s
[23,
241 , e a s e
of
implementation
environmental impacts
( m a g n i t u d e of p o t e n t i a l w a t e r r i g h t s c o n f l i c t s ,
public
a c c e p t a b i l i t y ) , and t r e a t m e n t c o n s i s t e n c y and r e l i a b i l i t y .
P o t e n t i a l water r i g h t s c o n f l i c t s a r e discussed b r i e f l y i n
P u b l i c a c c e p t a b i l i t y w i l l be g r e a t l y a i d e d by
S e c t i o n 2.4.
a n e f f e c t i v e p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n program, p a r t i ~ u l ~ a r l iyf
t h e r e i s a n y c h a n c e t h a t l o c a l f a r m e r s w i l l be i n v o l v e d i n
a n SR s y s t e m .
Public participation regulations i n the
f e d e r a l C o n s t r u c t i o n G r a n t s Program a r e g i v e n i n 40 C F R
P a r t 35.
T h e s e r e g u l a t i o n s implement t h e p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s o f 40 C F R P a r t 25.
Changing d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s , w a s t e w a t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
g r o w t h r a t e s , and l a n d u s e s f o r a r e a s s u r r o u n d i n g and cont r i b u t i n g t o t h e treatment system r e q u i r e treatment f l e x ibility.
The a b i l i t y of e a c h a l t e r n a t i v e t o a d a p t t o
c h a n g e s s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d .
2.3.4
Plan Selection
To s e l e c t a n a l t e r n a t i v e , e a c h of t h e f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d
d u r i n g t h e e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e s s s h o u l d be compared on a n
equivalent basis.
Monetary f a c t o r s s h o u l d be e x p r e s s e d i n
terms of t o t a l p r e s e n t w o r t h o r e q u i v a l e n t annual. c o s t .
Nonmonetary f a c t o r s s h o u l d be w e i g h t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r
l o c a l i m p o r t a n c e , and r e a s o n s c i t e d f o r abandoning a n y
a l t e r n a t i v e f o r nonmonetary r e a s o n s .
I f t h e r e a r e no o v e r r i d i n g nonmonetary f a c t o r s , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s e l e c t e d s h o u l d
be t h e p l a n w i t h t h e lowest t o t a l p r e s e n t worth o r equiva l e n t annual c o s t .
Actual a l t e r n a t i v e s e l e c t i o n should involve t h e wastewater
management a g e n c y , t h e p l a n n e r / e n g i n e e r , a d v i s o r y g r o u p s ,
c i t i z e n and s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s , and o t h e r i n t e r e s t e d
governmental agencies.
Once a n a l t e r n a t i v e i s t e n t a t i v e l y
s e l e c t e d , and b e f o r e d e s i g n , b e g i n s , m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e s f o r
minimizing
any
identified
adverse
impacts
shoi.ild
be
outlined.
2.4
W a t e r R i g h t s and P o t e n t i a l Water R i g h t s C o n f l i c t s
Land a p p l i c a t i o n of w a s t e w a t e r s may c a u s e s e v e r a l c h a n g e s i n
d r a i n a g e and f l o w p a t t e r n s [ 2 5 ] :
1.
S i t e d r a i n a g e may be a f f e c t e d by l a n d p r e p a r a t i o n ,
s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s l o p e , method of w a s t e w a t e r
a p p l i c a t i o n , cover, c r o p s , c l i m a t e , b u f f e r zones,
and s p a c i n g o f i r r i g a t i o n e q u i p m e n t .
2.
Land a p p l i c a t i o n may a l t e r t h e p a t t e r n of f l o w i n
t h e body of w a t e r t h a t would h a v e r e c e i v e d t h e
wastewater discharge.
~ l t h o u g h t h i s may d i m i n i s h
t h e f l o w i n t h e body o f w a t e r , i t a l s o may i n c r e a s e
the quality.
The c h a n g e may be c o n t i n u o u s o r
seasonal.
3.
Land a p p l i c a t i o n may c a u s e s u r f a c e w a t e r d i v e r s i o n ,
b e c a u s e w a s t e w a t e r s t h a t p r e v i o u s l y would have been
c a r r i e d away by s u r f a c e w a t e r s a r e now a p p l i e d t o
l a n d and o f t e n d i v e r t e d t o a d i f f e r e n t w a t e r s h e d .
Two b a s i c
t y p e s of w a t e r r i g h t s laws e x i s t i n t h e United
States:
r i p a r i a n l a w s , which e m p h a s i z e t h e r i g h t o f
r i p a r i a n l a n d o w n e r s a l o n g a w a t e r c o u r s e t o u s e o f t h e water,
and a p p r o p r i a t i v e l a w s , which e m p h a s i z e t h e r i g h t o f p r i o r
Most r i p a r i a n o r l a n d o w n e r s h i p
u s e r s of t h e w a t e r [ 2 5 ] .
r i g h t s a r e i n e f f e c t e a s t of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r , w h e r e a s
m o s t a p p r o p r i a t i v e r i g h t s a r e i n e f f e c t w e s t of
the
M i s s i s s i p p i River.
S p e c i f i c a r e a s where t h e s e two d o c t r i n e s
d o m i n a t e a r e shown i n F i g u r e 2-10.
Most s t a t e s d i v i d e t h e i r w a t e r l a w s i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s :
(1) w a t e r s i n w e l l - d e f i n e d
channels o r basins ( n a t u r a l
w a t e r c o u r s e s ) , ( 2 ) super: i c i a l w a t e r s n o t i n c h a n n e l s o r
b a s i n s ( s u r f a c e w a t e r s ) , and ( 3 ) u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r s n o t i n
( p e r c o l a t i n g w a t e r s or
well-defined
c h a n n e l s or b a s i n s
ground w a t e r s ) .
P o t e n t i a l w a t e r r i g h t s problems involving
e a c h t y p e of w a t e r and e a c h of t h e t h r e e p r i m a r y t y p e s of
l a n d t r e a t m e n t a r e summarized i n T a b l e 2-16.
T h i s t a b l e is
i n t e n d e d t o a i d d u r i n g p l a n n i n g and p r e l i m i n a r y s c r e e n i n g o f
a l t e r n a t i v e s , b u t is n o t t o be used a s t h e b a s i s f o r e l i m i n a t i n g any a l t e r n a t i v e s .
2.4.1
Natural Watercourses
Most l e g a l p r o b l e m s r e g a r d i n g n a t u r a l w a t e r c o u r s e s i n v o l v e
t h e d i v e r s i o n of a d i s c h a r g e w i t h t h e subsequent r e d u c t i o n
i n flow through t h e w a t e r c o u r s e .
In riparian s t a t e s , divers i o n of d i s c h a r g e s t h a t were n o t o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f a s t r e a m
s h o u l d n o t be c a u s e f o r l e g a l a c t i o n .
In appropriative
s t a t e s , i f t h e d i v e r s i o n would t h r e a t e n t h e q u a n t i t y or
q u a l i t y of a downstream a p p r o p r i a t i o n , t h e downstream u s e r
has cause f o r l e g a l a c t i o n .
L e g a l a c t i o n may be e i t h e r
injunctive,
p r e v e n t i n g t h e d i v e r t e r from a f f e c t i n g t h e
d i v e r s i o n , or monetary, r e q u i r i n g t h e d i v e r t e r to,compensate
f o r t h e damages.
I f t h e a r e a i s n o t w a t e r - s h o r t and i f t h e
w a t e r c o u r s e i s n o t a l r e a d y o v e r a p p r o p r i a t e d , damages would
be d i f f i c u l t i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e .
FIGURE 2-10
DOMINANT WATER RIGHTS 006TRINES AND AREAS OF WATER SURPLUS OR DEFICIENCY
TABLE 2-16
POTENTIAL WATER RIGHTS PROBLEMS FOR LAND
TREATMENT A L T E R N A T I V E S ~
Land treatment process
Water definition and
water rights theory
Slow rate
Natural watercourses
Riparian
Appropriative
Unlikely
Likelyb
Unlikely
Unlikely
~ i k e l ~ ~ Depends on location of
discharge from collection ditch
Depends on location of
discharge from collection ditch
Surface waters
Riparian
Appropriative
Combination
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
Percolating or
ground waters
Riparian
Appropriative
Combination
Unlikely
Likely
Likely
Possible
Likely
Likely
Combination
Rapid
infiltration Overland flow
Unlikely
Unlikely
Unlikely
~~
a.
b.
c.
For existing conditions and alternative formulation stage of the planning

process only. It is also assumed that the appropriative situations are
water-short or overappropriated.
If effluent was formerly discharged to stream.
If collection/discharge ditch crosses other properties to the
natural watercourse.
2.4.2
S u r f ace Waters
F o r s u r f a c e w a t e r s , r i p a r i a n and a p p r o p r i a t i v e r i g h t s a r e
very similar.
I f r e n o v a t e d water f r o m a l a n d t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m c r o s s e s p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y , a d r a i n a g e or u t i l i t y e a s e ment w i l l be n e c e s s a r y .
2.4.3
P e r c o l a t i n g Waters (Ground Waters)
Water r i g h t s c o n f l i c t s 'may b e c a u s e d e i t h e r by a rise i n t h e

g r o u n d water t a b l e t h a t damages l a n d s a d j o i n i n g a l a n d
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m o r by t h e a p p e a r a n c e of t r a c e c o n t a m i n a n t s
i n nearby w e l l s .
I n r i p a r i a n s t a t e s , t h e landowner must
p r o v e t h a t h i s g r o u n d w a t e r i s c o n t i n u o u s w i t h and downg r a d i e n t from ground w a t e r u n d e r l y i n g t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t
site.
I f t h e a l l e g e d damages a r e n o t t h e r e s u l t o f n e g l i gent treatment s i t e operation, cause f o r l e g a l action w i l l
b e d i f f i c u l t t o show.
In a p p r o p r i a t i v e s t a t e s , i n c r e a s e s i n
g r o u n d water t a b l e e l e v a t i o n s would n o t u s u a l l y t h r e a t e n
anyone's appropriative r i g h t .
T h u s , t h e r e would be n o c a u s e
f o r legal action.
2.4.4
Sources of Information
F o r l a r g e r s y s t e m s and i n p r o b l e m a r e a s , t h e s t a t e o r l o c a l
water master o r water r i g h t s e n g i n e e r s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d .

Other r e f e r e n c e s t o c o n s i d e r a r e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s , A
Summary-Digest
o f S t a t e Water Laws, a v a i l a b l e from t h F
N a t i o n a l Water Commission [ 2 5 ] , and Land A p p l i c a t i o n o f
Wastewater a n d S t a t e Water L a w , Volumes I and I1 ['26, 271.
If p r o b l e m s d e v e l o p o r a r e l i k e l y w i t h a n y o f t h e f e a s i b l e
a l t e r n a t i v e s , a w a t e r r i g h t s a t t o r n e y s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d .
2.5
References
1.
M e t c a l f & Eddy I n c .
Wastewater Engineering, Treatment,
D i s p o s a l , Reuse.
Second E d i t i o n .
McGraw H i l l Book
N e w York, N.Y.
1979.
Company.
2.
R.E.
a n d J.P. Law.
P r o p e r t i e s o f Waste
Thomas,
Waters.
In:
S o i l s f o r Management o f O r g a n i c W a s t e s
American S o c i e t y o f A,gronomy,
a n d Waste Waters.
Madison, Wisconsin.
1977.
p.47-72.
3.
Davis,
J.A.
Wastewater
47:2292-2297.
and J. Jacknow.
T h r e e Urban A r e a s .
S e p t e m b e r 1975.
111,
in
Heavy M e t a l s i n
J o u r n a l WPCF,
4.
Pound, C. E. , R. W. C r i t e s , and J . V . O l s o n .
L,ong-Term
E f f e c t s o f Land A p p l i c a t i o n o f Domestic W a s t e w a t e r :
H o l l i s t e r , C a l i f o r n i a , Rapid I n f i l t r a t i o n S i t e .
Envir o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency, Off i c e o f R e s e a r c h and
EPA-600/2-78-084.
A p r i l 1978.
Development.
5.
Ketchum, B.H.
and R.
F.
Vaccaro.
The Rem.ova1 o f
N u t r i e n t s and T r a c e Metals by S p r a y I r r i g a t i o n and i n a
Sand F i l t e r Bed.
In:
Land a s a Waste Management
(ed. )
Ann A r b o r , Ann A r b o r
Alternative.
Loehr, R.C.
Science.
1977. pp. 413-434.
6.
Chen,
K.Y.,
Effluents.
1975
7.
N a t i o n a l I n t e r i m p r i m a r y D r i n k i n g Water ~ e g u l a t i o n s .
U.S.
EPA-570/9-76003.
1976.
8.
primary
~rinking
Interim
Amendments.
Federal Register.
A u g u s t 27, 1 9 8 0 .
e t al.
Trace M e t a l s
in
J o u r n a l WPCF,
46:2663-2675.
Wastewater
December
Water
Regulations;
45(168):57332-57357.
Thomas, R.E. and D.M. Whiting.

Annual and Seasonal
Precipitation
Probabilities.
U.S.
Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA-600/2-77-182. August 1977.
Flach, K.W.
Land Resources. In: Recycling Municipal
Sludges and Effluents on Land.
Champaign, university
of Illinois. July 1973.
Whiting, D.M.
Use of Climatic Data in Estimating
Storage Days for Soil Treatment Systems. Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Office
of
Research
and
November 1976.
Development. EPA-600/2-76-250.
Thomas, ReE. et ale Feasibility of Overland Flow for
Treatment of Raw Domestic Wastewater,
U.S. Environ1974.
mental protection Agency. EPA-66/2-74-087.
Sills, M.A., et al.
Two Phase Evaluation of Land
Treatment as a Wastewater Treatment Alternative - A
Rational Approach to Federal and State Planning and
Design Requirements.
Proceedings of the Symposium on
Land Treatment of Wastewater, Hanover, New Hampshire.
August 20-25, 1978.
Moser, M.A.
A Method for Preliminary Evaluation of
Soil Series Characteristics to Determine the Potential
for Land Treatment Processes.
Proceedings of the
Symposium on Land Treatment of Wastewater.
Hanover,
New Hampshire. August 20-25, 1978.
Taylor, G.L.
A Preliminary Site Evaluation Method for
Treatment of Municipal Wastewater by Spray Irrigation
of Forest Land.
Proceedings of the Conference of
Applied
Research and
Practice on Municipal and
Industrial Waste.
Madison, Wisconsin.
September 1012, 1980.
U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Appendix A, Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.
1978.
40 CFR 35,
September 27,
Cost of Land Treatment Systems.

Reed, S.C., et al.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA 430/9-75003. September 1979.
.U. S. Environmenta.1 Protection Agency.
EPA-430/9-81-012.
Planning,
1982,
September 1981.
Facilities
FRD-25.
19.
P a t t e r s o n , W.L. and R.'F. B a n k e r .

E s t i m a t i n g Cclsts and
Wastewater
Manpower
Requirements
for
Conventional
T r e a t m e n t F a c i l i t i e s . , EPA 17090 DAN.
O c t o b e r 1.971.
20.
S c h m i d t , C. J . a n d E.V.
C l e m e n t s , 111.
Demonstrated
T e c h n o l o g y and R e s e a r c h Needs f o r Reuse o f M u n i c i p a l
Wastewater. U. S . E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
EPA
670/2-75-038.
May 1 9 7 5 .
21.
Wesner, E.M.,
et al.
Energy C o n s e r v a t i o n i n M u n i c i p a l
Wastewater T r e a t m e n t .
U . S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n
EPA-430/9-77-011.
March 1978.
Agency.
22.
E.J.
and C.H.
Middlebrooks.
Energy
Middlebrooks,
Flow
Wastewater
Treatment
Requirements
for
Small
Systems.
U.S., Army C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s , C o l d R e g i o n s
R e s e a r c h and ~ n g i n e e r i n gL a b o r a t o r y .
May 1 9 7 9 .
23.
C a n t e r , L.
Environmental Impact Assessment.
H i l l Book C o .
New York, N e w York.
1977.
24.
U .S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
Regulati.ons f o r
P r e p a r a t i o n of Environmental Impact Statements.
40 C F R
P a r t 6 , S e c t i o n 6.512.
25.
Dewsnup, R.L. and D.W. J e n s e n , e d s .

A Summary D i g e s t
N a t i o n a l Water Commission.
o f S t a t e Water Laws.
W a s h i n g t o n , D O C . May 1 9 7 3 .
26.
Land A p p l i c a t i o n o f W a s t e w a t e r arid S t a t e
L a r g e , D.W.
Water Law:
An Overview (Volume I ) . U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l
EPA-600/2-77-232.
November 1 9 7 7 .
27.
L a r g e , D.W.
Land A p p l i c a t i o n o f W a s t e w a t e r arrd S t a t e
Water Law:
S t a t e A n a l y s e s (Volume 11). U. S. 1.3nvironm e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
EPA-6OO/2-78-175.
August
1978.
McGraw-
Chapter 3
F I E L D INVESTIGATIONS
3.1
Introduction
I n c o n t r a s t t o c o n v e n t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g i e s , t h e a n a l y s i s and
d e s i g n of l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s r e q u i r e s s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e p r o p o s e d s i t e o r s i t e s .
Too
l i t t l e f i e l d d a t a may l e a d t o e r r o n e o u s c o n c l u s i o n s w h i l e
t o o much w i l l r e s u l t i n u n n e c e s s a r i l y h i g h c o s t s w i t h l i t t l e
refinement i n t h e design concept.
Experience i n d i c a t e s t h a t
it
is prudent
to
adopt
a
where
uncertainty
exists,
conservative
posture
relative
to
data
gathering
requirements.
F i g u r e 3-1 i s a f l o w c h a r t which p r e s e n t s a l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e
A t several
of f i e l d t e s t i n g f o r a l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o j e c t .
points,
available
data
are
used
for
calculations
or
decisions
that
may
then
necessitate
additional
field
tests.
T h e s e a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s a r e u s u a l l y d i r e c t e d toward
e s t i m a t i o n of new p a r a m e t e r s , r e q u i r e d f o r e x t e n d i n g t h e
analysis.
However, i n some c a s e s , a d d i t i o n a l f i e l d t e s t s
may a l s o be r e q u i r e d s i m p l y t o r e f i n e p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s .
G u i d a n c e on t e s t i n g f o r w a s t e w a t e r c o n s t i t u e n t s and s o i l
p r o p e r t i e s is provided f o r each land treatment process i n
T a b l e 3-1.
N o r m a l l y , r e l a t i v e l y modest p r o g r a m s o f f i e l d
t e s t i n g and d a t a a n a l y s i s w i l l be s a t i s f a c t o r y .
In certain
i n s t a n c e s , however, more complex i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and a n a l y s e s
a r e r e q u i r e d w i t h h i g h e r l e v e l s of e x p e r t i s e i n s o i l t e s t i n g
and e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s .
Firms specializing i n these
a r e a s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r a s s i s t a n c e i f e x p e r t i s e does n o t
e x i s t w i t h i n t h e f i r m having g e n e r a l d e s i g n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
3.2
Physical Properties
P r e l i m i n a r y s c r e e n i n g , a s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 2 , of a
p o t e n t i a l s i t e ( o r s i t e s ) w i l l o r d i n a r i l y be b a s e d on e x i s t i n g f i e l d d a t a a v a i l a b l e from a SCS c o u n t y s o i l s u r v e y and
other sources.
The n e x t s t e p i n v o l v e s some p h y s i c a l
e x p l o r a t i o n on t h e s i t e .
T h i s p r e l i m i n a r y e x p l o r a t i o n is of
c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e t o s u b s e q u e n t p h a s e s of t h e p r o j e c t .
I t s two p u r p o s e s a r e :
(1) v e r i f i c a t i o n of e x i s t i n g d a t a and
( 2 ) i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of p r o b a b . l e , o r p o s s i b l e , s i t e l i m i t a t i o n s ; and i t s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c a r e . F o r
plant
e x a m p l e , t h e p r e s e n c e of w e t a r e a s , w a t e r - l o v i n g
s p e c i e s , o r s u r f i c i a l s a l t c r u s t s should a l e r t t h e designer
t o t h e need f o r d e t a i l e d f i e l d s t u d i e s d i r e c t e d toward t h e
problem of d r a i n a g e .
The p r e s e n c e of r o c k o u t c r o p p i n g s
NPlCAL ORDER OF TESTING

FIELD TESTS
+ BORE HOLES ------+ INFILTRATION RATE ----+ SOIL CHEMISTRY
TEST PITS
REMARKS
USUALLY WITH A BACKHOE,

INCLUDES INSPECTION OF
EXISTING scs REPORTS,
ROAD CUTS, ETC. (3.2.1)
DRILLED OR AUGERED,
INCLUDES INSPECTION
OF DRILLER'S LOGS
FOR LOCAL WELLS,
WATER TABLE LEVELS
(3.2.2)
MATCH M E EXPECTED
KTHOD OF APPLICATION,
IF POSSIBLE (3.4)
INCLUDES REVIEW OF
SCS SURVEY (3.7)
INFORMTION
TO OBTAIN
DEPTH OF PROFILE,
TEXTURE, STRUCTURE,
SOIL LAYERS RESTRICTING
PERCOLATION
DEPTH TO GROUND
WATER, DEPTH TO
IMPERMEABLE
LAYERCS)
EXPECTED MINIEWM
INFILTRATION RATE
SPECIFIC DATA
RELATIffi TO CROP
AND SOIL WGEMENT,,
PHOSPHORUS AND HEAVY
METAL RETENTION
EST IMATES
NOW POSSIBLE
NEED FOR VERTICAL

CONWCTIVITY TESTING
GROUND WATER FLOW

DIRECTION
HYDRAULIC CAPACITY
BASED ON SOIL
P E W A B I L ITY (SUBJECT
TO DRAINAGE
RESTRICTIONS)
CROP LIMITATIONS.
SOIL PMENDIVIENTS.
POSSIBLE PREAPPLICATION
REQUIREMENTS.
ADDITIONAL
FIELD TESTS
VERTICAL CONDUCTIVITY
(OPTIONAL)
m)R IZONJAL
CONDUCTIVITY
ADDITIONAL
ESTIMATES
REFINEMENT OF
LOADING RATES
MOUNDING ANALYSIS,
DISPERSION, NEED
FOR DRAINAGE
--
QUALITY OF PERCOLATE
NCMBER OF
TESTS
DEPENDS ON SIZE,
SOIL UNIFORMITY,
NEEDED SOIL TESTS,
TYPE OF SYSTEM.
TYPICAL MINIMUM OF
3 TO 5 PER SITE.
DEPENDS ON SYSTEM
TYPE ( MORE FOR R I
T W SR), SOIL
UNIFORMITY, SITE
SIZE. TYPICAL
MINIMU4 OF 3 .
PER SITE.
DEPENDS ON SIZE OF
SITE, UNIFORMITY OF
SOIL. TYPICAL
MINIMUM OF 2
PER SITE.
DEPENDS ON UNIFORMITY
OF SOIL TYPES, TYPE
OF TEST, SIZE OF SFTE
FIGURE 3 - 1
FLOW CHART OF FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
would
signify
the
need
f o r more
detailed
subsurface
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a n m i g h t n o r m a l l y be r e q u i r e d .
I f a stream
were l o c a t e d n e a r t h e s i t e , t h e r e would need t o be
a d d i t i o n a l s t u d y of t h e s u r f a c e and n e a r - s u r f a c e h y d r o l o g y ;
w e l l s would c r e a t e a c o n c e r n a b o u t d e t a i l s o f t h e ground
w a t e r f l o w , and s o on.
T h e s e p o i n t s may s e e m o b v i o u s .
However, t h e r e a r e e x a m p l e s of s y s t e m s t h a t have f a i l e d
b e c a u s e of j u s t s u c h o b v i o u s c o n d i t i o n s :
limitations that
were n o t r e c o g n i z e d u n t i l a f t e r d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n w e r e
complete.
TABLE 3-1
SUMMARY OF F I E L D TESTS FOR
LAND TREATMENT PROCESSES
Processes
Properties
Wastewater
constituents
Soil physical
properties
Soil hydraulic
properties
Soil chemical
properties
a.
b.
Slow rate (SR)
Rapid
infiltration (RI)
Nitrogen, phosphorus, BOD, SS, nitrogen,

SARa, ECa, boron
phosphorus
Depth of profile
Depth of profile ,.
Texture and structure Texture and structure
Infiltration rate
Infiltration rate
Subsurface
permeability
pH, CEC, exchangeable
cations ( % of CEC),
ECa, metalsb, phosphorus adsorption
(optional)
Subsurface
permeability
pH, CEC, phosphorus
adsorptidn
Overland flow (OF)

BOD, SS, nitrogen,
phosphorus
Depth of profile
Texture and structure
Infiltration rate
(optional)
-pH, CEC, exchangeable

cations ( % of CEC)
.
May be more significant for arid and semiarid areas.
Background levels of metals such as cadmium, copper, or zinc in the soil should
be determined if food chain crops are planned.
3.2.1
Shallow P r o f i l e Evaluation
F o l l o w i n g t h e i n i t i a l f i e l d r e c o n n a i s s a n c e , some s u b s u r f a c e
e x p l o r a t i o n w i l l be n e e d e d .
In the preliminary stages, t h i s
c o n s i s t s of d i g g i n g p i t s , u s u a l l y w i t h a b a c k h o e , a t s e v e r a l
carefully selected locations.
Besides exposing t h e s o i l
p r o f i l e f o r i n s p e c t i o n and s a m p l i n g , t h e p u r p o s e i s t o
i d e n t i f y subsurface f e a t u r e s t h a t could develop i n t o s i t e
l i m i t a t i o n s , or t h a t p o i n t t o p o t e n t i a l adverse f e a t u r e s .
Conditions such a s f r a c t u r e d , near-surface rock, hardpan
l a y e r s , e v i d e n c e o f m o t t l i n g i n t h e p r o f i l e , l e n s e s o f openwork g r a v e l and o t h e r a n o m a l i e s s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y n o t e d .
For
OF
site evaluations,
the
depth
of
soil p r o f i l e
The e v a l u a t i o n
e v a l u a t i o n c a n be t h e t o p 1 m ( 3 f t ) o r s o .
s h o u l d e x t e n d t o 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) f o r SR and 3 m ( 1 0 f t ) o r more
f o r R I systems.
3.2.2
P r o f i l e E v a l u a t i o n t o G r e a t e r Depths
I n some s i t e e v a l u a t i o n s , t h e 2.5 t o 3 . 7 m ( a b o u t 8 t o
1 2 f t ) d e e p p i t s t h a t c a n be e x c a v a t e d by a backhoe w i l l n o t
y i e l d s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e p r o f i l e t o a l l o w a l l t h e
d e s i r e d a n a l y s e s t o be made.
F o r example, it may be
n e c e s s a r y t o l o c a t e b o t h t h e ground w a t e r t a b l e and t h e
d e p t h t o t h e c l o s e s t impermeable l a y e r .
These d e p t h s
t o g e t h e r w i t h h o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t i v i t y v a l u e s and c e r t a i n
o t h e r d a t a are r e q u i r e d t o make mounding a n a l y s e s , , d e s i g n
drainage f a c i l i t i e s ,
and
f o r c o n t a m i n a n t mass b a l a n c e
calculations.
Auger
holes
or
bore h o l e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y
used
t o explore
Augers
a r e u s e f u l t o r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w d e p t h s compared t::o o t h e r
boring techniques.
Depth l i m i t a t i o n f o r a u g e r i n g v a r i e s
In
w i t h s o i l t y p e and c o n d i t i o n s , a s w e l l a s h o l e d i a m e t e r .
u n c o n s o l i d a t e d m a t e r i a l s above w a t e r t a b l e s , 1 2 . 7 c m ( 5 i n . )
d i a m e t e r h o l e s have been a u g e r e d beyond 35 m ( 1 1 5 f t ) . ,
C u t t i n g s t h a t a r e continuously brought t o t h e s u r f a c e during
augering a r e not s u i t a b l e f o r logging t h e s o i l makerials.
W i t h d r a w a l of t h e a u g e r f l i g h t s f o r removal of t h e c u t t i n g s
n e a r t h e t i p r e p r e s e n t s a n improvement a s a l o g g i n g
technique.
The b e s t method is t o w i t h d r a w t h e f l i g h t s and
o b t a i n a sample w i t h a Shelby t u b e o r s p l i t - s p o o n * s a ~ n p l e r .
s o i l d e p o s i t s below t h e l i m i t s of p i t e x c a v a t i o n .
B o r i n g methods, w h i c h c a n be used t o p r o b e d e e p e r t h a n
augering,
include churn d r i l l i n g ,
jetting,
and r o t a r y
drilling.
When u s i n g a n y of t h e s e methods it i s p r e f e r a b l e
t o c l e a n o u t t h e h o l e and s e c u r e a sample from t h e b o t t o m o f
t h e h o l e with a Shelby tube o r split-spoon sampler.
3.3
Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s
The p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n work r e l a t i v e t o l a n d t r e a t m e n t

s y s t e m s c a n n o t be a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h o u t e s t i m a t e s of s e v e r a l
h y d r a u l i c p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s i t e .
The c a p a c i t y o f khe s o i l
t o a c c e p t and t r a n s m i t w a t e r is c r u c i a l t o t h e d e s i g n of R I
s y s t e m s and may be l i m i t i n g i n t h e d e s i g n of some S R s y s t e m s
as well.
I n a d d i t i o n , t r a c k i h g t h e movement and i m p a c t s o f
t h e w a s t e w a t e r and i t s c o n s t i t u e n t s a f t e r application w i l l
a l w a y s be a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t of d e s i g n .
F o r p u r p o s e s of t h i s manual, h y d r a u l i c h p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l
a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h o s e p r o p e r t i e s whose mealisurement
i n v o l v e s t h e f l o w o r r e t e n t i o n of w a t e r w i t h i n t h e s o i l
profile.
3.3.1
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
A material
is considered permeable i f it c o n t a i n s i n t e r c o n n e c t e d p o r e s , c r a c k s , o r o t h e r p a s s a g e w a y s t h r o u g h which

H y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y ( synonymous
water o r g a s can flow.
w i t h t h e term p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h i s manual) is a measure of
t h e ease w i t h which l i q u i d s a n d g a s e s p a s s t h r o u g h s o i l .
The t e r m i s more e a s i l y u n d e r s t o o d i f a few b a s i c c o n c e-p t s
o f water f l o w i n s o i l s a r e i n t r o d u c e d f i r s t .
I n g e n e r a l , w a t e r moves t h r o u g h
accordance with Darcy's equation:
s o i l s o r p o r o u s media
where q
f l u x of w a t e r , t h e flow, Q p e r u n i t c r o s s
s e c t i o n a l a r e a , A , cm/h ( i n . / h )
h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y ( p e r m e q b i l i t y ) , cm/h
(in./h)
dH/dl =
h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , m/m
(f
in
t/f t)
The t o t a l h e a d ( H I c a n be assumed t o b e t h e sum o f t h e s o i l w a t e r p r e s s u r e head ( h ) , and t h e h e a d d u e t o g r a v i t y ( Z ) , o r

H = h + Z.
The h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t is t h e c h a n g e i n t o t a l
head ( d H ) o v e r t h e p a t h l e n g t h ( d l ) .
The h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c . t i v i t y i s d e f i n e d a s t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
The c o n d u c t i v i t y ( K ) i s n o t a t r u e c o n s t a n t
c o n s t a n t , K.
Even
b u t a r a p i d l y changing f u n c t i o n of water c o n t e n t .
u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n s t a n t water c o n t e n t , s u c h a s s a t u r a t i o n , K may v a r y o v e r t i m e d u e t o i n c r e a s e d s w e l l i n g o f c l a y
particles,
change
i n pore
size
d i s t r i b u t i o n due' t o
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s , and c h a n g e i n t h e c h e m i c a l
n a t u r e of soil-water.
However, f o r m o s t p u r p o s e s , s a t u r a t e d
c o n d u c t i v i t y ( K ) can be c o n s i d e r e d c o n s t a n t f o r a g i v e n
soil.
The K v a l u e f o r f l o w i n t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n w i l l
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be e q u a l t o K i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n .
T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s known a s a n i s o t r o p i c .
I t is e s p e c i a l l y
a p p a r e n t i n l a y e r e d s o i l s and t h o s e w i t h l a r g e s t r u c t u r a l
units.
The c o n d u c t i v i t y o f s o i l s a t s a t u r a t i o n i s a n i m p o r t a n t
p a r a m e t e r b e c a u s e i t is used i n D a r c y ' s e q u a t i o n t o estimate
g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w p a t t e r n s ( s e e S e c t i o n 3 . 6 . 2 ) and i s u s e f u l
i n estimating s o i l ini l t r a t i o n rates.
Conductivity is
f r e q u e n t l y e s t i m a t e d from o t h e r p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s b u t much
e x p e r i e n c e i s r e q u i r e d and r e s u l t s a r e n o t s u f f i c i . e n t l y
a c c u r a t e f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s [l-51
F o r example, h y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i . t y i s l a r g e l y ' c o n t r o l l e d by s o i l t e x t u r e :
coarser
m a t e r i a l s having higher c o n d u c t i v i t i e s .
However, i n some
c a s e s t h e s o i l s t r u c t u r e may be e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t : w e l l
s t r u c t u r e d f i n e s o i l s h a v i n g h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v i t i ~ ~ st h a n
c o a r s e r unstructured soils.
I n a d d i t i o n , h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y f o r a s p e c i f i c tisoil may
be a f f e c t e d by v a r i a b l e s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o g r a i n
s i z e , s t r u c t u r e , and p o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Temperature, i o n i c
c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e w a t e r , and t h e p r e s e n c e of e n t r a p p e d a i r
can a l t e r conductivity values [ I ] .
3.3.2
Inf i l t r a t i o n Capacity
The i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e of a s o i l i s d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t e a t
w h i c h w a t e r e n t e r s t h e s o i l from t h e s u r f a c e . When $he s o i l
p r o f i l e i s s a t u r a t e d w i t h n e g l i g i b l e ponding above t h e
s u r f a c e , t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e is equal t o t h e e1Ifective
s a t u r a t e d c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s o i l p r o f i l e .
When t h e s o i l p r o f i l e is r e l a t i v e l y d r y , t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n
r a t e i s h i g h e r b e c a u s e w a i t e r i s e n t e r i n g l a r g e p o r e s and
cracks.
With t i m e ,
t h e s e l a r g e p o r e s f i l l and c l a y
p a r t i c l e s swell r e d u c i n g t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e r a t h e r
r a p i d l y u n t i l a n e a r s t e a d y - s t a t e v a l u e i s approachecl, T h i s
change i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e w i t h t i m e is shown i n F i g u r e 3-2
f o r s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s o i l s . The e f f e c t of b o t h t e x t u r e and
s t r u c t u r e on i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e c u r v e s
i n F i g u r e 3-2.
The Aiken c l a y loam h a s good s t ~ : u c t u r a l
s t a b i l i t y and a c t u a l l y h a s ' a h i g h e r f i n a l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e
t h a n t h e s a n d y loam s o i l .
The Houston b l a c k c l a y , however,
h a s v e r y p o o r s t r u c t u r e and i n f i l t r a t i o n d r o p s t o n e a r z e r o .
F o r a g i v e n s o i l , i n i t i a l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s may v a r y
considerably,
d e p e n d i n g on t h e
initial
s o i l moisture
level.
Dry s o i l h a s a h i g h e r i n i t i a l r a t e t h a n w e t s o i l
b e c a u s e t h e r e i s more empty p o r e s p a c e f o r w a t e r t o e n t e r .
The s h o r t term d e c r e a s e i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e is p r i m a r i l y
d u e t o t h e c h a n g e i n s o i l s , t r u c t u r e and t h e f i l l i n g a f l a r g e
p o r e s as c l a y p a r t i c l e s a b s o r b w a t e r and s w e l l .
Thus,
a d e q u a t e t i m e must be a l l o w e d when r u n n i n g f i e l d t e s t s t o
achieve a steady intake rate.
I
I n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s a r e a f f e c t e d by t h e i o n i c c o m p o s i t i o n o f
t h e s o i l - w a t e r , t h e t y p e oE v e g e t a t i o n , and t i l l a g e of t h e
soil surf ace.
F a c t o r s t h a t have a t e n d e n c y t o r e d u c e
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s i n c l u d e c l o g g i n g by s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s i n
w a s t e w a t e r , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f f i n e s o i l p a r t i c l e s , crlogging
d u e t o b i o l o g i c a l g r o w t h s , g a s e s produced by s o i l mj-crobes,
s w e l l i n g o f s o i l c o l l o i d s , and a i r e n t r a p p e d d u r i n g a
wetting event [ 6 , 7 1 . These influences are all likely to be

experienced when a site is developed into a land treatment
system.
The net result is to restrict the hydraulic
loadings of land treatment systems to values substantially
less than those predicted from the steady state intake rates
(see Figure 3 - 2 ) ,
requiring reliance on field-developed
correlations between clean water infiltration rates and
satisfactory operating rates for full-scale systems.
It
should be recognized that good soil management practices can
maintain or even increase operating rates, whereas poor
practices can lead to substantial decreases.
t ! .
HOUSTON
BLACK
I
CLAY
TIYE, min
F l GURE 3-2
INFILT'RATION RATE AS A FUNGTION
OF T I ME FOR SEVERAL SO l LS [3]
Although the measured infiltration rate on the particular
site may decrease in time due to surface clogging phenomena,
the subsurface vertical permeability at saturation will
generally remain constant. That is, clogging in depth does
not generally occur.
Thus, the short-term measurement of
infiltration serves reasonably well as an estimate of the
long-term saturated vertical permeability if infiltration is
measured over a large area. Once the infiltration surface
begins to clog, however, the flow beneath the clogged layers
tends to be unsaturated and at unit hydraulic gradient.
The s h o r t - t e r m change i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e a s a funl;-.tion of

t i m e i s of i n t e r e s t i n t h e d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o r l of SR
systems.
A knowledge of how c u m u l a t i v e w a t e r i n t a k e v a r i e s
with t i m e is necessary t o determine t h e t i m e of a p p l i c a t i o n
necessary t o i n f i l t r a t e t h e design hydraulic load.
The
d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e pf s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s s h o u l d b e
s e l e c t e d on t h e b a s i s of t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e e x p e c t e d a t
t h e end o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d .
3.3.3
Specific yield
The t e r m s p e c i f i c y i e l d i s most o f t e n used i n c o n n e c t i o n

w i t h u n c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s and h a s a l s o been c a l l e d t h e
s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t and d r a i n a b l e v o i d s .
I t is u s u a l l y
u n d e r s t o o d t o be t h e volume o f w a t e r r e l e a s e d from a u n i t
volume of u n s a t u r a t e d a q u i f e r m a t e r i a l d r a i n e d by a f a l l i n g
water t a b l e .
A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m f i l l a b l e p o r o s i t y hiss o c c a s i o n a l l y been used a s a synonym f o r t h e above t h r e e t e r m s ,
i t i s a c t u a l l y a somewhat s m a l l e r q u a n t i t y b e c a u s e of t h e
e f f e c t of entrapped a i r .
The p r i m a r y u s e o f s p e c i f l c y i e l d
v a l u e s i s i n computing a q u i f e r p r o p e r t i e s , f o r example, t o
e r f o r m ground w a t e r mound h e i g h t a n a l y s e s .
For r e . ' L a t i v e l y
:oars@-grained
s o i l s and d e e p w a t e r t a b l e s , i t i s u s u a l l y
s a t i s f a c t o r y t o c o n s i d e r t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d a 1,:ons t a n t
A s computations a r e n o t extremely s e n s i t i v e t o small
value.
changes i n t h e v a l u e of s p e c i f i c y i e l d , it is u s u a l l y s a t i s i t from knowledge of
other s o i l
factory t o estimate
properties,
e i t h e r p h y s i c a l a s i n F i g u r e 3-3
[ 8 ] , or
h y d r a u l i c a s i n F i g u r e 3-4
[9].
To c l a r i f y F i g u r e 3 - 3 ,
s p e c i f i c r e t e n t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e p o r o s i t y minus t h e
specific yield.
A n o t e of
c a u t i o n , however.
For f i n e - t e x t u r e d s o i l s , espec i a l l y a s t h e w a t e r t a b l e ,moves h i g h e r i n t h e p r o f :i.le, t h e
s p e c i f i c y i e l d may n o t have a c o n s t a n t v a l u e b e c a u s e o f
capillarity.
D i s c u s s i o n of t h i s c o m p l i c a t i o n may be found
The e f f e c t o f d e c r e a s i n g s p e c i f i c
i n r e f e r e n c e s [lor 1 1 1
y i e l d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g water t a b l e h e i g h t can l e a d t o s e r i o u s
d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h mound h e ? g h t a n a l y s i s ( S e c t i o n 5 . 7 . 2 ) .
3.3.4
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity
The c o n d u c t i v i t y o f
s o i l v a r i e s d r a m a t i c a l l y a:;
water
A s a n a i r p h a s c i s now
c o n t e n t i s r e d u c e d below s a t u r a t i o n .
p r e s e n t , t h e f l o w c h a n n e l i s changed r a d i c a l l y and now
c o n s i s t s of a n i r r e g u l a r s o l i d b o u n d a r y and t h e a i r - w a t e r
interface.
The f l p w p a t h becomes more and more .I:ortuous
w i t h d e c r e a s i n g w a t e r c o n t e n t a s t h e l a r g e r p o r e s empty and
i'
=3
k
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EE
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-i
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ul w
lag
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E-
a
w
C
I-
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en*
C)
Z
0
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am
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ow
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u-
UIN
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'Go O
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00
ma?
80
gs
oO
S P E C I F I C Y I E L D , P E R C E N T BY VOLUME
P E R C E N T BY V O L U M E
f l o w becomes c o n f i n e d t o ghe s m a l l e r p o r e s .
Compounding t h e
e f f e c t of d e c r e a s i n g c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a f o r
flow is t h e
e f f e c t o f added f r i c t i o n a s t h e f l o w t a k e s p l a c e c r l o s e r and
closer t o s o l i d p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e s .
The c o n d u c t i v i t y o f
s a n d y s o i l s , a l t h o u g h much h i g h e r a t s a t u r a t i o n t h a n loamy
s o i l s , d e c r e a s e s more r a p i d l y a s t h e s o i l becomes l e s s
s a t u r a t e d . I n most c a s e s , t h e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s of sandy s o i l s
e v e n t u a l l y become l o w e r t h a n f i n e r s o i l s . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p
e x p l a i n s why a w e t t i n g f r o n t moves more s l o w l y i n s a n d y
s o i l s t h a n medium o r f i n e s o i l s a f t e r i r r i g a t i o n h a s s t o p p e d
and why t h e r e i s l i t t l e h o r i z o n t a l s p r e a d i n g o f m o i s t u r e i n
sandy s o i l s after i r r i g a t i o n .
E s t i m a t i n g w a t e r movement u n d e r u n s a t u r a t e d c o n d i t i o n s u s i n g
D a r c y t s e q u a t i o n and u n s a t u r a t e d K v a l u e s i s corr~plex. A
d i s c u s s i o n of such c a l c u l a t i o n s is o u t s i d e t h e scope of t h i s
manual.
The u s e r i s r e f e r r e d t o r e f e r e n c e s [ l , 1 0 , 1 2 , 131
f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s and s o l u t i o n o f s p e c i a l c a s e s .
3.3.5
P r o f i l e Drainage
For SR systems t h a t a r e operated a t a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s

c o n s i d e r a b l y i n e x c e s s of c r o p i r r i g a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s , i t
is o f t e n d e s i r a b l e t o know how r a p i d l y t h e s o i l p r o f i l e w i l l
d r a i n and/or d r y a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n has stopped.
T h i s knowl e d g e , t o g e t h e r w i t h knowledge o f t h e l i m i t i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n
r a t e of t h e s o i l and t h e ground w a t e r movement and b u i l d u p ,
allows t h e d e s i g n e r t o make a r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e of t h e
maximum volume of w a t e r t h a t c a n be a p p l i e d t o a s i t e and
s t i l l produce adequate crops.
A typical moisture p r o f i l e
and i t s c h a n g e w i t h t i m e f o l l o w i n g a n i r r i g a t i o n .is i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 3-5 f o r a n i n i t i a l l y s a t u r a t e d p r o f i l e .
M o i s t u r e p r o f i l e c h a n g e s may be d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e f i e l d w i t h
tensiometers [4]
3.4
I n f i l t r a t i o n R a t e Measurements
The v a l u e t h a t i s r e q u i r e d i n l a n d t r e a t m e n t d e s i g n i s t h e
l o n g - t e r m a c c e p t a n c e r a t e o f t h e e n t i r e s o i l s u r f a c e on t h e
proposed s i t e f o r t h e a c t u a l wastewater e f f l u e n t t o be
applied.
The v a l u e t h a t c a n be measured i s o n l y a s h o r t term e q u i l i b r i u m a c c e p t a n c e r a t e f o r a number of p a r t i c u l a r
areas w i t h i n t h e o v e r a l l s i t e .
T h e r e a r e many p o t e n t i a l t e c h n i q u e s f o r m e a s u r i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n including flooding , basin, cylinder infilt~::ometers,
s p r i n k l e r i n i l t r o m e t e r s and a i r - e n t r y permeametlers.
A
comparison
of
these
four techniques
is presented
in
T a b l e 3-2.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e t e s t a r e a and t h e volume of
water used s h o u l d be a s l a r g e a s p r a c t i c a l .
T h e two main
c a t e g o r i e s o f measurement t e c h n i q u e s a r e t h o s e :i.nvolving
flooding (ponding over the soil surface) and rainfall

simulators (sprinkling i.nfiltrometer) .;,?The flooding type of
infiltrometer supplies water to the soil without impact,
whereas the sprinkler infiltrometer provides ana'impact
simil.ar to that of natural rain.
Flooding infiltrometers
are easier to operate than sprinkling infiltrometers, but
they almost always give higher equilibrium infiltration
rates.
In some cases, the difference is very significant,
as shown in Table 3-3.
Nevertheless, the flooding
measurement techniques are generally preferred because of
their simplicity. Relationships between infiltration rates
as obtained by various flooding techniques and the loading
rates of RI systems are discussed in Section 5.4.1. The air
entry permeameter is described in Section 3.5.2.
O -+WATER
CONTENT#$
SATURATION
FIGURE 3-5
TYPICAL PATTERN OF THE
CHANGING MOISTURE PROFILE DURING DRYING AND DRAINAGE
If a sprinkler or flood application is planned, the test
should be conducted in surficial materials.
If RI is
planned, pits must be excavated to expose lower horizons
that will constitute the bottoms of the basins. If a more
restrictive layer is present below the intended plane of
infiltration and this layer is close enough to the intended
plane to interfere, the test 2hould be conducted at this
layer to ensure a conservative estimate.
TABLE 3-2
COMPARISON OF INFILTRATION
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
-
Measurement
technique
Water
use per
test, L
Flooding
basin
Cylinder
infiltrometer
2,000-10,000
Sprinkler
infiltrometer
1,000-1,200
Air entry
permeameter
(AEP)
Note:
Time
per test,
h
4-12
400-700
10
1-6
1.5-3
0.5-1
Equipment
needed
--
Comments
Backhoe
Tensiometers
or blade
may be used
Cylinder
Should use large diameter
or earthen
cylinders (1 m diameter)
berm
Pump, presFor sprinkler applicat.ions,
sure tank,
soil should be at field
sprinkler,
capacity before test
cans
AEP
Measures vertical hydraulic
apparatus,
conductivity. If used to
standpipe
measure rates of several
with resevoir different soil layers, rate
is harmonic mean of conductivities from all soil layers.
TABLE 3-3
SAMPLE COMPARISON OF, INFILTRATION MEASUREMENT
USING FLOODING AND SPRINKLING TECHNIQUES [ 1 4 ]
Equilibrium infiltration
rate, cm/h
Measurement
technique
Overgrazed
.pasture
Pasture, grazed but

having qood cover
Double-cylinder
infiltrometer (flooding)
2.82
5.97
Type F rainfall
simulator (sprinkling)
2.90
2.87
I n f i l t r a t i o n t e s t r e s u l t s a r e t y p i c a l l y p l o t t e d as sh,own i n
F i g u r e s 3-2 and B-3.
The d e r i v a t i o n o f d e s i g n v a l u e s from
t h e s e t e s t r e s u l t s i s p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix B.
B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n measurement t e c h n i q u e s ,
it s h o u l d b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e U.S. P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e
(USPHS) p e r c o l a t i o n t e s t used f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s i z e o f
s e p t i c t a n k d r a i n f i e l d s [ 1 5 ] i s d e f i n i t e l y n o t recommended
a s a method f o r e s t i m a t i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n .
3.4.1
Flooding Basin Techniques
Pilot-scale i n f i l t r a t i o n basins represent an excellent techThe

nique f o r determining v e r t i c a l ini l t r a t i o n r a t e s .
l a r g e r t h e t e s t area i s , t h e less t h e r e l a t i v e e r r o r d u e t o
l a t e r a l m o i s t u r e movement w i l l b e a n d t h e b e t t e r t h e
estimate.
Where s u c h b a s i n s h a v e b e n u s e d , 5 h e p l o t s h a v e
g e n e r a l l y r a n g e d f r o m a b o u t 0 . 9 mq ( l o f t ) t o 0 . 1 h a
( 0 . 2 5 acre )
I n some cases, p i l o t b a s i n s o f l a r g e s c a l e ( 2
t o 3.2 h a o r 5 t o 8 a c r e s ) h a v e b e e n u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e
i n f i l t r a t i o n rates and d e m o n s t r a t e f e a s i b i l i t y w i t h t h e
thought of incorporating t h e test basins i n t o a subsequent
F i g u r e 3-6 is a p h o t o g r a p h o f a
f u l l - s c a l e system [16].
p i l o t basin.
FIGURE 3-6
FLOODING BASIN USED FOR MEASURING I N F I L T R A T I O N
The C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s h a s u s e d f l o o d i n g b a s i n t e s t s t o
determine
ini l t r a t i o n
rates
on
thr'ee
existing
land
t r e a t m e n t s i t e s 1171.
Basins o f 6.1 m ( 2 0 f t ) and 3 m
( 1 0 f t ) d i a m e t e r were u s e d a n d i t w a s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e 3 m
( 1 0 f t ) d i a m e t e r b a s i n w a s l a r g e enough t o p r o v i d e r e l i a b l e
infiltration data.
A b o u t 4 man-hours were r e q u i r e d f o r
c o m p l e t i n g a n i n s t a l l a t i o n and less t h a n 1,000 L ( 2 6 5 g a l )
As
o f water w o u l d p r o b a b l y be a d e q u a t e t o c o m p l e t e a t e s t .
t h l s t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y become more w i d e l y
a d o p t e d , F i g u r e s 3-7
a n d 3-8 a r e i n c l u d e d t o show t h e
d e t a i l s of i n s t a l l a t i o n [18]
GROOVE C U T T I N G T I
FIGURE 3-7
GROOVE PREPARAT l ON FOR FLASH ING (BERM)
p8]
SEALED JOINT
15cm BELlllW S U R F A C E
FIGURE 3-8
SCHEMAT l C OF F l N l SHED l NSTALLAT l ON [18]
An i m p o r t a n t a s s u m p t i o n i n any f l o o d i n g t y p e i n f i l t r a t i o n
t e s t is a s a t u r a t e d ( o r n e a r l y s o ) c o n d i t i o n i n t h e 'upper
s o i l profile.
Thus, a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t of t h i s method i s t h e
i n s t a l l a t i o n of a number of t e n s i o m e t e r s w i t h i n t h e t e s t
a r e a a t v a r i o u s d e p t h s t o v e r i f y s a t u r a t i o n by t h e i r
a p p r o a c h t o a z e r o v a l u e of t h e m a t r i c p o t e n t i a l , b e f o r e
o b t a i n i n g a n y head d r o p ( w a t e r l e v e l ) m e a s u r e m e n t s .
In the
C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s s t u d i e s , s i x t e n s i o m e t e r s were i n s t a l l e d
i n a 1 m (3.3 f t ) diameter c i r c l e concentric with t h e c e n t e r
of t h e 3 m ( 1 0 f t ) d i a m e t e r t e s t b a s i n a s shown i n
T a b l e 3-4 g i v e s t h e i r s u g g e s t e d - d e p t h s o f
Figure 3-8.
p l a c e m e n t i n a s o i l of w e l l - d e v e l o p e d h o r i z o n s ; however, a n y
r e a s o n a b l e s p a c i n g above s t r a t a of l o w e r c o n d u c t i v i t y , i f
In s o i l s lacking w e l l s u c h e x i s t , s h o u l d be a d e q u a t e .
d e v e l o p e d h o r i z o n s , a u n i f o r m s p a c i n g down t o a b o u t 60 cm
A seventh tensiometer i n s t a l l e d a t
(24 i n . ) should s u f f i c e .
a d e p t h of a b o u t 150 cm ( 6 0 i n . ) i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d , b u t i s
not c r i t i c a l .
TABLE 3-4
SUGGESTED VERTICAL PLACEMENT OF
TENSIOMETERS I N BASIN INFILTROMETER TESTS [ 181
No.
Soil
horizon
Midpoint of A
1 / 5 distance between A/B and B/C interfaces
2 / 5 distance between A/B and B/C interfaces
3 / 5 distance between A/B
4/5 distance between A/B
Placement
and B/C interfaces

and B/C interfaces
1 5 cm below B/C interface
F o l l o w i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n and c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e t e n s i o m e t e r s ,
a few p r e l i m i n a r y f l o o d i n g e v e n t s a r e e x e c u t e d t o a c h i e v e
saturation.
E v i d e n c e of s a t u r a t i o n i s t h e r e d u c t i o n o f
t e n s i o m e t e r r e a d i n g s t o n e a r z e r o through t h e upper s o i l
profile.
Then a f i n a l f l o o d i n g e v e n t is m o n i t o r e d t o d e r i v e
a cumulative i n t a k e versus t i m e curve.
A b e s t f i t to t h e
d a t a p l o t t e d on l o g - l o g p a p e r a l l o w s c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e
i n i l t r a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s , a s shown i n F i g u r e 3-9.
Subsequent
o b s e r v a t i o n of t e n s i o m e t e r s c a n t h e n p r o v i d e d a t a on p r o f i l e
drainage.
I
0.1
I
0.5
10
t , TIME, h
FIGURE 3 - 9
1 NF l LTRAT l ON RATE AND CUMULAT 1 VE 1 NTAKE DATA PLOT
50
3.4.2
Cylinder l n f i l t r o m e t e r s
The e q u i p m e n t and b a s i c m e t h o d o l o g y f o r t h i s p o p u l a r meas u r e m e n t t e c h n i q u e a r e d e s c r i b e d i n r e f e r e n c e s [ 9 , 1 9 , 201

The e q u i p m e n t s e t u p f o r a t e s t i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-10.
'
To r u n a t e s t , a metal c y l i n d e r i s c a r e f u l l y d r i v e n o r
pushed i n t o t h e s o i l t o a d e p t h of a b o u t 10 t o 1 5 c m ( 4 t o
6 in.).
Measurement c y l i n d e r s o f from 1 5 t o 3 5 cm ( 6 t o
14 i n . ) d i a m e t e r have g e n e r a l l y been used i n p r a c t i c e , w i t h
l e n g t h s o f a b o u t 25 t o 3 0 . 5 c m ( 1 0 t o 1 2 i n . ) .
Divergent
f l o w , p a r t i a l l y o b s t r u c t e d by t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e c y l i n d e r
b e n e a t h t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , is f u r t h e r m i n i m i z e d b y means o f a
" b u f f e r zone" s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c e n t r a l r i n g .
The b u f f e r z o n e
i s commonly p r o v i d e d b y a n o t h e r c y l i n d e r 40 t o 70 cm ( 1 6 t o
30 i n . ) d i a m e t e r , d r i v e n t o a d e p t h o f 5 t o 1 0 c m ( 2 t o
4 i n . ) a n d k e p t p a r t i a l l y f u l l o f water d u r i n g t h e t i m e o f
i n i l t r a t i o n .
T h i s p a r t i c u l a r mode o f making m e a s u r e m e n t s
h a s come t o be known as t h e d o u b l e - c y l i n d e r o r d o u b l e - r i n g
i n i l t r o m e t e r method.
Care must be t a k e n t o m a i n t a i n t h e
w a t e r l e v e l s i n t h e i n n e r and o u t e r c y l i n d e r s a t t h e same
l e v e l d u r i n g t h e measurements.
A l t e r n a t e l y , b u f f e r zones
are provided by d i k i n g t h e a r e a around t h e i n t a k e c y l i n d e r
with l o w ( 7 . 5 to 10 cm o r 3 t o 4 i n . ) e a r t h e n d i k e s .
I f t h e c y l i n d e r i s i n s t a l l e d p r o p e r l y and t h e t e s t c a r e f u l l y
performed, t h e technique should produce d a t a t h a t a t least
a p p r o x i m a t e t h e v e r t i c a l component o f f l o w .
I n most s o i l s ,
a s t h e w e t t i n g f r o n t a d v a n c e s downward t h r o u g h t h e pr-of i l e ,
t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e w i l l d e c r e a s e w i t h t i m e and a p p r o a c h a
steady-state value asymptotically.
T h i s may r e q u i r e a s
l i t t l e a s 20 t o 30 m i n u t e s i n some s o i l s and many h o u r s i n
others.
C e r t a i n l y , one could n o t t e r m i n a t e a t e s t u n t i l t h e
s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n was a t t a i n e d o r t h e r e s u l t s would b e
t o t a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s ( s e e F i g u r e 3-2 )
Anyone c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e u s e o f t h i s m e a s u r e m e n t t e c h n i q u e
b e c a u s e of i t s a p p a r e n t s i m p l i c i t y s h o u l d a l s o b e aware o f
its limitations.
is cuss ions d e a l i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e
p r o b l e m of s e p a r a t i n g t h e d e s i r e d v e r t i c a l component f r o m
t h e t o t a l m o i s t u r e f l u x , w h i c h may i n c l u d e a l a r g e l a t e r a l
c o m p o n e n t , c a n b e found i n r e f e r e n c e s [ 2 1 , 221.
A more p r o m i s i n g d i r e c t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d i n r e f e r e n c e
[19] i n
which t h e main c o n c l u s i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e :
to minimize e r r o r s
i n t h e use of t h e c y l i n d e r i n f i l t r o m e t e r technique; use o n l y
and
caretul
installation
large-diameter
cylinders
techniques.
The s p e c i f i c r e c o m m e n d a t i o n a s t o c y l i n d e r
d i a m e t e r i s a minimum o f 1 m ( 3 . 3 f t ) .
'
~ n s t a l l a t i o ns h o u l d d i s t u r b t h e s o i l a s l i t t l e a s p o s s i b l e .
This
generally
requires
thin-walled cylinders with a
b e v e l e d e d g e and v e r y c a r e f u l d r i v i n g t e c h n i q u e s .
In soft
s o i l s , c y l i n d e r s may b e p u s h e d o r j a c k e d i n .
In harder
s o i l s , t h e y must be d r i v e n i n .
The c y l i n d e r s m u s t b e k e p t
a
straight
during
this
process,
especially
avoiding
" r o c k i n g " o r t i l t i n g m o t i o n t o a d v a n c e them downward.
In
c o h e s i o n l e s s c o a r s e s a n d s and g r a v e l s , a p o o r bond b e t w e e n
t h e s o i l and t h e m e t a l c y l i n d e r o f t e n r e s u l t s , a l l o w i n g
s e e p a g e around t h e edge of t h e c y l i n d e r .
Such c o n d i t i o n s
may c a l l f o r s p e c i a l m e t h o d s t o b e d e v i s e d .
One s u c h method
i s t o c o n s t r u c t t h e t e s t a r e a by f o r m i n g l o w d i k e s and
covering the inside w a l l s with p l a s t i c s h e e t to prevent
T h i s begins t o approach t h e b a s i n
l a t e r a l s e e p a g e [191.
f l o o d i n g method d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3.4.1.
Measurements o f i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f s o i l s o f t e n show
Hundredwide v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a r e a .
f o l d d i f f e r e n c e s a r e common o n some s i t e s .
Assessing
hydraulic capacity
f o r a p r o j e c t s i t e is e s p e c i a l l y
d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e t e s t p l o t s may h a v e a d e q u a t e c a p a c i t y when
tested
as i s o l a t e d p o r t i o n s ,
b u t may p r o v e t o h a v e
i n a d e q u a t e c a p a c i t y a f t e r water i s a p p l i e d t o t h e t o t a l a r e a
f o r prolonged p e r i o d s .
Problem areas c a n be a n t i c i p a t e d
more r e a d i l y b y f i e l d s t u d y f o l l o w i n g s p r i n g t h a w s o r
[23].
e x t e n d e d p e r i o d s o f h e a v y r a i n f a l l and r e c h a r g e
R u n o f f , p o n d i n g , and n e a r s a t u r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s may b e
o b s e r v e d f o r b r i e f p e r i o d s a t s i t e s where d r a i n a g e problems
a r e l i k e l y t o occur a f t e r extensive a p p l i c a t i o n begins.
A l t h o u g h f a r t o o few e x t e n s i v e t e s t s h a v e b e e n made t o
g a t h e r meaningful s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on t h e c y l i n d e r i n f i l t r o m e t e r t e c h n i q u e , one v e r y comprehensive s t u d y is a v a i l a b l e
f r o m w h i c h t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b e drawn.
T e s t r e s u l t s from t h r e e p l o t s (357 i n d i v i d u a l tests) l o c a t e d
In addition,
o n t h e same homogeneous f i e l d were compared.
t e s t r e s u l t s from s i n g l e - c y l i n d e r i n i l t r o m e t e r s w i t h no
b u f f e r zone were compared w i t h t h o s e from d o u b l e - c y l i n d e r
infiltrometers.
The i n s i d e c y l i n d e r s had a 1 5 c m ( 6 i n . )
d i a m e t e r ; t h e o u t s i d e c y l i n d e r s , where u s e d , h a d a 30 c m
(12 in.) diameter.
For t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s o i l , t h e p r e s e n c e
o f a b u f f e r zone d i d n o t h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t o n t h e
measured rates.
These d a t a , a l t h o u g h v e r y c a r e f u l l y t a k e n ,
o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e f i e l d a v e r a g e by a b o u t 4 0 % , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
s m a l l diameter cylinders w i l l consistently overestimate the
t r u e v e r t i c a l i n i l t r a t i o n rate [14].
3.4.3
S p r i n k l e r I n f ~ i l t r o m tee r s
S p r i n k l e r i n f i l t r o m e t e r s a r F used p r i m a r i l y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
l i m i t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n rate f o r systems using s p r i n k l e r s .
TO
measure t h e s o i l i n t a k e rate f o r s p r i n k l e r applicati.on, t h e
method p r e s e n t e d i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 4 ] c a n be u s e d .
The e q u i p ment n e e d e d i n c l u d e s a t r a i l e r - m o u n t e d w a t e r r e c i r c : ! u l a t i n g
u n i t , a s p r i n k l e r head o p e r a t i n g i n s i d e a c i r c u l a r s h i e l d
w i t h a s m a l l s i d e o p e n i n g , and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 r a i n g a g e s .
a t y p i c a l s p r i n k l e r i n f i l t r o n ~ e t e ri s
p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 3-11.
A 1 , 8 1 4 kg ( 2 t o n ) c:!apacity
t r a i l e r h o u s e s a 1 , 1 3 5 L ( B O O g a l ) water s u p p l y t a n k and 2
s e l f - p r i m i n g c e n t r i f u g a l pumps.
The s p r i n k l e r pump s h o u l d
h a v e s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y t o d e l i v e r a t l e a s t 6.3
L/s
( 1 0 0 g a l / m i n ) a t 34.5 ~ / c m ( ~5 0 ~ b / i n . ~ t) o t h e s p r i n k l e r
n o z z l e , and t h e r e t u r n f l o w pump s h o u l d be c a p a b l e o f
r e c y c l i n g a l l e x c e s s water from t h e s h i e l d t o t h e s u p p l y
tank.
The c i r c u l a r s p r i n k l e r s h i e l d i s d e s i g n e d t o p e r m i t a
r e v o l v i n g head s p r i n k l e r t o o p e r a t e n o r m a l l y i n s i d e t h e
shield.
The o p e n i n g i n t h e s i d e o f t h e s h i e l d r e s t r i c t s t h e
w e t t e d area t o a b o u t o n e - e i g h t h o f a c i r c l e .
P:r i o r t o
t e s t i n g , t h e s o i l i n t h e w e t t e d a r e a i s b r o u g h t up t:o f i e l d
capacity.
R a i n g a g e s a r e t h e n s e t o u t i n rows of t h r e e
s p a c e d a t 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) i n t e r v a l s o u t w a r d from t h e s p r i n l c l e r
i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e area t o be w e t t e d .
The s p r i n k l e r i s
o p e r a t e d f o r about 1 hour.
The i n t a k e o f water i n t.he s o i l
a t v a r i o u s p l a c e s b e t w e e n g a g e s is o b s e r v e d t o d e t e r m i n e
whether t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e is less t h a n , g r e a t e r t h a n , o r
e q u a l t o t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n rate.
A s c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m of
The a r e a s e l e c t e d f o r m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e is
w h e r e t h e a p p l i e d w a t e r , j u s t d i s a p p e a r s from t h e s o i l
s u r f a c e as t h e s p r i n k l e r j e t r e t u r n s t o t h e s p o t .
A t the
e n d o f t h e t e s t ( a f t e r 1 h o u r ) , t h e amount o f water c a u g h t
i n t h e g a g e s i s measured and t h e i n t a k e r a t e i s c a l c u lated.
The c a l c u l a t e d r a t e o f i n f i l t r a t i o n i s e q u a l t o t h e
l i m i t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n rate , t h a t t h e s o i l system can a c c e p t
without runoff.
'
D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e t e c h n i q u e a r e t h e t i m e and e x p e n s e
involved i n determining i n t a k e rates using a s p r i n k l e r
infiltrometer.
There is, i n f a c t , l i t t l e reason t o t r y t o
m e a s u r e maximum i n t a k e r a t e s o n s o i l s t h a t a r e goinig t o b e
l o a d e d f a r below t h e s e maximum r a t e s , a s i s t h e c a s e f o r
m o s t SR s y s t e m d e s i g n s .
However, where e c o n o m i c s d i c t a t e
the
use of
application rates
far
i n e x c e s s of
the
c o n s u m p t i v e u s e ( C U ) o f t h e p r o p o s e d c r o p o n s o i l s o f known
o r s u s p e c t e d h y d r a u l i c l i m i t a t i o n , a t e s t such as d e s c r i b e d
AUXILIARY
WATER S U P P L Y
4 kg TRAILER-
-7
HEAD
- 1
/''
I'
[/00
- ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0
I
...
HOSE
1,135 L
VALVES
WATER S U P P L Y
TANK ------I
WETTED A
SPR I NKLER
RIPUMP
NKLERIA~~
SH l E L D
PUMP
FlGURE 3-1 1
LAYOUT OF S P R l NKLER I NF I LTROMETER [24]
'-. J
GAGES
a b o v e s h o u l d be g i v e n c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
irr3gation
specialists
field
personnel
or
c o n s u l t e d f o r o p i n i o n s on , t h e a d v i s a b i l i t y of
L o c a l SCS
s h o l ~ l d be
making s u c h
tests.
3.5
Measurement o f V e r t i c a l H y d r a u l i c C o n d u c t i v i t y
The r a t e a t w h i c h water p e r c o l a t e s t h r o u g h t h e s o i l p r o f i l e
d u r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n depends on t h e
"average"
saturated
I f t h e s o i l is uniform, K
c o n d u c t i v i t y ( K ) of t h e p r o f i l e .
i s assumed t o
constant with depth.
Any d i f f e r e n c e s i n
m e a s u r e d v a l u e s o f K are dhen d u e t o n o r m a l v a r i a t i o n s i n
t h e m e a s u r e m e n t t e c h n i q u e . ' T h u s , a v e r a g e K may be computed
as t h e a r i t h m e t i c mean o f n s a m p l e s :
ge
w h e r e Kam
a r i t h m e t i c mean v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y
Many s o i l p r o f i l e s . a p p r o x i m a t e a l a y e r e d s e r i e s o f u n i f o r m
s o i l s w i t h d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t K v a l u e s , g e n e r a l . . l y dec r e a s i n g with depth.
F o r s u c h cases, i t c a n be shown t h a t
a v e r a g e K i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e h a r m o n i c mean o f t h e K
v a l u e s f r o m e a c h l a y e r 1251 :
where
dn
D =
s o i l p r o f i l e depth
d e p t h of n t h l a y e r
Khm =
h a r m o n i c mean c o n d u c t i v i t y
I f a b i a s or p r e f e r e n c e ' f o r a c e r t a i n K v a l u e is n o t
i n d i c a t e d b y s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s of f i e l d t e s t r e s u l t s , a
random d i s t r i b u t i o n o f K f o r a c e r t a i n l a y e r o r s o i l r e g i o n
m u s t b e assumed.
In. s u c h cases, i t h a s b e e n shown t h a t t h e
g e o m e t r i c mean p r o v i d e s t h e : b e s t e s t i m a t e o f t h e t r u e K [ 2 5 ,
2 6 , 271:
where K
gm
g e o m e t r i c mean c o n d u c t i v i t y
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y
and t h e l o a d i n g r a t e s f o r R I s y s t e m s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n
S e c t i o n 5.4.1.
T h e r e a r e many i n s i t u m e t h o d s a v a i l a b l e t o m e a s u r e v e r t i c a l
saturated conductivity.
F o r c o n v e n i e n c e , t h e s e may b e
d i v i d e d i n t o m e t h o d s i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f and i n t h e a b s e n c e
In addition, there are several laboratory
of a water t a b l e .
t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h are u s e d t o e s t i m a t e s a t u r a t e d c o n d u c t i v i t y
i n s o i l s a m p l e s t a k e n from p i t s o r b o r e h o l e s .
Either
c o n s t a n t - h e a d o r f a l l i n g - h e a d p e r m e a m e t e r s c a n be u s e d f o r
D e t a i l e d t e s t p r o c e d u r e s may be f o u n d i n
t h e s e estimates.
a n y good s o i l m e c h a n i c s t e x t .
The main c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e
u s e of l a b o r a t o r y t e c h n i q u e s a r e t h e d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e
s a m p l e d u r i n g c o l l e c t i o n by p u s h i n g o r d r i v i n g a s a m p l e r
i n t o i t and t h e s m a l l
s i z e of s a m p l e t e s t e d .
These
criticisms a r e e n t i r e l y v a l i d .
N o n e t h e l e s s , when estimates
of c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e n e e d e d f r o m d e e p l y i n g s t r a t a t h a t
p h y s i c a l l y c a n n o t be examined i n s i t u , t h e n s a m p l i n g and
l a b o r a t o r y measurement may be t h e o n l y f e a s i b l e t , e c h n i q u e
The o n l y i m p o r t a n t t e s t u s e d below a water t a b l e is t h e p i p e

cavity,
o r piezometer
t u b e method
[28], described i n
p r a c t i c a l terms i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 9 ] .
T h i s t e s t is e s p e c i a l l y
h e l p f u l when t h e s o i l s below t h e w a t e r t a b l e a r e l a y e r e d ,
w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t i e s i n each
strata.
I n s u c h c a s e s , a s e p a r a t e t e s t s h o u l d be r u n i n
each
of
the
layers
of
interest
in
order
to
apply
Equation 3-3.
The m o s t i m p o r t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n o c c u r s when
t h e r e is e v i d e n c e o f v e r t i c a l g r a d i e n t s t h a t c o u l d t r a n s p o r t
p e r c o l a t e downward t o l o w e r l y i n g a q u i f e r s .
Methods a v a i l a b l e t o m e a s u r e v e r t i c a l s a t u r a t e d c o n d u c t i v i t y
i n a s o i l r e g i o n a b o v e , o r i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a water t a b l e ,
i n c l u d e t h e r i n g p e r m e a m e t e r [9, 3 0 1 , t h e g r a d i e n t - i n t a k e
[ l , 311,
t h e double--tube
[l,
301
and
the
air-entry
p e r m e a m e t e r [ l , 3 2 , 331.
With t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e newer
t e c h n i q u e s , t h e r i n g p e r m e a m e t e r method, w h i c h r e q u i r e s a n
e l a b o r a t e s e t u p and u s e s a l o t o f water p e r t e s t , i s n o
longer i n widespread use.
The g r a d i e n t - i n t a k e t e c h n i q u e i s
p r i m a r i l y u s e d a s a s i t e s c r e e n i n g method, f o r r a n k i n g t h e
r e l a t i v e c o n d u c t i v i t i e s of d i f f e r e n t s o i l s .
Conductivity
v a l u e s o b t a i n e d by t h i s method a r e c o n s i d e r e d c o n s e r v a t i v e
a s t h e y o f t e n p r o v e t o b e l o w e r t h a n t h o s e p r o d u c e d by o t h e r
methods
I n p r a c t i c e , t h e d o u b l e - t u b e and a i r - e n t r y p e r m e a m e t e r s h a v e
found f a v o r and a r e u s e d more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h e o t h e r
techniques.
T h e r e f o r e , o n l y t h e s e two m e t h o d s w i l l b e
discussed.
Enough i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be g i v e n h e r e t o e n a b l e
t h e u s e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e b a s i c measurement c o n c e p t s .
P r o c e d u r a l d e t a i l s a r e c o v e r e d more c o m p l e t e l y i n t h e r e f e r ences supplied.
3.5.1
Double-Tube Method
The t e s t i s r u n i n a h o l e a u g e r e d t o t h e d e p t h of t h e s o i l
l a y e r whose v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y i s d e s i r e d .
Certainly
t h a t o f t h e m o s t r e s t r i c t i v e l a y e r i s n e e d e d as a minimum.
A d d i t i o n a l l a y e r s i n t h e p r o f i l e s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d t o
ensure proper characterization.
The v a l u e o f K which i s
computed from
double-tube
includes a small horizontal
component b u t p r i m a r i l y r e f l e c t s v e r t i c a l f l o w .
The a p p a r a t u s ( c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e * ) i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-11.2.
To
perform a test, it is f i r s t necessary t o c r e a t e a s a t u r a t e d
zone o f
s o i l beneath
the
embedded
tubes.
This is
a c c o m p l i s h e d by a p p l y i n g water t h r o u g h b o t h t u b e s f o r
s e v e r a l hours.
Then two s e t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e r e q u i r e d :
1.
Water l e v e l v e r s u s t i m e r e a d i n g s f o r t h e i n n e r t u b e
with
the
supply
to
this
tube
stopped
maintaining t h e supply t o t h e outer tube.
2.
while
Water l e v e l v e r s u s t i m e r e a d i n g s f o r t h e i n n e r t u b e
w i t h t h e s u p p l y t o t h i s t u b e and t o t h e outl12r t u b e
stopped.
The l e v e l i n t h i s o u t e r t u b e j..s h e l d
( c l o s e l y ) t h e same a s t h a t i n t h e i n n e r t u b e d u r i n g
t h i s s e c o n d s e t o f r e a d i n g s by m a n i p u l a t i n g a v a l v e
( C i n F i g u r e 3-12).
The c u r v e s o f water l e v e l , d e c r e a s e s v e r s u s t i m e a r e t h e n
Details of
p l o t t e d t o t h e same s c a l e and K i s c a l c u l a t e d .
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n and c u r v e s n e e d e d t o o b t a i n a d i m e n s i o n l e s s
f a c t o r f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n are t o b e f o u n d i n r e f e r e n c e s [ I ,
301 a n d a r e s u p p l i e d b y t h e ' m a n u f a c t u r e r o f t h e e q u i p m e n t .
3.5.2
~ i r - ~ n t r~ye r i e a m e t e r
The a i r - e n t r y p e r m e a m e t e r w a s d e v i s e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e of f l o w s i n t h e c a p i l l a r y zone [ 3 2 ]
Using t h e
d e v i c e a s shown i n F i g u r e 3-13, t h e s o i l - w a t e r p r e s s u r e a t
which a i r e n t e r e d t h e s a t u r a t e d v o i d s was a p p r o x i m a t e d .
* S ~ l l t e ~ It n, c . , E v a n s t o n , I l l i n o i s 60202.
ent ti on o f propr i e t a r y e q u i p m e n t d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e e n d o r s e m e n t by t h e
U.S. Government.
WATER
W E T T E D ZONE
FIGURE 3-12
SCHEMATI C OF DOUBLE-TUBE APPARATUS [I
VACUUM
II
SUPPLY VALVE
A I R ESCAPE
VALVE
GASKET
SAWD
FIGURE 3-13
SCHEMAT l C O F THE A IR -ENTRY PERMEAMETER
L1 ,321
Assuming a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s v a l u e and t h e p r e s s u r e

j u s t a b o v e t h e a d v a n c i n g f r o n t of a w e t t e d z o n e , t h e
c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a mass of s o i l a b s o r b i n g w a t e r t o t h e p o i n t
of
saturation
can
be
calculated.
Because
of
the
a v a i l a b i l i t y of r e s e a r c h d a t a t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s ; conduct i v i t y v a l u e is c l o s e l y equal t o one-half
the saturated
h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , a new method o f d e t e r m i n i n g v e r t i c a l
h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a t s a t u r a t i o n became a v a i l a b l e .
A l t h o u g h t h e method may a p p e a r t o have t h e l i m i t a t i o n of
r e q u i r i n g s e v e r a l a s s u m p t i o n s , i t compares f a v o r a b l y w i t h
o t h e r a c c e p t e d methods and h a s some d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e s .
The e q u i p m e n t i s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e ; t h e t e s t d o e s n o t t a k e
much t i m e ; a n d , p e r h a p s most i m p o r t a n t , n o t much w a t e r i s
required.
A few l i t e r s of w a t e r w i l l g e n e r a l l y s u f f i c e f o r
a s i n g l e test.
I n o p e r a t i o n , w a t e r i s added t h r o u g h t h e s u p p l y v a l v e w i t h
t h e a i r v a l v e open u n t i l t h e embedded c y l i n d e r becclmes f u l l
On
( t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e d i s k is t o a c t a s a s p l a s h p l a t e ) .
f i l l i n g t h e c y l i n d e r , t h e a i r v a l v e i s c l o s e d and w a t e r i s
a l l o w e d t o i n i l t r a t e downward, t h e r e s e r v o i r b e i n g l t e p t
full.
When t h e w e t f r o n t , L f , h a s r e a c h e d t h e d e s i r e d d e p t h ,
d e p e n d e n t o n s o i l t e x t u r e and s t r u c t u r e ( s e e s u b s e q u e n t
r e m a r k s ) , no more w a t e r i s added t o t h e r e s e r v o i r .
The d r o p
i n w a t e r l e v e l w i t h t i m e i s measured i n o r d e r t o c : : a l c u l a t e
an intake rate.
Now t h e s u p p l y v a l v e i s c l o s e d and t h e
p r e s s u r e o n t h e vacuum gage i s n o t e d p e r i o d i c a l l y .
A t some
p o i n t it w i l l r e a c h a maximum (minimum p r e s s u r e ) and t h e n
begin t o decrease again.
T h i s minimum p r e s s u r e c o r r e s p o n d s
c l o s e l y t o t h e a i r - e n t r y , p r e s s u r e , P a , o f t h e w e t t e d zone
when c o r r e c t e d f o r g a g e h e i g h t , G I and d e p t h o.E w e t t e d
zone, L ~ .
When t h e a i r - e n t r y permeameter i s employed a t t h e s o i l
s u r f a c e , i t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n i n f i l t r o m e t e r and a s s u c h
c o u l d r e a d i l y be l i s t e d w i t h t h e method of S e c t i o n 3.4.2.
S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s 132, 331 have used t h e method t o
It
h a s been
develop v e r t i c a l conductivity profiles.
s u g g e s t e d t h a t d i g g i n g a t r e n c h w i t h an i n c l i n e d bottom,
t h e n moving t h e a i r - e n t r y permeameter t o s e l e c t e d p o i n t s
a l o n g t h e t r e n c h b o t t o m i s a good method of a c c o n : \ p l i s l ~ i n g
this.
A criticism of
t h e o r i g i n a l t e c h n i q u e [ 3 2 ] was b a s e d on t h e
s u g g e s t e d methods of d e f i n i n g t h e d e p t h of t h e wet:.ted zone
beneath the cylinder.
These c a l l e d f o r d i g g i n g ax:*ound t h e
b o t t o m o f t h e c y l i n d e r a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n of t h e measurements
t o l o c a t e t h e w e t f r o n t o r u s i n g a m e t a l r o d t o p:lrobe t h e
s o i l , a t t e m p t i n g t o d e t e c t t h e d e p t h a t which p e n e t r a t i o n
resistance increases.
However, t h e a i r - e n t r y p e r m e a m e t e r
w a s m o d i f i e d by a d d i n g a f i n e t e n s i o m e t e r probe t h r o u g h t h e
By s e t t i n g t h e p r o b e t o c o r r e s p o n d t o
l i d of t h e device.
t h e d e s i r e d d e p t h o f w e t t e d z o n e , Lf ( a b o u t 1 5 c m o r 6 i n .
i n sand and 5 c m or 2 i n . i n m a s s i v e c l a y ) , it w a s p o s s i b l e
to d e t e c t t h e a r r i v a l of t h e w e t t e d f r o n t d u r i n g , r a t h e r
t h a n a f ter o p e r a t i o n of t h e permeameter.
This modification
a l s o a l l o w s t h e m e t h o d t o be u s e d i n somewhat w e t t e r s o i l s
than those previously required.
to
Figure
3-13 ,
the
vertical
hydraulic
Referring
t h e zone b e i n g
c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e "rewet" z o n e , i . e . ,
s a t u r a t e d , i s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q u a t i o n 3-5.
where:
Q =
H~ =
pa =
pmin =
G =
v o l u m e t r i c i n t a k e rate t h r o u g h area, A, of
t h e perrneameter
t h e m a t r i c p o t e n t i a l of t h e s o i l j u s t b e l o w
It
t h e w e t t i n g z o n e , a s s u m e d t o b e 0 . 5 Pa.
is l e s s t h a n a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e and t h e r e f o r e a n e g a t i v e q u a n t i t y i n E q u a t i o n 3-5
a i r - e n t r y v a l u e , c a l c u l a t e d a s Pmin
+ G; a l s o a n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e
Lf
minimum p r e s s u r e (maximum vacuum) r e a d f r o m

t h e vacuum g a g e a f t e r s t o p p i n g t h e water
supply
h e i g h t of t h e vacuum g a g e a b o v e t h e s o i l
surface
L~ =
d e p t h of t h e w e t t e d z o n e
Hr
h e i g h t of t h e water l e v e l i n t h e r e s e r v o i r
above t h e s o i l s u r f a c e
Then, as s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c conduct i v i t y a t s a t u r a t i o n i s a s s u m e d t o b e t w o t i m e s t h e v a l u e of
K a s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q u a t i o n 3-5.
3.6
Ground Water
I n m o s t l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s , and e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e
h i g h e r r a t e s y s t e m s , . i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e g r o u n d water is
carefully
in
the
important
and
must
be
considered
preliminary
analysis
phaser.
Problems w i t h
mounding,
d r a i n a g e , o f f s i t e t r a v e l and u l t i m a t e f a t e of c o n t a m i n a n t s
i n t h e p e r c o l a t e w i l l h a v e t o b e a d d r e s s e d d u r i n g bokh t h e
a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n phases.
E a r l y r e c o g n i t i o n of p o t e n t i a l
p r o b l e m s and a n a l y s i s of m i t i g a t i n g m e a s u r e s are n e c e s s a r y
f o r s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n of t h e system.
This cannot be
accomplished w i t h o u t competent f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Some
key q u e s t i o n s t o be answered a r e :
1.
How d e e p b e n e a t h t h e s u r f a c e i s t h e ( u n d i s t u r b e d )
water t a b l e ?
2.
How
3.
How w i l l t h e g r o u n d water t a b l e
p r o p o s e d wastewater l o a d i n g s ?
4.
I n w h a t d i r e c t i o n a'nd how f a s t w i l l t h e m i x t u r e o f
p e r c o l a t e a n d g r o u n d water move f r o m b e n e a t h t h e
area o f a p p l i c a t i o n ?
Is t h e r e a n y p o s s i b i l i t y o f
to
deeper
potable
transport
of
contaminants
aquifers?
5,
What w i l l b e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h i s m i x t u r e
flows away f r o m t h e s i t e b o u n d a r i e s ?
6.
I f a n y of t h e c o n d i t i o n s m e a s u r e d o r p r e d i c t e d
above are found t o ;be u n a c c e p t a b l e , what s t e p s c a n
be taken to c o r r e c t : t h e s i t u a t i o n ?
3.6.1
d o e s t h e n a t u r a l water t a b l e d e p t h
seasonally?
fluctuate
respond
to
as
the
it
D e p t h / H y d r o s t a t i c Head
A g r o u n d water t a b l e i s d e f i n e d a s t h e c o n t a c t z o n e b e t w e e n
t h e f r e e g r o u n d water a n d t h e c a p i l l a r y z o n e .
I t is t h e
l e v e l assumed b y t h e water i n a h o l e e x t e n d e d a s h o r t
d i s t a n c e below t h e c a p i l l a r y zone.
Ground water c o n d i t i o n s
a r e r e g u l a r when t h e r e i s o n l y o n e g r o u n d w a t e r s u r f a c e a n d
when
the hydrostatic pressure
increases linearly with
depth.
Under t h i s c o n d i t i o n , t h e p i e z o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e l e v e l
is t h e same a s t h e f r e e g r o u n d water l e v e l r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e
d e p t h below
t h e ground hater
table
a t which
it i s
measured,
R e f e r r i n g t o F i g u r e 3-14, t h e water l e v e l i n t h e
"piezometer" would s t a n d a t t h e s a m e l e v e l as t h e " w e l l " i n
t h i s condition.
Xn c o n t r a s t t o a w e l l , a p i e z o m e t e r i s a s m a l l d i a m e t e r o p e n
pipe driven i n t o t h e soil such t h a t ( t h e o r e t i c a l l y ) t h e r e
c a n b e n o l e a k a g e a r o u n d t h e , p i p e . A s t h e p i e z o m e t e r is n o t
or
perforated,
ilt
can
respond
only
to
the
slotted
h y d r o s t a t i c h e a d a t t h e p o i ! n t w h e r e i t s lower o p e n e n d i s
located.
The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n water l e v e l m e a s u r e ment w i t h a w e l l and . h y d r o s t a t i c head measurement w i t h a
p i e z o m e t e r i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-14.
=,-a
P I EZOMETER
F l GURE 3-1 4
WELL AND P l EZOMETER I NSTALLAT l OtdS
O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e r e may be o n e o r more i s o l a t e d b o d i e s o f
water " p e r c h e d " a b o v e t h e main water t a b l e b e c a u s e o f l e n s e s
of i m p e r v i o u s s t r a t a t h a t i n h i b i t o r e v e n p r e v e n t s e e p a g e
p a s t them t o t h e main body o f g r o u n d water below.
Other
" i r r e g u l a r " c o n d i t i o n s a r e d e s c r i b e d by F i g u r e 3-15.
R e l i a b l e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of e i t h e r ground w a t e r l e v e l s o r
pressures requires that the hydrostatic pressures in the
b o r e h o l e and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o i l be e q u a l i z e d . A t t a i n m e n t
time
in
of
stable
levels
may
require
considerable
impermeable m a t e r i a l s .
T h i s is c a l l e d h y d r o s t a t i c time-lag
and may be f r o ? h o u r s t o d a y s i n m a t e r i a l s o f p r a c t i c a l
i n t e r e s t (K > 10 c m / s ) .
Two o r more p i e z o m e t e r s l o c a t e d t o g e t h e r , b u t t e r m i n a t i n g a t
d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s , c a n i n d i c a t e t h e p r e s e n c e , d i r e c t i o n and
magnitude ( g r a d i e n t ) o f components o f v e r t i c a l flow i f su c h
exists.
T h e i r u s e is i n d i c a t e d w h e n e v e r t h e r e i s c o n c e r n
a b o u t . movement o f c o n t a m i n a n t s downward t o l o w e r l y i n g
aquifers.
F i g u r e 3-15,
t a k e n from r e f e r e n c e [ 3 4 ] , shows
several observable p a t t e r n s with explanations.
Descriptions
o f t h e p r o p e r m e t h o d s o f i n s t a l l a t i o n of b o t h o b s e r v a t i o n
w e l l s and p i e z o m e t e r s may b e f o u n d i n r e f e r e n c e s [ 9 , 341.
THE P I E Z O Y E T E R S I N
D I C A T E THAT THE
BROUNO WATER I S 6 0
I N 6 DOWt1 AND THAT
THERE I S SOME N A T U
RAL DRAINAGE.
THE P I E Z O Y E T E R S I N D I C A T E A HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE OR T H A T
THERE I S WATER COYI N 6 UP FROM A D E E P ER STRATA.
THE P I E Z O Y E T E R S I N D I C A T E A HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE I N A S T R A T UH AND THAT WATER I S
B E I N G FORCED BOTH UP
AND DOWN FRO# THE
STRATUM
THE P I E Z O Y E T E R S I N
O I C A T E THAT 6ROUMO
WATER I S Y O V I N G I N T O
A STRATUU AND 6 0 1 N 6
OUT OF T I E AREA.
F I G U R E 3-1 5
VERT l C A L FLOWS l NO l CATED BY P l EZOMETERS [34]
3.6.2
Flow
Exact mathematical d e s c r i p ~ t i o n of flows i n t h e s a t u r a t e d

zones beneath and a d j a c e n t to ( u s u a l l y downgradient) land
E[owever,
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s is a p r a c t i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y .
f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f cases t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t f i e l d
will
allow a n
application
of
Darcy's
equation
data
Answers c a n t h u s be o b t a i n e d which a r e
( E q u a t i o n 3-1).
s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r making d e s i g n d e c i s i o n s .
In part.icular,
t h e r e are q u e s t i o n s which r e c u r f o r e a c h proposed p r o j e c t ,
a n d w h i c h may b e a p p r o a c h e d l i n t h e m a n n e r s u g g e s t e d .
1.
What v o l u m e o f n a t i v e g r o u n d water f l o w s b e n e a t h
t h e proposed site f o r d i l u t i o n of p e r c o l a t e ? This
i s a d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n o f E q u a t i o n 3-1.
The w i d t h
o f t h e s i t e m e a s u r e d n o r m a l t o t h e g r o u n d water
f l o w l i n e s t i m e s the aquifer thickness equals the
area u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e t o t a l
cross-sectional
flow.
2.
What i s t h e mean t r a v e l t i m e b e t w e e n p o i n t s o f
e n t r y o f p e r c o l a t e i n t o t h e g r o u n d water a n d p o t e n t i a l p o i n t s o f d i s c h a r g e or w i t h d r a w a l ?
Again,
is u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e f l . u x , q .
E q u a t i o n 3-1
fl'ux
by
the
aquifer
g~orosity
Dividing
the
( F i g u r e 3-3)
gives
an
average
ground
water
velocity.
T r a v e l t i m e is computed as t h e d i s t a n c e
bctween t h e t w o p o i n t s of i n t e r e s t ( t h e y m u s t both
l i e o n t h e same f l o w l i n e ) d i v i d e d b y t h e a v e r a g e
velocity.
3.
What
changes
in
hydraulic
gradient
(mound
con i g u r a t i o n ) w i l l be r e q u i r e d
t o convey t h e
p r o p o s e d q u a n t i t y o f p e r c o l a t e away f r o m b e n e a t h
t h e area o f a p p l i c a t i o n ? M e t h o d s o f a n s w e r i n g t h i s
q u e s t i o n are p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 5.7.2.
T h e ' f i e l d d a t a and h y d r o g e o l o g i c
answer t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i n c l u d e :
1.
Geometry of
limited to
the
flow
estimates
system,
to
requjred
including
but
not
a.
D e p t h t o g r o u n d water
b.
Depth t o impermeable b a r r i e r ; g e n e r a l l y t a k e n
t o be
any
l a y e r which h a s
a hydraulic
c o n d u c t i v i t y less t h a n 1 0 % o f t h a t o f t h e
overlying deposits [35].
c.
Geometry of t h e r e c h a r g e ( a p p l i c a t i o n ) area.
2.
H y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t - c o m p u t e d fkom water l e v e l s i n
s e v e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n wells (assuming o n l y h o r i z o n t a l
f l o w ) , knowing d i s t a n c e s between wells.
3.
S p e c i f i c y i e l d (see S e c t i o n 3 . 3 . 3 ) .
I n some a r e a s
o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e SCS h a s i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e
s o i l p r o f i l e s s u f f i c i e . n t l y t o p r o v i d e a n estimate
of specific y i e l d for a particular site [ 5 ] .
4.
Hydraulic
conductivity
in
the
horizontal
direction.
F i e l d m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h i s p a r a m e t e r by
t h e a u g e r - h o l e method is c o v e r e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
section.
3.6.2.1
Horizontal Hydraulic Conductivity
H o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t i v i t y c a n n o t be assumed from a knowledge

of v e r t i c a l conductivity (Section 3.5).
In f i e l d soils,
i s o t r o p i c c o n d i t i o n s are r a r e l y e n c o u n t e r e d , a l t h o u g h t h e y
are
f r e q u e n t l y assumed
for
the
sake of
convenience.
"Apparent"
anisotropic
conductivity
often
occurs
in
u n c o n s o l i d a t e d media because of i n t e r b e d d i n g o f f ine-grained
and c o a r s e - g r a i n e d
materials w i t h i n t h e p r o f i l e .
Such
i n t e r b e d d i n g r e s t r i c t s v e r t i c a l f l o w much more t h a n i t d o e s
l a t e r a l f l o w [251
Although t h e i n t e r b e d d i n g r e p r e s e n t s
nonhomogeneity, r a t h e r t h a n a n i s o t r o p y , i t s e f f e c t s on t h e
c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a l a r g e s a m p l e o f a q u i f e r m a t e r i a l may b e
a p p r o x i m a t e d b y t r e a t i n g t h e " a q u i f e r 1 ' a s homogeneous b u t
anisotropic.
A c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t of d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e o n
t h e c a l c u l a t e d or measured r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v e r t i c a l
and h o r i z o n t a l p e r m e a b i l i ' t y f o r s p e c i f i c sites.

The
p o s s i b l e s p r e a d o f r a t i o s i s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 3-5, w h i c h
is b a s e d o n f i e l d m e a s u r e m e n t s i n g l a c i a l o u t w a s h d e p o s i t s
Both
( S i t e s 1-5) [361 a n d i n a r i v e r bed ( S i t e 6 ) . [ 3 7 ] ,,
a u t h o r s claim, w i t h j u s t i f i l c a t i o n , t h a t t h e r e p o r t e d v a l u e s
would n o t l i k e l y b e o b s e r v e d i n any l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s w i t h
small q u a n t i t i e s o f d i s t u r b e d a q u i f e r m a t e r i a l .
TYBLE 3-5
MEASURED RATIOS OF HORIZONTAL TO
VERTICAL CONDUCTIVITY [ 3 6 , 371
Site
Effective
horizontal
permeability,
Kh! m/d
Kh/Kv
Remarks
42
2.0
Silty
100
7.0
Gravelly
5
6
72
72,
20.0
10.0
86
16.0
Near terminal moraine

Irregular succession of
sand and gravel layers
(from K measurements in
field)
(From analysis of
recharge flow system)
I t is a p p a r e n t t h a t i f a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g h o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t i v i t y is r e q u i r e d f o r a n a n a l y s i s , f i e l d
Of t h e many f i e l d m e a s u r e measurements w i l l be necessary.
ment t e c h n i q u e s a v a i l a b l e , t h e m o s t u s e f u l is t h e a u g e r h o l e
D e t a i l s o f t h e t e s t t e c h n i q u e may ,:2lso b e
technique [38].
Although a u g e r h o l e measurements
found i n [ l , 9 , 3 0 , 341.
a r e c e r t a i n l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t oE f l o w ,
s t u d i e s have demonstrated t h a t t h e technique p r i m a r i l y
m e a s u r e s t h e h o r i z o n t a l component [ 3 9 ] . A d e f i n i t i o n s k e t c h
o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s y s t e m i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-16 iind t h e
The t e c h n i q u e
e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t u p i s shown i n F i g u r e 3-17.
i s b a s e d o n t h e f a c t t h a t if t h e h o l e e x t e n d s below t h e
water t a b l e a n d w a t e r i s q u i c k l y removed f r o m t h e h o l e ( b y
b a i l i n g or pumping), t h e h o l e w i l l r e f i l l a t a rate
d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s o i l , t h e d i m e n s i o n s
With t h e
o f t h e h o l e , a n d t h e h e i g h t , o f water i n t h e h o l e .
a i d o f e i t h e r f o r m u l a s or g r a p h s , t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y ' i s c a l c u Thc? t o t a l
l a t e d f r o m m e a s u r e d r a t e s o f rise i n t h e h o l e .
i n f l o w i n t o t h e h o l e s h o u l d b e s u f f i c i e n t l y small d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d of m e a s u r e m e n t t o p e r m i t c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y based on an "average" hydraulic head,
T h i s is
u s u a l l y t h e case.
S O I L SURFACE
~?,;:,$z:7:;3~~~y:,:.-:
:2..:.c::ir.: :...l:!.5;.:.<i-:.>*$
...<?*:
.. .
.......
~~:~~/~~~:;~;~+::::.~:.:.if;y.:.+-~
; :>; . : . : . a . . . i : . : . : . . , : : : r
;:.
::.ar-..:..*
WATER TABCE
------
.,
F l GURE 3-16
D E F I N I T I O N SKETCH FOR AUGER-HOLE TECHNIQUE"
M E A S U R I N G POINT
DOUBLE-ACT I N G
DIAPHRAGY PUMP
STANDARD
EXHAUST HOSE
S U C T I O N HOSE
S T A T I C WATER L E V E L
TAPE AND
5 c m FLOAT
---\
F I N I S H TEST
FIGURE 3-17
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR AUGER-HOLE TECHN IQUE
I n t h e f o r m u l a s a n d g r a p h s , t h a t h a v e b e e n d e r i v e d , tlne s o i l
i s a s s u m e d t o be homogeneous a n d i s o t r o p i c .
However, a
basic
technique
[39]
allows
modification
of
the
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s ( K h
a n d Kv i n a n i s o t r o p i c s o i l s b y c o m b i n i n g a u g e r h o l e m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h p i e z o m e t e r m e a s u r e m e n t s at t h e same d e p t h .
If
t h e a u g e r h o l e t e r m i n a t e s a t (or i n ) an impermeable' l a y e r ,
t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n a p p l i e s ( r e f e r t o F i g u r e 3-16 f o r
symbols ) :
a = auger hole radius, m
where
A t = t i m e f o r water t o rise y , s
Kh = h o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , m/d
Y0'Yl
= d e p t h s d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 3-16,
any u n i t s ,
usually cm
I f a n i m p e r m e a b l e l a y e r is e n c d u . n t e r e d a t a g r e a t d e p t h
b e l o w t h e b o t t o m of t h e a u g e r h o l e , t h e e q u a t i o n becomes:
where
d e p t h of a u g e r ' h o l e , m
Charts
f o r b o t h cases a r e a v a i l a b l e i n r e f e r e n c e s [ 2 9 ,
An a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m u l a , c l a i m e d t o b e s l i g h t l y more
a c c u r a t e , h a s been d e v e l o p e d [401.
T h i s e q u a t i o n employs a
t a b l e o f c o e f f i c i e n t s t o a c c o u n t f o r d e p t h o f impermeable or
o f v e r y p e r m e a b l e material below t h e bottom of t h e h o l e .
341.
T h e r e are s e v e r a l o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s f o r e v a l u a t i n g h o r : i - z o n t a l
c o n d u c t i v i t y i n t h e p r e s e n c e of a water t a b l e .
S l u g tests,
s u c h as d e s c r i b e d i n r e f e r e n c e [41] c a n be used t o c a l . c u l a t e
from t h e T h i e m e q u a t i o n a f t e r o b s e r v i n g t h e r a t e <:)f r i s e
water i n a w e l l f o l l o w i n g a n i n s t a n t a n e o u s r e m o v a l o f a
v o l u m e of water t o c r e a t e a h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t .
Pumping
t e s t s , w h i c h a r e a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r t o many e n g i n e e r s , w o u l d
c e r t a i n l y p r o v i d e a meanincjful estimate.
A comprehensive
d i s c u s s i o n of pumping t e s t s , a s w e l l a s o t h e r g r o u n d w a t e r
p r o b l e m s i s p r e s e n t e d i n r e f e r e n c e [ 4 2 ] ; e x a m p l e pr:oblems
EQ
and t a b l e s o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n s n e e d e d t o e v a l u a t e
c o n d u c t i v i t y f r o m drawdown m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e a l s o p r e s e n t e d .
T h e r e a r e some l i m i t a t i o n s t o f u l l - s c a l e pumping t e s t s . The
f i r s t i s t h e e x p e n s e i n v o l v e d i n d r i l l i n g and i n s t a l l a t i o n .
Thus, i f a w e l l is n o t a l r e a d y l o c a t e d on t h e s i t e , t h e
.pumping t e s t t e c h n i q u e would p r o b a b l y n o t be c o n s i d e r e d .
If
a n e x i s t i n g p r o d u c t i o n w e l l f u l f i l l s t h e c o n d i t i o n s needed
f o r t h e t e c h n i q u e t o b e v a l i d , it s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be u s e d t o
Nowever, t h i s e s t i m a t e may s t i l l
o b t a i n an e s t i m a t e .
r e q u i r e m o d i f i c a t i o n through t h e u s e of
supplementary
" p o i n t " d e t e r m i n a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e s i t e is v e r y l a r g e
o r i f t h e s o i l s are q u i t e h e t e r o g e n e o u s .
Measurement o f h o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t i v i t y may o c c a s i o n a l l y be
n e c e s s a r y i n t h e a b s e n c e of a w a t e r t a b l e .
A t y p i c a l case
might i n v o l v e t h e p r e s e n c e of a c a l i c h e l a y e r o r o t h e r
hardpan formation n e a r t h e s u r f a c e .
I f the layer w a s
r e s t r i c t i v e enough t o v e r t i c a l f l o w , a p e r c h e d water t a b l e
would r e s u l t upon a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r .
I n such c a s e s ,
t h e mound h e i g h t a n a l y s i s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 5.7.2 s h o u l d
be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r p e r c h i n a g would b e a p r o b l e m .
A l t h o u g h mounding c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 5
( d e a l i n g w i t h R I ) , it i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t mounding may
o c c u r b e n e a t h SR s y s t e m s a s w e l l .
The u s e r of t h i s manual
s h o u l d be aware of t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y .
The a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e s
Either a
a n estimate o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t i v i t y .
m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n of t h e d o u b l e - t u b e t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d i n
S e c t i o n 3 . 5 . 1 [311 o r t h e s h a l l o w w e l l pump-in t e s t [ l , 9 ,
301
c a n be
used
t o estimate K
The
l a t t e r of
these
two
t e s t i n g methods is, i n p r i n c i p p e , t h e r e v e r s e o f t h e augerhole test.

3.6.2.2
P e r c o l a t e / G r o u n d Water Mixing
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e m i x i n g of p e r c o l a t e w i t h n a t i v e g r o u n d
water is n e e d e d f o r S R or R I s y s t e m s t h a t d i s c h a r g e t o
g r o u n d w a t e r i f t h e q u a l i t y o f t h i s m i x t u r e a s i t f l o w s away
f r o m t h e s i t e b o u n d a r i e s is t o b e d e t e r m i n e d .
The
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of any c o n s t i t u e n t i n t h i s mixture can be
c a l c u l a t e d as f o l l o w s :
'mix
= CpQp
Qp
where
Cmix
CgwQgw
Qgw
= c o n c e n t r a t i o n of c o n s t i t u e n t i n m i x t u r e
Cp = c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o n s t i t u e n t i n p e r c o l a t e
Qp = f l o w o f p e r c o l a t e
Cgw = c o n c e n t r a t i o n of c o n s t i t u e n t i n ground w a t e r
Qgw
= f l o w o f ground w a t e r
The f l o w of ground w a t e r c a p be c a l c u l a t e d from D a r c ; y l s Law

( E q u a t i o n 3-1)
i f t h e g r a d i e n t and h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y a r e known.
T h i s i s n o t t h e e n t i r e ground w a t e r
flow,
but
only
the
flow
within
the
mixing
depth.
R e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e p e r c o l a t e flow and c o n c e n t r a t j - o n s o f
c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r s 4 and 5. E q u a t i o n 3-8
i s v a l i d i f t h e r e i s c o m p l e t e m i x i n g between t h e p e r c o l a t e
and t h e n a t i v e ground w a t e r .
This is usually not t h e
case.
Mixing i n t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n may be s u b s t a : ~ i t i a l l y
less t h a n m i x i n g i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n .
An a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h t o e s t i m a t i n g t h e i n i t i a l d i l u t i o n
i s t o r e l a t e t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e mound d e v e l o p e d by t h e
This
p e r c o l a t e t o t h e d i a m e t e r ,of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n a r e a .
r a t i o h a s been e s t i m a t e d t o be 2.5 t o 3.0 [ 4 3 , 441.
This
r a t i o i n d i c a t e s t h e r e l a t i v e s p r e a d of t h e p e r c o l a t e and c a n
b e used t o r e l a t e t h e mixing of p e r c o l a t e w i t h ground
water. Thus, a n u p p e r l i m i t o f 3 f o r t h e d i l u t i o n r a k i o c a n
b e used when ground w a t e r f l o w is s u b s t a n t i a l l y ( 5 t o 1 0
t i m e s ) more t h a n t h e p e r c o l a t e f l o w .
I f t h e ground w a t e r
flow is less t h a n 3 t i m e s t h e p e r c o l a t e flow, t h e a c t u a l
ground w a t e r f l o w s h o u l d be used i n E q u a t i o n 3-8.
3.6.3
Ground Water Q u a l i t y
I t i s recommended t h a t where a w a t e r t a b l e i s known t o e x i s t

t h a t c o u l d p o s s i b l y be
by t h e p r o j e c t , t h a t
The
b a s e l i n e ground w a t e r q u a k i t y d a t a be c o l l e c t e d .
d e t a i l s o f number, l o c a t i o n , d e p t h , e t c . o f s a m p l i n g w e l l s
are b e s t l e f t u n t i l a f t e r a p r e l i m i n a r y h y d r o g e o l o g i c : s t u d y
o f t h e s i t e h a s been c o m p l e t e d .
Then f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n a b l y
w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d g u i d e l i n e s [ 2 3 , 4 5 , 4 6 , 471, s a m p l i n g w e l l s
may be d e s i g n e d i n s o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g a n optimum manner.
The p a r a m e t e r s t h a t s h o u l d be measured i n s a m p l e s t a k e n from

t h e ground w a t e r a r e t h o s e s p e c i f i e d u n d e r t h e " N ; : ~ t i o n a l
I n t e r i m P r i m a r y D r i n k i n g Water R e g u l a t i o n s "
[48]
An
e x c e p t i o n i s made f o r n o n d r i n k i n g w a t e r a q u i f e r s o r where
more s t r i n g e n t s t a t e r e g u l a t l i o n s a p p l y .
3.7
S o i l Chemical P r o p e r t i e s
t h e s o i l is t h e m a j o r f a c t o r
a f f e c t i n g p l a n t g r o w t h and a s i g n i f i c a n t d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r
The c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of
i n t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l t o r e n o v a t e w a s t e w a t e r .
There
a r e 1 6 e l e m e n t s known t o be e s s e n t i a l f o r c r o p g r o w t h .
Three of these--nitrogen,
p h o s p h o r u s , and p o t a s s i u m - - a r e
d e f i c i e n t i n many s o i l s .
S e c o n d a r y and m i c r o n u t r i e n t
d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e found less o f t e n w i t h s u l f u r , z i n c , and
b o r o n b e i n g t h e most common. S o i l pH and s a l i n i t y c a n l i m i t
c r o p g r o w t h and
sodium c a n r e d u c e s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y .
Chemical p r o p e r t i e s s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d p r i o r t o d e s i g n t o
e v a l u a t e t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l t o s u p p o r t p l a n t g r o w t h
and t o r e n o v a t e w a s t e w a t e r .
S o i l s s h o u l d be m o n i t o r e d
during o p e r a t i o n to avoid d e t r i m e n t a l changes i n soil
chemistry.
3.7.1
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of S o i l Chemical T e s t s
Several chemical p r o p e r t i e s , having nothing d i r e c t l y t o do

with n u t r i e n t s t a t u s , a r e nonetheless important.
S o i l pH
h a s a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e o n t h e s o l u b i l i t y of v a r i o u s
compounds, t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f v a r i o u s m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , and t h e
b o n d i n g of i o n s t o e x c h a n g e s i t e s .
Relative t o t h i s l a s t
phenomenon,
soil
clays
and
organic
matter
(known
soil
colloids)
are
'negatively
collectively
as
the
charged.
Thus, t h e y a r e a b l e t o a d s o r b c a t i o n s from t h e
s o i l solution.
C a t i o n s a d s o r b e d i n t h i s way a r e c a l l e d
exchangeable c a t i o n s .
They c a n be r e p l a c e d by o t h e r c a t i o n s
from t h e s o i l s o l u t i o n w i t h o u t a p p r e c i a b l y a l t e r i n g t h e
structure
of
the
soil
colloids.
The
quantity
of
exchangeable c a t i o n s t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r s o i l can adsorb is
known a s c a t i o n e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y ( C E C ) and i s measured i n
t e r m s of m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t s p e r 100 grams (meq/100 g ) o f
soil.
The p e r c e n t a g e of t h e CEC t h a t i s o c c u p i e d by a
p a r t i c u l a r c a t i o n is c a l l e d t h e p e r c e n t s a t u r a t i o n f o r t h a t
c a tion.
The sum of t h e e x c h a n g e a b l e Na, K , Ca and Mg
e x p r e s s e d a s a p e r c e n t a g e of t h e CEC i s c a l l e d p e r c e n t b a s e
saturation.
T h e r e a r e optimum r a n g e s f o r p e r c e n t b a s e s a t u r a t i o n f o r
A l s o , f o r a given
v a r i o u s c r o p and s o i l t y p e c o m b i n a t i o n s .
p e r c e n t b a s e s a t u r a t i o n , it is d e s i r a b l e t h a t Ca and Mg be
t h e d o m i n a n t c a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n K and ( e s p e c i a l l y ) Na.
High p e r c e n t a g e s of t h e a l k a l i m e t a l s , i n p a r t i c u l a r Na,
w i l l c r e a t e s e v e r e p r o b l e m s i n many f i n e - t e x t u r e s o i l s . The
e x c h a n g e a b l e sodium p e r c e n t a g e (ESP) s h o u l d be k e p t below
15% ( S e c t i o n 4.9.1.4).
I t is important t o r e a l i z e t h a t
r e g a r d l e s s of t h e c a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a n a t u r a l s o i l , it
c a n be
altered
readily as a
result
of
agricultural
practices.
Both t h e q u a l i t y of t h e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r and t h e
u s e of s o i l amendments, s u c h a s l i m e o r gypsum, c a n c h a n g e
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of e x c h a n g e a b l e c a t i o n s .
Another
chemical
property
affecting
plant
growth
is
s a l i n i t y , t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s o l u b l e i o n i c s u b s t a n c e s .
It
i s s a l i n i t y i n t h e s o i l s o l u t i o n i n t h e r o o t zone t h a t . is of
primary i n t e r e s t .
Unfortunately,
t h e r e is no s i m p l e
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h i s q u a n t i t y and t h e s a l i n i t y of t h e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r , t h e s a l t b a l a n c e b e i n g c ' o m p l i c a t e d by m o i s t u r e
t r a n s f e r s t h r o u g h e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n and d e e p p e r c o l a t i o n .
The d i a g n o s t i c t o o l u s u a l l y employed is a c h e c k on t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y (EC) of t h e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r and t h e
soil solution.
G u i d e l i n e s e x i s t f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s of c r o p s
according to t h e i r s a l t tolekance.
P r o c e d u r e s f o r coniputing
t h e deep p e r c o l a t i o n
( l e a c h i n g r e q u i r e m e n t ) needed t o
c o n t r o l r o o t zone s a l i n i t y a r e g i v e n i n r e f e r e n c e s [ 9 , 291.
B e c a u s e of t h e v a r i a b l e n a t u r e of t h e s o i l , few s t a n d a r d
procedures
for
chemical
analysis
of
soil
have
been
developed.
Several references t h a t describe analytical
methods are a v a i l a b l e [ 4 9 , 5 0 , 511
A complete d i s c u s s i o n
o f a n a l y t i c a l methods and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of r e s u l t s f o r t h e
p u r p o s e of e v a l u a t i n g t h e s o i l n u t r i e n t s t a t u s is p r e s e n t e d
The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e m a j o r c h e m i c a l
i n r e f e r e n c e [521.
p r o p e r t i e s i s summarized i n T a b l e 3-6.
3.7.2
Phosphorus Adsorption T e s t
A d s o r p t i o n i s o t h e r m s f o r p h o s p h o r u s c a n be d e v e l o p e d t o
p r e d i c t t h e r e m o v a l o f p h o s p h o r u s by t h e s o i l .
Samples o f
s o i l are t a k e n i n t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y and a r e added t o
s o l u t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g known c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of p h o s p h o r u s .
After the
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s n o r m a l l y r a n g e from 1 t o 30 mg/L.
s o i l i s mixed i n t o t h e s o l u t i o n s and a l l o w e d t o come i n t o
e q u i l i b r i u m f o r a p e r i o d of t i m e (up t o s e v e r a l d a y s ) , t h e
s o l u t i o n i s f i l t e r e d and t h e f i l t r a t e i s t e s t e l d f o r
phosphorus.
The d i f f e r e n c e 1 between t h e i n i t i a l and f i n a l
s o l u t i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i s <he amount a d s o r b e d f o r a g i v e n
time.
D e t a i l s of t h e t e s t a r e a v a i l a b l e i n r e f e r e n c e [ 5 3 ] .
A procedure
f o r u s i n g a d s o r p t i o n i s o t h e r m d a t a .to e s t i m a t e
p h o s p h o r u s r e t e n t i o n by s o i l s is s u g g e s t e d ,in r e f e r e n c e
[471.
An
important
con'siderration d i s c u s s e d
is:; t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f s l o w r e a c t i o n s between p h o s p h o r u s and c a t i o n s
p r e s e n t i n t h e s o i l which may " f r e e .upw p r e v i o u s l y used
Cala d s o r p t i o n s i t e s for a d d i t i o n a l phosphorus r e t e n t i o n .
c u l a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g a d s o r p t i o n i s o t h e r m d a t a , which i g n o r e
t h e s e r e a c t i o n s , g r e a t l y underestimate phosphorus r e t e n t i o n .
TABLE 3-6
INTERPRETATION OF SOIL CHEMICAL TESTS
-
Test result
Interpretation
pH of saturated soil paste

t4.2
5.2-5.5
5.5-8.4
CEC, meq/100 g
1-10
12-20
>20
Sandy soils (limited adsorption)

Silt loam (moderate adsorption)
Clay and organic soils (high adsorption)
Exchangeable cations,
% of CEC
Sodium
Calcium
Potassium
ESP, % of CEC
<5
>lo
>20
Desirable range
55
60-70
5-10
satisfactory
Reduced permeability in fine-textured soils
Reduced permeability in coarse-textured soils
EC, mmhos/cm at 25'

of saturation extract
<2
2-4
4- 8
8-16
>16
3.8
Too acid for most crops to do well

Suitable for acid-tolerant crops
Suitable for most crops
Too alkaline for most crops, indicates a ,
possible sodium problem
No salinity problems
Restricts growth of very salt-sensitive crops
Restricts growth of many crops
Restricts growth of all but salt-tolerant crops
Only a few very salt-tolerant crops make
satisfactory yields
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America.
CHAPTER 4
SLOW RATE PROCESS DESIGN
4.1
Introduction
The k e y e l e m e n t s i n t h e d e s i g n o f s l o w r a t e (SR) s y s t e m s a r e
(1) t h e
i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 4-1.
Important f e a t u r e s a r e :
i t e r a t i v e n a t u r e of
the procedure,
and
( 2 ) the input
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t must be o b t a i n e d f o r d e t a i l e d d e s i g n ,
~ e t e r m i n i n g t h e d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s t h e most
important s t e p i n process design because t h i s parameter is
used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r t h e SR
system.
The d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s c o n t r o l l e d by
e i t h e r s o i l permeability o r nitrogen l i m i t s f o r typical
municipal wastewater.
Crop s e l e c t i o n i s u s u a l l y t h e f i r s t
d e s i g n s t e p b e c a u s e p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t , h y d r a u l i c and
n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g r a t e s , and s t o r a g e depend t o some e x t e n t o n
reapplication
treatment
selection usually
t h e crop.
p r e c e d e s d e t e r m i n a t i o n of h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e ' b e c a u s e i t
can a f f e c t
t h e wastewater
n i t r o g e n concentration and,
therefore, the nitrogen loading.
4.2
Process Performance
The mechanisms r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t r e a t m e n t and removal of

w a s t e w a t e r c o n s t i t u e n t s s u c h a s BOD, s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( S S ) ,
n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s , t r a c e e l e m e n t s , m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , and
t r a c e organics a r e discussed b r i e f l y .
L e v e l s of r e m o v a l
a c h i e v e d a t v a r i o u s SR s i t e s a r e i n c l u d e d t o show how
r e m o v a l s a r e a f f e c t e d by l o a d i n g r a t e s , c r o p , and s o i l
characteristics.
Chapter 9 c o n t a i n s d i s c u s s i o n on t h e
h e a l t h and e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s of t h e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s .
4.2.1
BOD and Suspended S o l i d s Removal
BOD and SS a r e removed by f i l t r a t i o n and b a c t e r i a l a c t i o n a s

t h e applied wastewater p e r c o l a t e s through t h e s o i l .
BOD and
SS a r e n o r m a l l y r e d u c e d t o c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f less t h a n 2
mg/L and l e s s t h a n 1 mg/L, r e s p e c t i v e l y , f o l l o w i n g 1 . 5 m
( 5 f t ) of p e r c o l a t i o n .
T y p i c a l l o a d i n g r a t e s of BOD and SS
f o r m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r SR s y s t e m s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e
d e g r e e of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t ,
a r e f a r below t h e
l o a d i n g r a t e s a t which
performance is a f f e c t e d
(see
S e c t i o n 2.2.1.1).
Thus, l o a d i n g r a t e s f o r BOD and SS a r e
n o r m a l l y n o t a c o n c e r n i n t h e d e s i g n of
SR s y s t e m s .
BOD
achieved a t f i v e s e l e c t e d sites a r e
Removals of
p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4-1.
WASTEWATER
CHARACTER1 S T 1 CS
S I T E CHARACTERISTICS
Ssctions 2.2.1.3
PREAPPLlCATl
TREATMENT
( S e c t i o n 4.4 I
CROP SELECTION
(S8c.t i o n 4 . 3 )
RUNOFF CONTROL
( S e c t i o n 4.8)
FLGURE 4 - 1
SLOW RATE DES l GN PROCEDURE
ATER Q U A L I T Y
TABLE 4-1
BOD REMOVAL DATA
FOR SELECTED SR SYSTEMS [I-51
Location
Dickinson,
North Dakota
Annual
wastewater
loading
rate,
cm/y r
BOD
Surf ace
soil
Concentration
in applied
wastewater,
mg/L
Concentration
in treated
water,
mg/L
<1
Removal,
%
>98
Sampling
depth,
m
<5
140
Sandy loams
and loamy
sands
42
New Hampshire
130-780
40-92
0.9-1.7
96-98
1.5
~uskegori,
Michigan
Roswell,
New Mexico
San Angelo,
Texas
130-260
Sandy loam
and silt
loam
Sands and
loamy sands
Silty clay
loams
Clay and
clay loam
24
1.3
94
>98
c30
ano over ,
Note:
80
290
42
89
<1
0.7
99
2.1
4.2.2
Nitrogen
For SR systems located above potable aquifers, nitrogen

concentration in percolate must be low enough that ground
meet drinking
water quality at the project boundary'can
water nitrate standards. Nitrogen removal mechanisms at SR
systems include crop uptake, nitrification-denitrification,
ammonia volatilization, and storage in the soil. Percolate
nitrogen concentrations less than 10 mg/L can be achieved
with SR systems if the nitrogen loading rate is maintained
within the combined removal rates of these mechanisms. The
nitrogen removal rates and loading rate are, therefore,
important design parameters.
Percolate nitrogen levels
achieved at selected SR sites are given in Table 4-2.
Crop uptake is normally the primary nitrogen removal
mechanism operating in SR systems. The amount of nitrogen
removed by crop harvest depends on the nitrogen content of
the crop and the crop yield. Annual nitrogen uptake rates
for specific crops are given in Section 4.3.2.1.
Maximum
nitrogen removal can be achieved by selecting crops or crop
combinations with the highest nitrogen uptake potential.
TABLE 4-2
NITROGEN REMOVAL DATA FOR SELECTED
SR SYSTEMS [ I , 3-81
-.
Location
Total nitrogen
concentration
in applied
wastewater,
mg/L as N
Dickinson,
North Dakota
Hanover,
New Hampshire
Helen,
Georgiaa
Roswell,
New Mexico
San Angelo,
Texas
a.
Forest system.
Total nitrogen
concentration
in percolate
or affected
ground water,
mg/L as N
Removal,
%
Total nitrogen
concentration
Sampling in backsground
depth,
ground !,uater,
m
mg/L ,as N
-.
11.8
3.9
67
27-28
7.3
72
1.5
--
18.0
3.5
80
1.2
0.,17
66.2
10.7
84
11
1.9
All others are agricultural systems.

.
Nitrogen
loss
by
denit r i f i c a t i o n
depends
on
several
e n v i r o n m e n t a L f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g t h e oxygen l e v e l i n t h e
soil.
Assuming t h a t most of t h e a p p l i e d n i t r o g e n i s i n t h e
o r g a n i c ' o r ammonium form, i n c r e a s e d n i t r o g e n removal, due t o
denitrif ication
mn
be
expected
under
the
following
conditions:
High l e v e l s of o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e s o i l a n d / o r
w a s t e w a t e r , s u c h a s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s found i n
primary e f f l u e n t
High s o i l c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t y - - a
chirracteri s t i c of f i n e - t e x t u r e d and o r g a n i c s o i l s .
N e u t r a l t o s l i g h t l y a l k a l i n e s o i l pH
A l t e r n a t i n g s a t u r a t e d and u n s a t u r a t e d s o i l naoisture
conditions
e
Warm temperatures
D e n i t r i f i c a t i o n l o s s e s t y p i c a l l y a r e i n t h e range of 15 to
25% o f t h e a p p l i e d n i t r o g e n , a l t h o u g h measured l o s s e s have
The r a n g e of 1 5 t o 25% s h o u l d
r a n g e d frorp 3 t o 70% [ 4 , 91.
be u s e d f o r c o n s e r v a t i v e i d e s i g n .
When c o n d i t i c ) n s a r e
Lower v a l u e s
f a v o r a b l e , t h e maximum r a p e may be used.
s h o u l d be used when c o n d i t i o n s a r e l e s s f a v o r a b l e .
Ammonia v o l a t i l i z a t i o n l o s s e s c a n be s i g n i f i c a n t ( a b o u t 1 0 % )
i f t h e s o i l pH i s above 7 . 8 ' and t h e c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t y
4-4
is
low
(sandy,
low
organic
soils).
For
design,
l-o s- s e- s mav
b
e
c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
e
d
i
n
c
l
u
d
e
d
i
n
the 15
v. -o -l -a- -t -i l- i z a-.t-i-o- n
.
.'
t o 258 u s e d f o r d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n .
- -
S t o r a g e of n i t r o g e n i n t h e s o i l through p l a n t uptake and

s u b s e q u e n t c o n v e r s i o n o f roots and u n h a r v e s t e d r e s i d u e s i n t o
s o i l humus c a n a c c o u n t f o r n i t r o g e n r e t e n t i o n r a t e s u p
t o 225 k g / h a * y r ( 2 0 0 l b / a c r e - y r ) i n s o i l s o f a r i d r e g i o n s
(less than 2%).
In
i n i t i a l l y low i n o r g a n i c matter
c o n t r a s t , nitrogen storage w i l l be near zero f o r s o i l s r i c h
i n o r g a n i c matter.
I n e i t h e r case, i f n i t r o g e n i n p u t
remains constant, t h e rate of nitrogen storage w i l l decrease
w i t h t i m e because t h e r a t e o f decay and release of n i t r o g e n
i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s o i l o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n .
E v e n t u a l l y , a n e q u i l i b r i u m l e v e l o f o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n may b e
Therefore, f o r design
o b t a i n e d a n d n e t s t o r a g e t h e n ceases.
p u r p o s e s , t h e m o s t c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p r o a c h i s t o assume n e t
s t o r a g e w i l l be zero.
4.2.3
phosphorus
P h o s p h o r u s i s removed p r i m a r i l y by a d s o r p t i o n a n d p r e c i p i t a t i o n ( t o g e t h e r r e f e r r e d to as s o r p t i o n ) r e a c t i o n s i n
t h e soil.
Crop uptake can a c c o u n t f o r phosphorus removals
t o 53 l b / a c r e - y r ) ,
i n t h e r a n g e o f 20 t o 6 0 k g / h a - y r ( 1 8
depending
on
the
c r o p and
y i e l d ( S e c t i o n 4.3.2.1).
P e r c o l a t e p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t s e v e r a l SR s i t e s a r e
The p h o s p h o r u s s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y o f a s o i l p r o f i l e d e p e n d s
on the
amounts o f
clay,
aluminum,
iron,
and c a l c i u m
In general, fine
compounds p r e s e n t a n d t h e soi'l p H .
t e x t u r e d mineral soils have t h e h i g h e s t phosphorus s o r p t i o n
c a p a c i t i e s a n d coarse t e x t u r e d a c i d i c o r o r g a n i c s o i l s h a v e
t h e lowest.
F o r s y s t e m s w i t h coarse t e x t u r e d s o i l s a n d l i m i t s o n t h e
percolate
phosphorus,
a
phosphorus
concentration
of
a d s o r p t i o n test s h o u l d b e conducted u s i n g s o i l from t h e
T h i s t e s t , d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3.7.2,
s e l e c t e d site.
d e t e r m i n e s t h e a m o u n t o f p h o s p h o r u s t h a t t h e s o i l c a n remove
during
short
application
periods.
Actual
phosphorus
r e t e n t i o n a t a n o p e r a t i n g system w i l l be a t least 2 t o 5
times
the
value
obtained
during
a 5 day adsorption
test [13].
TABLE 4-3
PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL DATA FOR TYPICAL
SR SYSTEMS [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 1 0 - 1 2 1
--
Location
Annual
wastewater
loading
rate,
cm/yr
Agricultural.
systems
Camarillo,
160
California
Dickinson,
North Dakota
140
Hanover ,
New
Hampshire
Mesa,
Arizona
130-78
Muskegon,
Michigan
Roswell,
New Mexico
Tallahassee,
Florida
Winter
Summer
130-260
Forest
systems
Helen,
Georgia
State
College,
Pennsylvania
(Penn State
University)
a.
b.
400-860
80
Surface
soil
Clay loams
and sandy
loams
Sandy loams
and loamy
sands
Sandy loam
and liltloam
Loamy sands
and sandy
l o w
Sands and
loamy sands
Silty clay
loams
Sand
520
1,040
Po4
concentration
in applied
wastewater,
mg/L as P
Soluble PO4
concentration
in affected
ground water,
mg/L as P
Sampling
depth,
m
Distance
from
application
site, m
Soluble PO4
concentration
in background
ground water,
mg/L as P
2.Ea
0.2a
76a
9~~
1
3
0
0
--
6. ga
0. 05a
9ga
<5
7.3-7.6a
0.03-0.07~
99.099.5
1.5
--
9. ob
9.0~
5.0~
4.2b
44b
53b
0.5
1
0
0
1.0~
3.6b
1.0-1.3a
0.03-0.05~
9 5 - 9 ~ ~ 1.5
0.03'
7.95a
0. 3ga
95a
<6
0. 55a
>9ga
,9ga
1.2
10.7
0
0
0.02~
0.02~
11. 8a
1 1 . ~ ~
10. 5a
10.5a
O.la
O.Oa
Removal,
30-150
3. oa
0. 04a
380
Sandy loam
13.1a
0.22~
9 8a
1.2
0. 21a
260
Sandy loams
and clay
loams .
7.7b
0.08~
9gb
1.2
0.03~
Total phosphate concentration.

Orthophosphate concentration.
For p u r p o s e s of d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n , t h e s o i l p r o f i l e c a n
be c o n s i d e r e d to have a f i n i t e phosphorus s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y
associated with each l a y e r .
Eventually,
the sorption
c a p a c i t y o f t h e e n t i r e s o i l p r o f i l e may r e a c h s a t u r a t i o n a n d
s o l u b l e phosphorus w i l l appear i n t h e p e r c o l a t e .
I n cases
where . e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s l i m i t t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f p h o s p h o r u s i n t h e p e r c o l a t e , t h e u s e f u l l i f e o f t h e SR
s y s t e m may b e l i m i t e d b y t h e p h o s p h o r u s s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y o f
t h e soil p r o f i l e .
An e m p i r i c a l m o d e l t o p r e d i c t t h e u s e f u l
l i f e o f a n SR s y s t e m ha.s b e e n d e v e l o p e d [ 9 ] .
4.2.4
Trace Elements
T r a c e e l e m e n t r e m o v a l i n t h e s o i l is a complex p r o c e s s
i n v o l v i n g t h e mechanisms of a d s o r p t i o n , p r e c i p i t a t i o n , i o n
exchange
and c o m p l e x a t i o n .
Because a d s o r p t i o n of most
trace e l e m e n t s o c c u r s o n t h e s u r f a c e s o f c l a y m i n e r a l s ,
metal o x i d e s , a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r , f i n e t e x t u r e d a n d o r g a n i c
s o i l s have a g r e a t e r a d s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y f o r trace e l e m e n t s
than sandy soils.
Removal o f t r a c e e l e m e n t s f r o m s o l u t i o n i s n e a r l y c o m p l e t e
i n s o i l s s u i t a b l e f o r SR s y s t e m s ,
Conse.quently, trace
e l e m e n t removal is n o t a concern i n t h e d e s i g n procedure.
P e r f o r m a n c e d a t a f r o m s e l e c t e d SR s y s t e m s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 4-4.
Although
some
trace
elements
can
be
toxic
t o p l a n t s and
consumers of p l a n t s , no u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d t o x i c t h r e s h o l d
v a l u e s for trace e l e m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e s o i l or f o r
mass a d d i t i o n s t o t h e s o i l h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d .
Maximum
l o a d i n g s o v e r t h e l i f e o f a s y s t e m f o r s e v e r a l trace
e l e m e n t s have been s u g g e s t e d f o r s o i l s h a v i n g low trace
e l e m e n t r e t e n t i o n c a p a c i t i e s a n d a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4-5.
T o x i c i t y h a z a r d s c a n be m i n i m i z e d b y m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s o i l pH
a b o v e 6.5.
Most t r a c e e l e m e n t s a r e r e t a i n e d a s u n a v a i l a b l e
i n s o l u b l e compounds a b o v e pH 6.5.
Methods for a d j u s t i n g
s o i l pH a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 1 . 3 .
4.2.5
Microorganisms
Removal o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , i n c l u d i n g b a c t e r i a , v i r u s e s , a n d
p a r a s i t i c p r o t o z o a a n d h e l m i n t h s ( w o r m s ) , i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by
f i l t r a t i o n , adsorption, desiccation, radiation, predation,
and exposure t o o t h e r a d v e r s e c o n d i t i o n s .
Because of t h e i r
l a r g e s i z e , p r o t o z o a a n d h e l m i n t h s a r e removed p r i m a r i l y b y
B a c t e r i a a l s o a r e removed
f i l t r a t i o n a t the s o i l surface.
b y f i l t r a t i o n a t t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , a l t h o u g h a d s o r p t i o n may
be important.
V i r u s e s a r e removed almost e n t i r e l y b y
adsorption.
TABLE 4-4
TRACE ELEMENT BEHAVIOR DURING
S R LAND TREATMENT [14 ]
-
--
Muskegon, Michigan a
Element
EPA d r i n k i n g
water standard,
mg/L
Cadmium
Chromium
Raw municipal
wastewater
concentration,
mg/L
0.01
0.004-0.14
0.0 5
0.02-0.7
Percolate
concentration,
mg/L
Removal,
%
San A n g e l ~ , Texas
Percolate
concentration,
mg/L
Removal,
-- d
(0.002
90
<O .004
0.004
90
(0.005
>98
Melbourne, ~ u s t r a l i a '
Percolate
concentration,
mg/L
Removal,
%
0.002
80
0.03
90
95
Copper
1.0
0.02-3.4
0.002
90
0.014
85
0.02
Lead
0.05
0.05-1.3
<O .050
>40
<0.050
-- d
0.01
95
Manganese
0.05
0.11-0.14
0.26
--
--
Mercury
0.002
Zinc
5.0
0.002-0.05
0.03-83
<0.002
0.033
15
d
--
---
95
0.102'
---
0.0004
85
25
0.04
95
a.
Data r e p r e s e n t average annual concentrations (1975) found i n underdrains placed a t a depth of 1.5 m below t h e
irrigation site.
b.
Data r e p r e s e n t average annual concentrations (November 1975

t o t h e irxigated area.
c.
Data r e p r e s e n t average annual concentrations (1977) found i n underdrains placed a t depths of 1.2 t o 1.8 m below
the irrigation s i t e .
d.
Percent removal was n o t c a l c u l a t e d s i n c e i n f l u e n t and p e r c o l a t e values a r e below lower d e t e c t i o n l i m i t .
November 1976) found i n two seepage creeks a d j a c e n t
TABLE 4-5
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM APPLICATIONS OF
TRACE ELEMENTS TO SOILS WITHOUT
FURTHER I N V E S T I G A T I O N a
Element
Mass a p p l i c a t i o n
t o s o i l , kg/ha
Typical
b
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , mg/L
Aluminum
Arsenic
Berylium
Boron
Cadmium
Chromi um
Cobalt
Copper
Fluoride
Iron
Lead
Lithium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Zinc
a.
V a l u e s w e r e b a s e d on t h e t o l e r a n c e s o f
s e n s i t i v e crops, mostly f r u i t s and vegetables,
grown o n s o i l s w i t h low c a p a c i t i e s f o r
r e t a i n i n g e l e m e n t s i n u n a v a i l a b l e forms
[15, 161.
b.
B a s e d o n r e a c h i n g maximum mass a p p l i c a t i o n i n
20 y e a r s a t a n a n n u a l a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e o f
2.4 m/yr
(8 ft/yr).
Boron e x h i b i t s t o x i c i t y t o s e n s i t i v e p l a n t s a t
v a l u e s o f 0 . 7 5 t o 1 . 0 mg/L.
c.
d.
L i t h i u m t o x i c i t y l i m i t i s s u g g e s t e d a t 2 . 5 mg/L
c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r a l l c r o p s , e x c e p t c i t r u s which
u s e s a 0 . 0 7 5 mg/L l i m i t .
S o i l retention is
extremely limited.
n o t e d i n T a b l e 1-3, f e c a l c o l i f o r m s a r e n o r m a l l y a b s e n t
a f t e r wastewater p e r c o l a t e s t h r o u g h 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) o f s o i l .
C o l i f o r m r e m o v a l s a t s e v e r a l o p e r a t i n g SR s y s t e m s a r e shown
C o l i f o r m removal i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e is
i n T a b l e 4-6.
approximately
the
same
when
primary
or
secondary
V i r u s removals
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t is p r o v i d e d [ 4 ] .
are n o t a s w e l l documented.
S t a t e a g e n c i e s may r e q u i r e
s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t i f e d i b l e c r o p s a r e grown o r i f p u b l i c
~ i c r o o r ~ a n i s mremoval i s n o t a
c o n t a c t is unlimited.
l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e SR d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e .
As
TABLE 4-6
COLEFORM DATA FOR SEVERAL
SR SYSTEMS [ 1 , 4 , 5 , 8 , 1 2 ]
Location
Camarilla,
California
Preapplication
treatment
Activated
s l u d g e and
disinfection
Concentration
i n applied
wastewater,
Coliforms MPN/100 mL
Total
57
Fecal
220
lo3
Dickinson,
North Dakota
Aerated ponds
and d i s i n fection
Total
Fecal
TNTC~
Hanover ,
Primary
Fecal
Mesa,
Arizona
Trickling
filters
Total
1.2
lo43.1 x l o 5
3.09 x 1b6
Fecal
1.05 x
Total
Fecal
TNTC~
New Hampshire
Roswell,
New Mexico
a.
Trickling
f i l t e r s and
disinfection
Concentration
i n percolate
o r ground w a t e r ,
MPN/100 mL
Distance
of
travel,
Concentration
i n background
ground waber,
MPN/100 mL
0-1
1.5
--
<2
9
c2
9
0.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
<6
c6
7
29
TNTC~
TNTCa
lo5
TNTC~
52
20
60
<2
25
---
At l e a s t one sample t o o numerous t o count.
4.2.6
Trace Organics
T r a c e o r g a n i c s a r e removed by s e v e r a l mechanisms, i n c l u d i n g
s o r p t i o n , d e g r a d a t i o n , and v o l a t i l i z a t i o n .
One st,udy a t
Muskegon, M i c h i g a n , e v a l u a t e d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r a c e
o r g a n i c s removal d u r i n g p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t ( a e r a t e d
p o n d s ) and SR t r e a t m e n t .
A l t h o u g h 59 o r g a n i c p o l L u t a n t s
were i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e raw w a s t e w a t e r , r e n o v a t e d w a t e r from
drainage t i l e s underlying t h e i r r i g a t i o n s i t e contained only
l o w l e v e l s of 1 0 o r g a n i c compounds, i n c l u d i n g two from nonwastewater s o u r c e s .
Benzene, c h l o r o f o r m , and t r i c h l o r o e t h y l e n e w e r e m o n i t o r e d f o r ' s e v e r a l d a y s ; r e s u l t s a r e shown
i n T a b l e 4-7.
R e s u l t s f r o m p i l o t SR s t u d i e s a t Hanover, New Hampshire,
i n d i c a t e t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s of v ~ l a t i l et r a c e o r g a n i c s
are removed d u r i n g s p r i n k l e r a p p l i c a t i o n [ 4 ] . Measuirements
of c h l o r o f o r m , t o l u e n e , m e t h y l e n e c h l o r i d e , 1,l dicnhloroe t h a n e , b r o m o d i c h l o r o m e t h a n e , and t e t r a c h l o r o e t h y l e n e showed
t h a t a n a v e r a g e o f 6 5 % of t h e s e s i x compounds; were
volatilized during the spri,nkling process, with individual
r e m o v a l s r a n g i n g from 57% f o r t o l u e n e t o 7 0 % f o r m e l ~ h y l e n e
chloride.
TABLE 4-7
BENZENE, CHLOROFORM, AND TRICHLOROETHYLENE
IN MUSKEGON WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM [17]
Concentration, p g / ~ ~
Pollutant
Sampling
pointb
8/10/76
8/11/76
1
2
3
4
425
105
12
3
440
61
9
3
480
81
4
1
360
365
100
13
1
2
3
4
13
16
7
6
10
5
1
2
110
35
11
10
8/12/76
9/7/76
9/8/76
Benzene
Chloroform
T r i cckh l o r o e t h y l e n e
a.
b.
4
3
2,645
610
75
10
120
33
6
8
Average f o r d u p l i c a t e samples.
Sampling P o i n t 1
influent
a e r a t e d lagoon e f f l u e n t
s t o r a g e lagoon e f f l u e n t
r e n o v a t e d w a t e r from d r a i n a g e tiles
Based on these results, it appears that a typical SR system

is quite effective in removing trace organics. However, if
a community's wastewater contains large concentrations of
trace organics from industrial contributions, industrial
pretreatment should be considered. If hazardous chlorinated
trace organics result from wastewater chlorination, the
engineer must decide in consultation with regulatory
authorities whether it is more important to remove pathogens
or to reduce trace organic levels.
This decision should
take into consideration the type of crop and the method of
distribution.
4.3
Crop Selection
The crop is a critical. component in the SR process.

It
removes nutrients, reduces erosion, maintains or increases
infiltration rates, and can produce revenue where markets
exist.
4.3.1
Guidelines for Crop Selection
Important characteristics or properties of crops that should

be considered when selecting a crop for SR systems
include:
(1) nutrient uptake capacity, (2) tolerance to
high soil moisture conditions, (3) consumptive use of water
and irrigation requirements, and (4) revenue potential.
A
relative comparison of these characteristics for several
types of crops is presented in Pable 4-8 as a general guide
to
selection.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
secondary importance
( 2 ) crop
i n c l u d e (1) e f f e c t on s o i l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e ,
w a t e r q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s and
t o x i c i t y concerns,
and
( 3 ) management r e q u i r e m e n t s .
Most S R s y s t e m s a r e d e s i g n e d t o m i n i m i z e l a n d a r e a by u s i n g
maximum h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s .
Crops t h a t a r e compatible
w i t h high h y d r a u l i c loadilng r a t e s a r e those having high
n i t r o g e n u p t a k e c a p a c i t y , h i g h c o n s u m p t i v e w a t e r u . s e , and
Other d e s i r a b l e
high t o l e r a n c e to moist s o i l conditions.
c r o p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n a r e low s e n s i t i v i t y
to
wastewater
constituelnts,
and
minimum , management
requirements.
Crops grown f o r r e v e n u e must h a v e a r e a d y
l o c a l m a r k e t and be c o m p a t i b l e w i t h w a s t e w a t e r : t r e a t m e n t
objectives.
4.3.1.1
A g r i c u l t u r a l Crops
A g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s most c p m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e o b j e c t i v e o f
maximum h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g a r e t h e f o r a g e and t u r f g r a s s e s .
F o r a g e c r o p s t h a t have been used s u c c e s s f u l l y i n c l u d e :
Reed
canarygrass,
tall
fescue,
perennial
ryegrass,
Italian
ryegrass,
orchardgrass,
and
bermudagrass.
If
forage
c o n s i d e r a t i o c ~ , Reed
utilization
and
value
a r e not
a
is o f t e n a f i r s t choice i n its a r e a of
canarygrass
adaptation
b e c a u s e of
high n i t r o g e n uptake r a t e , winker
h a r d i n e s s , and p e r s i s t e n c e .
However, Reed c a n a r y g r a s s i s
s l o w t o e s t a b l i s h and s h o u l d be p l a n t e d i n i t i a l l y w i t h a
companion g r a s s ( r y e g r a s s , o r c h a r d g r a s s , o r t a l l f ea;cue ) t o
p r o v i d e good i n i t i a l c o v e r .
Of t h e p e r e n n i a l g r a s s e s grown f o r f o r a g e u t i l i z a t i o n and
revenue under h i g h wastewater l o a d i n g r a t e s , o r c h a r d g r a s s is
g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be m o r e a c c e p t a b l e a s a n i m a l f e e d
t h a n t a l l f e s c u e o r Reed c a n a r y g r a s s .
However, o r c h a r d g r a s s
i s p r o n e t o l e a f d i s e a s e s i n t h e s o u t h e r n and e a s t e r n
states.
T a l l f e s c u e is g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d a s a feed over
Reed c a n a r y g r a s s b u t i s n o t s u i t a b l e f o r u s e i n t h e n o r t h e r n
t i e r of s t a t e s due t o l a c k of w i n t e r - h a r d i n e s s .
Again,
o t h e r c r o p s may be more s u i t a b l e f o r l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s and
a d v i c e of l o c a l f a r m a d v i s e r s o r e x t e n s i o n s p e c i a l i s t s w i l l
b e h e l p f u l i n making t h e c r o p s e l e c t i o n .
Corn w i l l grow s a t i s f a c t o r i l l y where t h e w a t e r t a b l e d e p t h i s
about 1.5 t o 2 m, ( 5 t o 7 f t ) b u t a l f a l f a r e q u i r e s n a t u r a l l y
w e l l - d r a i n e d s o i l s and w a t e r t a b l e d e p t h s of a t l e a s t 3 m
(10 f t ) f o r persistence.
The a l f a l f a c u l t i v a r s e l e c t e d
s h o u l d be h i g h y i e l d i n g w i t h r e s i s t a n c e t o r o o t r o t and
b a c t e r i a l w i l t i n t h e growling r e g i o n , e s p e c i a l l y , wh.en h i g h
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s (>7'.5 cm/wk o r 3 in./wk) a r e u s e d .
TABLE 4-8
RELATIVE COMPARISON OF CROP
CHARACTERISTICS [Adapted from 181
--
Potential
a s revenue
producera
Potential
a s wat r
u s e r%
Potential
as nitrogen
userC
Moisture
toleranced
Field crops
Barley
Corn, g r a i n
Corn, s i l a g e
Cotton ( l i n t )
G r a i n , sorghum
Oats
Rice
Safflower
Soybeans
Wheat
Marg
EXC
Exc
Good
Good
Marg
.EXC
Exc
Good
Gpod
Mod
Mod
Mod
Mod
LOW
Mod
High
Mod
Mod
Mod
Marg
Good
Exc
Marg
Marg
Poor
Poor
Exc
Good-exce
Good
LOW
Mod
Mod
LOW
Mod
LOW
High
Mod
Mod
LOW
Good
Poor
EXC
Poor
Exc
Good
Good
Marg
Marg
Good
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
Exc
Exc
Good-exce
Good
Good-exce
Good-exce
Exc
Good
Exc
Good-exc
Mod
High
LOW
High
Mod-high
Mod
Mod
High
High
High
EXC
Good
High
High
Exc
Exc
High
High
Exc
Exc
EXC
High
High
High
Forage c r o p s
Kentucky b l u e g r a s s
Reed c a n a r y g r a s s
Alfalfa
Bromegrass
Clover
Orchardgrass
Sorghum-sudan
Timothy
Vetch
T a l l fescue
Turf c r o p s
Bentgrass
Bermudagrass
Forest crops
Hardwoods
Pine
Douglas-fir
~
i
~
Mod- low9
Mod
a.
P o t e n t i a l a s r e v e n u e p r o d u c e r s i s a judgmental e s t i m a t e b a s e d on
n a t i o n w i d e demand.
L o c a l market d i f f e r e n c e s may be s u b s t a n t i a l
enough t o change a m a r g i n a l r e v e n u e p r o d u c e r t o a good o r
e x c e l l e n t r e v e n u e p r o d u c e r and v i c e v e r s a .
Some o f t h e f o r a g e s
a r e e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o market due t o t h e i r c o a r s e n a t u r e
and p o o r f e e d v a l u e s .
b.
Water u s e r d e f i n i t i o n s e x p r e s s e d a s a f r a c t i o n o f a l f a l f a
consumptive-use.
c.
High
0.8-1.0
Moderate (Mod) 0.6-0.79
Low
-<O. 6
N i t r o g e n u s e r r a t i n g s (kg/ha) :
E x c e l l e n t (Excj
Good
M a r g i n a l (Marg)
poor
,200
150-200
100-150
<loo
-
d.
Moisture t o l e r a n c e r a t i n g s :
e.
High
w i t h s t a n d s prolonged s o i l s a t u r a t i o n > 3 days.
Moderate
w i t h s t a n d s s o i l s a t u r a t i o n 2-3 days.
Low
- w i t h s t a n d s no s o i l s a t u r a t i o n .
Legumes w i l l a l s o t a k e n i t r o g e n from t h e atmosphere.
f.
Higher n i t r o g e n u p t a k e d u r i n g j u v e n i l e growth s t a q e a f t e r crowning.
g.
S p e c i e s d e p e n d e n t , check w i t h t h e S t a t e E x t e n s i o n F o r e s t e r .
A m i x t u r e o f a l f a l f a and a p e r s i s t e n t f o r a g e g r a s s , s u c h a s
o r c h a r d g r a s s , c a n be used on s o i l s t h a t a r e n o t n a t u r a l l y
w e l l drained.
A t high hydraulic loading r a t e s , t h e a l f a l f a
may n o t p e r s i s t o v e r 2 y e a r s , b u t t h e f o r a g e g r a s s w i l l f i l l
i n t h e a r e a s i n t h e thinned a l f a l f a stand.
The most common a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s grown f o r r e v e n u e u s i n g

w a s t e w a t e r are c o r n ( s i l a g e ) , a l f a l f a ( s i l a g e , h a y , o r
p a s t u r e ) , forage g r a s s ( s i l a g e , hay, o r p a s t u r e ) , g r a i n
sorghum, c o t t o n , and g r a i n s [ 1 8 ] .
However, any c r o p ,
i n c l u d i n g f o o d c r o p s , may be grown w i t h r e c l a i m e d w a s t e w a t e r
a f t e r s u i t a b l e preapplication treatment.
I n a r e a s w i t h a l o n g growing s e a s o n , s u c h a s C a l j . f o r n i a ,
s e l e c t i o n of a d o u b l e c r o p i s a n e x c e l l e n t means of
i n c r e a s i n g t h e revenue p o t e n t i a l a s w e l l a s t h e annual
c o n s u m p t i v e w a t e r u s e and n i t r o g e n u p t a k e of t h e c r o p
system.
Double c r o p c o m b i n a t i o n s t h a t a r e commonly used
i n c l u d e (1) s h o r t s e a s o n v a r i e t i e s of s o y b e a n s , s i l a g e c o r n ,
o r sorghum a s a summer c r o p ; and ( 2 ) b a r l e y , o a t s , w h e a t ,
v e t c h , or annual f o r a g e g r a s s a s a w i n t e r crop.
A growing p r a c t i c e
i n t h e E a s t and "Midwest i s t o p r o v i d e a
T h i s "noc o n t i n u o u s v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r w i t h g r a s s and c o r n .
till" c o r n management c o n s i s t s of p l a n t i n g g r a s s i n t h e f a l l
and t h e n a p p l y i n g a h e r b i c i d e i n t h e s p r i n g b e f o r e p l a n t i n g
t h e corn.
When t h e c o r n c o m p l e t e s i t s growth c y c l e , g r a s s
is r e s e e d e d .
Thus, c u l t i v a t i o n i s r e d u c e d ; w a t e r u s e i s
maximized;
nutrient
uptake
is
enhanced;
and
revenue
p o t e n t i a l is increased.
4.3.1.2
Forest C r o p s
The m o s t common f o r e s t c r o , p s used i n S R s y s t e m s have been

mixed hardwoods and p i n e s .
A summary of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o p e r a t i o n a l s y s t e m s and t y p e s of f o r e s t c r o p s w e d is
The g r o w t h r e s p o n s e s o f a number of t r e e s p e c i e s t o a r a n g e
of w a s t e w a t e r l o a d i n g s a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n T a b l e 4-10.
The
h i g h g r o w t h r e s p o n s e column i s most s u i t a b l e f o r w a s t e w a t e r
a p p l i c a t i o n b e c a u s e of n i t r o g e n uptalce and p r o d u c : t i v i t y
The g r o w t h r e s p o n s e w i l l v a r y i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a number of
f a c t o r s ; o n e of t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i s t h e a d a p t a b i l i t y o f
t h e selected species to t h e l o c a l climate.
Local f o r e s t e r s
s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d f o r s p e c i f i c judgments on t h e l i k e l y
response of s e l e c t e d species.
TABLE 4-9
SUMMARY OF OPERATIONAL FOREST LAND TREATMENT
SYSTEMS I N THE UNITED S T A T E S R E C E I V I N G
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Location
C l a y t o n County,
Georgia
Helen, G e o r g i a
Kings Bay
Submarine S u p p o r t
Base, S t . Marys,
Georgia
Mackinaw C i t y ,
Michigan
M t . Sunapee S t a t e
P a r k , Newbury,
New Hampshire
S t a t e College,
Pennsylvania
(Penn S t a t e
University)
N e s t Dover,
Vermont
Flow,
m3/d
73,800
76
1,250
760
26
Forest type
Loblolly pine
p l a n t a t i o n and
n a t u r a l hardwood
Mixed hardwood
and p i n e
Slash pine
plantation
Aspen, w h i t e
pine birch
Mixed hardwood
Date
started
Hydraulic
loading,
cm/wk
1981
6.3
1973
7.6
1981
1.3
1976
11.3
1971
5.0
11,350
Mixed hardwood;
red pine plantation;
spruce, o l d f i e l d
1963
2.07.5
2,080
N o r t h e r n hardwoods;
balsam, hemlock,
spruce i n understory
1976
56.3
Other conditions
Ground w a t e r t o b e
r e c y c l e d as d r i n k i n g
water
--
S i t e drainage with
open d i t c h e s
Frost free, seasonal

application
Water s t o r e d and
a p p l i e d i n J u n e and
July only
Ground w a t e r t o b e
recycled a s drinking
water
Operates a t a i r
temperatures above
-18 OC
TABLE 4-10
HEIGHT GROWTH RESPONSE OF S E L E C T E D
T R E E S P E C I E S [Adapted from 191
H e i g h t growth r e s p o n s e c l a s s
Low
Slash pine
Cherry-laurel
Arizona cypress
Live oak
Holly
Hawthorne
Northern white cedar
Red p i n e
4.3.2
Intermediate
Tulip poplar
Bald cypress
Saw-tooth o a k
Red c e d a r
L a u r e l oak
Magnolia
N u t t a l l oak
Cherry bark oak
Loblolly pine
Shortleaf pine
Virginia pine
Douglas- f i r
High
Cottonwood
Sycamore
Green a s h
Black c h e r r y
Sweetgum
Black l o c u s t
Red bud
Catalpa
Chinese elm
White p i n e
Crop Characteristics
Reference data and information on the crop characteristics

of (1) nutrient uptake, water quality requirements, and
toxicity concerns;
( 2 ) water
tolerance;
( 3 ) consumptive
water use; and ( 4 ) effect on soil hydraulic properties are
presented in this section for both agricultural crops and
forest crops.
4.3.2.1
N u t r i e n t Uptake
A g r i c u l t u r a l Crops
I n g e n e r a l , t h e l a r g e s t n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l s c a n be a c h i e v e d
w i t h p e r e n n i a l g r a s s e s and l e g u m e s t h a t a r e c u t f r e q u e n t l y
a t e a r l y s t a g e s of g r o w t h .
I t s h o u l d be recognirzed t h a t
l e g u m e s c a n f i x - n i t r o g e n from t h e a i r , b u t t h e y a r e a c t i v e
The p o t e n t i a l f o r
scavengers f o r n i t r a t e i f it is present.
h a r v e s t i n g n u t r i e n t s w i t h annual c r o p s is g e n e r a l l y less
t h a n w i t h p e r e n n i a l s because a n n u a l s use o n l y part; o f t h e
a v a i l a b l e g r o w i n g s e a s o n f o r g r o w t h and a c t i v e u p t a k e .
~ y p i c a la n n u a l u p t a k e r a t e s o f t h e m a j o r p l a n t n u t r i e n t s - nitrogen,
phosphorus,
and
potassium--are
listed
in
T a b l e 4-11 f o r s e v e r a l commonly s e l e c t e d c r o p s .
The n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l c a p a c i t y o f a c r o p i s n o t a f i x e d
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b u t . d e p e n d s on t h e c r o p y i e l d and t h e
n u t r i e n t c o n t e n t of t h e p l a n t a t t h e t i m e of h a r v e s t .
D e s i g n e s t i m a t e s o f h a r v e s t r e m o v a l s s h o u l d be b a s e d on
y i e l d g o a l s and n u t r i e n t c o m p o s i t i o n s t h a t l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e
i n d i c a t e s c a n b e a c h i e v e d w i t h good management o n s i m i l a r
soils.
TABLE 4-11
NUTRIENT UPTAKE RATES FOR
SELECTED CROPS
kg/ha- y r
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Forage crops
~lfalfa~
Bromegrass
Coastal bermudagrass
Kentucky bluegrass
Quackgrass
Reed canarygrass
Ryegrass
Sweet clovera
Tall fescue
Orchardgrass
Field crops
Barley
Corn
Cotton
Grain sorghum
Potatoes
Soybeansa
Wheat
a.
Legumes will also take nitrogen from the atmosphere.
The r a t e o f n i t r o g e n u p t a k e by c r o p s c h a n g e s d u r i n g t h e
g r o w i n g s e a s o n and is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r a t e o f d r y matter
accumulation
and
the
nitrogen
content
of
the
plant.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e p a t t e r n of n i t r o g e n u p t a k e is s u b j e c t t o
many e n v i r o n m e n t a l and management v a r i a b l e s and i s c r o p
specific.
Examples o f m e a s u r e d n i t r o g e n u p t a k e r a t e s v e r s u s
t i m e a r e shown i n F i g u r e 4-2 f o r a n n u a l c r o p s and p e r e n n i a l
forage ' g r a s s e s r e c e i v i n g wastewater.
The a m o u n t s o f p h o s p h o r u s i n a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r s a r e u s u a l l y
much h i g h e r t h a n p l a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s .
F o r t u n a t e l y , most
s o i l s h a v e a h i g h s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y f o r p h o s p h o r u s and v e r y
little
of
the
excess passes through
the s o i l
(see
S e c t i o n 4.2.3).
p o t a s s i u m i s u s e d i n l a r g e a m o u n t s by many c r o p s , b u t
t y p i c a l wastewater is r e l a t i v e l y d e f i c i e n t i n t h i s e l e ment.
I n m o s t cases, f e r t i l i z e r p o t a s s i u m may b e n e e d e d t o
p r o v i d e f o r o p t i m a l p l a n t g r o w t h , depending o n t h e s o i l and
Other macronutrients
c r o p grown ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 9 . 1 . 2 ) .
t a k e n u p by c r o p s i n c l u d e magnesium, c a l c i u m and s u l f u r ;
d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e s e n u t r i e n t s a r e p o s s i b l e i n some a r e a s .
R Y E AND CORN
APR
MAY
J UN
J UL
AU6
SEP
MONTHS
FIGURE 4 - 2
NITROGEN UPTAKE VERSUS GROWING DAYS
FOR ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL CROPS 12Q.211
OCT
The m i c r o n u t r i e n t s i m p o r t a n t t o p l a n t g r o w t h ( i n d e s c e n d i n g
o r d e r ) are: i r o n , manganese, z i n c , b o r o n , c o p p e r , molybdenum, a n d , o c c a s i o n a l l y , sodium, s i l i c o n , c h l o r i d e , and
Most w a s t e w a t e r s c o n t a i n a n ample s u p p l y of t h e s e
cobalt.
elements;
in
some
cases,
phytotoxicity
may
be
a
consideration.
F o r e s t Crops
v e g e t a t i v e u p t a k e and s t o r a g e of n u t r i e n t s depend on t h e
s p e c i e s and f o r e s t s t a n d d e n s i t y , s t r u c t u r e , a g e , 1-ength o f
s e a s o n , and t e m p e r a t u r e .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t r e e s , t h e r e is
a l s o n u t r i e n t u p t a k e and s t o r a g e by t h e u n d e r s t o r y t r e e and
herbaceous
vegetation.
.The r o l e
of
the
unclerstory
v e g e t a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y important i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of
tree establishment.
F o r e s t s t a k e up and s t o r e n u t r i e n t s and r e t u r n a p o r t i o n of
t h o s e n u t r i e n t s b a c k t o t h e s o i l i n t h e form of l e a f f a l l
and o t h e r d e b r i s s u c h a s d e a d t r e e s .
Upon d e c o m p c > s i t i o n ,
t h e n u t r i e n t s are r e l e a s e d and t h e t r e e s t a k e t h e m back
up.
During t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f g r o w t h (1 t o 2 y e a r s ) ,
t r e e s e e d l i n g s are e s t a b l i s h i n g a r o o t s y s t e m ; biomass
p r o d u c t i o n and n u t r i e n t u p t a k e a r e r e l a t i v e l y slow.
To
p r e v e n t l e a c h i n g o f n i t r o g e n t o ground w a t e r duriing t h i s
p e r i o d , n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g must be l i m i t e d o r u n d e r s t o r y
v e g e t a t i o n m u s t b e e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t w i l l t a k e up and s t o r e
a p p l i e d n i t r o g e n t h a t is i n e x c e s s of t h e tree c r o p needs.
discussed i n
Management
of understory
v e g e t a t i o n is
S e c t i o n 4.9.
F o l l o w i n g t h e i n i t i a l g r o w t h s t a g e , t h e r a t e s of g r o w t h and
n u t r i e n t u p t a k e i n c r e a s e and r e m a i n r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t
u n t i l m a t u r i t y i s a p p r o a c h e d and t h e r a t e s d e c r e a s e .
When
g r o w t h r a t e s and n u t r i e n t u p t a k e r a t e s b e g i n t o d e c r e a s e ,
t h e s t a n d s h o u l d be h a r v e s t e d o r t h e n u t r i e n t l o a d i n g
decreased.
M a t u r i t y may be r e a c h e d a t 20 t o 25 y e a r s f o r
s o u t h e r n p i n e s , 50 t o 6 0 y e a r s f o r hardwoods, and 6 0 t o 80
y e a r s f o r s o m e of t h e w e s t e r n c o n i f e r s s u c h a s ' D o u g l a s fir.
O f c o u r s e , h a r v e s t i n g may be p r a c t i c e d w e l l i n a d v a n c e
o f m a t u r i t y as w i t h s h o r t - t e r m r o t a t i o n ' management ( s e e
S e c t i o n 4.9.2.5).
E s t i m a t e s o f t h e n e t a n n u a l n i t r o g e n s t o r a g e f o r a number of
fully
stocked
forest
ecosystems
are
presented
in
T a b l e 4-12.
T h e s e estimates are maximum r a t e s of n e t
understonry
and
nitrogen
uptake
considering
both
the
o v e r s t o r y v e g e t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e period of a c t i v e tree
growth.
TABLE 4-12
ESTIMATED NET ANNUAL NITROGEN UPTAKE I N T H E
OVERSTORY AND UNDERSTORY VEGETATION OF FULLY
STOCKED AND VIGOROUSLY GROWING F O R E S T
ECOSYSTEMS I N S E L E C T E D R E G I O N S O F THE U N I T E D S T A T E S [ 2 2 j
Tree
age, y r
Average a n n u a l
nitrogen uptake,
kg/ha- y r
Eastern f o r e s t s
Mixed hardwoods
40-60
Red p i n e
Old f i e l d w i t h w h i t e
spruce plantation
25
15
Pioneer succession
5-15
Southern f o r e s t s
Mixed hardwoods
40-60
Southern p i n e w i t h
no u n d e r s t o r y
Southern p i n e
with understory
20
20
Lake s t a t e s f o r e s t s
Mixed hardwoods
Hybrid p o p l a r b
50
5
Western f o r e s t s
H,ybrid p o p l a r b
Douglas-f i r
plantation
4-5
15-25
a.
Principal southern pine included i n these

e s t i m a t e s i s l o b l o l l y pine.
b.
Short-term r o t a t i o n w i t h h a r v e s t i n g a t 4-5 y r ;
r e p r e s e n t s f i r s t growth c y c l e from p l a n t e d
s e e d l i n g s ( s e e S e c t i o n 4.9.2.4)
Because n i t r o g e n s t o r e d w i t h i n t h e b i o m a s s of t r e e s i s n o t
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d among t h e t r e e components, t h e amount
o f n i t r o g e n t h a t c a n a c t u a l l y be removed w i t h a f o r e s t c r o p
s y s t e m w i l l be s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s t h a n t h e s t o r a g e e s t i m a t e s
g i v e n i n T a b l e 4-12 u n l e s s 1 0 0 % o f t h e aboveground b i o m a s s
is
harvested
(whole-tree
harvesting).
If
only
the
m e r c h a n t a b l e stems a r e removed from t h e s y s t e m , t h e n e t
amount o f n i t r o g e n removed by t h e s y s t e m w i l l be l e s s t h a n
30% o f t h e amount s t o r e d i n t h e b i o m a s s .
The d i s t r i b u t i o n s
of b i o m a s s and n i t r o g e n f o r n a t u r a l l y growing hardwood and
conifer (pines, ~ o u g l a s - f i r , f i r , larch, etc.) stands i n
t e m p e r a t e r e g i o n s a r e shown i n T a b l e 4-13.'
For deciduous
s p e c i e s , w h o l e - t r e e h a r v e s t i n g must t a k e p l a c e i n t h e summer
when t h e l e a v e s a r e on t h e t r e e s i f maximum n i t r o g e n removal
i s t o be a c h i e v e d .
TABLE 4-13
BIOMASS AND NITROGEN DISTRIBUTIONS BY TREE
COMPONENT FOR STANDS IN TEMPERATE REGIONS [23]
Percent
Conifers
Tree component
Roots
Biomass
10
Hardwoods
Nitrogen
17
Biomass
12
Nitrogen
18
Stems
Branches
Leaves
The assimilative capacity for both phosphorus and trace

metals is controlled more by soil properties than plant
uptake.
The relatively low pH (4.2 to 5.5) of most forest
soils is favorable to the retention of phosphorus but not
trace metals. However, the high level of organic matter in
forest soil improves the metal removal capacity. The amount
of phosphorus in trees is small, usually less than 30 kg/ha
(27 lb/acre);
therefore, the amount of annual phosphorus
accumulation is quite small.
4.3.2.2
Moisture Tolerance
Crops that can be exposed to prolonged periods of high soil

moisture without suffering damage or yield reduct:ion are
said to have a high moisture or water tolerance.
This
characteristic is desirable in situations
(111 where
hydraulic loading rates must be maximized, (2) where the
root zone contains a slowly permeable soil, or (3) in humid
areas where sufficient moisture already exists for plant
growth.
Refer to Table 4-8 for a comparison of crop
moisture tolerances.
Alfalfa and red pine, for example,
have low moisture tolerances.
4.3.2.3
Consumptive Water Use
Consumptive
water
use
by
plants
is
also
termed
evapotranspiration (ET). Consumptive water use varies with
the physical characteristics and the growth stage of the
crop, the soil moisture level, and the local climz.lte. In
some states, estimates of maximum monthly consumptive water
use for many crops can be obtained from local agricultural
Where
extension offices or research stations or the SCS.
this infotmation is not available, it will be necessary to
make estimates of evapotranspiration using tempera4:ure and
other climatic data.

Several methods ~f estimating
evapotranspiration are available and are detailed in
publications by the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE) [24], the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of
the United Nations [25], and the SCS f261.
Agricultural Crops
In humid regions estimates'of,potential evapotranspiration
(PET) are usually sufficient for perennial, full-cover
1
climates are shown in Table 4-14.
Examples of monthly
consumptive use in arid regions are shown in Table 4-15 for
several California crops.
These table values are specific
for the location given and are intended to illustrate
variation in ET due to crop and climate.
The designer
should obtain or estimate ET values that are specific to the
site under design.
TABLE 4-14
EXAMPLES OF ESTIMATED MONTHLY POTENTIAL
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION FOR HUMID AND SUBHUMID CLIMATES
cm
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
APr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
SeP
Oct
NOV
Dec
Annual
Paris,
Texas
Central
Missouri
Brevard,
North Carolina
Jonesboro,
~eorgia
Seabrook,
New Jersey
1.3
1.3
3.0
0.0
,O 0
0.1
0.2
0.3
2.0
5.8
2.9
4.0
8.2
12.9
13.7
11.9
7.4
4.0
0.3
0.0
-
7.4
11.4
13.9
13.6
9.9
4.9
2.1
0.3
61.4
70.0
0.7
1.3
3.0
0.2
0.3
2.1
6.8
6.6
4.6
9.9
14.7
16.0
16.2
9.7
6.4
2.7
1.4
10.8
14.5
16.9
15.2
10.3
6.3
2.6
1.1
7.6
10'. 2
11.4
10.4
7.4
4.6
1.6
0.3
10.9
14.7
15.7
15.0
10.9
5.8
2.5
1.3
90.4
89.3
60.7
88.2
1.5
1.5
3.6
Hanover ,
V ~ W
Hampshire
In arid or semiarid regions, water in excess of consumptive

use must be applied to (1) ensure proper soil moisture
conditions for seed germination, plant emergence, and root
development; (2) flush salts from the root zone; and
( 3 ) account for nonuniformity of water application by the
This requirement is
distribution system (see Section84.7 )
the irrigation requirement and examples are shown in
Table 4-15.
Local irrigation specialists should be
consulted for specific values.
TABLE 4-15
CONSUMPTIVE WATER USE AND I R R I G A T I O N REQUIREMENTS FOR
SELECTED CROPS AT SAN J O A Q U I N VALLEY, CALIFORNIA^ [ 2 7 , 281
Depth o f Water i n cm
I
Pastures o r a l f a l f a b
Consumptive
Honth
Irrigation
requiremants
use
Double crop
barley and g r a i n lsorghumC
Consumptive
use
Fab
5.1
6.9
5.1
--
Mar
9.7
13.0
9.7
'15.2
94.1
152.0
Total
149.1
200.2
cotton c~
Irrigation
requirements
Sugar bee1.s
Consumptive
use
Irrigation
requirements
--
38.1f
--
Consumptive
use
---
--
74.8
111.8
Irrigation
rt~quirements
-12.7
59.7
116.9
a.
Othar cropo having s i m i l a r growing seasons and ground cover w i l l have s i m i l a r consumptive use.
b.
Estimated tm~imu'nconsumptive use (evapotranspiration) of water by mature crops with nearly complete ground
m v e r throughout the year.
c.
Barley planted i n November-December, harvested i n June.

i n November-December.
d.
Rooting depth of mature cotton:

and Dfcemtar.
1.5 to 1.8 m.
1.8 a.
Grain sorghum planted June 20-July 10, harvested
Planting dates:
Planting date:
March 15 t o April 20.
~ a n u a r f . Harvest:
Harvest:
J u l y 15 t o September 10.
a.
Rooting depth:
f.
P r e i r r i g a t i o n should wet s o i l t o 1.5 t o 1.8 m depth p r i o r t o planting.
g,
P r a i r r i g a t i o n is used to ensure g e m i n a t i o n and emergence.

provide daop m i s t u r e .
October, November,
,
F i r s t crop i r r i g a t i o n s a r e heavy in order t o
F o r e s t Crops
The c o n s u m p t i v e w a t e r u s e of f o r e s t c r o p s u n d e r h i g h s o i l
m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s may e x c e e d t h a t o f f o r a g e c r o p s i n t h e
same a r e a by a s much as 3 0 % . F o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s , however,
t h e p o t e n t i a l ET i s used b e c a u s e t h e r e i s l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n
The s ~ e a s o n a l
o n water u s e o f d i f f e r e n t f o r e s t s p e c i e s .
p a t t e r n o f w a t e r u s e f o r c o n i f e r s i s more u n i f o r m .tll~an f o r
d e c i d u o u s trees.
4.3.2.4
E f f e c t on S o i l H y d r a u l i c P r o p e r t i e s
I n g e n e r a l , p l a n t s tend t o increase both t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n

of
t h e s o i l s u r f a c e and t h e e f f e c t i v e h y d r a u l i c
c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s o i l i n t h e r o o t zone a s a r e s u l t o f
r o o t p e n e t r a t i o n and a d d i t i o n of o r g a n i c m a t t e r .
The
m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s e f f e c t v a r i e s among d i f f e r e n t c r o p s .
Thus, t h e c r o p s e l e c t e d c a n a f f e c t t h e d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e o f s p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s , which i s b a s e d o n
rate
t h e steady s t a t e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e of t h e s o i l surface.
Steady s t a t e
infiltration
rate
is e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e
s a t u r a t e d permeability of s u r f a c e s o i l .
Design s p r i n k l e r
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s c a n be
i n c r e a s e d by 50% o v e r t h e
p e r m e a b i l i t y v a l u e f o r m o s t f u l l - c o v e r c r o p s and by 1 0 0 % f o r
m a t u r e ( > 4 y e a r s o l d ) , well-managed p e r m a n e n t p a s t u r e s (see
Appendix E ) .
The d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e (cm/h o r i n . / h )
s h o u l d n o t b e c o n f u s e d w i t h h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e (cm/wk o r
cm/mo) w h i c h i s b a s e d o n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e m o s t
restrictive layer i n the s o i l profile.
T h i s l a y e r , i n many
c a s e s , i s below t h e r o o t z o n e and i s u n a f f e c t e d by t h e c r o p .
F o r e s t s u r f a c e s o i l s a r e g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by h i g h
i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t i e s and h i g h p o r o s i t i e s d u e t o t h e
p r e s e n c e of h i g h l e v e l s o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r . The i n f i l t r a t i o n
r a t e s of most f o r e s t s u r f a c e s o i l s exceed a l l b u t t h e most
extreme
rainfall
intensities.
Therefore,
surface
i n f i l t r a t i o n rate is n o t u s u a l l y a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n
e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n rate f o r s p r i n k l e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n f o r e s t systems.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of s u b s u r f a c e f o r e s t s o i l
h o r i z o n s i s g e n e r a l l y improved o v e r t h a t f o u n d u n d e r o t h e r
is:
(1) n o t i l l a g e ,
v e g e t a t i o n systems because t h e r e
( 2 ) minimum c o m p a c t i o n f r o m v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c , ( 3 ) decompos i t i o n o f d e e p p e n t r a t i n g r o o t s , and ( 4 ) a w e l l - d e v e l o p e d
s t r u c t u r e d u e t o t h e i n c r e a s e d o r g a n i c m a t t e r c o n t e n t and
microbial a c t i v i t y .
Where s u b f r e e z i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e
encountered, t h e f o r e s t f l o o r serves t o i n s u l a t e t h e s o i l s o
t h a t s o i l f r e e z i n g , i f i t does o c c u r , o c c u r s s l o w l y and d o e s
not penetrate deeply.
C o n s e q u e n t l y , wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n
can o f t e n continue through t h e w i n t e r a t f o r e s t systems.
4.3.2.5
C r o p Water Q u a l i t y R e q u i r e m e n t s and
T o x i c i t y Concerns
Wastewaters may h a v e c o n s t i t u e n t s t h a t : (1) a r e h a r m f u l t o

p l a n t s ( p h y t o t o x i c ), ( 2 ) reduce t h e q u a l i t y of t h e crop f o r
m a r k e t i n g , o r ( 3 ) c a n b e t a k e n u p by p l a n t s and r e s u l t i n a
t o x i c c o n c e r n i n t h e food c h a i n .
Thus, t h e e f f e c t of
wastewater c o n s t i t u e n t s o n t h e c r o p i t s e l f and t h e p o t e n t i a l
f o r t o x i c i t y t o p l a n t c o n s u m e r s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d d u r i n g
t h e crop selection process.
A g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s are of
primary concern.
summary o f
common w a s t e w a t e r c o n s t i t u e n t s t h a t c a n
a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t c e r t a i n c r o p s e i t h e r through a d i r e c t t o x i c
e f f e c t o r t h r o u g h d e g r a d a t i o n o f c r o p q u a l i t y is g i v e n i n
T a b l e 4-16.
A l s o i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t a b l e are t h e c o n s t i t u e n t
These e f f e c t are
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t which problems o c c u r .
d i s c u s s e d i n f u r t h e r d e t a i l i n C h a p t e r 9.
A
TABLE 4-16
SUMMARY OF WASTEWATER CONSTITUENTS
HAVING POTENTIAL ADVERSE E F F E C T S
ON CROPS [ 2 9 ]
Constituent level
Problem and
related constituent
S a l i n i t y (EC,)
mmho/cm
NO
problem
~0.75
Specific ion toxicity

from root a b s o r p t i o n
Boron, mg/L
<0.5
~ n c r e a d i n g Severe
problems
problems
0.75-3.0
>3.0
0.5-2'
2.0-10.0
Crops a f f e c t e d
F r u i t and c i t r u s t r e e s 0.5-1.0 mg/L; f i e l d c r o p s

1 . 0 - 2 . 0 mg/L; g r a s s e s 2.0-10.0 mg/L
Sodium, n d j - s ~ ~ ~
3.0-9.0
29.0
Tree crops
C h l o r i d e , mg/L
142-355
>355
Tree crops
Specific ion toxicity

from f o l i a r a b s o r p t i o n
Sodium, mg/L
C h l o r i d e , mg/L
<69
>69
<lo6
>lo6
---
Crops i n a r i d c l i m a t e s o n l y
( s e e T a b l e 9-4)
F i e l d and v e g e t a b l e
crops under s p r i n k l e r
application
Miscellaneous
NH4-N
N03-N,
mg/L
HC03, mg/L
pH, u n i t s
a.
<5
5-30
<90
6.5-8.4
90-520
4.2-5.5
30
>520
<4.2 and
~8.5
Sugarbeets, potatoes,
cotton, grains
Fruit
Most c r o p s
A d j u s t e d sodium a d s o r p t i o n r a t i o .
T r a c e e l e m e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y z i n c , c o p p e r , and n i c k e l a r e o f
concern f o r phytotoxicity.
However, t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
t h e s e e l e m e n t s i n wastewaters i s w e l l below t h e t o x i c l e v e l
of a l l c r o p s a n d p h y t o t o x i c i t y c o u l d o n l y o c c u r a s a r e s u l t
of l o n g - t e r m a c c u m u l a t i o n o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s in t h e s o i l .
4.4
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n Treatment
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n treatment is provided f o r t h r e e reasons:

1.
P r o t e c t i o n o f p u b l i c h e a l t h as i t r e l a t e s t o h,uman
c o n s u m p t i o n of c r o p s o r c r o p b y p r o d u c t s or'. t o
d i r e c t exposure t o applied wastewater
2.
P r e v e n t i o n of n u i s a n c e c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g s t o r a g e
3.
Prevention
systems
of
operating
problems
in
distribution
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n treatment is n o t necessary f o r t h e SR process

t o a c h i e v e maximum t r e a t m e n t , e x c e p t i n t h e c a s e o f h a r m f u l
o r ' toxic
constituents
from
industrial
sources
(see
S e c t i o n 4.4.3).
The SR p r o c e s s i s c a p a b l e o f r e m o v i n g h i g h
levels
of
most
constituents
present
in
municipal
wastewaters,
a n d maximum u s e
s h o u l d b e made o f
this
renovative
capacity
in
a
complete
treatment
system.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e l e v e l of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t provided
s h o u l d b e t h e minimum n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e t h e t h r e e s t a t e d
objectives.
In general,
any a d d i t i o n a l p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t w i l l r e s u l t i n h i g h e r c o s t s and e n e r g y u s e .
The EPA h a s i s s u e d g e n e r a l g u i d e l i n e s f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e
l e v e l o f p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t n e c e s s a r y f o r SR s y s t e m s
[301
The g u i d e l i n e s a r e i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e
protection f o r public health:
A.
primary
treatment
- acceptable f o r isolated
l o c a t i o n s w i t h r e s t r i c t e d p u b l i c access a n d when
l i m i t e d t o c r o p s n o t f o r d i r e c t human c o n s u m p t i o n .
B.
B i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t by ponds o r i n p l a n t p r o c e s s e s
p l u s c o n t r o l of f e c a l c o l i f o r m c o u n t t o less t h a n
1 , 0 0 0 MPN/lOO
mL - a c c e p t a b l e
for controlled
a g r i c u l t u r a l i r r i g a t i o n e x c e p t f o r human f o o d c r o p s
t o b e e a t e n raw.
C.
B i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t by ponds o r i n p l a n t p r o c e s s e s
w i t h a d d i t i o n a l BOD o r SS c o n t r o l a s n e e d e d f o r
a e s t h e t i c s p l u s d i s i n f e c t i o n t o l o g mean o f 200/100
mL (EPA f e c a l c o l i f o r m c r i t e r i a f o r b a t h i n g w a t e r s )
- a c c e p t a b l e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n i n p u b l i c access a r e a s
s u c h a s p a r k s and g o l f c o u r s e s .
I n m o s t cases, s t a t e o r l o c a l p u b l i c h e a l t h o r w a t e r q u a l i t y
control
agencies
regulate
the
quality
of
municipal
wastewater t h a t c a n b e u s e d f o r SR.
The a p p r o p r i a t e s t a t e
a n d l o c a l a g e n c i e s s h o u l d be c o n t a c t e d e a r l y i n t h e d e s i g n
p r o c e s s to d e t e r m i n e s p e c i f i c r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e q u a l i t y of
a p p l i e d wastewater.
4.4.1
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n T r e a t m e n t f o r S t o r a g e and
During S t o r a g e
O b j e c t i o n a b l e o d o r s and n u i s a n c e c o n d i t i o n s c a n o c c u r i f
anaerobic conditions develop near the surface i n a storage
pond.
Two p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o
prevent odors:
1.
Reduce t h e o x y g e n demand o f t h e wastewater p r i o r t o

storage.
----- -
~ e s i g nt h e s t o r a g e pond a s a d e e p f a c u l t a t i , v e pond,
using appropriate.BOD loading.
2.
are
Complete
biological
treatment
and
d i s i n fecti,on
unnecessary p r i o r t o storage.
The l e v e l of t r e a t m e n t
provided
should n o t exceed
t h a t necessary t o control
odors.
F o r s t o r a g e ponds w i t h s h o r t d e t e n t i o n t i m e s ( l e s s
t h a n 1 0 t o 1 5 d a y s ) , a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e BOD of t h e
w a s t e w a t e r t o a r a n g e o f 40 t o 75 mg/L s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t
t o prevent odors.
An a e r a t e d c e l l i s a r e n o r m a l l y used f o r
BOD r e d u c t i o n i n s u c h c a s e s .
For s t o r a g e ponds w i t h l o n g e r
d e t e n t i o n t i m e s , BOD r e d u c t i o n b e f o r e s t o r a g e i s n o r m a l l y
n o t r e q u i r e d b e c a u s e t h e s t o r a g e pond i s s e r v i n g a s a
s t a b i l i z a t i o n pond.
Wastewater
undergoes t r e a t m e n t during s t o r a g e .
Suspended
s o l i d s , oxygen demand, n i t r o g e n , and m i c r o o r g a n i s m s a r e
reduced.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e e x t e n t of r e d u c t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e
l e n g t h of t h e s t o r a g e p e r i o d .
I n t h e c a s e of n i t r o g e n ,
r e m o v a l d u r i n g s t o r a g e c a n a f f e c t t h e d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n
of t h e SR p r o c e s s because t h e allowable h y d r a u l i c loading
r a t e may be g o v e r n e d by t h e n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o r r o f t h e
a p p l i e d wastewater.
N i t r o g e n removal i n s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s
c a n be s u b s t a n t i a l and d e p e n d s o n s e v e r a l f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g
detention t i m e ,
temperature,
pH,
and pond d e p t h .
A
p r e l i m i n a r y model t o e s t i m a t e n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l s i..n ponds
d u r i n g ice-free p e r i o d s h a s been d e v e l o p e d [ 3 1 ] :
where
Nt
No =
t =
n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n pond e f f l u e n t
( t o t a l N ) , mg/L
n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n e n t e r i n g pond
( t o t a l N ) , mg/L
detention time, d
more p r e c i s e model f o r p r e d i c t i n g ammonia n i t r o g e n

r e m o v a l s i n ponds i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P r o c e s s Desigl.1 Manual
o n W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t Ponds [ 3 2 ] .
A
N i t r o g e n i n pond e f f l u e n t i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h e ammonia o r
o r g a n i c form.
I n most c a s e s , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o a p p l y
n i t r o g e n i n t h e s e forms t o SR s y s t e m s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e h e l d
a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e and a r e a v a i l a b l e
f o r p l a n t u p t a k e f o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s t h a n n i t r a t e , which i s
mobile i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e .
Ammonia and o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n
which is c o n v e r t e d t o ammonia, a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s i r q b l e i n
f o r e s t s y s t e m s b e c a u s e many t r e e
n i t r a t e as e f f i c i e n t l y as ammonia.
species do not
take
up
A model
d e s c r i b i n g t h e r e m o v a l o f f e c a l c o l i f o r m s i n pond
systems h a s a l s o been developed [33]:
where
Cf =
effluent fecal coliform concentration,

No./100 mL
Ci
entering fecal coliform concentration,

No./100 mL
K = , 0 . 5 w a r m months;
0.03 c o l d m o n t h s
t =
"actual" detention t i m e , d
8 =
1.072
l i q u i d t e m p e r a t u r e , OC.
='
Based o n t h i s m o d e l , a c t u a l d e t e n t i o n t i m e s o f a b o u t 1 7 d a y s
a n d 2 1 d a y s would b e n e c e s s a r y a t 20 O C ( 6 8 OF) t o r e d u c e
t h e c o l i f o r m l e v e l o f a t y p i c a l d o m e s t i c wastewater t o
1 , 0 0 0 / 1 0 0 mL a n d 200/100 mL, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Thus, e f f l u e n t
from s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r s , i n many cases, may meet t h e EPA
coliform
recommendat i o n s
for
SR
systems
without
disinfection.
Removal o f v i r u s e s i n p o n d s i s a l s o q u i t e r a p i d a t w a r m
temperatures.
E s s e n t i a l l y complete removal of Coxsackie and
p o l i o v i r u s e s w a s o b s e r v e d a f t e r 20 d a y s a t 20 O C [ 3 4 ] .
4.4.2
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n Treatment t o P r o t e c t
~ i s t r i b u t i o nS y s t e m s
D e p o s i t i o n of s e t t l e a b l e s o l i d s a n d g r e a s e i n d i s t r i b u t i o n
l a t e r a l s or d i t c h e s c a n c a u s e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y
of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n network and o d o r s a t t h e p o i n t o f
application.
Coarse s o l i d s can cause s e v e r e clogging
problems i n s p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems.
Removal o f
( e . , primary
settleable
s o l i d s and
o i l and g r e a s e
s e d i m e n t a t i o n o r e q u i v a l e n t ) is t h e r e f o r e recommended a s a
f p p l i c a t i o n
treatment.
For s p r i n k l e r
s y s t e m s , i t h a s b e e n recommended t h a t t h e s i z e o f t h e
l a r g e s t p a r t i c l e i n t h e a p p l i e d wastewater b e l e s s t h a n one-
third the
plugging.
4.4.3
diameter
of
the
sprinkler
nozzle. to
avoid
~nd'ustrialPretreatment
Pollutants that are compatible with conventional secondary

treatment systems would generally be compatible with land
treatment systems.
As with conventional systems, pretreatment requirements will be necessary for such rzonstituents as fats, grease and oils, and sulfides to protect
collection systems and treatment components. Pret:reatment
requirements for conventional biological treatment will also
be sufficient for land treatment processes.
4.5
Loading Rates and Land Area Requirements
The hydraulic loading rate is the volume of wastewater

applied per unit area of ,land over at least one loading
cycle.
Hydraulic loading rate is commonly expressed in
cm/wk or m/yr (in./wk or ft/yr) and is used to compute the
land area required for the SR process.
The hydraulic
loading rate used for design is based on the more
restrictive of two limitin4 conditions--the capacity of the
soil profile to transmit water (soil permeability) or the
nitrogen concentration in water percolating beyond the root
zone.
separate case is considered for those systems in arid
regions where crop revenue is important and the wastewater
is used as a valuable source of irrigation water. F'or such
systems, the design hydraulic loading rate is usually based
on the irrigation requirements of the crop.
A
4.5.1
Hydraulic Loading Rate Based on Soil

Permeability
The general water balance equation with rates baseid on a

monthly time period is the basis of this procedure.
The
equation, with runoff of applied water assumed to be zero,
is:
where
L,
wastewater hydraulic loading rate
ET =
evapotranspiration rate
Pr =
precipitation rate
Pw =
percolation rate
The basic steps in the procedure are:

1.
Determine the design precipitation for each month

based on a 5 year return period frequency analysis
for monthly precipitation. Alternatively, use a 10
year return period for annual precipitation and
distribute it monthly based on the ratio of average
monthly to average annual precipitation.
2.
Estimate the monthly ET rate of the selected crop

(see Section 4.3.2.3).
3.
Determine by field test the minimum clear water

permeability of the soil profile.
If the minimum
soil permeability is variable over the site,
determine an average minimum permeability based on
areas of different soil types.
4.
Establish a maximum daily design percolation rate

that does not exceed 4 to 10% of minimum soil
permeability (see Figure 2-3).
Percentages on the
lower end of the scale are recommended for variable
or poorly defined soil conditions. The percentage
to use is a judgment decision to be made 'by the
designer. The daily percolation rate is determined
as follows:
5.
w' (daily) = permeability, cm/h (24 h/d)(4 to 10%)

Calculate
the monthly percolation rate with
adjustments for those months having periods of
nonoperation. Nonoperation may.be due to:
Crop management. Downtime must be allowed for harvesting,
planting, and cultivation as appIicable.
Precipitation. Downtime for precipitation is already
factored into the water balance computation.
No adjustments are necessary.
Freezing temperatures.
Subfreezing temperatures cause
soil frost that reduces surface infiltration rate. Operation is usually stopped when this occurs. The most conservative approach to adjusting the monthly percolation
rate for freezing conditions is to allow no operation for
days during the month when the mean temperature is less
than 0 OC (32 OF). A less conservative approachisto use
a lower minimum temperature. a he recommended lowest mean
temperature for operation is -4 OC (25 OF). Data sources
and procedures for determining the number of subsreezing
days during a month are presented in Sections 2.2.1.3,
2.2.2.2, and 4.6. Nonoperating days due to freezing conditions may also be estimated using the EPA-1 computer
program without precipitation constraints (see! Section
4.6.2).
For forest crops, operation can often continue
during subfreezing conditions.
6.
Seasonal crops.
When single annual crops
are grown,
wastewater is not normally applied during the
winter
season, although applications may occur after
harvest
and before the next planting.
The design monthly percolation rate may be calculated as follows:
C a l c u l a t e t h e monthly h y d r a u l i c loading r a t e using

The m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c l o a d i r k g s a r e
Equation 4-3.
summed t o y i e l d t h e a l l o w a b l e a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c
l o a d i n g r a t e based on s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y [L
The c o m p u t a t i o n p r o c e d u r e i s i l l u s t r a t e d
an
e x a m p l e f o r b o t h a r i d a n d humid c l i m a t e s i n
T a b l e 4-17.
The e x a m p l e is b a s e d o n s y s t e m s
growing permanent p a s t u r e and having s i m i l a r w i n t e r
w e a t h e r and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s .
Downtime is a l l o w e d
f o r f r e e z i n g c o n d i t i o n s , b u t p a s t u r e management
d o e s n o t r e q u i r e h a r v e s t i n g downtime.
ty
rate
based
on
soil
The
allowable
hydraulic
loading
p e r m e a b i l i t y c a l c u l a t e d by t h e above procedure L W ( p ) i s t h e
maximum r a t e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r s i t e a n d o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s ,
and t h i s rate w i l l be used f o r d e s i g n i f t h e r e are no o t h e r
c o n s t r a i n t s or l i m i t a t i o n s .
I f other limitations exist,
s u c h a s p e r c o l a t e n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o
c a l c u l a t e t h e a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rate based on
t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s a n d compare t h a t r a t e w i t h t h e L w ( p ) . The
lower of t h e t w o r a t e s i s u s e d f o r d e s i g n .
4.5.2
H y d r a u l i c L o a d i n g R a t e Based o n
Nitrogen L i m i t s
I n m u n i c i p a l wastewaters a p p l i e d t o SR s y s t e m s , n i t r o g e n is
u s u a l l y t h e l i m i t i n g c o n s t i t u e n t when p r o t e c t i o n o f p o t a b l e
If percolating water
g r o u n d water a q u i f e r s i s a c o n c e r n .
from a n S R s y s t e m w i l l e n t e r ' a p o t a b l e g r o u n d water a q u i f e r ,
thal,:
the
then
the
system
should
be
designed , such
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of n i t r a t e n i t r o g e n i n t h e r e c e i v i n g g r o u n d
water a t t h e p r o j e c t b o u n d a r y d o e s n o t e x c e e d 1 0 mg/L.
TABLE 4-17
WATER BALANCE TO DETERMINE HYDRAULIC LOADING
RATES BASED ON SOIL PERMEA'BILITY
cm
(2)
ET ,
Evapotranspiration
donth
Arid
climates
Jan
Feb
.
Mar
APr
May
Jun
Jul
AU9
SeP
Oct
NOV
Dec
Annual
Humid
climates
Jan
Feb
Mar
APr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
NOV
Dec
Annual
a.
b.
( 3)
Pr !
preclpitation
(4)=(2)- (3)
(5)
Pw ,
percolationa
Net ET
(6)=(4)+(5)
Lw(
wastewgkkr
hydraulic loading
2.3
5.1
9.7
13.2
17.7
21.8
23.9
22.1
14.7
10.9
5.1
2.5
149.0
1.3
1.3
3.0
5.8
10.9
14.7
15.7
15.0
10.9
5.8
2.5
1.3
88.2
Based on a soil profile with a moderately slow permeability

(0.5 to 1.5 cm/h), Pw(maxl = (0.5 cm/h) (24 h/d) (30 d/mo) (0.05) = 18.0
L, cannot be less than zero.
The a p p r o a c h t o m e e t i n g t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t i n v o l v e s f i r s t
e s t i m a t i n g a n a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rate based on a n
a n n u a l n i t r o g e n b a l a n c e L W n, and comparing t h a t t o t h e
previously
calculated
t o d e t e r m i n e which v a l u e
controls.
The d e t a i l e d
i n t h i s p r o c e d u r e are:
kg)
1.
Calculate
the
allowable
annual
hydraulic
loading
rate based on n i t r o g e n l i m i t s using t h e following

equation :
Lw(n) =
(C,)(Pr
ET)
1.
(1-f)(Cn)
(U)(10)
Cp
where
$(n)
allowable annual hydraulic loading rate

based on nitiogen limits, cm/yr
Cp =
nitrogen concentration in percolating water,

mg/L
Pr =
precipitation rate, cm/yr
ET =
evapotranspiration rate, cm/yr
U =
nitrogen uptake by crop, kg/ha*yr

(Tables 4-2, 4-11, 4-12)
Cn =
nitrogen concentration in applied

wastewater, mg/L (after losses in
preapplication treatment)
f =
fraction of applied nitrogen removed by

denitrification and volatilization (4.2.2).
Compare the value of LW(,) with the value of Lw(

calculated previously (Section 4.5.1).
If Lw(n
greater than L
do not continue the procedure
and use Lw
&P)dLsign.
If
is less than or
equal to Lw p r design should be based on Lw (n
The value od
calculated in Step 1 above may
be used to estimate land requirements for pu:rposes
of Phase 2 planning, but for final design the
procedure outlined in Steps 3 and 4 should be used.
?A
3.
Calculate an allowable monthly hydraulic I1:3ading

rate based on nitrogen limits using Equation 4-4
Monthly
with monthly values for Pr, ET, and U.
values for Pr and ET will have been determined
previously for the water balance table
(see
Section 4.5.1).
Monthly values for crop upta:lte (U)
can be estimated by assuming that annual crop
uptake is distributed monthly according to the same
ratio as monthly to total growing season ET.
If data on nitrogen uptake versus time,
that shown in Figure 4-2, are available
crops and climatic region specific to the
under design, then such information may be
develop a more accurate estimate of
nitrogen uptake values.
4.
Compare each month'ly value of

corresponding month$y value of
The
previously (Section '4.5.1 )
such as
f a r the
prroject
used to
monthly
with the
calci.11a
ted
of tthe two
hr~g?
v a l u e s s h o u l d be used f o r d e s i g n .
The d e s i g n
m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s a r e summed t o y i e l d
t h e design annual hydraulic loading r a t e .
The a b o v e p r o c e d u r e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Example 4-1
f o r a n a r i d c l i m a t e and a humid c l i m a t e u s i n g t h e
climatic
and
operating
conditions
given
in
T a b l e 4-17.
EXAMPLE 4-1:
LOADING RATE
CALCULATION
TO
ESTIMATE
Conditions
DESIGN
HYDRAULIC
Humid
Arid
25
336
25
336
climate
climate 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Applied wastewater nitrogen concentration (Cn), mg/L

Crop nitrogen uptake (U), kg/ha-yr
Denitrification + volatilization
(as a fraction of applied nitrogen)
Limiting percolate nitrogen concentration (Cpl, mg/L
Precipitation (Pr) and evapotranspiration (ET) (see
Table 4-17).
Calculations
1. Calculate allowable annual b(,)
using Equation 4-4.
(Cp)(Pr - ET) + (U)(10)
Lw(n) '
(1 f) (Cn) - Cp
Humid climate
0.2
10
0.2
10
2.
compare Lw(n) with

Humid climate
L~(,) = 386.2 cm/yr

L ~ ( ~=)148.0 cm/yr
.-.&(p)
controls. Use h ( ~ )for
deslgn (see Table 4-17)
3.
Arid climate
Arid climate
&(n)
= 203.3 cm/yr
L~(P) = 323.8 cm/yr
&
controls. Continue to
Step 3.
.-.
Compute allowable monthly h(n) using Equation 4-4 and estimated monthly nitrogen
uptake and monthly (Pr ET) values. Compare with monthly h ( p ) and use lower
value for design. Tabulate results. (Arid climate only)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
NOV
Dec
Annual
Design Lw, cm
4.4
9.2
15.0
18.6
22.6
27.6
30.0
27.9
18.7
14.5
7.7
5.6
201.8
The above p r o c e d u r e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a l l o w a b l e h ; y d r a u l i c
l o a d i n g r a t e based on, n i t r o g e n l i m i t s is based on t h e
following assumptions:
1.
A l l p e r c o l a t e n i t r o g e n i s i n t h e n i t r a t e form.
2.
N o s t o r a g e of - n i t t o g e n o c c u r s i n t h e s o i l pirofile.
3.
No m i x i n g and d i i u t i o n o f
s i t u ground w a t e r o c c u r s .
the percolate with
in
of t h e s e assumptions r e s u l t s i n a very c o n s e r v a t i v e
e s t i m a t e of p e r c o l a t e n i t r o g e n .
This procedure should
e n s u r e t h a t t h e n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e ground w a t e r
a t t h e p r o j e c t b o u n d a r i e s w i l l be l e s s t h a n t h e s p e c i f i e d
v a l u e o f Cp.
Use
A s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e e x a m p l e , n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g i s more l i k e l y
to govern t h e d e s i g n hydralulic loading r a t e f o r systems i n

The r e a s o n f o r t h i s
a r i d climates t h a n i n humid c l i m a t e s .
i s t h a t t h e n e t p o s i t i v e ET r a t e i n a r i d c l i m a t e s c a u s e s a n
i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e n i t r o g e n l e v e l i n t h e
p e r c o l a t i n g water.
F o r s y s t e m s i n a r i d c l i m a t e s , i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d e s i g n
m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s b a s e d on n i t r o g e n l i m i t s
w i l l be l e s s t h a n t h e i r r i g a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( I R ) o f t h e
crop.
The d e s i g n e r s h o u l d compare t h e d e s i g n L, w i t h t h e
i r r i g a t i o n requirement t o determine i f
this situation
exists.
If i t d o e s e x i s t , t h e d e s i g n e r h a s t h r e e o p t i o n s
available t o increase
s u f f i c i e n t l y t o m e e t t h e IR.
1.
Reduce t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a p p l i e d n i t r o g e n
through preapplication treatment.
2.
D e m o n s t r a t e t h a t s u f f i c i e n t m i x i n g and d i l u t i o n
(see S e c t i o n 3.6.2) w i l l occur with t h e e x i s t i n g
ground water t o p e r m i t h i g h e r v a l u e s of p e r c o l a t e
nitrogen
concentration
(Cp)
to
be
used
in
E q u a t i o n 4-4.
3.
Select a different
uptake ( u ) .
4.5.3
crop
with
higher
(Cn)
nitrogen
H y d r a u l i c Loading R a t e Based on
I r r i g a t i o n Requirements
F o r SR s y s t e m s i n a r i d r e g i o n s t h a t have c r o p p r o d u c t i o n f o r
revenue a s t h e o b j e c t i v e , t h e design hydraulic loading r a t e
c a n be d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e crop i r r i g a t i o n
requirement ( s e e Section
balance equation:
where
4.3.2.1)
using
Lw =
hydraulic loading rate
IR =
crop i r r i g a t i o n requirement
Pr =
precipitation
modified
water
The a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s d e t e r m i n e d by summing
the
monthly
hydraulic
loading
rates
computed
using
The c o m p u t a t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e i s s i m i l a r t o
t h a t o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n 4.5.1.
The m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e b a s e d o n I R s h o u l d b e
checked a g a i n s t t h e a l l o w a b l e rate based on n i t r o g e n l i m i t s
( L w ( n ) ) a s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.5.2.
4.5.4
The l a n d a r e a t o which w a s t e w a t e r i s a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d i s
termed a f i e l d .
In addition t o the f i e l d area, the total
l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e d f o r a n SR s y s t e m i n c l u d e s l a n d f o r
preapplication
treatment f a c i l i t i e s ,
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and
maintenance
buildings,
service
roads,
buffer
zones,
and
storage reservoir.
F i e l d area r e q u i r e m e n t s and b u f f e r z o n e
r e q u i r e m e n t s are d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
S t o r a g e area
requirements
are
discussed
in
Section
4.6
and
area
requirements
for
preapplication
treatment
facilities,
b u i l d i n g s , and s e r v i c e r o a d s a r e d e t e r m i n e d by s t a n d a r d
e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s manual.
4.5.4.1
F i e l d Area Requirements
The r e q u i r e d f i e l d area i s d e t e r m i n e d from t h e d e s i g n

hydraulic loading rate according t o t h e following equation:
where
A,
f i e l d a r e a , ha (acre)
a v e r a g e d a i l y commuaity a s t e w a t e r f l o w
( a n n u a l b a s i s ) , m3/d ( f tY / d )
AVs =
C =
Lw =
n e t l o s s o r g a i n i n s t o r e d wastewater volume
d u e t o p r e c i p i t a t i n , e v a p r a t i o n and s e e p a g e
a t s t o r a g e p o n d , mS/ y r ( f tS/ y r )
c o n s t a n t , 100 ( 3 , 6 3 0 )
d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , cm/yr
(in./yr)
The f i r s t c a l c u l a t i o n o f f i e l d area m u s t b e made w i t h o u t

c o n s i d e r i n g n e t g a i n o r loss from s t o r a g e .
After storage
pond area i s c o m p u t e d , t h e v a l u e o f AVs c a n b e computed f r o m
p r e c i p i t a t i o n and e v a p o r a t i o n d a t a .
F i e l d a r e a t h e n must be
r e c a l c u l a t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r AVs.
Using t h e d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e f o r t h e a r i d c l i m a t e
i.n Example 4-1, t h e f i e l d a r e a f o r a d a i l y w a s t e w a t e r f l o w
o f 1 , 0 0 0 m3/d, n e g l e c t i n g AVS, i s :
4.5.4.2
B u f f e r Zone R e q u i r e m e n t s
The o b j e c t i v e s o f b u f f e r z o n e s a r o u n d l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e s
are t o c o n t r o l p u b l i c access, a n d i n some cases, i m p r o v e
project aesthetics.
T h e r e a r e no u n i v e r s a l l y a c c e p t e d
criteria for determining t h e width of b u f f e r zones around S R
t r e a t m e n t systems.
I n p r a c t i c e , t h e w i d t h s o f b u f f e r .zones
r a n g e f r o m z e r o f o r r e m o t e s y s t e m s t o 60 m ( 2 0 0 f t ) o r more
f o r s y s t e m s u s i n g s p r i n k l e r s n e a r p o p u l a t e d areas. I n many
states,
t h e width of
buffer
zones
is p r e s c r i b e d
by
r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s and t h e d e s i g n e r s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e i f
such requirements e x i s t .
The r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b u f f e r z o n e s i n f o r e s t systen.ls a r e
g e n e r a l l y less t h a n tho,se of o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n systems
b e c a u s e f o r e s t s r e d u c e wind s p e e d s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e
p o t e n t i a l movement of a e r o s o l s .
Forests a l s o provide a
visual screen f o r the public.
A minimum b u f f e r z o n e w i d t h
o f 1 5 m ( 5 0 f t ) t h a t i s managed a s a m u l t i s t o r i e d f o r e s t
The
canopy w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t , t o m e e t a l l o b j e c t i v e s .
m u l t i s t o r i e d e f f e c t i s a c h i e ~ v e d by m a i n t a i n i n g m a t u r e t r e e s
on t h e i n s i d e e d g e o f t h e b u f f e r n e x t t o t h e i r r i g a t e d area
and f i l l i n g b e n e a t h t h e canopy and o u t t o t h e o u t s i d e edge
af t h e b u f f e r w i t h t r e e s t h a t grow t o a m o d e r a t e h e i g l h t and
have f u l l , dense canopies.
E v e r g r e e n s p e c i e s a r e thl12 b e s t
If existing
s e l e c t i o n i f year-round o p e r a t i o n is planned.
n a t u r a l f o r e s t s are u s e d f o r t h e b u f f e r , a minimum w i d t h o f
1 5 m may be s u f f i c i e n t t o meet t h e o b j e c t i v e s ,
an adequate vegetation density.
4.6
i f t h e r e is
I n a l m o s t a l l c a s e s , SR s y s t e m s r e q u i r e some s t o r a g e f o r
p e r i o d s when t h e amount o f a v a i l a b l e wastewater f l o w e x c e e d s
The a p p r o a c h u s e d t o
t h e design h y d r a u l i c loading rate.
d e t e r m i n e s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s is t o f i r s t e s t i m a t e a
s t o r a g e volume r e q u i r e m e n t u s i n g a w a t e r b a l a n c e c o m p u t a t i o n
o r c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s d e v e l o p e d t o estimate s t o r a g e n e e d s
based on o b s erv ed climatic v a r i a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i t e d
States.
The f i n a l d e s i g n volume t h e n i s d e t e r m i n e d by
a d j u s t i n g t h e e s t i m a t e d volume f o r n e t g a i n or l o s s d u e t o
p r e c i p i t a t i o n and e v a p o ~ c a t i o n u s i n g a m o n t h l y water b a l a n c e
o n t h e s t o r a g e pond.
T h e s e e s t i m a t i n g and a d j u s t m e n t
procedures are d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .
Some s t a t e s p r e s c r i b e a minimum s t o r a g e volume ( e . g . , , 1 0
The d e s i g n e r s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e i f s u c h
days storage )
storage requirements e x i s t .
a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r d o e s n o t need t o p a s s t h r o u g h t h e
storage reservoir.
I n c a s e s where p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t i s
s u i t a b l e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n , o n l y t h e water t h a t m u s t b e s t o r e d
need r e c e i v e p r e s t o r a g e t r e a t m e n t .
S t o r e d and f r e s h
wastewater i s t h e n b l e n d e d f o r a p p l i c a t i o n .
All
4.6.1
~ s t i m a t i o nof Volume Requirements Using
S t o r a g e Water B a l a n c e C a l c u l a t i o n s
An i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e o f t h e s t o r a g e volume r e q u i r e m e n t s may
be determined using a water balance c a l c u l a t i o n procedure.
The b a s i c s t e p s i n t h e p r o c e d u r e a r e i l l u s t r a t e d u s i n g t h e
a r i d c l i m a t e e x a m p l e from Example 4-1:
1.
T a b u l a t e t h e d e s i g n monthly h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e
a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 4-17.
2.
C o n v e r t t h e a c t u a l volume o f wastewater a v a i l a b l e
e a c h month t o u n i t s o f d e p t h ( c m ) u s i n g t h e
following relationship.
where
Wa
Qm =
depth of a v a i l a b l e wastewater, c m
volume o f a v a i l a b l e wastewater f o r t h e
month, m 3
f i e l d a r e a , ha
I n s e r t t h e r e s u l t s f o r e a c h month i n t o a w a t e r
b a l a n c e t a b l e , a s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e example i n
influent
Table
4-18.
In
some
communities,
wastewater flow v a r i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h t h e t i m e
of year.
The v a l u e s u s e d f o r Qm s h o u l d r e f l e c t
monthly
flow
variation
based
on
historical
flow
records.
I n t h i s example,
no monthly
v a r i a t i o n i s assumed.
TABLE 4-18
ESTIMATION O F STORAGE VOLUME REQUIREMENTS
U S I N G WATER BALANCE CALCULATIONS
cm
(1)
(2)
Lwr
Month
wastewater
hydraulic
loading
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
APr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
See
Annual
14.5
7.7
5.6
4.4
9.2
15.0
18.6
22.6
27.6
30.0
27.9
18.7
201.8
a.
b.
c.
(3)
War
available
wastewatera
(4)
=(3)-(2)
Change
in
storage
(5)
Cumulative
storage
Based o n a f i e l d a r e a o f 1 8 . 1 h a a n d 30,438 m3/mo

o f wastewater.
Rounding e r r o r .
Assume z e r o .
Maximum s t o r a g e month.
Compute t h e n e t change i n s t o r a g e e a c h month by

s u b t r a c t i n g t h e m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g from t h e
a v a i l a b l e w a s t e w a t e r i n t h e same month.
Compute t h e c u m u l a t i v e s t o r a g e a t t h e end of e a c h
month by a d d i n g t h e change i n s t o r a g e d u r i n g one
month t o t h e a c c u m u l a t e d q u a n t i t y from t h e g ~ r e v i o u s
month.
The c o m p u t a t i o n s h o u l d b e g i n w i t h t h e
r e s e r v o i r empty a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e l a r g e s t
storage period.
T h i s month i s u s u a l l y O c t o b e r o r
November, b u t i n some humid a r e a s it may be
F e b r u a r y o r March.
Compute t h e r e q u i r e d s t o r a g e volume u s i n g t h e
maximum c u m u l a t i v e s t o r a g e and t h e f i e l d a r e a a s
i n d i c a t e d below.
5.
R e q u i r e d s t o r a g e volume
= ( 4 4 . 4 cm)418 1 h a )
= 8.04 x 1 0 m 5
m / c m ) ( 1 04 m 2 / h a )
The a d v a n t a g e of u s i n g t h i s w a t e r b a l a n c e p r o c e d u r e t o
e s t i m a t e s t o r a g e volume r e q u i r e m e n t s is t h a t a l l f a c t o r s
t h a t a f f e c t s t o r a g e , i n c l u d i n g (1) s e a s o n a l c h a n g e s in,
p r e c i p i t a t i o n , e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , and w a s t e w a t e r f l o w ; and
( 2 ) downtime f o r p r e c i p i t a t i o n o r c r o p management a r e
accounted f o r i n t h e design h y d r a u l i c loading r a t e .
The
d i s a d v a n t a g e of t h i s p r o c e d u r e i s t h a t downtime f o r c o l d
w e a t h e r h a s t o be d e t e r m i n e d s e p a r a t e l y and added i n by
reducing allowed monthly p e r c o l a t i o n .
4.6.2
E s t i m a t e d S t o r a g e Volume R e q u i r e m e n t s
Using Computer Programs
The N a t i o n a l C l i m a t i c C e n t e r i n A s h e v i l l e , N o r t h C a r o l i n a ,
h a s conducted an e x t e n s i v e s t u d y of c l i m a t i c v a r i a t i o n s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e
v a r i a t i o n s on s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s o i l t r e a t m e n t
Based o n t h i s s t u d y , t h r e e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s ,
s y s t e m s (351.
a s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4-19, have b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o e s t i m a t e
t h e s t o r a g e d a y s r e q u i r e d when i n c l e m e n t w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s
p r e c l u d e land treatment system o p e r a t i o n .
TABLE 4-19
SUMMARY OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR DETERMINING
STORAGE FROM C L I M A T I C VARIABL'ES 1361
EPA
program
Applicability
Variables
Remarks
EPA-1
Cold c l i m a t e s
Mean temperature,
r a i n f a l l , snow depth
U s e s f r e e z e index
EPA- 2
Wet c l i m a t e s
Rainfall
EPA- 3
Moderate c l i m a t e s
Maximum and minimum

temperature, r a i n f a l l ,
'snow depth
~ t o r a b et o avoid
s u r f a c e runoff
Variation o f EPA-1
for more temperate
regions
Depending o n t h e d o m i n a n t c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s of a r e g i o n ,
o n e o f t h e t h r e e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s w i l l be m o s t s u i t a b l e .
The program b e s t s u i t e d t o a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n i s shown i n
F i g u r e 4-3.
The s t o r a g e d a y s a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r r e c u r r e n c e
i n t e r v a l s o f 2 , 4 , 1 0 , and 20 y e a r s .
A list
of s t a t i o n s
4-3 9
w i t h s t o r a g e d a y s f o r 1 0 a n d 20 y e a r r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l s
A
f r o m EPA c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s i s p r e s e n t e d i n A p p e n d i x F.
list of
244 s t a t i o n s f o r w h i c h EPA-1 h a s b e e n r u n i s
i n c l u d e d i n r e f e r e n c e [351.
To u s e t h e s e p r o g r a m s , c o n t a c t
t h e N a t i o n a l C l i m a t i c C e n t e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l O c e a n i c and
Atmospheric Administration
i n Asheville,
North C a r o l i n a
28801; a f e e is r e q u i r e d ,
Storage
days
required
for
crop
management
activities
( h a r v e s t i n g , p l a n t i n g , e t c . ) must be added to t h e computer
e s t i m a t e d s t o r a g e days due to weather to o b t a i n t h e total
s t o r a g e d a y s r e q u i r e d i n e a c h month.
The e s t i m a t e d r e q u i r e d
s t o r a g e volume
is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e
e s t i m a t e d number o f s t o r a g e d a y s i n e a c h m o n t h t i m e s t h e
a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w f o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g month.
4.6.3
F i n a l D e s i g n S t o r a g e Volume C a l c u l a t i o n s
T h e e s t i m a t e d s t o r a g e v o l u m e r e q u i r e m e n t o b t a i n e d b y water
balance c a l c u l a t i o n or computer programs must be a d j u s t e d t o
a c c o u n t f o r n e t g a i n o r loss i n volume d u e t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n
or e v a p o r a t i o n .
The mass b a l a n c e p r o c e d u r e i s i l l u s t r a t e d
b y Example 4-2 u s i n g a r i d c l i m a t e d a t a f r o m E x a m p l e 4-1 a n d
t h e e s t i m a t e d s t o r a g e v o l u m e f r o m T a b l e 4-18.
An e x a m p l e
f o r a s y s t e m i n a more humid c l i m a t e i s g i v e n i n A p p e n d i x E .
EXAMPLE 4-2:
REQUIREMENTS
1.
CALCULATIONS TO DETERMINE FINAL STORAGE VOLUME
using the initial estimated storage volume and an assumed storage pond depth
compatible with local conditions, calculate a required surface area for the
storage pond:
Vs (est)
(4-8)
As =
S
where As = area of storage pond, m2
VS(,,t)
= estimated storage volume, m3
ds = assumed pond depth, m
For the example, assume ds = 4 m
As = (8.02 x lo4 m3)
4 m
2.
Calculate the monthly net volume of water gained or-lost from storage due to
'
precipitation, evaporation, and seepage:
AVs = (Pr' E - seepage) (As)

m/cm)
(4-9)
where AVs = net gain or loss in storage volume, m3
Pr = design monthly precipitation, cm
E = monthly evaporation, cm
AS = storage pond area
Estimated lake evaporation in the local area should be used for E, if available.
Potential ET values may be used if no other data are available. Tabulate monthly
values and sum to determine the net annual AVs.
For example, assume:
E = ET
Seepage = 0
Results are tabulated in Column (2) of Table 4-20.
!?IN&
Month
Oct
NOV
Dsc
Jan
Feb
Mar
APr
May
Jun
Jul
Bug
Ssp
Annual
a.
b.
AVs
Net
gain/loss
-2.0
-0.7
0.0
0.1
-0.5
-1.4
-2.2
-3.4
-4.3
-4.8
-4.4
-2.9
-26.5
TABLE 4-20
STORAGE VOLUME REQUIREMENT CALCULATIONS
m3 x 103
Q
vw
JVq
~ v a ~ ! a b l e Applied
wastewater .wastewater Change in storage
24.3
12.9
9.4
7.4
15.4
25.2
31.2
37.9
46.3
50.3
46.8
31.4
338.5
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
30.4
365
4.1
16.8
21.0
23.1
14.5
3.8
-3.0
-10.9
-20.2
-24.7
-20.8
-3.9
Curnulat,ive
storage
-0.2'~
4.1
20.91
41.S1
65.0
79. S
83.2~~
80.14
69.4,
49.2'
24. S
3. 7
Rounding error (assume zero).

Maximum design storage volume.
3.
Tabulate the volume of wastewater available each month (Om) accounting for any
expected monthly flow variations. For the example, monthly flow is constant..
4.
Calculate an adjusted field area to account for annual net gain/loss in, storage
volume.
= adjusted field area, ha

= annual net storage gain/loss, m3
&Qm = annual available wastewater, m3
L, = design annual hydraulic loading rate, cm
For the example:
26.5 x lo3
A,,,* = 365 x lo3
(201.8) (104)
where
Awl
CAVs
Note:
5.
The final design calculation reduced the field area

from 18.1 ha to 16.8 ha.
Calculate the monthly volume of applied wastewater using the design monthly
hydraulic loading rate and adjusted field area:
vW = (h)
(104 m2/ha) (10-2 m/cm)
where Vw = monthly volume of applied wastewater, m3
Lw = design monthly hydraulic loading rate, cm
Awl = adjusted field area, ha
(4-111
6.
Calculate the net change in storage each month by subtracting the monthly
applied wastewater (Vw) from the sum of available wastewater (Qm) and net
storage gain/loss (AVs) in the same month. Results are tabulated in
Column ( 5 ) of Table 4-20.
7.
Calculate the cumulative storage volume at the end of each month by adding '
the change in storage during one month to the accumulated total from the
previous month. The computation should begin with the cumulative storage
equal to zero at the beginning of tde largest storage period. The maximum
monthly cumulative volume is the storage volume requirement used for design.
Design Vs = 83.3 x 103 m3
8.
A d j u s t t h e assumed v a l u e o f s t o r a g e pond d e p t h
d e s i g n s t o r a g e volume u s i n g E q u a t i o n 4-12.
ids) t o y i e l d t h e required
ds = v ~ / A ~
For t h e example
dS =
(4-12,
83.3 x lo3 g3
2 x 104 mL
I f t h e pond d e p t h c a n n o t b e a d ? u s t e d d u e t o s u b s u r f a c e c o n s t r a i n t s , t h e n t h e
s u r f a c e a r e a must b e a d j u s t e d t o o b t a l n t h e r e q u l r e c ! d e s l g r . volume.
However,
l f t h e s u r f a c e a r e a i s changed, a n o t h e r l t e r a t l o r . o f t h e above p r o c e d u r e wll:
b e n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e t h e v a l u e o f n e t s t o r a g e g a l n / ' l o s s 8 ~ \ 1 s ) w 1 1 1b e different
f o r a new pond a r e a .
S t o r a g e Pond D e s i g n C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
4.6.4
Most
agricultural
storage
ponds
are
constructed
of
homogeneous e a r t h embankments, t h e d e s i g n of which c o n f o r m s
t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f s m a l l dam d e s i g n .
Depending on t h e
m a g n i t u d e o f t h e p r o j e c t , s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s may g o v e r n t h e
design.
I n C a l i f o r n i a , f o r example, any r e s e r v o i r w i t h
embankments h i g h e r t h a n 1 . 8 m ( 6 f t ) and a c a p a c i t y i n
(50 acre-ft)
is s u b j e c t to s t a t e
e x c e s s o f 6 1 , 8 0 0 m3
r e g u l a t i o n s o n d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f dams, and p l a n s
must be reviewed and a p p r o v e d by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e agency.
Design c r i t e r i a and i n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e
U.S. B u r e a u o f R e c l a m a t i o n p u b l i c a t i o n , D e s j g n o f S m a l l Dams
[37].
I n many c a s e s , i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t h a t a c o m p e t e n t
soils e n g i n e e r be c o n s u l t e d f o r p r o p e r s o i l s a n a l y s e s and
s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o f f o u n d a t i o n s and embankments.
to s t o r a g e volume,
the
principal
design
d e p t h and area.
The d e s i g n d e p t h and a r e a
d e p e n d o n t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e pond a n d t h e t o p o g r a p h y a t t h e
I f t h e s t o r a g e pond i s t o a l s o s e r v e a s a
pond s i t e .
f a c u l t a t i v e p o n d , t h e n a minimum w a t e r d e p t h o f a t l e a s ' t 0 . 5
t o 1 m ( 1 . 5 t o 3 f t ) s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e pond when
The a r e a m u s t a l s o b e
t h e s t o r e d v o l u m e i s a t a minimum.
s u f f i c i e n t t o meet t h e BOD pond l o a d i n g c r i t e r i a f o r t h e
aerators can reduce a r e a
local climate.
The u s e of
requirements.
T h e maximum d e p t h d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r t h e
r e s e r v o i r is c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h d i k e s o r e m b a n k m e n t s o n l e v e l
g r o u n d o r i s c o n s t r u c t e d b y damming a n a t u r a l w a t e r c o u r s e
or ravine.
Maximum d e p t h s o f d i k e d p o n d s t y p i c a l l y r a n g e
f r o m 3 t o 6 m (9 t o 1 8 f t ) .
Other design considerations
i n c l u d e wind f e t c h , and t h e need f o r r i p r a p and l i n i n g .
T h e s e a s p e c k s of d e s i g n are c o v e r e d i n s t a n d a r d e n g i n e e r i n g
r e f e r e n c e s a n d a s s i s t a n c e i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e f r o m l o c a l SCS
o f f ices.
In
addition
parameters
are
4.7
~ i s t r i b u t i o nS y s t e m
Design of
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n system involves t w o s t e p s :
(1) s e l e c t i o n of t h e t y p e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m , a n d
( 2 ) d e t a i l e d d e s i g n of s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s .
Emphasis i n t h i s
s e c t i o n i s p l a c e d o n c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n of t h e t y p e o f
d i s t r i b u t i o n system.
Design p r o c e d u r e s f o r S R d i s t r i b u t i o n
Only b a s i c d e s i g n
s y s t e m s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n A p p e n d i x E.
p r i n c i p l e s f o r each t y p e of d i s t r i b u t i o n system a r e pres e n t e d i n t h e m a n u a l , and t h e d e s i g n e r i s r e f e r r e d t o
several standard a g r i c u l t u r a l engineering references f o r
further design details.
Certain design requirements of
d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s f o r f o r e s t c r o p s y s t e m s d o n o t conform
to s t a n d a r d a g r i c u l t u r a l i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e and a r e d i s cussed under a s e p a r a t e heading.
4.7.1
S u r f a c e D i s t r i b u t i o n Systems
With s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y st e m s , w a t e r is a p p l i e d t o t h e
ground s u r f a c e a t one end of a f i e l d and a l l o w e d t o s p r e a d
over
the
f i e l d by g r a v i t y .
Conditions favoring the
s e l e c t i o n of a s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m i n c l u d e t h e
following:
1.
C a p i t a l is n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e i n i t i a l investment
r e q u i r e d f o r more s o p h i s t i c a t e d s y s t e m s .
2.
S k i l l e d l a b o r is a v a i l a b l e a t r e a s o n a b l e r a . t e s t o
o p e r a t e a s u r f a c e system.
3.
Surface
topography
of
land
requires
little
a d d i t i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n t o make u n i f o r m g r a d e s f o r
surface distribution.
The p r i n c i p a l
l i m i t a t i o n s or
systems include t h e following:
costs
disadvantages
may
be
excessive
of
on
surface
1.
Land l e v e l i n g
terrain.
uneven
2.
Uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n n o t be a c h i e v e d w i t h , h i g h l y
permeable soils.
3.
Runoff c o n t r o l and a r e t u r n s y s t e m m u s t be p r o v i d e d
when a p p l y i n g w a s t e w a t e r .
4.
S k i l l e d l a b o r is u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e p r o p e r
performance.
5.
P e r i o d i c m a i n t e n a n c e of 1eve.led s u r f a c e is r e q u i r e d
to m a i n t a i n uniform grades.
S u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s may be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two
g e n e r a l t y p e s : r i d g e and f u r r o w and g r a d e d b o r d e r ( a l s o
The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s
t e r m e d bermed c e l l ) .
of t h e s e methods a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4-4.
A summary
o f v a r i a t i o n s of t h e b a s i c s u r f a c e methods and c o n d i t i o n s
D e t a i l s of
f o r t h e i r u s e i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4-21.
p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n a r e p r e s e n t e d i n Appendix E.
4.7.2
S p r i n k l e r D i s t r i b u t i o n Systems
S p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s s i m u l a t e r a i n f a l l by c r e a t i n g
a r o t a t i n g j e t of w a t e r t h a t b r e a k s up i n t o s m a l l d r o p l e t s
t h a t f a l l to the f i e l d surface.
The a d v a n t a g e s and
d i s a d v a n t a g e s of s p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems r e l a t i v e t o
s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s a r e summarized i n T a b l e 4-22.
4.7.2.1
Types of S p r i n k l e r Systems
I n t h i s manual, s p r i n k l e r systems a r e c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e i r movement d u r i n g and between a p p l i c a t i o n s b e c a u s e
t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c determines t h e procedure f o r design.
T h e r e a r e t h r e e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s of s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s b a s e d
on
movement:
(1)
solid
set,
(2)
move-stop,
and
A summary of t h e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f
( 3 ) c o n t i n u o u s move.
s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s u n d e r e a c h c a t e g o r y is g i v e n i n T a b l e 4-23
along with respective operating c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
4.7.2.2
S p r i n k l e r D i s t r i b u t i o n Systems f o r F o r e s t
The r e q u i r e m e n t s of d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s f o r f o r e s t s a r e
somewhat d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l and t u r f
crops.
Solid-set
i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s a r e t h e most commonly used
systems i n f o r e s t s .
B u r i e d s y s t e m s a r e less s u s c e p t i b l e t o
damage from i c e and snow and d o n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h f o r e s t
management
activities
(thinning,
harvesting,
and
regeneration).
A c e n t e r p i v o t i r r i g a t i o n system h a s been
used i n Michigan f o r i r r i g a t i o n of C h r i s t m a s trees because
t h e i r g r o w t h h e i g h t would n o t e x c e e d t h e h e i g h t o f t h e p i v o t
arms.
T r a v e l i n g g u n s have a l s o been u s e d t o i r r i g a t e s h o r t t e r m r o t a t i o n hardwood p l a n t a t i o n s .
d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.3.2.4,
the design sprinkler
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e i s u s u a l l y n o t l i m i t e d by t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n
c a p a c i t y of m o s t f o r e s t s o i l s . . S t e e p g r a d e s ( u p t o 3 5 % ) , i n
g e n e r a l , do not l i m i t t h e design hydraulic loading r a t e p e r
a p p l i c a t i o n f o r f o r e s t systems.
In f a c t , hydraulic loadings
p e r a p p l i c a t i o n may be i n c r e a s e d up t o 1 0 % o n g r a d e s g r e a t e r
t h a n 1 5 % b e c a u s e of t h e h i g h e r d r a i n a g e r a t e .
Precautions
must be t a k e n t o make s u r e t h a t w a t e r d r a i n i n g t h r o u g h t h e
s u r f a c e s o i l d o e s n o t a p p e a r a s r u n o f f f u r t h e r down t h e
slope.
As
R I D G E AND FURROW METHOD

US l NG GATED P l PE
(a)
(b)
GRADED BORDER METHOD
FIGURE 4-4
SURFACE D I S T R I B U T I O N METHODS
TABLE 4 - 2 1
SURFACE D I S T R I B U T I O N METHODS AND
C O N D I T I O N S OF USE [ 3 8 ]
--
S u i t a b i l i t i e s and conditions of use

Distribution
crops
Topography
Water q u a n t i t y
Soils
Remarks
Ridge and
furrow
Straight
furrows
Vegetables, row
crops, orchards,
vineyards
Uniform grades not exceeding 2% f o r c u l t i vated crops
Flows up to
0.34 m3/s
Can be used on a l l
s o i l s i f length of
f u r r w s is adjusted
t o type of s o i l
Best s u i t e d f o r crops t h a t
cannot be flooded. High
irrigation efficiency
possible. Well adapted t o
mechanized farming.
Graded
contour
furrows
Vegetables, f i e l d
crops, orchards,
vineyards
Undulating land with

slopes up to 8%
Flows up t o
0.08 m3/s
s o i l s of medium . t o
f i n e texture t h a t
do n o t crack on
Wing
Rodent c o n t r o l is e s s e n t i a l .
Brosion hazard from heavy
r a i n s o r water breaking o u t
of furrows. High labor
requirement f o r i r r i g a t i o n .
Corrugations
Close-spaced crops
such a s grain,
pasture, a l f a l f a
Uniform grades of up
t o 10%
Flows up t o
0.03 m3/s
Best on s o i l s of
medium t o f i n e
texture
High water losses possible

from deep percolation o r
surface runoff. Care must
be used i n l i m i t i n g s i z e of
flow i n corrugations t o
reduce s o i l erosion. L i t t l e
land grading required.
Basin
furrws
Vegetables, cotton,
maize, and other
row crops
Relatively f l a t land
Can be used with

most s o i l types
Similar t o small rectangular

basins, except crops a r e
planted on ridges.
Zigzag
furrows
Vineyards, bush
b e r r i e s , orchards
Flows required
a r e usually l e s s
than f o r s t r a i g h t
furrows
Used on s o i l s with
low intake r a t e s
This method i s used t o slow

t h e flow of water i n furrows
t o increase water penetration into soil.
Can be adapted
t o streams of
various s i z e s
Suitable f o r s o i l s
of high o r low int a k e r a t e s ; should
n o t be used on
s o i l s t h a t tend to
praddle
High i n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t s .
Considerable labor
required f o r i r r i g a t i n g .
When used f o r closespaced crops, a high
percentage of land is
used f o r levees and
d i s t r i b u t i o n ditches.
nigh e f f i c i e n c i e s , o f
water use possible.
Uniform grades of l e s s
than 1%
Graded
border
Small
rectangular
basins
Grain, f i e l d crops,
orchards, r i c e
Relatively f l a t land;
area within each basin
should be leveled
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TABLE 4-22
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES O F S P R I N K L E R
D I S T R I B U T I O N SYSTEMS R E L A T I V E T O SURFACE
D I S T R I B U T I O N SYSTEMS
Advantages
Disadvantages
Can be used on porous and v a r i a b l e s o i l s .
I n i t i a l c a p i t a l c o s t can be high.
Can be used on shallow s o i l p r o f i l e s .
Energy c o s t s a r e higher than f o r s u r f a c e

systems.
Can be used on r o l l i n g t e r r a i n .
Can be used on e a s i l y eroded s o i l s .
Can be used with small flows.
S k i l l e d l a b o r n o t required.
Can be used where high water t a b l e s e x i s t .
Higher humidity l e v e l s can i n c r e a s e

d i s e a s e p o t e n t i a l , f o r some crops.
S p r i n k l e r a p p l i c a t i o n of high s a l i n i t y
water can cause l e a f burn.
Can be used f o r l i g h t , f r e q u e n t
applications.
Water d r o p l e t s can cause blossom damage t o

f r u i t crops o r reduce t h e q u a l i t y of some
f r u i t and vegetable crops.
Control and measurement of a p p l i e d water

is easier.
Portable o r moving systems can g e t stuck

i n some c l a y s o i l s .
I n t e r f e r e n c e with c u l t i v a t i o n i s minimized.
Higher a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c i e s a r e
usually p o s s i b l e .
Tailwater c o n t r o l and r e a p p l i c a t i o n
n o t u s u a l l y required.
Higher l e v e l s of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n treatment
g e n e r a l l y a r e required f o r s p r i n k l e r systems
than f o r s u r f a c e systems t o prevent operating
problems (clogging).
~ i s t r i b u t i o nis s u b j e c t t o wind d i s t o r t i o n .
Wind d r i f t of sprays increases.the p o t e n t i a l
f o r p u b l i c exposure t o wastewater.
TABLE 4-23
S P R I N K L E R SYSTEM C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S
Typical
application
r a t e , cm/h
Labor
required
Nozzle
per
pressure
a p p l i c a t i o n , range,
h/ha
~/cm2
S i z e of
single
system,
ha
Shape of
field
Solid s e t
Permanent
Portable
Unlimited
Unlimited
Any shape
Any shape
Move-s top
Hand move
End tow
Side wheel r o l l
S t a t i o n a r y gun
<1-16
8-16
8-32
8-16
Any shape
Rectangular
Rectangular
Any .shape
16-41
16-65
16-130
Any ghape
circulara
Rectangular
Continuous move
Traveling gun
Center p i v o t
Linear move
a.
Travelers a r e a v a i l a b l e t o allow i r r i g a t i o n of any shape f i e l d .
Maximum
grade, %
Maximum
crop
height,
S o l i d s e t s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s f o r f o r e s t c r o p s have some
s p e c i a l design requirements.
S p a c i n g of s p r i n k l e r h e a d s
must be closer and o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s l o w e r i n f o r e s t s t h a n
o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n s y s t e m s b e c a u s e of t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e from
t r e e t r u n k s and l e a v e s and p o s s i b l e damage t o b a r k . An 1 8 m
( 6 0 f t ) s p a c i n g between l s p r i n k l e r s and a 24 m ( 8 0 f t )
s p a c i n g between l a t e r a l s h a s p r o v e n t o be a n a c c e p t a b l e
s p a c i n g f o r f o r e s t e d a r e a s [39].
This spacinc;~, with
s p r i n k l e r o v e r l a p , p r o v i d e s good w a s t e w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n a t
a r e a s o n a b l e cost. O p e r a t i n g p e s s u r e s a t t h e n o z z l e should
a l t h o u g h p r e s s u r e s up t o
n o t e x c e d 38 FJ/cm2 ( 5 5 ib/in.'),
59 N/cm5
(85 i
n
2 may be used w i t h m a t u r e o r t h i c k b a r k e d hardwood s p e c i e s .
The s p r i n k l e r risers s h o u l d be
h i g h enough t o r a i s e t h e s p r i n k l e r above most of t h e
u n d e r s t o r y v e g e t a t i o n , b u t g e n e r a l l y n o t exceedincl 1 . 5 m
(5 f t ) .
L o w - t r a j e c t o r y s p r i n k l e r s s h o u l d be used s o t h a t
water i s n o t thrown i n t o t h e t r e e c a n o p i e s , p a r t i c u : l . a r l y i n
t h e w i n t e r when ice b u i l d u p on p i n e s and o t h e r e v e r g r e e n
trees c a n c a u s e t h e t r e e s t o be b r o k e n o r u p r o o t e d .
A number of d i f f e r e n t methods of a p p l y i n g w a s t e w a t e ~ : :d u r i n g
subfreezing
temperatures
in
the
winter
have
been
attempted.
T h e s e r a n g e from v a r i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f
furrow
and
rotating
and
nonrotating
sprinklers
to
subterranean applications.
G e n e r a l p r a c t i c e i s t o u s e lowt r a j e c t o r y , s i n g l e n o z z l e i m p a c t - t y p e s p r i n k l e r s , o r low
t r a j e c t o r y , double nozzle hydraulic driven s p r i n k l e r s .
A
s p r a y n o z z l e used a t W e s t Dover, Vermont, i s shown i n
F i g u r e 4-5.
I n s t a l l a t i o n of a b u r i e d s o l i d - s e t i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m i n
e x i s t i n g f o r e s t s must be d o n e w i t h c a r e t o a v o i d e:~:cessive
damage t o t h e t r e e s o r s o i l .
Alternatively, solid-set
s y s t e m s c a n be p l a c e d o n t h e s u r f a c e i f a d e q u a Q e l i n e
d r a i n a g e is p r o v i d e d ( s e e F i g u r e 4 - 6 ) .
For buried systems,
s u f f i c i e n t v e g e t a t i o n must b e removed d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o
ensure
ease
of
installation
while
minimizii~g site
d i s t u r b a n c e so t h a t s i t e p r o d u c t i v i t y i s n o t d e c r e a s e d o r
e r o s i o n hazard increased.
A 3 m wide ( 1 0 f t ) p a t h c l e a r e d
Following
f o r each
l a t e r a l m e e t s these objectives.
c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e d i s t u r b e d a r e a must be mulched or' s e e d e d
t o restore i n f i l t r a t i o n and p r e v e n t . e r o s i o n .
During
o p e r a t i o n of t h e land t r e a t m e n t system, a 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t )
r a d i u s s h o u l d be k e p t c l e a r a r o u n d e a c h s p r i n k l e r , ,
This
p r a c t i c e a l l o w s b e t t e r d i . s t r i b u t i o n and more c o n v e n i e n t
o b s e r v a t i o n of s p r i n k l e r o p e r a t i o n .
Spray d i s t r i b u t i o n
p a t t e r n s w i l l stil-1 n o t m e e t a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a n d a r d s , b u t
t h i s i s n o t as i m p o r t a n t i n f o r e s t s b e c a u s e t h e r o o t s a r e
q u i t e extensive.
a.
c.
SPRAYING
L I N E DRAINED
S M A L L AMOI.INT O F I C E H A S F O R M E D TO B L O C K
R I G H T H A L F OF NOZZLE.
BRASS TUBE L E F T
H A L F I S OPEN A N D READY FOR N E X T SPRAY
CYCLE.
b.
DRAINING
B R A S S T U B E I N L E F T H A L F DRA I N S Q U I C K L Y ,
U N T I L L I Q U I D L E V E L I S BELOW I T S T O P .
T H E N O N L Y R I G H T H A L F C O N T I N U E S TO O M I N .
d.
N E X T SPRAY CYCLE
.WATER l N l T . l A L L Y S P R A Y S THROUGH THE BRASS

TUBE ON THE L E F T S I D E THE H E A T FROM
THE L I Q U I D M E L T S THE I C E PLUG B L O C K I N G
THE R I G H T H A L F O F THE N O Z Z L E A N 0 SPRAYI N 6 RESUMES I N THE NORMAL MANNER AS
SHOlbN I N a
FIGURE 4-5
FAN NOZZ LE USED FOR SPRAY APPLICATION, AT WEST DOVER, VERMONT
F l GURE 4-6
SOLID SET SPRINKLERS WITH
SURFACE P I PE I N A FOREST SYSTEM
4.7.3
S e r v i c e L i f e of D i s t r i b u t i o n System
Components
The e x p e c t e d
service
l i f e of
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n system
c o m p o n e n t s i s a d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d m u s t be u s e d t o
develop d e t a i l e d c o s t comparison.
The s u g g e s t e d s e r v i c e
l i v e s of common d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s a r e l i s t e d i n
T a b l e 4-24.
4.8
D r a i n a g e a n d Runoff C o n t r o l
P r o v i s i o n s t o improve o r c o n t r o l s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e a r e
s o m e t i m e s n e c e s s a r y w i t h SR s y s t e m s t o remove e x c e s s w a t e r
f r o m t h e r o o t z o n e o r t o remove s a l t s f r o m t h e r o o t z o n e
when t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t c r o p g r o w t h .
Control
o f s u r f a c e r u n o f f i s n e c e s s a r y f o r SR s y s t e m s * u s i n g s u r f a c e
d i s t r i b u t i o n methods.
I n humid a r e a s w i t h i n t e n s e r a i n f a l l s , c o n t r o l of s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t
e r o s i o n and may be h e l p f u l i n r e d u c i n g t h e amount of w a t e r
e n t e r i n g t h e s o i l p r o f i l e and t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g o r e l i m i n ating
the
need
for
subsurface
drainage.
Design
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r d r a i n a g e and r u n o f f c o r i t r o l ' p r o v i s i o n s
a r e discussed i n t h e following sections.
4.8.1.
S u b s u r f a c e Drainage Systems
S u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s a r e used i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e
i s r e s t r i c t e d by
natural
rate
of
subsurface drainage
r e l a t i v e l y impermeable l a y e r s i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e n e a r t h e
s u r f a c e o r by h i g h ground w a t e r .
the
r e s t r i c t i v e l a y e r , s h a l l o w ground w a t e r t a b l e s can form t h a t
e x t e n d i n t o t h e r o o t zone and even t o t h e s o i l s u r f a c e .
The m a j o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t is t h e
maintenance of a n a e r o b i c zone i n t h e upper s o i l p r o f i l e .
Many o f t h e wastewater r e m o v a l m e c h a n i s m s r e q u i r e a n a e r o b i c
environment to function m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y . A t r a v e l d i s t a n c e
o f 0 . 6 t o 1 m ( 2 t o 3 f t ) t h r o u g h a e r o b i c s o i l is c o n s i d e r e d
t h e minimum d i s t a n c e
t o a c h i e v e t r e a t m e n t by t h e S R
process.
T h e r e f o r e , a w a t e r t a b l e d e p t h of 1 m ( 3 f t ) or
more i s d e s i r a b l e f r o m a w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t s t a n d p o i n t .
TABLE 4-24
S U G G E S T E D S E R V I C E L I F E FOR COYPONENTS O F
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEY [ 4 0 ]
Servise lifea
~ o u r s b years
Well a n d c a s l n ~
P m g p l a c t housinq
Punp, t u r b i n e
Bowl ( a b o u t 5 0 i o f c o s t o f pump u n l t )
Column, e t c .
Pump, c e n t r i f u g a l
Power t r a n s m i s s i o n
Gear head
V-belt
F l a t b e l t , r u b b e r and f a b r i c
Flat belt, leather
Power u n l t s
E l e c t r i c motor
Diesel engine
Gasoline o r d i s t i l l a t e
Air cooled
Water c o o l e d
Propane engine
Open f a r m d i t c h e s ( p e r m a n e n t )
Concrete structures
Concrete p i p e systems
Wood f l u m e s
Pipe, s u r f a c e , gated
P i p e , w a t e r works c l a s s
Pipe, s t e e l , c o a t e d , underground
P i p e , aluminum, s p r i n k l e r u s e
Pipe, steel, c o a t e d , s u r f a c e u s e o n l y
Pipe, steel galvanized, s u r f a c e o n l y
P i p e , wood b u r i e d
S p r i n k l e r heads
S o l i d set s p r i n k l e r system
Center p i v o t s p r i n k l e r system
S i d e r o l l t r a v e l i n g system
T r a v e l i n g gun s p r i n k l e r system
T r a v e l i n g gun hose system
Land g r a d i n g C
~eservoirs~
a.
b.
c.
d.
--
23
--
13
16,300
32,000
32,000
16
16
30,300
6,000
10,000
20,000
15
3
5
10
50,000
28,000
25
1.1
8 , OSO
18,000
28,000
9
11
---
---
--
--
---
--
--
---
---
---
--
---
20
20
30
S
10
40
20
15
10
15
20
8
20
10-14
15-20
10
4
None
None
C e r t a i n i r r i g a t i o n e q u i p m e n t may h a v e a s h o r t e r l i f e
when u s e d i n a w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m .
T h e s e h o u r s may b e u s e d f o r y e a r - r o u n d o p e r a t i o n .
The c o m p a r a b l e p e r i o d i n y e a r s was b a s e d o n a
s e a s o n a l u s e o f 2,000 h/yr.
Some s o u r c e s d e p r e c i a t e l a n d l e v e l i n g i n 7 t o 1 5
years.
However, i f p r o p e r a n n u a l m a i n t e n a n c e i s
practiced, f i g u r e only i n t e r e s t on t h e l e v e l i n g
costs.
U s e i n t e r e s t on c a p i t a l i n v e s t e d I n w a t e r
r i g h t purchase.
Except where s i l t i n g from watershed above w i l l f i l l
reservoir i n an estimated period of years.
F o r SR s y s t e m s w h e r e wastewater t r e a t m e n t and maximum

h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e are t h e d e s i g n o b j e c t i v e s ,
the
p r e s e n c e o f e x c e s s m o i s t u r e i n t h e r o o t zone is of l i m i t e d
c o n c e r n f o r c r o p s b e c a u s e water t o l e r a n t c r o p s a r e g e n e r a l l y
s e l e c t e d f o r such systems.
However, r e s t r i c t i v e s u b s u r f a c e
l a y e r s and r e s u l t i n g h i g h water t a b l e s l i m i t t h e a l l o w a b l e
therefore,
the design hydraulic
p e r c o l a t i o n rate and,
loading
rate.
Subsurface
drains
placed
above
the
r e s t r i c t i v e l a y e r e l i m i n a t e t h e e f f e c t o f t h a t l a y e r on
p e r c o l a t i o n and a l l o w t h e d e s i g n p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e t o be
b a s e d o n more p e r m e a b l e o v e r l y i n g s o i l h o r i z o n s .
The d e s i g n
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rate is t h e r e b y i n c r e a s e d .
I n a r i d r e g i o n s , t h e a d d i t i o n a l problem of s a l i n i t y c o n t r o l
is e n c o u n t e r e d .
With s u c h s y s t e m s , e x c e s s w a t e r i s a p p l i e d
to
remove
salts
that
concentrate
in
the
root
zone
( S e c t i o n 4.3.2.3).
Where t h e n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e r a t e i s
i n s u f f i c i e n t t o remove s a l t y l e a c h i n g water f r o m t h e r o o t
z o n e w i t h i n 2 t o 3 d a y s , c r o p damage d u e t o s a l i n i t y may
o c c u r d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t o l e r a n c e o f t h e c r o p and t h e
In
s a l i n i t y o f t h e a p p l i e d water ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 . 5 ) .
s u c h cases, t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f a s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e s y s t e m
a r e t o (1) p r e v e n t t h e p e r s i s t e n c e of h i g h water t a b l e s when
l e a c h i n g i s p r a c t i c e d , and ( 2 ) t o k e e p t h e w a t e r t a b l e
s u f f i c i e n t l y low b e t w e e n g r o w i n g s e a s o n s t o m i n i m i z e e v a p o r a t i o n f r o m t h e water t a b l e and r e s u l t i n g s a l t a c c u m u l a t i o n
i n t h e r o o t zone.
A s a r u l e o f thumb, t h e w a t e r t a b l e
s h o u l d n o t be p e r m i t t e d t o come c l o s e r t h a n a b o u t 1 2 5 c m ( 4 9
This
i n . ) from t h e s u r f a c e t o p r e v e n t s a l t a c c u m u l a t i o n .
minimum d e p t h i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e g e n e r a l l y u s e d
i n humid
a r e a s . Any d r a i n a g e w a t e r f r o m c r o p r e v e n u e s y s t e m s t h a t i s
d i s c h a r g e d t o s u r f a c e waters m u s t meet a p p l i c a b l e d i s c h a r g e
requirements.
The d e c i s i o n t o u s e s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n s m u s t be b a s e d on t h e
economic b e n e f i t t o be g a i n e d from t h e i r u se .
F o r example,
t h e c o s t o f i n s t a l l i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g a s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n
s y s t e m s h o u l d b e compared t o t h e v a l u e o f d e v e l o p i n g a n
o t h e r w i s e u n s u i t a b l e s i t e o r t o t h e cost o f a l a r g e r l a n d
a r e a t h a t w i l l be r e q u i r e d i f s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n s a r e n o t
used.
B u r i e d p l a s t i c , c o n c r e t e , and c l a y t i l e l i n e s a r e n o r m a l l y
used f o r u n d e r d r a i n s .
The c h o i c e u s u a l l y d e p e n d s o n p r i c e
and a v a i l a b i l i t y o f m a t e r i a l s .
Where s u l f a t e s a r e p r e s e n t
i n t h e g r o u n d water, it i s n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a s u l f a t e r e s i s t a n t cement, i f concretes p i p e is chosen, t o p r e v e n t
e x c e s s i n t e r n a l stress f r o m c r y s t a l f o r m a t i o n .
Most t i l e
d r a i n s a r e m e c h a n i c a l l y l a i d i n a machine dug t r e n c h o r by
d i r e c t plowing.
Open t r e n c h e s c a n b e u s e d f o r s u b s u r f a c e
drainage, but i f c l o s e l y spaced, they can i n t e r f e r e with
f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s and consume u s a b l e l a n d .
U n d e r d r a i n s a r e n o r m a l l y b u r i e d 1 . 8 t o 2.4 m ( 6 t o 8 f t )
d e e p b u t c a n be a s d e e p a s 3 m ( 1 0 f t ) o r a s s h a l l o w a s 1 m
(3 ft).
Drains a r e normally 10 t o 1 5 c m ( 4 t o 6 in..)
in
diameter.
S p a c i n g s as s m a l l a s 1 5 t o 30 m ( 5 0 t o 100 f t )
may be r e q u i r e d f o r c l a y e y s o i l s .
F o r s a n d y s o i l s , 120 m
( 4 0 0 . f t ) i s t y p i c a l w i t h t h e r a n g e b e i n g from 60 t o 300 m
(200 t o 1,000 f t ) .
P r o c e d u r e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r o p e r d e p t h and s p a c i n g o f
c l r a i n l i n e s t o m a i n t a i n t h e w a t e r t a b l e below a minimum
clepth a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5 . 7 .
Additional detailed
d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s and e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s of s u b s u r f a c e
d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n r e f e r e n c e s 141, 4 2 , 431.
4.8.2
S u r f a c e D r a i n a g e and kunof f C o n t r o l
Drainage
and
control
of
s u r f a c e runoff
is a
design
c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r SR s y s t e m s a s it r e l a t e s t o t a i l w a t e r from
s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s and s t o r m w a t e r r u n o f f from a l l
systems.
4.8.2.1
T a i l w a t e r R e t u r n Systems
Most s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s w i l l p r o d u c e some r u n o f f ,
When p a r t i a l l y t r e a t e d
which i s r e f e r r e d t o a s t a i l w a t e r .
w a s t e w a t e r i s a p p l i e d , t a i l w a t e r must be c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n
t h e t r e a t m e n t s i t e and r e a p p l i e d .
Thus a t a i l w a t e r r e t u r n
s y s t e m i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of a n SR s y s t e m u s i n g s u r f a c e
A t y p i c a l t a i l w a t e r r e t u r n system
d i s t r i b u t i o n methods.
c o n s i s t s of a sump o r r e s e r v o i r , a p u m p ( s ) , and 11:eturn
pipeline.
The s i m p l e s t and most f l e x i b l e t y p e o f s y s t e m i s a slzorage
r e s e r v o i r s y s t e m i n which a l l o r a p o r t i o n of t h e t a i l w a t e r
is s t o r e d
and
either
flow
from a
given application
t r a n s f e r r e d t o a main r e s e r v o i r f o r l a t e r r e a p p L i c a t i o n o r
r e a p p l i e d from t h e t a i l w a t e r r e s e r v o i r t o o t h e r p o r t i o n s of
the field.
T a i l w a t e r r e t u r n s y s t e m s s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o
d i s t r i b u t e c o l l e c t e d w a t e r t o a l l p a r t s of t h e f i e l d , n o t
c o n s i s t e n t l y t o t h e same a r e a .
I f a l l t h e t a i l w a t e r is
s t o r e d , pumping c a n be c o n t i n u o u s and c a n commence a t t h e
convenience of t h e o p e r a t o r .
Pumps c a n be a n y c o n v e n i e n t
s i z e , b u t a minimum c a p a c i t y o f 25% o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
I f a p o r t i o n of t h e
s y s t e m c a p a c i t y i s recommended 1441.
t a i l w a t e r f l o w i s s t o r e d , t h e r e s e r v o i r c a p a c i t y c a n be
r e d u c e d b u t pumping must b e g i n d u r i n g t a i l w a t e r c o l l e e t . i o n .
C y c l i n g pump s y s t e m s and c o n t i n u o u s pumping s y s t e m s c a n be
d e s i g n e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e s t o r a g e volume r e q u i r e m e n t s , b u t
t h e s e s y s t e m s a r e much less [ f l e x i b l e t h a n s t o r a g e s y s t e m s .
1441 f o r d e s i g n
The d e s i g n e r is d i r e c t e d t o r e f e r e n c e
procedures.
The p r i n c i p a l d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s f o r t a i l w a t e r r e t u r n s y s t e m s
a r e t h e volume of t a i l w a t e r a n d t h e d u r a t i o n o f t a i l w a t e r
flow.
The e x p e c t e d v a l u e s o f t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s f o r a w e l l o p e r a t e d s y s t e m d e p e n d o n t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e of t h e
soil.
G u i d e l i n e s f o r e s t i m a t i n g t a i l w a t e r volume, t h e
d u r a t i o n o f t a i l w a t e r f l o w , and s u g g e s t e d maximum d e s i g n
t a i l w a t e r volume a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4-25.
TABLE 4-25
RECOMMENDED DESIGN FACTORS
FOR TAILWATER RETURN SYSTEMS [ 4 4 ]
Permeability
Maximum duration
of tailwater
flow, % of
application time
Estimated
tailwater volume,
% of application
vo 1ume
Suggested maximum
design tailwater
volume, % of application volume
class
Rate, cm/h
Texture range
Very slow
to slow
0.15-0.5
Clay to clay
loam
33
15
30
Slow to
moderate
0.5-1.5
Clay loam to
silt loam
33
25
50
Moderate to
moderately
rapid
1.5-15
Silt loams to
sandy loams
75
35
70
Runoff o f a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r from s i t e s w i t h s p r i n k l e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n systems should n o t occur because t h e design
a p p l i c a t i o n rate of t h e s p r i n k l e r system is less t h a n t h e
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e of t h e s o i l - v e g e t a t i o n s u r f a c e .
However,
s o m e r u n o f f from s y s t e m s on s t e e p (10 t o 3 0 % ) h i l l s i d e s
I n t h e s e cases, r u n o f f
can be
should be a n t i c i p a t e d .
t e m p o r a r i l y s t o r e d b e h i n d s m a l l c h e c k dams l o c a t e d i n
natural
drainage courses.
The s t o r e d r u n o f f
can be
r e a p p l i e d w i t h p o r t a b l e s p r i n k l i n g equipment.
4.8.2.2
S t o r m w a t e r Runoff P r o v i s i o n s
F o r SR s y s t e m s , c o n t r o l o f s t o r m w a t e r r u n o f f t o p r e v e n t
e r o s i o n is n e c e s s a r y .
T e r r a c i n g of s t e e p s l o p e s is a w e l l
known a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e e r o s i o n .
S e d i m e n t c o n t r o l b a s i n s and o t h e r n o n s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l
measures, such a s contour plowing, n o - t i l l farming, g r a s s
Since
b o r d e r s t r i p s , and stream b u f f e r z o n e s c a n b e u s e d .
wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n w i l l u s u a l l y be s t o p p e d d u r i n g s t o r m
runoff c o n d i t i o n s , r e c i r c u l a t i o n of storm runoff f o r f u r t h e r
t r e a t m e n t is u s u a l l y unnecessary.
Channels o r waterways
t h a t c a r r y stormwater r u n o f f t o d i s c h a r g e p o i n t s s h o u l d b e
d e s i g n e d w i t h a c a p a c i t y t o c a r r y r u n o f f from a s t o r m o f a
s p e c i f i e d r e t u r n f r e q u e n c y ( 1 0 y e a r minimum).
4.9
S y s t e m Management
4.9.1
S o i l Management
Management o f t h e s o i l i n v o l v e s t i l l a g e o p e r a t i o i i l s and
m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e p r o p e r s o , i l c h e m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s i n c l u d i n g
p l a n t n u t r i e n t l e v e l s , pH, sodium l e v e l s , and s a l i n i t y
levels.
Much of what i s d i s c u s s e d u n d e r s o i l management
f e f e r s t o a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s y s t e m s , s i n c e most f o r e s t c r o p
s y s t e m s r e q u i r e v e r y l i t t l e s o i l management.
4.9.1.1
Tillage Operations
One o f t h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e s of t i l l a g e o p e r a t i o n s i s t o
m a i n t a i n or enhance t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l
In
s u r f a c e a n d t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e e n t i r e s o i l profi1l.e.
g e n e r a l , t i l l a g e o p e r a t i o n s t h a t e x p o s e b a r e s o i l s h o u l d be
Minimum t i l l a g e and n o - t i l l methods
lcept t o a minimum.
c o n s e r v e f u e l , r e d u c e l a b o r c o s t s , and m i n i m i z e c o m p a c t i o n
of s o i l s by h e a v y e q u i p m e n t . C o n v e n t i o n a l plowing ( 2 0 t o 2 5
c m o r 8 t o 1 0 i n . ) and p r e p a r a t i o n of a s e e d b e d f r e e of
weeds and t r a s h a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r m o s t v e g e t a b l e s and r o o t
crops.
Many f i e l d c r o p s , however, c a n be p l a n t e d d i r e c t l y
i n sod o r r e s i d u e s f r o m a previous c r o p or a f t e r p a r t i a l
i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f r e s i d u e s by s h a l l o w d i s k i n g .
Crop r e s i d u e s
l e f t on t h e s u r f a c e or p a r t i a l l y incorporated t o a depth of
8 or 10 c m ( 3 or 4 i n . ) pr,ovide p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t runoff
and
erosion
during
intervals
between
crops.
The
d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f r e s i d u e s on o r n e a r t h e s o i l s u r f a c e h e l p s
t o m a i n t a i n a f r i a b l e , open c o n d i t i o n c o n d u c i v e .to good
a e r a t i o n and
rapid
i n f i l t r a t i o n of water.
Ac:ttively
decomposing o r g a n i c m a t t e r a l s o h e l p s t o r e d u c e t h e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of o t h e r s o l u b l e p o l l u t a n t s and c a n h a s t e n t h e
c o n v e r s i o n of t o x i c o r g a n i c s , l i k e p e s t i c i d e s , t o l e s s t o x i c
products.
s i t e s w h e r e c l a y p a n s have formed and r e d u c e t h e
e f f e c t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s o i l p r o f i l e , it may be
n e c e s s a r y t o plow v e r y d e e p l y ( 6 0 t o 180 c m or 2 t o 6 f t ) t o
mix impermeable s u b s o i l s t r a t a w i t h more p e r m e a b l e s u r f a c e
materials.
Impermeable p a n s formed by v e h i c u l a r t . r a f f i c
(plow p a n s ) o r by c e m e n t a t i o n of f i n e p a r t i c l e s ( h a r d p a n s )
c a n b e b r o k e n up by s u b s o i l i n g e q u i p m e n t t h a t leavc?s t h e
s u r f a c e p r o t e c t e d by v e g e t a t i o n o r s t u b b l e .
To b e
e f f e c t i v e , however, t h e s u b s o i l i n g e q u i p m e n t must c o m p l e t e l y
b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e pan l a y e r s .
T h i s i s d i f f i c u l t i f t h e pan
Loca:l. s o i l
l a y e r s are more t h a n 30 c m (1 f t ) t h i c k .
conservation
district
personnel
should
be
con,sulted
regarding t i l l a g e practices appropriate f o r s p e c i f i c crops,
s o i l s , and t e r r a i n .
At
4.9.1.2
Nutrient Status
During design, it is recommended that the nutrient status of

the soil be evaluated. Periodic evaluation is recommended
as part of the system monitoring program (Section 4.10 )
Sufficient nitrogen, phosphorus, and most other essential

nutrients for plant growth are generally supplied by most
wastewaters.
Potassium is the nutrient most likely to be
deficient since it is usually present in low concentrations
in wastewater.
For soils having low levels of natural
potassium, the following relationship has been developed to
estimate potassium fertilizer requirements:
where
Kf =
annual fertilizer potassium needed, kg/ha
U =
estimated annual crop uptake of nitrogen,

kg/ha
Kww =
amount of potassium applied in wastewater,

kg/ha
On the basis of commonly used test methods for available

nutrients, the University of California Agricultural
Extension Service has developed a summary of adequate
available levels in the soil of the nutrients most commonly
deficient for some selected crops.
This summary is
presented in Table 4-26.
Critical values for nitrogen are
not included because there are no well accepted methods for
determining available nitrogen.
Table 4-26
APPROXIMATE CRITICAL LEVELS OF NUTRIENTS
IN SOILS FOR SELECTED CROPS IN CALIFORNIA
Nutrient
Approximate
critical range, ppm
Phosphorus
Range anti pasture
Field crops and warm
season vegetables
Cool season vegetables
10
5-9
Potassium
Grain and alfalfa
Cotton
45-55
Potatoes
Zinc
Test method
0.5 M NaHC03 extraction
at pH 8.5
12-20
1.0 N ammonium acetate
extraction at pH 7.0
90-110
0.4-0.6
DPTA extraction
4.9.1.3
S o i l pH A d j u s t m e n t
I n g e n e r a l , a pH l e s s t h a n 4 . 2 i s t o o a c i d f o r most c r o p s
and a b o v e 8.4 i s t o o a l k a l i n e f o r m o s t c r o p s .
The optimum
p H r a n g e f o r c r o p growth depends on t h e t y p e of c r o p .
E x t r e m e s i n t h e s o i l pH a l s o c a n a f f e c t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f
a n SR s y s t e m o r i n d i c a t e p r o b l e m c o n d i t i o n s .
Below pH 6 . 5 ,
t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e s o i l t o r e t a i n metal i s r e d u c e d .
A soil
pH a b o v e 8 . 5 g e n e r a l l y i n d i c a t e s a h i g h sodium c o n t e n t and
p o s s i b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y problems.
The pH o f s o i l s c a n b e a d j u s t e d by t h e a d d i t i o n o f l i m i n g
materials o r a c i d u l a t i n g c h e m i c a l s . A pH a d j u s t m e n t program
s h o u l d be based on t h e recommendations of a p r o f e s s i o n a l
a g r i c u l t u r a l c o n s u l t a n t o r c o u n t y o r s t a t e farm a d v i s e r .
4.9.1.4
E x c h a n g e a b l e Sodium C o n t r o l
S o i l s c o n t a i n i n g e x c e s s i v e e x c h a n g e a b l e sodium a r e termed
"sodic" soils.
A soil
i s c o n s i d e r e d s o d i c when t h e
p e r c e n t a g e of t h e t o t a l c a t i o n exchange c a p a c i t y (CEC)
o c c u p i e d by sodium, t h e e x c h a n g e a b l e sodium p e r c e n t a g e
( E S P ) , e x c e e d s 1 5 % . High l e v e l s o f sodium c a u s e low s o i l
p e r m e a b i l i t y , p o o r s o i l a e r a t i o n , and d i f f i c u l t y i n s e e d l i n g
emergence.
F i n e - t e x t u r e d s o i l may be a f f e c t e d a t itn ESP
a b o v e l o % , b u t c o a r s e - t e x t u r e d s o i l may n o t b e damaged u n t i l
t h e ESP r e a c h e s a b o u t 20%. The ESP s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d by
l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s b e f o r e d e s i g n i f s o d i c s o i l s a r e known
t o e x i s t i n t h e area o f t h e s i t e . S o d i c s o i l c o n d i t i o n s may
b e c o r r e c t e d by a d d i n g s o l u b l e c a l c i u m t o t h e s o i l t o
d i s p l a c e t h e sodium o n t h e e x c h a n g e and removing t h e
d i s p l a c e d sodium by l e a c h i n g .
Advice o n c o r r e c t i n g s o d i c
s o i l s s h o u l d be o b t a i n e d from a g r i c u l t u r a l c o n s u 1 t a n . t ~o r
farm a d v i s e r s .
4.9.1.5
S a l i n i t y Control
S a l i n i t y c o n t r o l may be n e c e s s a r y i n a r i d c l i m a t e s where
n a t u r a l r a i n f a l l i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o f l u s h s a l t s from t h e
r o o t zone.
The s a l i n i t y l e v e k o f a s o i l i s u s u a l l y measured
on t h e b a s i s of t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y of an e x t r a c t
s o l u t i o n from a s a t u r a t e d s o i l ( E C ) .
Saline soils are
d e f i n e d as t h o s e y i e l d i n g a n ECe v a f u e g r e a t e r t h a n 4,000
micromhos/cm a t 25 O C ( 7 7 OF).
S o i l s t h a t are i n i t i a l l y s a l i n e may be r e c l a i m e d by
l e a c h i n g ; however, management o f t h e l e a c h a t e i s o f t e n
r e q u i r e d t o p r o t e c t ground w a t e r q u a l i t y .
The U.S.
D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e ' s Handbook 60 [45] d e a l s w i t h t h e
d i a g n o s i s and improvement o; s u c h s o i l s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l
purposes.
T h i s r e f e r e n c e can be used a s a p r a c t i c a l g u i d e
f o r managing s a l i n e and s a l i n e - s o d i c s o i l c o n d i t i o n s i n a r i d
and s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s .
4.9.2
C r o p Management
Because of t h e i r s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
management o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c r o p s and f o r e s t c r o p s
discussed separately.
4.9.2.1
the
are
A g r i c u l t u r a l C r o p P l a n t i n g and H a r v e s t i n g
Local e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s o r s i m i l a r e x p e r t s s h o u l d b e
Most
c o n s u l t e d r e g a r d i n g p l a n t i n g t e c h n i q u e s and s c h e d u l e s .
c r o p s r e q u i r e a p e r i o d of d r y w e a t h e r b e f o r e h a r v e s t t o
content compatible with
m a t u r e and
reach a moisture
h a r v e s t i n g equipment.
S o i l moisture a t harvest t i m e should
be
low
enough
to
minimize
compaction by
harvesting
e q u i p m e n t . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s , a p p l i c a t i o n s h o u l d be d i s c o n The t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r
t i n u e d w e l l i n advance of h a r v e s t .
d r y i n g w i l l depend on t h e s o i l d r a i n a g e and t h e w e a t h e r .
A
d r y i n g t i m e o f 1 t o 2 w e e k s is u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t i f t h e r e
is no p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
However, a d v i c e o n t h i s s h o u l d b e
o b t a i n e d from local a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e r t s .
H a r v e s t i n g o f g r a s s c r o p s and a l f a l f a i n v o l v e s r e g u l a r
c u t t i n g s , and a d e c i s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e t r a d e - o f f b e t w e e n
y i e l d and q u a l i t y m u s t be made.
A d v i c e c a n be o b t a i n e d f r o m
local a g r i c u l t u r a l e x p e r t s .
I n t h e n o r t h e a s t and n o r t h
central
states,
three
cuttings per
s e a s o n have been
successful with g r a s s crops.
4.9.2.2
Grazing
G r a z i n g o f p a s t u r e by b e e f c a t t l e o r s h e e p c a n p r o v i d e a n
e c o n o m i c r e t u r n f o r SR s y s t e m s .
N o h e a l t h hazard h a s been
sale
of
t h e a n i m a l s f o r human
associated with
the
consumption.
Grazing animals r e t u r n n u t r i e n t s t o t h e ground i n t h e i r
waste p r o d u c t s .
The c h e m i c a l s t a t e ( o r g a n i c and ammonia
n i t r o g e n ) and r a t e o f r e l e a s e o f t h e n i t r o g e n r e d u c e s t h e
Much o f
t h r e a t o f n i t r a t e p o l l u t i o n o f t h e g r o u n d water.
t h e a m m o n i a - n i t r o g e n v o l a t i l i z e s and t h e o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n i s
h e l d i n t h e s o i l w h e r e it i s s l o w l y m i n e r a l i z e d t o ammonium
and n i t r a t e
forms.
S t e e r and s h e e p manure c o n t a i n
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20% n i t r o g e n a f t e r v o l a t i l e l o s s e s , o f w h i c h
a b o u t 40% is m i n e r a l i z e d i n t h e f i r s t y e a r , 25% i n t h e
second, and 6% i n s u c c e s s i v e y e a r s [ 4 1 ] .
I n terms o f p a s t u r e management, c a t t l e o r s h e e p m u s t n o t be
a l l o w e d on w e t f i e l d s t o a v o i d s e v e r e s o i l compaction and
r e d u c e d s o i l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s . W e t g r a z i n g conditic3ns c a n
also l e a d t o a n i m a l hoof d i s e a s e s .
Pasture r o t a t i o n should
b e p r a c t i c e d s o t h a t w a s t e w a t e r c a n be a p p l i e d i m m e d i a t e l y
a f t e r t h e l i v e s t o c k a r e removed.
In general, a pasture area
s h o u l d n o t be g r a z e d l o n g e r t h a n 7 d a y s .
Typical regrowth
p e r i o d s between g r a z i n g s r a n g e
from 14 t o 35 d a y s .
Depending o n t h e p e r i o d of r e g r o w t h p r o v i d e d , one t o t h r e e
water a p p l i c a t i o n s c a n be made d u r i n g t h e r e g r o w t h p e r i o d .
Rotation grazing c y c l e s f o r 3 to 8 p a s t u r e a r e a s a r e given
A t l e a s t 3 t o 4 days d r y i n g time following
i n T a b l e 4-27.
a n a p p l i c a t i o n s h o u l d be a l l o w e d b e f o r e livestoc.:k a r e
returned to the pasture.
T a b l e 4-27
G R A Z I N G ROTATION CYCLES FOR
DIFFERENT NUMBERS O F PASTURE AREAS
N o . of
pasture areas
4.9.2.3
Rotation
c y c l e , days
Regrowth
period, days
Grazing
period, days
Agricultural Pest Control
P r o b l e m s w i t h weeds,
insects,
and p l a n t d i s e a s e s a r e
aggravated under c o n d i t i o n s of f r e q u e n t w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y when a s i n g l e c r o p i s grown y e a r a f t e r y e a r o r
when n o - t i l l
p r a c t i c e s a r e used.
Most p e s t s c a n be
c o n t r o l l e d by s e l e c t i n g r e s i s t a n t o r t o l e r a n t c r o p v a r i e t i e s
and by u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a p p r o : p r i a t e
cultural practices.
S t a t e and l o c a l e x p e r t s shou.ld be
c o n s u l t e d i n d e v e l o p i n g a n o v e r a l l p e s t c o n t r o l program f o r
a given situation.
4.9.2.4
F o r e s t Crops
The t y p e of f o r e s t c r o p management p r a c t i c e s e l e c t e d i s
d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s p e c i e s mix grown, t h e a g e and s t r u c t u r e
o f t h e s t a n d , t h e method of r e p r o d u c t i o n b e s t s u i t e d a n d / o r
d e s i r e d f o r t h e f a v o r e d s p e c i e s , t e r r a i n , and t y p e of
e q u i p m e n t and t e c h n i q u e used by l o c a l h a r v e s t e r s .
The most
b y p i c a 1 f o r e s t management s i t u a t i o n s e n c a u n t e r e d i n l a n d
treatment
are
management
of
existing
forest
skands,
r e f o r e s t a t i o n , and s h o r t - t e r m r o t a t i o n .
~ x i s t i n aF o r e s t E c o s v s t e m s
The g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e o f t h e f o r e s t management program i s t o
maximize b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n .
The compromise b e tween f u l l y
a t t a i n i n g a f o r e s t ' s g r o w t h p o t e n t i a l and t h e need t o
o p e r a t e e q u i p m e n t e f f i c i e n t l y ( d i s t r i b u t i o n and h a r v e s t i n g
e q u i p m e n t ) r e q u i r e s f e w e r trees p e r u n i t a r e a .
These
o p e r a t i o n s w i l l a s s u r e m a i n t e n a n c e of a h i g h n u t r i e n t
u p t a k e , p a r t i c u l a r l y n i t r o g e n , by t h e f o r e s t .
F o r uneven-aged
f o r e s t s , t h e d e s i r e d f o r e s t composition,
s t r u c t u r e , and v i g o r c a n be b e s t a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h t h i n n i n g
and s e l e c t i v e h a r v e s t .
However, e x c e s s i v e t h i n n i n g c a n make
t r e e s s u s c e p t i b l e t o wind t h r o w and c a u t i o n i s a d v i s e d i n
windy a r e a s .
The o b j e c t i v e of t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s would be t o
m a i n t a i n an age c l a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n accordance w i t h t h e
The
c o n c e p t of optimum n u t r i e n t s t o r a g e ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 3 ) .
m a i n t e n a n c e o f f e w e r t r e e s t h a n normal would p e r m i t a d e q u a t e
s u n l i g h t t o r e a c h t h e u n d e r s t o r y t o promote r e p r o d u c t i o n and
~ h i n n i n gs h o u l d be d o n e i n i t i a l l y
g r o w t h of t h e u n d e r s t o r y .
p r i o r t o c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m and o n l y
o n c e e v e r y 10 y e a r s or so t o m i n i m i z e s o i l and s i t e damage.
I n even-aged f o r e s t s , t r e e s w i l l a l l r e a c h h a r v e s t a g e a t
The u s u a l p r a c t i c e i s t o c l e a r - c u t t h e s e
t h e same t i m e .
f o r e s t s a t h a r v e s t a g e and r e g e n e r a t e a s t a n d by e i t h e r
p l a n t i n g s e e d l i n g s , n a t u r a l s e e d i n g , s p r o u t i n g from s t u m p s
( c a l l e d c o p p i c e ) , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s e v e r a l of t h e
methods.
Even-aged s t a n d s may r e q u i r e a t h i n n i n g a t a n
i n t e r m e d i a t e a g e t o m a i n t a i n maximum b i o m a s s p r o d u c t i o n .
C o n i f e r o u s f o r e s t s , i n g e n e r a l , m u s t be r e p l a n t e d , w h e r e a s
hardwood f o r e s t s c a n be r e p r o d u c e d by c o p p i c e o r n a t u r a l
seeding.
The c o n c e p t of " w h o l e - t r e e h a r v e s t i n g " s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d
f o r a l l h a r v e s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s , w h e t h e r it be t h i n n i n g ,
selection harvest,
o r clear-cut
harvest.
Whole-tree
harvesting
removes
the e n t i r e standing
tree:
stem,
branches,
and
leaves.
Thus,
100% of
the nitrogen
a c c u m u l a t e d i n t h e aboveground b i o m a s s would be removed ( s e e
S e c t i o n 4.3.2.1).
P r e s c r i b e d f i r e i s a common management p r a c t i c e i n many
f o r e s t s t o reduce t h e d e b r i s o r s l a s h l e f t on t h e s i t e
during
conventional
harvesting
methods.
During
the
o p e r a t i o n , a p o r t i o n of t h e f o r e s t f l o o r i s b u r n e d and
n i t r o g e n is v o l a t i l i z e d .
Although t h i s r e p r e s e n t s an
immediate b e n e f i t i n terms of n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l from t h e
s i t e , t h e buffering c a p a c i t y t h a t t h e f o r e s t f l o o r o f f e r s is
r e d u c e d and t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a n i t r a t e l e a c h i n g t o t h e
g r o u n d w a t e r i s i n c r e a s e d when a p p l i c a t i o n o f w a s t e w a t e r is
resumed.
Ref o r e s t a t i o n
W a s t e w a t e r n u t r i e n t s of te'n s t i m u l a t e t h e g r o w t h of t h e
h e r b a c e o u s v e g e t a t i o n t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e y c::ompete
w i t h and s h a d e o u t t h e d e s i r a b l e f o r e s t s p e c i e s .
Herbaceous
vegetation is necessary t o a c t a s a nitrogen s i n k while t h e
t r e e s a r e becoming e s t a b l i s h e d , and t h e r e f o r e , c u l t u r a l
p r a c t i c e s m u s t be d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l b u t n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e
A s t h e t r e e crowns b e g i n t o c l o s e ,
herbaceous vegetation.
t h e h e r b a c e o u s v e g e t a t i o n w i l l be s h a d e d and i t s r o l e i n t h e
r e n o v a t i o n c y c l e reduced.
A n o t h e r a 1t e r n a t i v e t o cont:.rol o f
t h e h e r b a c e o u s v e g e t a t i o n i s t o e l i m i n a t e i t complete!ly and
r e d u c e t h e h y d r a u l i c and n u t r i e n t l o a d i n g d u r i n g t h e
establishment period.
Short-Term R o t a t i o n
Short-term
r o t a t i o n f o r e s t s a r e p l a n t a t i o n s of c l o s e l y
s p a c e d hardwood t r e e s t h a t a r e h a r v e s t e d r e p e a t e d l y o n
c y c l e s of l e s s than 10 years.
The key t o r a p i d g r o w t h r a t e s
and b i o m a s s d e v e l o p m e n t i s t h e r o o t s t o c k t h a t r e m a i n s i n t h e
s o i l a f t e r h a r v e s t and t h e n r e s p r o u t s .
Short-term r o t a t i o n
h a r v e s t i n g s y s t e m s a r e r e a d i l y mechanized b e c a u s e t h e c r o p
i s u n i f o r m and r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l .
Using c o n v e n t i o n a l t r e e s p a c i n g s of 2.5 t o 4 m ( 8 t o 1 2 f t ) ,
r e s e a r c h o n s y s t e m s where w a s t e w a t e r h a s been a p p l i e d t o
short-term r o t a t i o n p l a n t a t i o n s h a s shown t h a t h i g h growth
r a t e s and h i g h n i t r o g e n removal a r e p o s s i b l e [ 1 6 ] . P l a n t e d
stock w i l l p r o d u c e o n l y 5 0 % t o 7 0 % of t h e biomass produced
f o l l o w i n g c u t t i n g and r e s p r o u t i n g [ 4 7 r 4 8 1 .
I f n i t r o g e n and
o t h e r n u t r i e n t uptake i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o biomass, t h e f i r s t
r o t a t i o n from p l a n t e d s t o c k w i l l n o t remove a s m ~ . ~ c ha s
s u b s e q u e n t r o t a t i o n s from c o p p i c e .
Therefore, the i n i t i a l
r o t a t i o n must r e c e i v e a reduced n u t r i e n t load o r o t h e r
herbaceous
vegetation
must
be
employed
for
nutrient
storage.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , c l o s e r t r e e s p a c i n g s may be used t o
achieve
desired
n u t r i e n t uptake
rates
during
initial
rotation.
4.10
System M o n i t o r i n g
The b r o a d o b j e c t i v e s of a m o n i t o r i n g program f o r a n SR
system a r e to determine i f t h e e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y requirements
a r e beitng m e t , t o d e t e r m i n e i f any c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n is
n e c e s s a r y t o p r o t e c t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r maintail11 t h e
r e n o v a t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e s y s t e m , and t o a i d i n s y s t e m
operation.
The components of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t need t o
be o b s e r v e d i n c l u d e w a t e r q u a l i t y ,
the s o i l s receiving
wastewater, and i n some cases, v e g e t a t i o n growing i n , s o i l s
t h a t are r e c e i v i n g w a s t e w a t e r .
4.10.1
Water Q u a l i t y M o n i t o r i n g
M o n i t o r i n g o f water q u a l i t y f o r l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s y s t e m s c a n
b e more complex t h a n f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s
because
nonpoint
discharges
of
system
effluent
are
involved.
M o n i t o r i n g o f a p p l i e d wastewater and r e n o v a t e d
water q u a l i t y i s u s e f u l f o r p r o c e s s c o n t r o l .
F o r SR
s y s t e m s , r e n o v a t e d water would o n l y be m o n i t o r e d i n . cases
where u n d e r d r a i n s are used.
Monitoring of r e c e i v i n g w a t e r s ,
s u r f a c e or g r o u n d w a t e r , may b e r e q u i r e d b y r e g u l a t o r y
authorities.
I n m o s t cases, a water q u a l i t y m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m , i n c l u d i n g
c o n s t i t u e n t s t o b e a n a l y z e d and f r e q u e n c y o f a n a l y s i s , w i l l
be p r e s c r i b e d by l o c a l r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s .
I t may b e
d e s i r e d t o monitor a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t i t u e n t s or p a r a m e t e r s f o r
p u r p o s e s o f c r o p and s o i l management.
Ground water m o n i t o r i n g d a t a a r e d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t
u n l e s s s a m p l i n g w e l l s a r e l o c a t e d p r o p e r l y and correct
sampling procedures are followed.
In addition t o quality,
t h e d e p t h t o g r o u n d water s h o u l d b e m e a s u r e d a t t h e s a m p l i n g
w e l l s t o d e t e r m i n e i f t-he h y d r a u l i c r e s p o n s e o f t h e a q u i f e r
is c o n s i s - t e n t w i t h w h a t w a s a n t i c i p a t e d .
F o r SR s y s t e m s , a
rise i n water t a b l e l e v e l s t o t h e r o o t z o n e would
n e c e s s i t a t e c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n s u c h as r e d u c e d h y d r a u l i c
The a p p e a r a n c e o f s e e p s o r
l o a d i n g or adding underdrainage.
p e r c h e d g r o u n d water t a b l e s m i g h t a l s o i n d i c a t e t h e need f o r
corrective action.
4.10.2
S o i l s Monitoring
I n s o m e cases, a p p l i c a t i o n o f wastewater t o t h e l a n d w i l l
r e s u l t i n changes i n s o i l p r o p e r t i e s .
R e s u l t s of s o i l
s a m p l i n g and t e s t i n g w i l l s e r v e a s t h e b a s i s f o r d e c i d i n g
w h e t h e r o r n o t s o i l p r o p e r t i e s s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d by t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f c h e m i c a l amendments.
Annual m o n i t o r i n g o f
t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 4.9.1 is s u f f i c i e n t
f o r m o s t systems.
I t i s recommended t h a t t h e l e v e l o f t r a c e e l e m e n t s o f
c o n c e r n ( s e e C h a p t e r 9 ) i n t h e s o i l b e m o n i t o r e d e v e r y few
y e a r s so t h a t t h e r a t e o f a c c u m u l a t i o n c a n b e o b s e r v e d and
T o t a l m e t a l a n a l y s i s by h o t a c i d
t o x i c l e v e l s avoided.
d i g e s t i o n i s recommended f o r m o n i t o r i n g and c o m p a r i s o n
purposes.
4.10.3
Vegetation Monitoring
Plant tissue analysis is more revealing than soil analysis

with regard to deficient or toxic levels of elements.
If
visual symptoms of nutrient deficiencies or toxicities
appear, plant tissue testing can be used for confirmation,
and corrective action can be taken. A regular plant, tissue
monitoring program can often detect deficiencies or toxicity
before visual symptoms and damage to the plant occurs.
Nitrate should be determined in forages or leafy vegletables
if there is reason to suspect concentrations which might be
toxic to livestock. Detailed information on plant sampling
and testing may be found in references [49, 501. Extension
specialists or local farm advisers should be consulted
regarding plant tissue testing.
4.11
Facilities Design Guidance
The purpose of this section is to provide guidance on

aspects of facilities design that may be unfamiliar to some
environmental engineers.
Standard surface irrigation practice is to produce
longitudinal slopes of 0.1 to 0.2% with transverse
slopes not exceeding 0.3%.
Step 1.
Step 2.
Step 3.
Rough grade to 5 cm (0.15 ft) at

30 m (100 ft) grid stations.
Finish grade to f3 cm (0.10 ft) at
30 m (100 ft) grid stations with
reversals in slope between stations.
no
Land planewith a 18 m (60 ft) minimum

wheel base, land plane to a "near
perfect" finished grade.
Access to sprinklers or distribution piping should

be provided every 390 m (1,300 ft) for ,convenient
maintenance.
Both asbestos-cement and PVC irrigation pipe' are
rather fragile and require care in handJ-ing and
installation.
o
Diaphragm-operated globe valves are recommended for

controlling flow to laterals.
All
electric
equipment
should
expecially when associated with
systems.
be
grounded,
center pivot
Automatic
controls
can
be
electrically,
Solenoid
h y d r a u l i c a l l y , or p n e u m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d .
actuated,
hydraulically
operated
(by
the
wastewater) v a l v e s w i t h s m a l l o r i f i c e s w i l l c l o g
from t h e s o l i d s .
V a l v e b o x e s , 1 m ( 3 6 i n . ) o r l a r g e r , s h o u l d b e made
of c o r r u g a t e d metal, c o n c r e t e , f i b e r g l a s s , o r p i p e
material.
Valve boxes s h o u l d e x t e n d 1 5 c m ( 6 i n . )
a b o v e g r a d e t o e x c l u d e stormwater.
Low p r e s s u r e s h u t o f f v a l v e s s h o u l d be u s e d t o a v o i d
c o n t i n u o u s d r a i n i n g o f t h e lowest s p r i n k l e r o n t h e
lateral.
A u t o m a t i c o p e r a t i o n c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d by timer
clocks.
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t when t h e t i m e r s h u t s
t h e s y s t e m down f o r a n y r e a s o n t h a t t h e f i e l d
v a l v e s close a u t o m a t i c a l l y a n d t h a t t h e s p r i n k l i n g
as
scheduled
when
sprinkling
cycles
resume
commences.
The c l o c k s h o u l d n o t reset t o t i m e z e r o
when a n i n t e r r u p t i o n o c c u r s .
High f l o t a t i o n t i r e s a r e recommended f o r l a n d
soil
treatment
system v e h i c l e s .
Recommended
c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e s f o r c e n t e r p i v o t m a c h i n e s are
TABLE 4 - 2 8
RECOMMEDED S O I L CONTACT P R E S S U R E
%
fines
N/cm2
lb/in.
Note: To illustrate the use of this table,

if 20% of the soil fines pass through a
200-mesh screen, the contact pressure of the
supporting structure to the grou d should be
no more than 17 N/cm2 (25 lb/in. 9 ) . If this
is exceeded, one can expect wheel tracking
problems to occur.
4.12
References
1. Benham-Blair
and
Af f i l i a t e s ,
Inc.
and
Engineering
E n t e r p r i s e s , Inc.
Long-term E f f e c t s o f Land A p p l i c a t i o n
D i c k i n s o n , N o r t h D a k o t a , Slow
o f Domestic Wastewater:
U.S.
Environmental P r o t e c t i o n
Rate I r r i g a t i o n S i t e .
Agency.
EPA-600/2-79-144.
A u g u s t 1979.
2. D e m i r j i a n , Y.A.
e t al.
Muskegon County
Management - S y s t e m .
U.S.
Environmental
EPA-905/2-80-004.
F e b r u a r y 1980.
Agency.
Wastewater
Protection
3 . H o s s n e r , L.R. , e t a l .
Sewage D i s p o s a l o n A g r i c u l t u r a l
Soils:
C h e m i c a l and M i : c r o b i o l o g i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n i s ( S a n
Angelo, Texas).
U. S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A.gency.
EPA-600/2-78-l3la,b.
J u n e 1978.
4. ~ e n k i n s ,T.F. and A . J . P a l a z z o .
W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t by
a Slow R a t e Land T r e a t m e n t System. U.S. Army Co:rps o f
Engineers,
Cold
Regions
Research
and
Engineering
CRREL
Report
81-14.
Hanover ,
New
Laboratory.
Hampshire.
A u g u s t 1981.
5. K o e r n e r , E.L. and D.A. H a w s .
Long-Term E f f e c t s o f Land
New
A p p l i c a t i o n of
Domestic W a s t e w a t e r :
Roswell,
Mexico, Slow R a t e I r r i g a t i o n S i t e .
U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l
p r o t e c t i o n Agency.
EPA-600/2-79-647.
F e b r u a r y 1979.
6. I s k a n d a r ,
R.P.
Murrmann,
and
D.C.
Leggett.
of E x i s t i n g S y s t e m s f o r Land T r e a t m e n t o f
Wastewater
at
Manteca,
California
and
Quincy,
Washington.
U.S.
Army Cold R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h and
Engineering Laboratory.
CRREL R e p o r t 77-24.
September
1977.
I.K.,
Evaluation
W.L. , R.C.
S c h u l t z , and G.H.
Brister.
Land
T r e a t m e n t of M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r o n S t e e p F o r e s t S l o p e s
i n t h e Humid S o u t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Proceedings of
Hanover , N e w
Symposium o n Land T r e a t m e n t o f Wastewater.
Hampshire.
A u g u s t 20-25, 1978.
7. N u t t e r ,
Long-Term E f f e c t s olf Land

8 . S t o n e , R. and J. Rowlands.
Mesa, A r i z o n a ,
A p p l i c a t i o n o f Domestic Wastewater:
U,.S.
Environmental
Protlection
Irrigation
Site.
Agency.
EPA-600/2-80-062.
A p r i l 1980.
9. E n f i e l d , C.G.
and B.E.
Bledsoe.
K i n e t i c Model f o r
EPA-660/2Orthophosphate Reactions i n Mineral S o i l s .
75-002.
U.S. Government P r i n t i n g Off ice.
June 19"75.
R.C.
Loehr,
1 0 . Land a s a Waste Management A l t e r n a t i v e .
ed.
Ann A r b o r S c i e n c e .
Ann A r b o r , M i c h i g a n .
1977.
11. Overman, A.R.

Wastewater I r r i g a t i o n a t T a l l a h a s s e e ,
Florida.
U . S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
EPA600/2-79-151.
August 1979.
1 2 . S t o n e , R. a n d J. Rowlands.
Long-Term E f f e c t s o f Land
Wastewater:
Camarillo,
Application
of
Domestic
California,
Irrigation
Site.
U.S.
Environmental
EPA-600/2-80-080.
May 1 9 8 0 .
1 3 . Tof f l e m i r e , T. J . and M.
S a n d s and S o i l s .
In:
Alternative.
L o e h r , R.C.
Science.
1977.
Chen.
P h o s p h a t e Removal by
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(ed).
Ann A r b o r , Ann A r b o r
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R e l a t i v e Health Risks of
1 4 . U i g a , A. and R.W.
Rate
Land
Activated
Sludge
Treatment
and
Slow
December
Treatment.
J o u r n a l WPCF, 5 2 ( 1 2 ) : 2 8 6 5 - 2 8 7 4 .
1980.
1 5 . P r a t t , P.F.
Q u a l i t y C r i t e r i a f o r Trace Elements i n
I r r i g a t i o n Waters.
University of C a l i f o r n i a , Riverside,
Department
of
Soil
Science
and
Agricultural
Engineering.
1972.
1 6 . N a t i o n a l Academy o f S c i e n c e .
Water Q u a l i t y C r i t e r i a
1972.
Ecological Research S e r i e s .
March 1 9 7 3 .
R e p o r t N o . R3-73-033.
Environmental
preliminary
17. U . S.
S u r v e y o f T o x i c P o l l u t a n t s a t t h e Muskegon W a s t e w a t e r
Kerr
Environmental
Management
System.
Robert
S.
R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , G r o u n d w a t e r R e s e a r c h Branch.
Ada,
Oklahoma.
1977.
D.J.
~ e s i g n of
I r r i g a t i o n Systems f o r
18. H i n r i c h s ,
Agricultural U t i l i z a t i o n of Effluent.
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C a l i f o r n i a W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l ~ s s o c i a t i o n Annual
Conference,' Monterey, C a l i f .
May 1, 1980.
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F o r e s t S o i l s f o r O r g a n i c Waste
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In:
S o i l s f o r Management o f O r g a n i c
Wastes and Waste Waters.
ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison,
Wisconsin.
pp. 429-451.
1977.
and J . M .
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S e a s o n a l Growth a n d
20. Palazzo, A.J.,
U p t a k e o f N u t r i e n t s by O r c h a r d g r a s s I r r i g a t e d w i t h
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A m y Cold R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h a n d
~ n g i n e e r i n gL a b o r a t o r y .
J u n e 1981.
21. Duscha, L.A.

Dual, Cropping Procedure for Slow
and
Treatment
of
Municipal
Infiltration
of
Wastewater.
Department of the Army, Engineering
Technical Letter No. 1110-2-260. March 12, 1981.
22. McKim, H.L., et al.
Wastewater .Application in Forest
Ecosystems. CRREL Report 119, Corps of Engineers, U .S.
Army. May 1980.
23. USDA Forest Service. Impact of Intensive Harvesting on
Forest Nutrient Cycling.
Northeast Forest Experiment
Station. Broomall, Pa. 1979.
24. Jensen, M.E.
(ed.).
Consumptive Use of Water and
Irrigation Water Requirements. ASCE. ASCE Committee on
Irrigation Water Requirements. 1973.
25. Doorenbos, J.
and W.O.
Pruitt.
Guidelirres for
Predicting Crop Water Requirements.
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Drainage Paper 24. Presented at United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization. Rome. 1975.
26. Irrigation Water Requirements.
Technical Release No.
21, U.S. Department
Agriculture, Soil Conservation
Service. September 1970.
OF
27. Vegetative Water Use in California, 1974. Bulletin No.

113-3, State
of
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28. Booher, L.J. and G.V. Ferry. Estimated Consumptive Use
of
Various
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and
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University of California Agricultural Extension Service,
Bakersfield, Calif. March 10, 1970.
29. Ayers, R.S.
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the Irrigation and Drainage Division, ASCE, 1 . 103,
No. IR2. June 1977. pp. 135-154.
30. U.S.
FRD-25.
Planning, 1982. EPA-430/9-81-012.
1981.
Facilities
September
31. Reed, S. C. Treatment/Storage Ponds for Land Applidation

Systems. CRREL Special Report. December 1981.
32. Environmental Protection Agency.
Process Desiyrn Manual
for Wastewater Treatment Ponds (In Preparation),
Coliform Decay Rates in Waste
33. Bowles, D.S., et al.
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1979.
34. Sagik, B.P. et ale

The Survival of Human Enteric
Viruses in Holding Ponds. Contract Report DAMD 17-75-C5062.
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Command. 1978.
35. whiting, D.M. '
Use of Climatic Data in Estimating
Storage Days for Soil Treatment Systems. Environmental
Protection Agency, Off ice of Research and Development.
EPA-600/2-76-250. November 1976.
36. Whiting, D.M.
Use of Climatic Data in Design of Soil
EPA-660/2-75-018.
Environmental
Treatment Systems.
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July 1975.
37. U.S.
Department
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the
Interior,
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of
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Design of Small Dams.
Second Edition.
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38. Booher, L.J.
Surface Irrigation.
FA0 Agricultural
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Organization of the United Nations. Rome. 1974.
t
39. Myers, E.A.

Design and Operational Criteria for Forest
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In:
Utilization of Municipal
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The Pennsylvania State. University Press,
University Park, Pa. p. 265-272. 1979.
$0. Evaluation
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EPA-430/9-75-001.
March 1975.
Drainage of Agricultural Lands.
41. Luthin, J.N. (ed.).
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Drainage for Agriculture.
42. Van Schilfgaarde, J, ed.
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43. Drainage of Agricultural Land. A Practical Handbook for
the Planning, Design, Construction, and Maintenance of
Agricultural Drainage Systems.
U.S.
Department of
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'44. Hart, W.E.
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University, Department of Agricultural Engineering:.
Fort Collins, Colorado. November 10, 1975.
45. Richards, L.A. (ed.).
Diagnosis' and Improvement of
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Department of Agriculture. 1954.
46. California Fertilizer Assn. Western Fertilizer Handbook

Sixth Ed.
The Interstate Printers and Publishers.
1980.
47. Saucier, J.R.
Estimation of Biomass Productj,,onand
Removal. In: Impact of Intensive Harvesting on Forest
Nutrient Cycling. College of Environmental Science and
Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, New
York, p. 172-189. 1979.
48. Steinbeck, K. and C.L. Brown. Yield and Utilization of
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Soil Testing and
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50. Melsted, S.W.
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Procleedings
Considerations in Waste Management )
of the Joint Conference on Recycling Municipal Sludges
and
Effluents on Land, Champaign, Universj.ty of
Illinois. July 1973. pp. 121-128.
CHAPTER 5
RAPID INFILTRATION PROCESS DESIGN
5.1
Introduction
(RI)
is
The
design
procedure
for
rapid
infiltration
diagrammed i n F i g u r e 5-1.
A s i n d i c a t e d by t h i s f i g u r e ,
t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m a j o r e l e m e n t s i n t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s and
For example, t h e
t h e d e s i g n a p p r o a c h i s somewhat i t e r a t i v e .
amount o f l a n d r e q u i r e d f o r a n R I s y s t e m i s a f u n c t i o n o f
t h e l o a d i n g r a t e , w h i c h is a f f e c t e d by t h e l o a d i n g c y c l e a n d
t h e l e v e l of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t .
I f the engineer
i n i t i a l l y a s s u m e s a l e v e l o f p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and a
l o a d i n g c y c l e t h a t r e s u l t i n a l o a d i n g r a t e r e q u i r i n g more
l a n d t h a n is a v a i l a b l e a t t h e s e l e c t e d s i t e , t h e l e v e l o f
preapplication
treatment
and
loading
cycle
can
be
reevaluated t o reduce t h e land a r e a required.
5.1.1
R I H y d r a u l i c Pathway
The e n g i n e e r a n d t h e community m u s t d e c i d e w h i c h h y d r a u l i c
(see
Figure 1-2)
is
appropriate
for
their
pathway
situation.
T h i s d e c i s i o n i s based on t h e h y d r o g e o l o g i c
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e l e c t e d s i t e and r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c y
decisions.
5.1.2
For
RI
S i t e Work
design,
the
results
of
the
field
investigations
( C h a p t e r 3 ) m u s t be a n a l y z e d and i n t e r p r e t e d .
Backhoe p i t s
and d r i l l h o l e s a r e n e e d e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d e p t h and
h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e p e r m e a b l e m a t e r i a l and t h e
d e p t h t o g r o u n d water.
S u f f i c i e n t subsurface information
m u s t be o b t a i n e d i n t h e P h a s e .2 p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s ( C h a p t e r 2 )
t o a l l o w the engineer t o calculate:
1.
Inf i l t r a t i o n rate (Section 5.4
2.
Subsurface flow ( S e c t i o n 5 . 7 )
a
3.
P o t e n t i a l f o r mounding
Drainage ( i f needed )
Natural seepage ( i f adequate)
p e r c o l a t e w i t h g r o u n d water
Mixing o f
c r i t i c a l t o m e e t performance r e q u i r e m e n t s )
(if
REQUl RENENTS
( S E C T I O N 2.2.1)
CHARACTERISTICS
( S E C T I O N S 2.2.1,
2.3.1)
R I
H V B R A U L I C PATHWAY
( S E C T I O N 5.1 .I)
REQUIWENEMTS
(SECTION 5 . 5 )
AND L A Y O U T
RECOVERY
MONITORING
AND
MAINTENANCE
REQUIREMENTS
FIGURE 5-1
RAPID INFILTRATION DESIGN PROCEDURE
5.2
Process P e r f o r m a n c e
The R I mechanisms f o r removal o f w a s t e w a t e r c o n s t i t u e n t s

s u c h a s BOD, s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s , t r a c e
e l e m e n t s , m i c r o o r g a n i s m s , and t r a c e o r g a n i c s a r e d i s c u s s e d
b r i e f l y a l o n g w i t h t y p i c a l r e s u l t s from v a r i o u s o p e r a t i n g
systems.
C h a p t e r 9 c o n t a i n s d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e h e a l t h and
e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s of t h e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s .
5.2.1
BOD and Suspended S o l i d s
BOD
and
suspended
solids are
removed
by
particulate
f i l t r a t i o n a t o r near the s o i l surface.
S o l u b l e BOD may be
a d s o r b e d by t h e s o i l o r may be removed from t h e p e r c o l a t i n g
E v e n t u a l l y , most BOD and
w a s t e w a t e r by s o i l b a c t e r i a .
s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s t h a t a r e removed i n i t i a l l y by f i l t r a t i o n
BOD and
a r e d e g r a d e d and consumed by s o i l b a c t e r i a .
s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s r e m o v a l s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t a f f e c t e d by t h e
l e v e l of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t .
However, h i g h h y d r a u l i c
l o a d i n g s of w a s t e w a t e r s w i t h h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of BOD and
suspended s o l i d s can cause c l o g g i n g of t h e s o i l .
Typical
BOD
loadings
( T a b l e 2-3)
are
less
than
130 kgfha.d
(115 l b / a c r e - d )
for
municipal
wastewaters.
Removals
RI
systems
are
presented
in
achieved
at
selected
T a b l e 5-1.
Some s y s t e m s have b e e n o p e r a t e d s ~ c c e s s f u l l ya t
higher loadings.
5.2.2
The
primary
Nitrogen
nitrogen
removal
mechanism
in
RI
systems
is
nitrification-denitrification.
T h i s mechanism i n v o l v e s two
separate steps:
t h e o x i d a t i o n o f ammonia n i t r o g e n t o
n i t r a t e ( n i t r i f i c a t i o n ) and t h e s u b s e q u e n t c o n v e r s i o n o f
n i t r a t e t o n i t r o g e n g a s ( d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n ) . Ammonium a d s o r p t i o n a l s o plays an important intermediate r o l e i n nitrogen
removal.
Both n i t r i f i c a t i o n and d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d by
s o i l bacteria.
The optimum t e m p e r a t u r e f o r n i t r o g e n removal
i s 30 OC t o 35 OC ( 8 6 OF t o 9 5 OF).
Both p r o c e s s e s p r o c e e d
s l o w l y b e t w e e n 2 OC and 5 O C ( 3 6 O F and 4 1 OF) and s t o p n e a r
t h e f r e e z i n g p o i n t of w a t e r .
Nitrification rates decline
s h a r p l y i n a c i d c o n d i t i o n s and r e a c h a l i m i t i n g v a l u e a t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y pH 4.5.
The d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n r e a c t i o n r a t e i s
r e d u c e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y a t pH v a l u e s below 5.5.
Thus, b o t h
s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e and pH must be c o n s i d e r e d i f n i t r o g e n
is important
( S e c t i o n 5.4.3.1).
Furthermore,
removal
alternating
aerobic
and
anaerobic
conditions
must
be
p r o v i d e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n t n i t r o g e n removal ( S e c t i o n 5 . 4 . 2 ) .
Because a e r o b i c b a c t e v i a d e p l e t e s o i l oxygen d u r i n g f l o o d i n g
p e r i o d s , r e s t i n g and f l o o d i n g p e r i o d s must be a l t e r n a t e d t o
r e s u l t i n a l t e r n a t i n g a e r o b i c and a n a e r o b i c s o i l c o n d i t i o n s .
TABLE 5-1
BOD REMOVAL DATA FOR
SELECTED RI' SYSTEMS [l-61
BOD
Location
Preapplication
treatment
Calumet,
Michigan
Untreated
F o r t Devens,
Massachusetts
Primary
Hollister,
Primary
Sampling
depth, m
3.3
Average
loading
rate,
kg/ha.da
Treated
w a t e r concent r a t i o n , mg/L
Removal,
%
80
llb
86
20
87
12
86
177
95
California
Lake George,
N e w York
Trickling
filters
M i 1t o n ,
W~sconsin
Activated
sludge
8-29
Phoenix,
Arizona
Activated
sludge
Vineland,
New J e r s e y
Primary
53
1.2
,98
155
1.0-19.0
88-99
6-9
45
0-1
98-100
2-14
48
6 . 5C
86
a.
T o t a l k g / h a - y r a p p l i e d d i v i d e d by t h e number o f d a y s i n t h e o p e r a t i n g
s e a s o n (365 d a y s f o r t h e s e c a s e s )
b.
Soluble t o t a l organic carbon.
c.
Average v a l u e from s e v e r a l w e l l s .
Note:
S e e Appendix G f o r m e t r i c c o n v e r s i o n s .
O r g a n i c c a r b o n i s needed i n t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r tco ' s u p p l y

energy f o r t h e d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n reaction.
Approximately
2 mg/L o f t o t a l o r g a n i c c a r b o n ( T O C ) i s needed t o d e n i t r i f y
1 mg/L o f n i t r o g e n .
Because t h e BOD c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e c r e a s e s
increases,
as
the
level
of
preapplication
treatment
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t must be l i m i t e d i f d e n i t r i : l f i c a t i o n
is t o o c c u r i n t h e s o i l .
Thus, i f t h e g o a l olf R I i s
nitrogen
removal,
primary
preapplication
treatment
is
preferred.
N i t r o g e n removal e f f i c i e r i c i e s a t v a r i o u s o p e r a t i n g RI
s y s t e m s a r e shown i n T a b l e 5-2.
A s shown i n t h i s ; t a b l e ,
n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 % a r e t y p i c a l .
~reater
amounts c a n be removed u s i n g s p e c i a l management p r o c e d u r e s
( S e c t i o n 5.4.3.1).
TABLE 5-2
NITROGEN REMOVAL DATA FOR SELECTED R I
SYSTEMS [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 - 9 1
Location
Concentration
i n applied
wastewater:
t o t a l N, mg/L
Loading
rate,
m/yr
B0D:N
ratio
Flooding
t o drying
time r a t i o
2.3:l
1:3
Concentration i n
r e n o v a t e d w a t e r , mg/L
Total N
Removal,
% of
total N
6-16
9-16
10-20
1: 2
5.3
6.2
43
NO3-N
Boulder,
Colorado
16.5
48.8
Brookings,
South Dakota
10.9
12.2
Calumet,
Michigan
24.4
17.1
3.6:l
1:2
3.4
7.1
71
--
54.9
0.3:l
150:14
--
--
12
F o r t Devens,
Massachusetts
50
30.5
2.4:l
2:12
13.6
19.6
61
Hollister,
California
40.2
15.2
5.5:l
1: 1 4
0.9
2.8
93
Lake George,
New Y o r k
11.5
12.0
58.0
58.0
2: 1
2:l
1:4
1:4
---
7.70
7.50
33
38
Phoenix,
Arizona
27.4
61.0
1:1
9:12
6.2
9.6.
65
Disney World,
Florida
A t some s i t e s t h e g o a l o f
2: 1
R I may be o n l y n i t r i f i c a t i o n ( f o r
example,
Boulder,
Col.orado )
Generally,
nitrification
o c c u r s i f w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s a r e s h o r t enough
t h a t t h e upper s o i l l a y e r s remain a e r o b i c .
For t h i s r e a s o n ,
i f n i t r i f i c a t i o n i s t h e o b j e c t i v e of R I , s h o r t a p p l i c a t i o n
p e r i o d s f o l l o w e d by somewhat l o n g e r d r y i n g p e r i o d s a r e
used.
Because t h e n i t r i f i c a t i o n r a t e d e c r e a s e s d u r i n g
w i n t e r m o n t h s , r e d u c e d l o a d i n g r a t e s may be r e q u i r e d i n c o l d
climates.
Under
favorable
temperature
and
moisture
c o n d i t i o n s , up t o 50 ppm ammonia n i t r o g e n ( a s n i t r o g e n ) p e r
Assuming
d a y ( s o i l b a s i s ) may be c o n v e r t e d t o n i t r a t e [ l o ] .
t h a t n i t r i f i c a t i o n o n l y o c c u r s i n t h e t o p 10 c m ( 4 i n . ) of
s o i l , t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o n i t r i f i c a t i o n r a t e s o f up t o
67 kg/ha-d ( 6 0 - l b / a c r e - d ) .
A t t h e Boulder, Colorado, R I
s y s t e m , t h e p e r c o l a t e ammonia c o n c e n t r a t i o n remained below
1 mg/L on a y e a r - r o u n d b a s i s .
5.2.3
Phosphorus
The p r i m a r y p h o s p h o r u s removal mechanisms i n R I s y s t e m s a r e

t h e same a s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 4.2.3 f o r SR.
Phosphorus
removals achieved a t t y p i c a l R I systems a r e provided i n
T a b l e 5-3.
TABLE 5-3
PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL DATA FOR SELECT ED
R I SYSTEMS [ l , 2 , 4-91
Average
concentration
i n applied
wastewater,
mg/L
Location
Distance of t r a v e l , m
Vertical
Horizontal
Average
concentration
i n renovated
wastewater ,
mg/L
Removal,
%
Boulder,
coloradoa
Brookings,
South ~ a k o t a ~
Calumet,
t4ichigana
F o r t Devens,
~assachusetts~
Hollister,
californiab
Lake Geo ge,
New York
Phoenix,
~rizona~
Vineland,
New ~ e r s e y ~
a.
b.
c.
T o t a l phosphate measured.
S o l u b l e phosphate measured.
Seepage.
5.2.4
T r a c e Elements
the
same
Trace
element
removal
involves
essentially
mechanisms d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.2.4 f o r S R s y s t e m s .
The
r e s u l t s presented
i n Table
5-4
compare trace e l e m e n t
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n wastewater a t H o l l i s t e r , C a l i f o r n i a , t o
d r i n k i n g water a n d i r r i g a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s .
R I s i t e s , trace e l e m e n t s accumulate i n t h e upper s o i l
layers.
D a t a f r o m Cape Cod, M a s s a c h u s e t t s , r e f l e c t t h i s
As indicated i n
phenomenon a n d a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5-5.
t h i s t a b l e , t h e p e r c e n t r e t e n t i o n o f most o f t h e m e t a l s i s
q u i t e high.
F o r e x a m p l e , 85% o f t h e c o p p e r a p p l i e d o v e r
33 y e a r s w a s r e t a i n e d i n t h e t o p 0.52 m (1.7 f t )
The
d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e r e t a i n e d metals i s a l s o shown i n
T a b l e 5-5.
At
TABLE 5-4
COMPARISON OF TRACE ELEMENT LEVELS T O
I R R I G A T I O N AND D R I N K I N G WATER L I M I T S [ 6 ]
mg/L
Recommended maximum
in irrigation
waters
Element
Maximum
concentration
i n drinking
waters
Hollister,
California,
average
wastewater
concentration
Ag ( s i l v e r )
A s (arsenic)
Ba ( b a r i u m )
Cd '(cadmium)
Co ( c o b a l t )
Cr (chromium)
Cu ( c o p p e r )
Fe ( i r o n )
Hg ( m e r c u r y )
Mn (manganese)
N i (nickel)
Pb ( l e a d )
Se ( s e l e n i u m )
Zn ( z i n c )
a.
None set.
TABLE 5-5
HEAVY METAL RETENTION I N AN
IlJFILTRATION B A S I N a
Percent
Depth, m
Total .
Percent
retention
o f 33 year
loads
0-0.52
a.
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Zinc
100
100
100
100
100
113
62
85
129
49
Adapted from r e f e r e n c e (111.
5.2.5
Microorganisms
Removal m e c h a n i s m s
S e c t i o n 4.2.5.
for
microorganisms
are
discussed
in
Feca'l c o l i f o r m r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c i e s o b t a i n e d a t s e l e c t e d R I
s i t e s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e , 5-6.
A s shown i n t h i s t a b l e ,
e f f e c t i v e removal of f e c a l c o l i f o r m s c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h
adequate t r a v e l distance.
TABLE 5-6
FECAL COLIFORM REMOVAL DATA FOR
SELECTED R I SYSTEMS [ l , 3 - 6 , 1 2 1
F e c a l c o l i f o r m s , MPN/100 mL
Location
S o i l type
Hemet,
California
Sand
Hollister,
California
Sandy
loam
Lake George,
New York
Sand
Landis,
New J e r s e y
Sand and
gravel
Plilton,
Wisconsin
Gravelly
sands
Phoenix,
Arizona
Sand
Santee,
California
Gravelly
sands
Vineland,
New J e r s e y
Sand and
gravel
a.
li lied
wastewater
Renovated water
Distance o f
travel, m
60,000
At l e a s t one sample t o o numerous t o c o u n t .
T h e p r i m a r y r e m o v a l mechanism f o r v i r u s e s i s a d s l o r p t i o n .
B e c a u s e o f t h e i r s m a l l s i z e , v i r u s e s a r e n o t removed by
f i l t r a t i o n a t the soil surface, but instead, travel i n t o the
soil profile.
O n l y a l i m i t e d number o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n
At
c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f i c i e n c y of v i r u s removal.
P h o e n i x , A r i z o n a , r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t 90 t o 99% of t h e
a p p l i e d v i r u s i s removed w i t h i n 1 0 c m ( 4 i n . ) o f t r a v e l when
e i t h e r p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t i s a p p l i e d [ 1 3 , 141 a n d
t h a t 99.99% removal is a c h i e v e d d u r i n g t r a v e l t h r o u g h 9 m
( 3 0 f t ) of s o i l f o l l o w i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of ~ ~ e c o n d a r y
e f f l u e n t [151.
The o n l y R I s i t e s a t which v i r u s e s have been d e t e c t e d i n
g r o u n d water, a n d t h e d i s t a n c e s t r a v e l e d by t h e v i r u s p r i o r
t o d e t e c t i o n a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 5-7.
A s noted i n t h e
table, all four of these sites are located on coarse sand

and gravel type soils.
Infiltration rates on these soils
are relatively high, allowing constituents in the applied
wastewater to travel greater distances than normally
Thus, the coarser the soil is, the higher the
expected.
loading rate, and the higher the virus concentration, the
greater the risk of virus migration.
TABLE 5-7
REPORTED ISOLATIONS OF VIRUS AT RI SITES [16]
Distance of migration, m
Location
S o i l type
Vertical
Sands and
gravel
11.3
Sands and
F o r t Devens,
~ a s s a c h u s e t t s ~g r a v e l
18.3
183
Sands and
gravel
6.1
Sands and
Vineland,
gravel
New ~ e r s e ~ ~
16.8
E a s t Meadows,
New York
Holbrook,
N e w York
a.
5.2.6
Horizontal
45.7
250
A p p l i c a t i o n o f u n c h l o r i n a t e d primary e f f l u e n t .
Trace Organics
Trace organics can be removed by volatilization, sorption,

and degradation.
Degradation may be either chemical or
biological; trace organic removal from the soil is primarily
the result of biological degradation.
Studies to determine trace organic removal efficiencies
during RI were conducted at the Vineland and Milton sites
[3, 51
At these two systems, applied effluent and ground
water were analyzed for six pesticides and the results of
the studies are summarized in Table 5-8. At both locations,
the concentrations of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-TP silvex, and lindane
were well below the maximum concentrations for domestic
water supplies established in the National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations.
If l
o industries contribute large concentrations of
synthetic organic chemicals and the RI system overlies a
potable
aquifer,
industrial
pretreatment
should
be
Further, since chlorination prior to land
cons idered
application causes formation of chlorinated trace organics
that may be more difficult to remove, chlorination before
application should be avoided whenever possible.
TABLE 5-8
RECORDED TRACE OIRGANICCONCENTRATIONS
AT SELECTED RI SITES [3,5]
ng/L
V i n e l a n d , New ~ e r s e y "
-.
M i l t o n , Wisconsin
Pesticide
Applied
Shallow
ground
water
Control
ground
water
Applied
Shallow
ground
waterb
DowngradientC
Cc~ntrol
ground
wa,ter
Endrin
Lindane
(0.03
2,8301,227
c0.01
cO.1
c0.03
4531,172
C0.01
CO. 1
c0.03
21.3
~0.03
41
~0.03
157.6
~0.03
3.9
cC1.03
7.4
~0.01
(0.1
c0.01
c0. 1
(0.01
(0.1
CO.
01
(0.1
CCl.01
cCl,. 1
72
26.8120
185
16.2
41.2
38.7
76.8
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene
2,4,5-TP
silvex
a.
-.
I f two v a l u e s a r e l i s t e d , t h e f i r s t is f o r t h e V i n e l a n d s i t e and t h e seicond

i s f o r t h e Landis site ( s e e r e f e r e n c e [51). I f one value i s l i s t e d , ra!sults
were t h e same a t b o t h sites.

b.
c.
5.3
S h a l l o w ground w a t e r was sampled d i r e c t l y below i n f i l t r a t i o n b a s i n s .

Ground water sampled a p p r o x i m a t e l y 45 m (148 f t ) downgradient from t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n basins.
Determination of Preapplication Treatment Level
The first step in designing an RI system is to determine the

appropriate level of preapplication treatment. This section
describes the factors that should be considered as well as
the levels of preapplication treatment that should be used
to meet various treatment objectives.
5.3.1
EPA Guidance
EPA has issued guidelines suggesting the following levels of

preapplication treatment for RI systems [17]:
o
Primary treatment in isolated

have restricted public access
Biological treatment by lagoons or in-plant

processes at urban sites that have controlled
public access
5.3.2
Water Quality Requirements and Treatment Goals
locations that
Preapplication treatment is used to reduce soil clogging and

to
reduce
the
potential
for
nuisance
conditions
(particularly odors) developing during temporary storage at
the application site. If surface discharge is required and
ammonia discharge requirements are stringent, the treatment
objective should be to maximize nitrification. In all other

cases, system design is based on achieving the maximum,
cost-effective loading rate that provides the required level
of overall treatment.
For ali systems, the equivalent of primary treatment is the
minimum recommended preapplication treatment. This level of
treatment reduces wear on the distribution system, prevents
unmanageable soils clogging, reduces the potential for
nuisance conditions, and allows the potential for maximum
nitrogen removal.
Nitrification may be achieved using either primary or
secondary preapplication treatment.
For this reason, the
selection of a preapplication treatment level to maximize
nitrification at a specific site is based on the same
factors that influence the selection of a preapplication
treatment level for maximizing infiltration rates.
In mild climates, ponds can be used if land is relatively
plentiful and not expensive. In areas that experience cold
winter weather, it may not be possible to operate RI systems
that use ponds for preapplication treatment. Also, if ponds
are used prior to infiltration, algae carryover may increase
the potential for soil clogging. Ponds can also be used to
reduce the nitrogen loading (Section 4.4.1).
Recommended
summarized
levels
preapp'lication
of
in T a b l e 5-9.
treatment
are
T h i s table s h o u l d ,be used only a s
a guide; the designer should select preapplication treatment

facilities that reflect local conditions, including local
preapplication
treatment
requirements
and
existing
wastewater treatment facilities.
TABLE 5-9
SUGGESTED PREAPPLICATION TREATMENT LEVELS
R I system o b j e c t i v e
Maximize i n f i l t r a t i o n
rates or nitrification
General case
Preapplication
treatment level
Primary
Limited land
Secondary
High q u a l i t y e f f l u e n t
polishing
Secondary o r
higher
Maximize n i t r o g e n
removal
General c a s e
Primary
5.4
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f H y d r a u l i c Loading Rate
S e l e c t i o n of a h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s t h e m o s t i n a p o r t a n t
a n d , a t t h e same t i m e , t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t s t e p i n t h e d e s i g n
procedure.
The l o a d i n g r a t e is a f u n c t i o n of t h e s i t e s p e c i f i c hydraulic capacity, the loading cycle, the quality
o f t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r , and t h e t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s .
5.4.1
Measured H y d r a u l i c C a p a c i t y
H y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y v a r i e s from s i t e t o s i t e and i s a
d i f f i c u l t p a r a m e t e r t o measure.
For design purposes,
i n f i l t r a t i o n tests a r e u s u a l l y u s e d t o e s t i m a t e h y d r a u l i c
capacity.
The m o s t commonly employed measurement f o r R I
design
is
the
basin
ini l t r a t i o n
test;
eylinder
infiltrometers
are
used
when
basin
testing
is
not
feasible.
Both methods a r e d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 4 , )
Saturated v e r t i c a l hydraulic conductivity
(also called
However, s a t u r a t e d
p e r m e a b i l i t y ) is s o m e t i m e s m e a s u r e d .
v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c conductivity is a c o n s t a n t w i t h t i m e ,
whereas i n f i l t r a t i o n rates d e c r e a s e as w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s
Thus,
v e r t i c a l , conductivity
clog the s o i l surface.
m e a s u r e f i e n t s o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e wastewater i n i l t r a t i o n r a t e s
t h a t c a n be m a i n t a i n e d o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s of t i m e .
For t h i s
r e a s o n , and t o a l l o w a d e q u a t e t i m e f o r d r y i n g p e r i o d s and
f o r p r o p e r b a s i n management, a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o b d i r l g r a t e s
s h o u l d be l i m i t e d t o between 4 a n d 1 0 % of t h e measured c l e a r
water p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e m o s t r e s t r i c t i v e s o i l l a y e r .
A l t h o u g h b a s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n tests a r e more a c c u r a t e t h a n
soil hydraulic
c o n d u c t i v i t y measurements
and
are
the
p r e f e r r e d method, t h e s m a l l areas u s u a l l y u s e d a l l o w a
l a r g e r f r a c t i o n o f t h e wastewater t o f l o w h o r i a o n t a l l y
t h r o u g h t h e s o i l f r o m t h e t e s t s i t e t h a n from a n o p e r a t i n g
basin.
The r e s u l t i s t h a t i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s a t t h e t e s t
sites a r e h i g h e r t h a n r a t e s o p e r a t i n g systems; would
a c h i e v e . Thus, d e s i g n a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rates sh o u ld
b e n o g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 t o 1 5 % o f measured b a s i n i n i l t r a t i o n
rates.
Cylinder
infiltrometers
greatly
overestimate
operating
i n f i l t r a t i o n rates.
When c y l i n d e r i n i l t r o m e t e r measurem e n t s a r e u s e d , a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s shou1.d be n o
g r e a t e r t h a n 2 t o 4 % o f t h e minimum measured i n f i : ' L t r a t i o n
rates.
Annual h y d r a u l i c Toading r a t e s b a s e d o n a i . r e n t r y
p e r m e a m e t e r t e s t r e s u l t s s h o u l d be i n t h e same r a n g e .
Annual l o a d i n g r a t e s and ' c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s
for
several
operating
RL
systems
are
presented
in
T a b l e 5-10.
S u g g e s t e d l o a d i n g r a t e s a r e summarized i n
T a b l e 5-11.
TABLE 5-10
TYPICAL-HYDRAULIC LOADING RATES FOR RI SYSTEMS [I, 4-91
Location
(1)
(2)
Operating basin
infiltration rate,
cm/d
Cylinder i n f i l t r o meter r a t e ,
cm/d
(3)
Vertical
hydraulic
conductivity,
cm/d
--
120
--
(4)
Annual l o a d i n g r a t e
% of
% of
% of
cm/da
(1)
(2)
(3)
122b
6ob
33.4
16.4
56
27
--
28
14
29'
7.9
13
--
m/yr
Boulder,
Colorado
Brookings,
S o u t h Dakota
U1
I
I-'
F l u s h i n g Meadows,
Arizona
60
Fort-Devens ,
Massachusetts
62.4
Hollister,
California
Lake George,
New York
>.15..2 -
Vineland,
New J e r s e y
a.
Average a n n u a l l o a d i n g r a t e d i v i d e d by 365.
-be Secondary e f f l u e n t
c. P r i m a r y e f f l u e n t .
401
--
TABLE 5-11
SUGGESTED ANNUAL HYDRAULIC LOAD1 NG RATES
Field measurement
Basin infiltration test
Cylinder infiltrometer
and air entry permeameter
measurements
Vertical hydraulic
conductivity measurements
Annual loading rate

10-15% of minimum measured
in iltration 'rate
2-4% of minimum measured
infiltration rate
4-10% of conductivity of most
restricting soil layer
The t o t a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i l n c l u d e s b o t h p r e c i p i t a t i o n and
wastewater.
I f t h e local p r e c i p i t a t i o n is s i g n i f i c a n t ,
wastewater l o a d i n g r a t e s s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d a c c o r d i n g 1 . y .
Once t h e h y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y h a s b e e n m e a s u r e d , t h e e n g i n e e r
must c a l c u l a t e an annual hydraulic loading rate.
Experience
i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s u s i n g RI h a s
b e e n l i m i t e d t o a n n u a l l o a d i n g r a t e s o f a b o u t 1 2 0 m (4:00 f t )
o r less.
F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e b a s i n t e s t i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e is 3 . 6 cm/h
(1.4 i n ./h) , t h e a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rate is c a l c w l a t e d
to e q u a l :
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e n s u r e t h a t BOD a n d s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a r e
w i t h i n t y p i c a l r a n g e s ( S e c t i o n s 2.2.1.1
and 5.2.1) a t t h e
I f t h e applied wastewater
c a l c u l a t e d annual loading rate.
c o n t a i n s 1 5 0 mg/L BOD a n d 1 0 0 mg/L s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , a t a
l o a d i n g r a t e o f 3 1 m/yr ( 1 0 2 f t / y r ) , t h e BOD a n d SS l o a d i n g s
would a v e r a g e 127 kg/ha-d
(114 l b / a c r e - d ) and 8 5 kg/ha-d
(76 l b / a c r e * d ) , respectively.
These q u a n t i t i e s are w i t h i n
t h e t y p i c a l BOD r a n g e g i v e n i n T a b l e 2-3 a n d t h e s u s p e n d e d
s o l i d s r a n g e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 2.2.1.1.
5.4.2
S e l e c t i o n o f Hydraulic Loading Cycle

and Application R a t e
FVastewater a p p l i c a t i o n is n o t c o n t i n u o u s i n R I , i n s t e a d ,
a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s are a l t e r n a t e d w i t h d r y i n g p e r i o d s .
T h i s i m p r o v e s wastewater t r e a t m e n t e f f i c i e n c y , m a x i m i z e s
l o n g - t e r m i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s , and allows f o r p e r i o d i c ! b a s i n
maintenance.
Loading c y c l e s are s e l e c t e d to maximize e i t h e r t h e i n f i l or n i t r i f i c a t i o n .

To
t r a t i o n rate, n i t r o g e n removal,
maximize i n f i l t r a t i o n rates, t h e e n g i n e e r should i n c l u d e
d r y i n g p e r i o d s t h a t are l o n g enough f o r s o i l r e a e r a t i o n and
f o r d r y i n g and o x i d a t i o n o f f i l t e r e d s o l i d s .
Loading c y c l e s used t o maximize n i t r o g e n removal v a r y w i t h
t h e l e v e l o f p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t a n d w i t h t h e climate
and s e a s o n .
I n g e n e r a l , a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s . must be l o n g
enough f o r s o i l b a c t e r i a to d e p l e t e s o i l oxygen, r e s u l t i n g
i n anaerobic conditions.
N i t r i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s s h o r t a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s followed by
longer drying periods.
Thus, h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g c y c l e s used
t o a c h i e v e n i t r i f i c a t i o n a r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h e
c y c l e s used t o maximize i n i l t r a t i o n rates.
Hydraulic loading c y c l e s a t s e l e c t e d R I s i t e s are p r e s e n t e d
i n T a b l e 5-12.
Recommended c y c l e s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n
T a b l e 5-13.
G e n e r a l l y , t h e s h o r t e r d r y i n g p e r i o d s shown i n
T a b l e 5-13 s h o u l d b e u s e d o n l y i n m i l d c l i m a t e s ; RI s y s t e m s
In
i n c o o l e r climates should use t h e l o n g e r d r y i n g p e r i o d s .
areas t h a t e x p e r i e n c e e x t r e m e l y c o l d w e a t h e r , even l o n g e r
d r y i n g p e r i o d s t h a n t h o s e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5-13 may b e
necessary.
The c y c l e s s u g g e s t e d i n T a b l e 5-13 a r e p r e s e n t e d
o n l y as g u i d e l i n e s ; t h e a c t u a l c y c l e s e l e c t e d s h o u l d be
s u i t a b l e a n d f l e x i b l e e n o u g h f o r t h e communi t y t s c l i m a t e ,
f l o w , and t r e a t m e n t s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
A p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e a n n u a l l o a d i n g
r a t e and t h e l o a d i n g c y c l e .
For example, t h e annual l o a d i n g
r a t e i s 3 1 m/yr ( 1 0 2 f t / y r ) a n d t h e l o a d i n g c y c l e i s 3 d a y s
o f a p p l i c a t i o n f o l l o w e d b y 11 d a y s o f d r y i n g .
Total cycle t i m e = 3
11 = 1 4 d
Number o f c y c l e s p e r y e a r = 365/14 = 26
L o a d i n g p e r c y c l e = 31/26 = 1 . 1 9 m / c y c l e
A p p l i c a t i o n rate = ( 1 . 1 9 m / c y c l e ) / ( 3
= 0.4 m/d
d)
The a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e c a n t h e n be used to c a l c u l a t e t h e
maximum d e p t h of a p p l i e d wastewater.
For example, i f , t h e
b a s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n t e s t r a t e o f 3 . 6 cm/h ( 1 . 4 i n . / h )
is
maintained over t h e 3 day a p p l i c a t i o n period, t h e applic a t i o n r a t e o f 0 . 4 m/d
(1.3 f t / d ) should n o t r e s u l t i n
s t a n d i n g water a t t h e e n d o f 3 d a y s :
( 0 . 4 m/d
x 100 cm/m)
( 3 . 6 cm/h x 2 4 h / d )
-46.4 c m ( - 1 8 . 3 i n . )
TABLE 5 - 1 2
T Y P I C A L HYDRAULIC LOADING C Y C L E S 16, 9 ,
Location
Preapplication
treatment
Cycle o b j e c t i v e
Boulder,
Colorado
Trickling f i l t e r s
Maximize n i t r i f i c a t i o n and i n f i l tration rates
Calumet,
Michigan
Untreated
Maximize i n f i l tration rates
F l u s h i n g Meadows,
Arizona
Year-round
Activated sludge
Maximize n i t r i f i cation
Maximize i n f iltration rates
removal
Winter
Year-round
F o r t Devens,
Massachusetts
Year-round
Hollister,
California
Summer
Resting
period
<1d
< 3 1/2 d
1-2 d
7-14 d
2 d
5 d
Maxiniize i n f i l tration rates

removal
Sand ( ~ l e a n e d ) ~
10 d
Sand ( c l e a n e d ) =
2 wk
20 d
Sand ( ~ l e a n e d ) ~
9 d
12 d
Sand ( c l e a n e d ) a
2 d
14 d
we&
7 db
14 d

~ a x i m i z ei n f i l tration rates
(not
cle.sned)
Weeds ( n o t
cleaned)
1d
14-21 d
Sand
I d
10-16 d
Sancl
9 h
4-5 d
9 h
5-10 d
Ponds, l i m e p r e c i p i t a t i o n , and
ammonia s t r i p p i n g
Maximize
polishing
5-6 d
10-12 d
Vineland,
Primary
1-2 d
7-10 d
Westby,
Wisconsin
2 wk
Whittier-Narrows,
California
Activated sludge
with f i l t r a t i o n d
9 h
New J e r s e y
d.
Sand ( n o t
cleaned)
2 wk
T e l Aviv,
Israel
c.
Sand ( d i s k e d ) ,
s o l i d s turned
into soil
Primary
Winter
a.
b.
Bed s u r f a c e
Primary
Winter
Lake George,
New York
Summer
Application
period
1 8 , 191
Cleaning u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d p h y s i c a l removal o f s u r f a c e s o l i d s .
Caused c l o g g i n g and reduced long-term h y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y .
Maintenance o f sand cover is unknown.
T r e a t e d wastewater blended w i t h s u r f a c e w a t e r s b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n .
2 wk
15 h
Sand ( c l e a n e d ) =
s a n d , ( c l e a n e d )a
sand
Sand ( d i s k e d )
s o l i d s turned
into soil
Grassed
Pea g r a v e l
TABLE 5-13
SUGGESTED LOADING CYCLES
Loading c y c l e
objective
Maximize
infiltration
rates
Maximize
nitrogen
removal
Maximize
nitrification
Applied
wastewater
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
a.
Season
Application
p e r i o d , ' da
Drying
period, d
Summer
Winter
Summer
Winter
Summer
Winter
Summer
Winter
Summer
Winter
Summer
Winter
Regardless of season o r c y c l e o b j e c t i v e , a p p l i c a t i o n
p e r i o d s f o r primary e f f l u e n t should be l i m i t e d t o
1-2 d a y s t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e s o i l c l o g g i n g .
I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d d e p t h i s a p o s i t i v e number, t h e maximum
d e s i g n w a s t e w a t e r d e p t h s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 46 c m ( 1 8 i n . ) ; a
maximum d e p t h o f 30 cm ( 1 2 i n . ) i s p r e f e r a b l e b e c a u s e s o i l
c l o g g i n g and a l g a e g r o w t h d e c r e a s e a s t h e l o a d i n g d e p t h and
I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d d e p t h e x c e e d s 46
detention t i m e decrease.
c m (18 i n , ) e i t h e r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d must be lengthened
From t h i s e x a m p l e , i t i s
o r t h e loading rate decreased.
clear
that
ini l t r a t i o n
r a t e s must
be
determined
as
a c c u r a t e l y as p o s s i b l e .
I f t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n rate is overe s t i m a t e d , b a s i n d e p t h w i l l b e u n d e r e s t i m a t e d and d i f f ic u l t i e s w i l l a r i s e when s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n b e g i n s .
5.4.3
Other Considerations
The f o l l o w i n g t h r e e s u b s e c t i o n s d e s c r i b e o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t
c a n a f f e c t t h e l o a d i n g c y c l e and l o a d i n g r a t e and m u s t be
c o n s i d e r e d by t h e d e s i g n e r .
5.4.3.1
N i t r o g e n Removal
The amount o f n i t r o g e n t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y ( u n d e r
c o n d i t i o n s ) c a n be removed
by d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n
d e s c r i b e d by t h e e q u a t i o n [ 1 9 ] .
optimal
c a n be
where
AN =
TOC =
K =
c h a n g e i n t o t a l n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n , mg/L
t o t a l organic carbon concentration i n t h e
a p p l i e d w a s t k w a t e r , mg/L ( s e e T a b l e 2-1)
TOC r e m a i n i n g i n p e r c o l . a t e , assumed t o
e q u a l 5 mg/L
The e q u a t i o n i s b a s e d on e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a t h a t i n d i c a t e d
2 grams o f w a s t e w a t e r c a r b o n a r e needed t o d e n i t r i f y 1 gram
of wastewater nitrogen [19].
E q u a t i o n 5-1 c a n be used t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a w a s t e w a t e r
c o n t a i n s enough c a r b o n t o remove t h e d e s i r e d amount o f
nitrogen.
For example, i f t h e a p p l i e d wastewater c o n t a i n s
42 mg/L TOC and 25.8 mg/L t o t a l n i t r o g e n , i t i.s o n l y
p o s s i b l e t o remove ( 4 2 - 5 ) / 2 mg/L o r 1 8 . 5 mg/L o f n i t r o g e n
and
to reduce
the t o t a l nitrogen concentration
from
25.8 mg/L
t o 7.3 mg/L.
Thus, u s i n g t h i s w a s t e w a t e r ,
c o m p l e t e n i t r o g e n removal c o u l d n o t be a c h i e v e d .
If the
a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r c o n t a i n s 248 mg/L TOC and 40.2 mg/L t o t a l
n i t r o g e n , t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t c a r b o n t o remove 1 2 1 .mg/L o f
nitrogen.
T h i s means t h a t , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , u n d e r p r o p e r
management, a l l o f t h e n i t r o g e n c o u l d be removed d u r i n g R I
(although
total
removal
might
never
be
achieve'd
in
practice).
If n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l i s i m p o r t a n t , t h e e n g i n e e r
s h o u l d u s e E q u a t i o n 5-1 t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r n i t r o g e n
I f so, a loading c y c l e should
removal is f e a s i b l e using R I .
b e s e l e c t e d t h a t maximizes n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l .
I
m i t r o g e n r e m o v a l f r o m s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t i s more d i f f i c u l t
t h a n n i t r o g e n removal from a w a s t e w a t e r t h a t c o n t a i i l s h i g h
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of o r g a n i c c a r b o n .
N i t r o g e n removal i s
e ' s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t when i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s a r e h i g h ,
because n i t r a t e s tend t o pass through t h e s o i l p r o f i l e
b e f o r e t h e y c a n be c o n v e r t e d t o n i t r o g e n g a s .
Irk f a c t ,
nitrogen
removal
from
secondary
effluent
increases
exponentially a s t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e decreases [20]. This
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s shown i n F i g u r e 5-2.
A l t h o u g h F i g u r e 5-2 i s b a s e d on d a k a from s o i l column
s t u d i e s u s i n g loamy s a n d , d a t a from o p e r a t i n g syst.ems i n
w a r m c l i m a t e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f i g u r e c a n be used t o o b t a i n
c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i m a t e s of a s i m i l a r s o i l s n i t r o g e n removal
potential.
Thus, i f s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t infiltrate,^ a t a
r a t e o f 30 cm/d ( 1 2 i n . / d ) ,
using a loading cycle t h a t
p r o m o t e s n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l , it s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o remove
a t l e a s t 30% of t h e a p p l i e d n i t r o g e n .
To a c h i e v e 80%
nitrogen removal, the soil column studies indicated maximum

infiltration rates are:
20 cm/d (8 in./d)
treatment
15 cm/d (6 in./d)
treatment
for primary preapplication

for secondary preapplication
If nitrogen removal is important and these suggested rates

are exceeded, soil column studies or pilot testing should be
conducted to determine how much nitrogen can be removed.
Also, infiltration rates can be reduced somewhat by
decreasing the depth of the applied wastewater, or by
compacting the soil surface.
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
I N F I L T R A T I O N R A T E , cm/d
FIGURE 5-2
EFFECT OF INFILTRATION RATE ON NITROGEN REMOVAL [20]
5.4.3.2
P h o s p h o r u s Removal
The a m o u n t o f p h o s p h o r u s t h a t i s removed d u r i n g R I a t
n e u t r a l p H c a n be e s t i m a t e d from t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n [19,
211 :
where
Cx = t o t a l p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t a d i s t a n c e
x a l o n g t h e p e r c o l a t e f l o w p a t h , mg/L
Co = t o t a l p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e a p p l i e d
,wastewater , mg/L
k = i n s t a n t a n e o u s rate c o n s t a n t and e q u a l s
0.002 h-l a t n e u t r a l p H
t = detention t i m e = Xe/I,
where
X = distance along the flow path, cm

3 = v o l u m e t r i c water c o n t e n t ,
cm3/cm3,
use 0.4
1 = i n f i l t r a t l i o n rate during system
o p e r a t i o n , cm/h ( u s e b a s i n t e s t r e s u l t s ,
20% o f c y l i n d e r i n f i l t r a t i o n r e s u l t s , o r
horizontal conductivity for horizontal
flow)
B e c a u s e t h e minimum p h o s p h o r u s p r e c i p i t a t i o n r a t e o c c l u r s a t
n e u t r a l p H , t h i s e q u a t i o n can be used to c o n s e r v a t i v e l y
estimate p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l .
If t h e c a l c u l a t e d phosphorus
p h o s p h o r u s conc o n c e n t r a t i o n is a n a c c e p t a b l e v a l u e ,
c e n t r a t i o n s from a n o p e r a t i n g R I system s h o u l d b e w e l l
within l i m i t s .
However,
i f t h e c a l c u l a t e d phosphorus
concentration a t a d i s t a n c e x exceeds acceptable values, a
phosphorus a d s o r p t i o n test should be performed.
This test
m e a s u r e s t h e a b i l i t y of a s p e c i f i c s o i l t o remove p h o s p h o r u s
a n d i s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3.7.2.
F o r e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r a s i t e w h e r e wastewater p e r c o l a t e s
15 m
t h r o u g h t h e s o i l t o t h e g r o u n d water t a b l e , w h i c h
(49 f t ) below t h e soil s u r f a c e .
The i n i t i a l p h o s p h o r u s
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s 1 0 mg/L a n d t h e b a s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n t e s t
r a t e is 40 cm/d ( 1 6 i n . / d ) .
By t h e t i m e t h e water r e a c h e s
t h e ground w a t e r t a b l e ,
be l e s s t h a n :
t h e phosphorus c o n c e n t r a t i o n should
I f t h e movement i s t h e n p r e d o m i n a n t l y h o r i z o n t a l , w i t h t h e
r e n o v a t e d water s e e p i n g i n t o a c r e e k 200 m ( 6 5 0 f t ) f r o m t h e
i n f i l t r a t i o n s i t e , and t h e h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y
i s 1 2 0 cm/d ( 4 7 i n . / d ) , t h e p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e
seepage should be less than:
5.4.3.3
Climate
I n regions t h a t experience cold weather, longer loading

cycles
may
be
necess'ary
during
winter
months
Nitrification, denitrification, oxidation
( S e c t i o n 5.4.2).
( o f a c c u m u l a t e d o r g a n i c s ) , and d r y i n g r a t e s a l l d e c r e a s e
d u r i n g c o l d w e a t h e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y as t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e
applied wastewater decreases.
Longer a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s
a r e n e e d e d f o r d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n so t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e
c a n be r e d u c e d as t h e r a t e o f n i t r o g e n removal d e c r e a s e s .
S i m i l a r l y , l o n g e r r e s t i n g p e r i o d s are needed t o compensate
f o r r e d u c e d n i t r i f i c a t i o n and d r y i n g r a t e s .
Combined w i t h t h e r e d u c e d h y d r a u l i c c a p a c i t y e x p e r i e n c e d
d u r i n g c o l d w e a t h e r , t h e need f o r l o n g e r l o a d i n g c y c l e s
c h a n g e s t h e a l l o w a b l e wastewater l o a d i n g r a t e .
Cold w e a t h e r
l o a d i n g r a t e s a r e somewhat lower t h a n w a r m w e a t h e r r a t e s ;
t h e r e f o r e , m o r e l a n d i s r e q u i r e d d u r i n g c o l d w e a t h e r as l o n g
as w i n t e r and summer wastewater f l o w s a r e e q u a l .
I f loading
rates m u s t be r e d u c e d d u r i n g c o l d w e a t h e r , e i t h e r t h e c o l d
weather l o a d i n g rate should be used t o determine l a n d
r e q u i r e m e n t s o r c o l d w e a t h e r s t o r a g e s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d .
I n communities t h a t use ponds as p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t
'and e x p e r i e n c e c o l d w i n t e r w e a t h e r , w i n t e r s t o r a g e may be
required.
T h i s is because t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e wastewater
becomes q u i t e low p r i o r t o l a n d t r e a t m e n t and makes t h e
a p p l i e d wastewater s u s c e p t i b l e t o l o n g - t e r m f r e e z i n g i n t h e
basin.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , R I may b e c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h c o l d
w e a t h e r i f w a r m e r wastewater f r o m t h e f i r s t c e l l of t h e pond
system ( i f p o s s i b l e ) is a p p l i e d .
I n such communities, t h e
e n g i n e e r m u s t k e e p i n mind t h a t t h e a n n u a l l o a d i n g r a t e
actually applies only to the portion of the year when RI is

used.
5.5
Land Requirements
An RI site must have adequate land for infiltration basins,

buffer zones, and access roads. At some systems, land is
also needed
for preapplication treatment facilities,
storage, or future expansion.
5.5.1
Infiltration Basin Area
If wastewater flow equalization is provided (including

treatment ponds), the land area required for infiltration
only (ignoring land required between and around basins) is
simply the average annual wastewater flow divided by the
annual wastewater loading rate. For example, if the isnnual
average daily flow is 0.3 m3/s (6.8 Mgal/d) and the
wastewater loading rate is 25 m/yr ( 8 2 ft/yr), the area
required for infiltration is:
If the wastewater flow varies with season and seasonal flows

are not equalized, the highest average seasonal flow :i;hould
be used. An RI site must either have enough basins so that
at least one basin can be dosed at all times or have
adequate storage for equalization be tween application
periods.
5.5.2
Preapplication Treatment Facilities
The communities that already have preapplication treatment

facilities will, in general, only need additional larid for
facilities to convey wastewater to the RI site.
In
communities that are constructing a completely new treatment
facility, land requirements for preapplication treatment
will vary with the level and method of preapp1ic::ation
treatment.
5.5.3
Other Land Requirements
Additional land may be needed for buffer zones, access

roads, storage or flow equalization (when provided ) , and
future expansion.
Buffer zones can be used to screen RI
sites from public view.
Preapplication treatment facilities, access roads, and storage or flow equalization rrtay be
included in the buffer area.
Access roads must be provided so that equipment and labor

can reach the infiltration basins.
Maintenance equipment
must be able to enter each basin (for scarification or
surface maintenance )
Typically, access roads should be 3 to 3.7 m (10 to 12 ft)

wide.
In any case, access roads should be wide enough for
the selected maintenance equipment and curves should have
large enough radii to allow maintenance equipment to turn
safely.
Land requirements for flow equalization or storage vary with
the type and amount of storage provided. This subject is
discussed in greater detail in Section 5.6.2.
5.6
Iniltration System Design
Items that must be addressed during RI system design include

wastewater distribution, basin layout and dimensions, basin
surfaces, and flow equalization or storage. In areas that
experience cold winter weather, cold weather system
modifications should also be considered,
5.6.1
Distribution and Basin Layout
Although sprinklers may be used, wastewater distribution is

usually by surface spreading. This distribution technique
employs gravity flow from piping systems or ditches to flood
the application area. To ensure uniform basin application,
basin surfaces should be reasonably flat.
Overflow weirs may be used to regulate basin water depth.
Water that flows over the weirs is either collected and
conveyed to holding ponds for recirculation or distributed
to other infiltration basins.
If each basin is to receive
equal flow, the distribution piping channels should be sized
so that hydraulic losses between outlets to basins are
insignificant.
Design standards for distribution systems
and for flow control and measurement techniques are
published by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers
(ASAE). Outlets used at currently operating systems include
valved risers for underground piping systems and turnout
gates from distribution ditches.
An iniltration basin
outlet and splash pad are shown in Figure 5-3.
An
adjustable weir used as an interbasin transfer structure is
shown in Figure 5-4.
Basin layout and dimensions are controlled by topography,
distribution system hydraulics, and loading rate.
The
number of basins is also affected by the selected loading
cycle. As a minimum, the system should have enough basins
FIGURE 5-3
I N F I LTRATl ON BAS I N OUTLET AND
SPLASH PAD
REMOVABLE R l N 6 S
(1000.
PLASTIC,
OR NONCORRODING
NETA L ALL SU I TABLE )

( 1 5 cm INCREMENTS)
CONCRETE F I L L
FIGURE 5-4
INTERBASIN TRANSFER STRUCTURE WITH ADJUSTA,BLE WEIR
so t h a t a t l e a s t o n e b a s i n c a n be l o a d e d a t a l l t i m e s ,
u n l e s s s t o r a g e is p r o v i d e d .
The minimum number o f b a s i n s
r e q u i r e d f o r c o n t i n u o u s w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d
a s a f u n c t i o n of l o a d i n g c y c l e i n T a b l e 5-14.
The e n g i n e e r
s h o u l d k e e p i n mind t h a t i f t h e minimum number o f b a s i n s is
u s e d I t h e r e s u l t i n g l o a d i n g c y c l e may n o t be e x a c t l y a s
planned.
F o r e x a m p l e , i f t h e s e l e c t e d l o a d i n g c y c l e is 2
a p p l i c a t i o n d a y s f o l l o w e d by 6 d a y s of d r y i n g and 4 b a s i n s
a r e c o n s t r u c t e d I t h e r e s u l t i n g l o a d i n g c y c l e w i l l be t h e
same a s t h e s e l e c t e d l o a d i n g c y c l e .
However, i f a c y c l e o f
2 d a y s of a p p l i c a t i o n f o l l o w e d by 9 d a y s of d r y i n g is
s e l e c t e d i n i t i a l l y and 6 b a s i n s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d ,
the
a c t u a l l y be
2 d a y s of
resulting
loading
cycle w l l
a p p l i c a t i o n f o l l o w e d by 1 0 d a y s of d r y i n g .
TABLE 5-14
M I N I M U M NUMBER OF BASINS REQUIRED FOR
CONTINUOUS WASTEWATER APPLICATION

Loading
application
period,
d
Cycle
drying
period,
d
Minimum
number of
infiltration
basins
The number of b a s i n s a l s o d e p e n d s on t h e t o t a l a r e a r e q u i r e d
for ini l t r a t i o n .
Optimum h a s i n s i z e c a n r a n g e from 0 . 2 t o
2 h a ( 0 . 5 t o 5 a c r e s ) f o r s m a l l t o medium s i z e d s y s t e m s t o 2
t o 8 ha ( 5 t o 20 a c r e s ) f o r l a r g e s y s t e m s .
For a 25 h a
( 6 2 a c r e ) system, i f t h e s e l e c t e d l o a d i n g c y c l e is 1 day of
w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n a l t e r n a t e d w i t h 1 0 d a y s of d r y i n g , a
t y p i c a l d e s i g n would i n c l u d e 2 2 b a s i n s of 1 . 1 4 ha ( 2 . 8
acres) each.
Using 2 2 b a s i n s , 2 b a s i n s would be f l o o d e d a t
a t i m e and t h e r e would be ample t i m e f o r b a s i n m a i n t e n a n c e
before each flooding period.
many
sites,
topography
makes
equal-sized
basins
impractical.
I n s t e a d , b a s i n s i z e is l i m i t e d t o what w i l l
. f i t i n t o a r e a s h a v i n g s u i t a b l e s l o p e and s o i l t y p e ( S e c t i o n
2.3.1).
R e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m l o a d i n g r a t e s and l o a d i n g c y c l e s
c a n be m a i n t a i n e d i f m u l t i p l e b a s i n s a r e cons.I:ructed
However, some s i t e s w i l l r e q u i r e t h a t l o a d i n g r a t e s o r
cycles vary with individual basins.
At
I n f l a t a r e a s , b a s i n s s h o u l d be a d j o i n i n g and s h o u l d b e
s q u a r e o r r e c t a n g u l a r t o maximize l a n d u s e .
I n a r e a s where
g r o u n d water mounding i s a p o t e n t i a l problem ( S e c t i o n
5.7.2),
l e s s mounding o c c u r s when l o n g , narrow b a s i n s w i t h
t h e i r l e n g t h normal t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g ground w a t e r flow a r e
used t h a n when s q u a r e or round b a s i n s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d .
B a s i n s s h o u l d be a t l e a s t 30 c m ( 1 2 i n . ) d e e p e r t h a n t h e
maximum
design
wastewater
depth,
in
case
initial
i n f i l t r a t i o n i s s l o w e r t h a n e x p e c t e d and f o r e m e r g e n c i e s .
B a s i n w a l l s are n o r m a l l y compacted s o i l w i t h s l o p e s r a n g i n g
from
1:l
to
1:2
(vertical
distance
to
hoirizontal
distance).
I n a r e a s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s e v e r e w i n d s o r heavy
r a i n s , b a s i n w a l l s s h o u l d be p l a n t e d w i t h g r a s s o r c o v e r e d
with r i p r a p t o prevent erosion.
I f b a s i n m a i n t e n a n c e w i l l be c o n d u c t e d
b a s i n s , e n t r y ramps s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d .
formed of compacted s o i l a t , g r a d e s o f 1 0 t o
3.0 t o 3.7 m ( 1 0 t o 1 2 f t ) w i d e .
Basin
t h e s e ramps and f o r w a l l s l o p e s s h o u l d n o t
p a r t of t h e necessary i n f i l t r a t i o n area.
from w i t h i n t h e
T h e s e ramps a r e
20% and a r e from
s u r f a c e a.rea f o r
be c o n s i d e r e d a s
The b a s i n s u r f a c e may be b a r e o r c o v e r e d w i t h v e g e t a t i o n .
V e g e t a t i v e c o v e r s t e n d t o remove s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s by f i l t r a t i o n and m a i n t a i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s .
However, v e g e t a t i o n
also l i m i t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n depth t o a value t h a t avoids
d r o w n i n g of v e g e t a t i o n , i n c r e a s e s b a s i n m a i n t e n a n c e n e e d s ,
r e q u i r e s a n i n c r e a s e d a p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y t o promote
g r o w t h , and r e d u c e s t h e s o i l d r y i n g r a t e .
A t Lake George,
N e w York, a l l o w i n g g r a s s t o grow i n t h e b a s i n s improv(td t h e
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e when f l o o d i n g d e p t h s e x c e e d e d 0.3 nz (1 f t )
but decreased t h e r a t e a t shallower wastewater depths [ l ] .
G r a v e l c o v e r e d b a s i n s a r e n o t recommended.
The long-term
i n f i l t r a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f g r a v e l c o v e r e d b a s i n s is lower t h a n
t h e c a p a c i t y of s a n d c o v e r e d b a s i n s , b e c a u s e s l u d g e - l i k e
s o l i d s c o l l e c t i n t h e v o i d s between g r a v e l p a r t i c l e s and
b e c a u s e g r a v e l p r e v e n t s t h e u n d e r l y i n g s o i l from d r y i n g [ 4 ] .
5.6.2
S t o r a g e and F l o w E q u a l i z a t i o n
Although R I s y s t e m s u s u a l l y a r e c a p a b l e of o p e r a t i n g d u r i n g
adverse climatic conditions,
s t o r a g e may be needed t o
r e g u l a t e wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s or f o r emergencies.
Flow e q u a l i z a t i o n may be r e q u i r e d i f s i g n i f i c a n t d a i l y or
s e a s o n a l flow peaking o c c u r s .
E q u a l i z a t i o n a l s o may be
n e c e s s a r y t o s t o r e w a s t e w a t e r between a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y when o n l y o n e or two i n f i l t r a t i o n b a s i n s a r e
used and d r y i n g p e r i o d s a r e much l o n g e r t h a n a p p l i c a t i o n
periods.
One example o f f l o w e q u a l i z a t i o n a t a n R I s i t e o c c u r s a t t h e
Milton, Wisconsin, system.
Milton d i s c h a r g e s secondary
e f f l u e n t t o t h r e e lagoons.
One of t h e s e l a g o o n s i s used a s
a n i n f i l t r a t i o n b a s i n ; t h e o t h e r two l a g o o n s a r e used f o r
storage.
I n t h i s way, M i l t o n is a b l e t o m a i n t a i n a
c o n t i n u o u s f l o w i n t o t h e i n i l t r a t i o n b a s i n [ 3 ] .
I
In contrast, the
with an earthen
p l a n t headworks.
kept i n reserve
wastewater flows
C i t y of H o l l i s t e r f o r m e r l y e q u a l i z e d f l o w
r e s e r v o i r t h a t was a h e a d of t h e t r e a t m e n t
I n a d d i t i o n , one i n f i l t r a t i o n b a s i n was
f o r p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t d u r i n g p e r i o d s when
were e x c e s s i v e [ 6 ] .
W i n t e r s t o r a g e may be needed i f t h e s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y i s o n
I n s u c h c a s e s , t h e w a t e r may n o t d r a i n
t h e low end f o r R I .
from t h e p r o f i l e f a s t enough t o a v o i d f r e e z i n g .
5.6.3
Cold Weather M o d i f i c a t i o n s
Rapid i n i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s t h a t o p e r a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y d u r i n g
c o l d w i n t e r weather w i t h o u t any c o l d weather m o d i f i c a t i o n s
c a n be found i n V i c t o r , Montana; C a l u m e t , Michigan; and F o r t
Devens, M a s s a c h u s e t t s .
However, a few d i f f e r e n t b a s i n
m o d i f i c a t i o n s h a v e been used t o improve c o l d w e a t h e r
t r e a t m e n t i n o t h e r communities.
F i r s t , basin surfaces t h a t
a r e c o v e r e d w i t h g r a s s o r weeds s h o u l d be mowed d u r i n g
fall.
Mowing f o l l o w e d by d i s k i n g s h o u l d p r e v e n t ice from
freezing to vegetation near the soil surface.
F l o a t i n g ice
h e l p s i n s u l a t e t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r , w h e r e a s ice t h a t
Problems
freezes a t the soil surface prevents i n f i l t r a t i o n .
w i t h i c e f r e e z i n g t o v e g e t a t i o n have been r e p o r t e d a t
B r o o k i n g s , S o u t h Dakota, where b a s i n s were n o t mowed and
ponds a r e used f o r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t [7].
Another c o l d weather m o d i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s digging a r i d g e
and
furrow system i n t h e b a s i n s u r f a c e .
Following
w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n , ice forms on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
w a t e r and f o r m s b r i d g e s between t h e r i d g e s a s t h e w a t e r
l e v e l drops.
Subsequent l o a d i n g s a r e a p p l i e d beneath t h e
s u r f a c e o f t h e i c e , w h i c h i n s u l a t e s t h e wastewater a n d t h e
soil surface.
F o r b r i d g i n g t o o c c u r , a t h i c k l a y e r o f ice
m u s t f o r m b e f o r e t h e wastewater s u r f a c e d r o p s b e l o w t h e t o p
of t h e ridges.
T h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n h a s been used s u c c e s s f u l l y
i n B o u l d e r , Colorado, and Westby, Wisconsin.
The t h i r d t y p e df b a s i n m o d i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e u s e o f
snow f e n c i n g o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l s t o k e e p a snow collrer o v e r
the i n f i l t r a t i o n basins.
The snow i n s u l a t e s b o t h a p p l i e d
wastewater a n d s o i l .
5.7
Drainage
Rapid i n ' f i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s r e q u i r e a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e to
m a i n t a i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s a n d t r e a t m e n t e f f i c i e n c i e s . The
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e may,be l i m i t e d by t h e h o r i z o n t a l h,ydraulic
c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e underlying aquifer.
A l s o , i f t h e r e is
i n s u f f i c i e n t d r a i n a g e , t h e s o i l w i l l remain saturalzed w i t h
water a n d r e a e r a t i o n w i l l b e i n a d e q u a t e f o r o x i d a ~ t i o n o f
ammonia n i t r o g e n t o o c c u r .
R e n o v a t e d water may
t h e g r o u n d water o r
t h e r e m u s t b e some
r e n o v a t e d water f r o m
i s o l a t e d t o p r o t e c t e i t h e r or b o t h
t h e r e n o v a t e d water.
I n b o t h cases,
method o f e n g i n e e r e d d r a i n a g e t o k e e p
m i x i n g w i t h n a t i v e g r o u n d water,,
be
N a t u r a l d r a i n a g e o f t e n i n v o l v e s s u b s u r f a c e flow to s u r f a c e
waters.
I f water r i g h t s a r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e e n g i n e e r m u s t
determine whether
the
r e n o v a t e d water w i l l d r a i n t o
t h e correct w a t e r s h e d o r w h e t h e r w e l l s o r u n d e r d r a i n s w i l l
b e n e e d e d t o c o n v e y t h e r e n o v a t e d water t o t h e r e q u i r e d
s u r f a c e water.
I n a l l cases, t h e e n g i n e e r n e e d s t o
d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e c t i o n of s u b s u r f ace f l o w d u e t o d r a i n a g e
from R I b a s i n s .
5.7.1
S u b s u r f a c e D r a i n a g e t o S u r f a c e Waters
I f n a t u r a l s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e t o s u r f a c e water is p l a n n e d ,
s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n be a n a l y z e d t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e
r e n o v a t e d water w i l l f l o w f r o m t h e r e c h a r g e s i t e t o t h e
s u r f a c e water.
F o r s u b s u r f a c e d i s c h a r g e t o a s u r f a c : ! e water
t o o c c u r , t h e w i d t h of t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n area m u s t b e l i m i t e d
t o v a l u e s e q u a l t o or less t h a n t h e w i d t h c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e
following equation [22] :
where
W = t o t a l w i d t h o f i n f i l t r a t i o n area i n d i r e c t i o n o f
g r o u n d water f l o w , m ( f t )
K = p e r m e a b i l i t y of a q u i f e r i n d i r e c t i o n of
g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w , m/d ( f t / d )
D = a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s o f a q u i f e r below t h e water
t a b l e and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
flow, m ( f t )
H = e l e v a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e water l e v e l
of t h e water c o u r s e and t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e

w a t e r t a b l e below t h e s p r e a d i n g a r e a , m ( f t )
d = l a t e r a l flow d i s t a n c e from i n f i l t r a t i o n a r e a
t o s u r f a c e water, m ( f t )
L = annual h y d r a u l i c loading rate (expressed as
d a i l y r a t e ) , m/d ( f t / d )
Examples of t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s a r e shown i n F i g u r e 5-5.
IMPERMEABLE L A Y E R
FIGURE 5 - 5
NATURAL DRA INAGE OF RENOVATED WATER
INTO SURFACE WATER f221
A s a n e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r a n i n i l t r a t i o n s i t e l o c a t e d above
a n a q u i f e r whose p e r m e a b i l i t y i s 1.1 m/d ( 3 . 6 f t : / d ) and
The a n n u a l
whose a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s i s 9 m ( 3 0 f t ) .
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s 30 m/yr o r 0.082 m/d ( 9 8 :Et/yr o r
0.27 f t / d ) .
The s u r f a c e w a t e r e l e v a t i o n i s 6 m ( 2 0 f t )
below t h e i n i l t r a t i o n s i t e , and t h e w a t e r t a b l e s h o u l d
The
r e m a i n a t l e a s t 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) below t h e s o i l s u r f a c e .
i n f i l t r a t i o n s i t e i s 25 m ( 8 2 f t ) from t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r .
Thus,
Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , e i t h e r a s i n g l e b a s i n 22 m ( 7 2 f t )
wide o r m u l t i p l e b a s i n s h a v i n g a combined w i d t h o f 2 2 m
c o u l d be c o n s t r u c t e d .
I f more i n f i l t r a t i o n a r e a i s n e e d e d ,
a d d i t i o n a l b a s i n s c o u l d be b u i l t i n t h e two d i r e c t i o n s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f ground w a t e r f l o w .
Four
basins
oriented
in
this
manner
are
illustrated
in
F i g u r e 5-6.
I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d w i d t h i s q u i t e s m a l l ( l e s s t h a n a b o u t 10 m
or 33 f t ) , n a t u r a l s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e to s u r f a c e waters i s
n o t f e a s i b l e and e n g i n e e r e d d r a i n a g e s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d .
5.7.2
Ground Water Mounding
~ u r i n gRI, t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r t r a v e l s i n i t i a l l y downward
t o t h e g r o u n d w a t e r , r e s u l t i n g i n a t e m p o r a r y ground w a t e r
mound b e n e a t h t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n s i t e .
T h i s c o n d i k i o n is
shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 5-7.
Mounds c o n t i n u e t o r i s e
d u r i n g t h e f l o o d i n g p e r i o d and o n l y r e c e d e d u r i n g t h e
r e s t i n g period.
E x c e s s i v e mounding w i l l i n h i b i t i n f i l t r a t i o n and r e d u c e t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r e a t m e n t .
For t h i s reason. t h e c a i ~ i l l a r v
f r i n g e above t h e g r o u n d w a t e r mound s h o u l d ~ e ~ b e L c l o s e ;
t h a n 0.6 m ( 2 f t ) t o t h e bottom o f t h e i n t i l t r a t i o n b a s i n
[23].
T h i s d i s t a n c e corresponds t o a water t a b l e depth of
a b o u t 1 t o 2 m ( 3 t o 7 f t ) , d e p e n d i n g on t h e s o i l t e x t u r e .
The d i s t a n c e t o ground w a t e r s h o u l d be 1 . 5 t o 3 m ( 5 t o
1 0 f t ) below t h e s o i l s u r f a c e w i t h i n 2 t o 3 d a y s f o l l o w i n g a
wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s d e s c r i b e
a n a n a l y s i s t h a t c a n be used t o e s t i m a t e t h e mound h e i g h t
T h i s method
t h a t w i l l occur a t various loading conditions.
c a n b e used t o e s t i m a t e w h e t h e r a s i t e h a s a d e q u a t e n a t u r a l
d r a i n a g e o r w h e t h e r mounding w i l l e x c e e d t h e recommended
values without constructed drainage.
S U R F A C E WATER
--
L E N G T H BASED ON N E C E S S A R Y
I N F I L T R A T I O N AREA 1
I H F I L T R A T i O N AREA
OlRECTlOM OF
6ROUND WATER FLOW
F I G U R E 5-6
EXAMPLE DESIGN FOR SUBSURFA.CE FLOW TO SURFACE WATER
WASTEWATER A P P L I C A T I O N
S O I L SURFACE
C
1111
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
F l GURE 5-7
SCHEMATIC OF GROUND WATER MOUND
Ground w a t e r mounding c a n be e s t i m a t e d b y a p p l y i n g h e a t - f l o w
t h e o r y and t h e Dupuit-Forci-iheimer a s s u m p t i o n s 1241
These
assumptions a r e a s follows:
1.
Flow w i t h i n ground w a t e r o c c u r s a l o n g h o r i z o n t a l
f l o w l i n e s whose v e l o c i t y is i n d e p e n d e n t o f
depth.
2.
The v e l o c i t y a l o n g t h e s e h o r i z o n t a l s t r e a m l i n e s
i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s l o p e of t h e f r e e w a t e r
surface.
Using
these
assumptions,
heat-flow
theory
s u c c e s s f u l l y compared t o a c t u a l ground w a t e r
several existing R I sites.
To compute t h e h e i g h t a t t h e c e n t e r o f
mound, o n e must c a l c u l a t e t h e v a l u e s o f
the
has
been
depths a t
ground w a t e r
~ / m
and R t ,
where
W = width of t h e recharge basin, m ( f t )
where
K = aquifer
(horizontal) hydraulic
c o n d u c t i v i t y , m/d ( f t / d )
D = saturated thickness of t h e
aquifer,m ( f t )
V = s p e c i f i c y i e l d o r f i l l a b l e pore space
of the soil, m3/m3 (ft3/ft3)
( F i g u r e s 3-5 a n d 3 - 6 )
t = l e n g t h of w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n , d
where
I = i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e o r volume g f w a t r p e r
u n i s a r e a qf s o i l s u r f a c e , m H20/mS-d
( f t H20/ft * d )
The p a r a m e t e r s t h a t c a n b e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5-5.
Once t h e v a l u e o f ~ / m
i s o b t a i n e d , one can u s e dimensionless p l o t s o f w/versus h , / ~ t ,
p r o v i d e d , a s F i g u r e s 5-8
( f o r s q u a r e r e c h a r g e areas) a n d 5 - 9 ( f o r r e c t a n g u l a r r e c h h r g e
a r e a s ) , t o o b t a i n t h e v a l u e o f h o / ~ t , w h e r e ho i s t h e r i s e a t
t h e c e n t e r o f t h e mound.
U s i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e of R t ,
o n e c a n s o l v e f o r ho.
2. 0
1.0
3.0
(m-1
FIGURE 5 - 8
MOUNDING CURVE FOR CENTER OF A SQUARE
RECHARGE AREA L24J
FIGURE 5-9
MOUNDING CURVE FOR CENTER OF A RECTANGULAR RECHARGE AREA AT
DIFFERENT RATIOS OF LENGTH ( L ) TO WIDTH ( 1 ) C241
For example, a n R I system i s planned above a n a q u i f e r t h a t is

4 m (13 f t ) t h i c k .
Auger h o l e m e a s u r e m e n t s ( S e c t i o n 3 . 6 . 2 . 1 )
( 5 m3/d)/
have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y i s
4 m o r 1 . 2 5 m/d ( 4 . 1 f t / d ) .
U s i n g F i g u r e 3-6 w i t h t h i s hyr a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , t h e s p e c i f i c y i e l d i s 15%.
The b a s i n s
a r e t o b e 12 m ( 3 9 f t ) wide and square; t h e b a s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e i s 0.20 m/d ( 7 . 9 i n . / d ) ; a n d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p e r Using t h e s e d a t a ,
t h e following
i o d w i l l b e 1 day long.
c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e performed.
R t = (1.3 m/d)(l d )
= 1.3 m (4.3 f t )
U s i n g F i g u r e 5-8,
Thus,
ho e q u a l s
ho/Rt
e q u a l s 0.53.
(0.53)(1.3
m ) o r 0.7
m (2.3 f t ) .
If
the
i n i t i a l ground w a t e r d e p t h is 6 . 0 m ( 2 0 f t ) , t h e d e p t h a f t e r
w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s s t i l l 5 . 3 m ( 1 7 f t ) and e n g i n e e r e d
Should t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s i n d i c a t e
d r a i n a g e is u n n e c e s s a r y .
t h a t t h e ground w a t e r t a b l e w i l l r i s e t o w i t h i n l e s s t h a n 1
t o 2 m ( 3 . 3 t o 6.6 f t ) below t h e b a s i n , a d d i t i o n a l d r a i n a g e
w i l l be n e e d e d .
F i g u r e s 5-10
( f o r s q u a r e r e c h a r g e a r e a s ) and 5-11
(for
recharge a r e a s t h a t a r e twice a s long a s they a r e wide) can
be used t o e s t i m a t e t h e d e p t h t o t h e mound a t v a r i o u s
d i s t a n c e s from t h e c e n t e r of t h e r e c h a r g e b a s i n .
Again
and R t must be d e t e r m i n e d f i r s t .
Then,
t h e v a l u e s o f w/=
f o r a g i v e n v a l u e of x/W, where x e q u a l s t h e h o r i z o n t a l
d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c e n t e r of t h e r e c h a r g e b a s i n , one c a n
ho/Rt
from
the
correct
plot.
obtain
the
value
of
M u l t i p l y i n g t h i s number by t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e o f R t
r e s u l t s i n t h e r i s e o f t h e mound, h
a t a d i s t a n c e x from
$he
d e p t h t o t h e mound
t h e c e n t e r of t h e recharge s i t e .
from t h e s o i l s u r f a c e i s s i m p l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e
d i s t a n c e t o t h e ground w a t e r b e f o r e r e c h a r g e and t h e r i s e
d u e t o t h e mound.
FIGURE 5 - 1 0
R I S E AND HORIZONTAL Sf%EAD OF MOUND BELOW
A SQUARE RECHARGE AREA [24]
FIGURE 5 - 1 1
R I S E AND HORIZONTAL SPREAD OF MOUND BELOW A
RECTANGULAR RECHARGE AREA WHOSE LENGTH
I S TWlCE I T S WIDTH 1241
To e v a l u a t e 'mounding b e n e a t h a d j a c e n t b a s i n s , F i g u r e s 5-10
a n d 5-11 s h o u l d b e u s e d t o p l o t g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e mounds a s
f u n c t i o n s o f d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p l o t and t i m e
e l a p s e d s i n c e i n i t i a t i o n of w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n .
Then,
c r i t i c a l mounding t i m e s s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d , s u c h 13s when
,
a d j a c e n t o r r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e b a s i n s a r e b e i n g f l o o d ~ e d , and
t h e mounding c u r v e s o f e a c h b a s i n a t t h e s e t i m e s s h o u l d be
superimposed.
A t s i t e s w h e r e d r a i n a g e is c r i t i c a l b e c a u s e
o f s e v e r e l a n d l i m i t a t i o n s o r e x t r e m e l y h i g h ground water'
t a b l e s , t h e e n g i n e e r should use t h e approach described i n
r e f e r e n c e 1251 t o e v a l u a t e mounding.
I n areas w h e r e b o t h t h e w a t e r t a b l e and t h e i m p e r m e a b l e
l a y e r underneath t h e a q u i f e r are r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o t h e
s o i l s u r f a c e , it may b e p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d t h e c o m p l i c a t e d
mounding a n a l y s i s b y u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e :
1.
Assume u n d e r d r a i n s a r e n e e d e d and c a l c u l a t e t h e
underdrain spacing ( S e c t i o n 5.7.3).
2.
spacing
is
If
the
calculated
underdrain
r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w , b e t w e e n 1 5 and 50 m ( 5 0 and
1 6 0 f t ) , u n d e r d r a i n s w i l l be r e q u i r e d and t h e r e
i s n o need t o v e r i f y t h a t t h e mound w i l l r e a c h
t h e soil surface.
3.
I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d spacing is l e s s than about

1 0 m ( 3 0 f t ) , t h e l o a d i n g r a t e may h a v e t o b e
r e d u c e d f o r t h e p r o j e c t t o be e c o n o l m i c a l l y
feasible.
4.
I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d s p a c i n g is g r e a t e r t h a n about
50 m ( 1 6 0 f t ) , mounding s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d t o
determine i f any u n d e r d r a i n s w i l l be necessary.
This procedure
is n o t a p p r o p r i a t e
f o r unconfined o r
r e l a t i v e l y deep a q u i f e r s .
F o r s u c h a q u i f e r s , mounding
should always be e v a l u a t e d .
5.7.3
Underdrains
F o r RI s y s t e m s l o c a t e d i n areas w h e r e b o t h t h e w a t e r t a b l e
and t h e impermeable l a y e r u n d e r n e a t h t h e a q u i f e r ' are
r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , r e n o v a t e d water c a n be
c o l l e c t e d by open o r c l o s e d d r a i n s .
I n s u c h a r e a s , when
d r a i n s c a n be i n s t a l l e d a t d e p t h s o f 5 m ( 1 6 f t ) o r less,
u n d e r d r a i n s are more e f f e c t i v e and less c o s t l y t h a n w e l l s
f o r removing r e n o v a t e d w a t e r from t h e a q u i f e r .
Horizontal
d r a i n s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o c o l l e c t r e n o v a t e d r i v e r water from
R I s y s t e m s i n w e s t e r n H o l l a n d , w h e r e p o l l u t e d Rhine water i s
t r e a t e d , a n d a t Dortmund, Germany, w h e r e w a t e r from t h e Ruhr
River is p r e t r e a t e d f o r a municipal w a t e r supply [23].

At
S a n t e e , C a l i f o r n i a , a n open d i t c h was used t o i n t e r c e p t
r e c l a i m e d water [ 2 3 ]
Rapid i n f i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s u s i n g u n d e r d r a i n s may c o n s i s t o f
t w o p a r a l l e l i n f i l t r a t i o n s t r i p s w i t h a d r a i n midway between
T h e s e two
t h e s t r i p s o r a s e r i e s of s t r i p s and d r a i n s .
t y p e s of c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g u r e s 5-12 and
5-13.
I n t h e f i r s t s y s t e m , t h e d r a i n s a r e l e f t open a t a l l
times d u r i n g t h e l o a d i n g c y c l e .
I f t h e second system i s
u s e d , t h e d r a i n s below t h e s t r i p s r e c e i v i n g w a s t e w a t e r a r e
c l o s e d and r e n o v a t e d w a t e r is c o l l e c t e d from d r a i n s b e n e a t h
t h e r e s t i n g s t r i p s . When i n f i l t r a t i o n b e d s a r e r o t a t e d , t h e
d r a i n s t h a t were c l o s e d b e f o r e a r e opened and t h o s e t h a t
were open a r e c l o s e d .
T h i s p r o c e d u r e a l l o w s maximum
u n d e r g r o u n d d e t e n t i o n times and t r a v e l d i s t a n c e .
determine
u s e f u l [27]:
To
drain
placement,
the
following
equation
is
where S = d r a i n s p a c i n g , m ( f t )
K = h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y of t h e s o i l ,
m/d
(ft/d)
H = h e i g h t of t h e ground w a t e r mound above t h e d r a i n s ,
m (ft)
L,
= annual wastewater loading r a t e ,
d a i l y r a t e , m/d
expressed a s a
(ft/d)
P = a v e r a g e a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n r a t e , e x p r e s s e d as a
d a i l y r a t e , m/d
(ft/d)
d = d i s t a n c e from d r a i n s t o u n d e r l y i n g impermeable
layer, m ( f t )
IMPERMEABLE
FIGURE 5 - 1 2
CENTRALLY LOCATED UNDERDRA lN
ka
0 DRAIN
)@ D R A I N
OPEN
CLOSED
FIGURE 5 - 1 3
UNDERDRAIN SYSTEM USING ALTERNATING
INF I LTRAT I ON AND DRY I NG STR I PS BE]
For
clarification,
these
parameters
are
shown
in
F i g u r e 5-14.
When L , P , K , and t h e maximum a c c e p t a b l e v a l u e
o f H are known, t h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e S f o r
v a r i o u s v a l u e s of d .
For example, c o n s i d e r an R I system
l o a d e d a t a n a v e r a g e r a t e o f 44 m/yr o r 0.12 m/d (144 f t / y r
o r 0.40 f t / d ) .
Using E q u a t i o n 5-4, t h e d r a i n s p a c i n g c a n be
calculated using t h e following data:
H = 1 m (3.28 f t )
d = 0.6 m ( 2 f t )
H Y D R A U L I C L O A D I N G R A T E L,
S O I L SURFACE
WATER TABLE,
IYPERYEABLE LAYER
FIGURE 5-14
PARAMETERS USED I N D R A I N DES lGN [26]
The a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e m u s t i n c l u d e p r e c i p i t a t i o n as w e l l a s
wastewater.
Therefore,
a
design
storm o f
0.03
m/d
( 0 , 1 0 f t / d ) i s a d d e d t o t h e 0 . 1 2 m/d ( 0 . 4 0 f t / d ) wastewater
l o a d f o r a t o t a l o f 0 . 1 5 m/d ( 0 . 5 0 f t / d ' ) .
The d r a i n s p a c i n g
i s c a l c u l a t e d as:
S = 26 m ( 8 5 ft)
G e n e r a l l y , d r a i n s a r e s p a c e d 1 5 m ( 5 0 f t ) o r more a p a r t a n d
a r e a t d e p t h s o f 2.5 t o 5.0 m ( 8 t o 1 6 f t ) .
I n soils with
s p a c i n g may a p p r o a c h 1 5 0 m
high lateral permeability,
(500 f t ) .
A l t h o u g h c l o s e r d r a i n s p a c i n g a l l o w s more c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e d e p t h o f t h e ground water t a b l e , as d r a i n s p a c i n g
d e c r e a s e s t h e c o s t of p r o v i d i n g u n d e r d r a i n s i n c r e a s e s .
When
d e s i g n i n g a d r a i n a g e s y s t e m , d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s o f d s h o u l d be
s e l e c t e d and u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e S , so t h a t t h e optimum
c o m b i n a t i o n of d , H , and S c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d .
Detailed
i n f o r m a t i o n o n d r a i n a g e ma$ b e found i n t h e U . S .
Bureau o f
R e c l a m a t i o n D r a i n a g e ~ a n u a l[ 281 and i n t h e ~ m ei rc a n . S o c i e t y
for A g r i c u l t u r e [29]
o f Agronomy m a n u a l , D r a i n a g e Once t h e d r a i n s p a c i n g h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d , d r a i n s i z i n g
should be determined.
U s u a l l y , 1 5 o r 20 c m ( 6 i n . or: 8 i n . )
d r a i n a g e l a t e r a l s are used.
The l a t e r a l s c o n n e c t t o a
c o l l e c t o r main t h a t m u s t be s i z e d t o c o n v e y t h e ~ x p e c t e d
d r a i n a g e flows.
D r a i n a g e l a t e r a l s s h o u l d be p l a c e d s o t h a t
t h e y w i l l be f r e e flowing; t h e e n g i n e e r should check
drainage hydraulics t o determine necessary d r a i n slopes.
5.7.4
Wells
R a p i d i n i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s t h a t u t i l i z e unconf irked and

r e l a t i v e l y d e e p a q u i f e r s s h o u l d u s e w e l l s t o improve
Wells a r e used t o
d r a i n a g e o r t o remove r e n o v a t e d water.
c o l l e c t r e n o v a t e d water d i r e c t l y from t h e R I s i t e s a t b o t h
P h o e n i x , A r i z o n a , and F r e s n o , C a l i f o r n i a .
Wells a r e a l s o
i n v o l v e d i n t h e r e u s e o f r e c h a r g e d wastewater a t W h i t t i e r
N a r r o w s , C a l i f o r n i a ; however, t h e w e l l s pump g r o u n d w a t e r
t h a t h a p p e n s t o c o n t a i n r e c l a i m e d water, r a t h e r t h a n pumping
s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r r e n o v a t e d water.
The a r r a n g e m e n t o f w e l l s and r e c h a r g e a r e a s v a r i e s ; w e l l s
may b e l o c a t e d midway b e t w e e n t w o r e c h a r g e a r e a s , may be
placed o n e i t h e r s i d e of a s i n g l e r e c h a r g e s t r i p , o r may
surround
a central
infiltration
area.
These
three
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 5-15.
W e l l design
i s beyond t h e s c o p e o f t h i s manual b u t i s d e s c r i b e d i n
d e t a i l i n r e f e r e n c e [30].
5.8
M o n i t o r i n g and M a i n t e n a n c e R e q u i r e m e n t s
The p u r p o s e o f
d i s c u s s i n g m o n i t o r i n g and m a i n t e n a n c e
requirements is t o enable t h e engineer t o determine labor
and e q u i p m e n t n e e d s .
The e n g i n e e r m u s t know t h e s e n e e d s t o
c o m p l e t e a t h o r o u g h c o s t e s t i m a t e and t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e
n e c e s s a r y l a b o r and e q u i p m e n t a r e a v a i l a b l e .
5.8.1
Monitoring
T h e r e are t w o d i s t i n c t r e a s o n s f o r m o n i t o r i n g R I syst.ems:
1.
document
that
the
system
meets
any
requirements
established
by
appropriate
r e g u l a t o r y a g e n c i e s and t o c o n f i r m t h a t t h e
design provides adequate treatment
To
a . WELLS Y IDWAY BETWEEN TWO A P P L I C A T I O N S T R l PS
b. a n d c . WELLS ( D O T S )
SURROUNOlNQ A P P L I C A T I O N AREAS
(HATCHED AREAS)
FIGURE 5 - 1 5
WELL CONF I GURA T I mS C281
2.
To p r o v i d e
decisions
data
needed
to
make
management
A m o n i t o r i n g program may i n c l u d e measurements o f ground

water q u a l i t y , s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p p l i e d w a t e r q u a l i t y ,
a n d , when a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e q u a l i t y o f w a t e r removed from t h e
aquifer f o r reuse.
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e measurements o f g r o u n d
w a t e r q u a l i t y are d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n .
Because c o n s k i t u e n t
movement i s s l o w e r t h a n i n s u r f a c e w a t e r , a ground1 w a t e r
s a m p l e c a n c o n t a i n c o n t r i b u t i o n s from s e v e r a l year's p a s t
t h a t do n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t treatment occurring a t t h e R I
site.
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , it is i m p o r t a n t t o p l a c e s a m p l i n g
w e l l s i n p o s i t i o n s t h a t minimize t h e t i m e p e r i o d between
wastewater
application
and
appearance
of
wastewater
constituents i n the observation w e l l s .
Techniques f o r
m o n i t o r i n g w e l l d e s i g n and s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s a r e i n c l u d e d
Guidance i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t
i n r e f e r e n c e s [ 3 1 , 321.
p a r a m e t e r s and s i t e c o n d i t i o n s t o m o n i t o r c a n be o b t a i n e d
from f e d e r a l , s t a t e , and l o c a l a g e n c i e s .
A l t h o u g h s o i l m o n i t o r i n g i s n o t r e q u i r e d a t many s i t e s , i t
is p e r i o d i c a l l y d e s i r a b l e .
Below pH 6 . 5 , s o i l r e t e n t i o n o f
m e t a l s d e c r e a s e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y and t h e p o s s i b l i t y o f ground
water c o n t a m i n a t i o n by heavy m e t a l s i n c r e a s e s .
Potential
s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y p r o b l e m s may be i n d i c a t e d by e i t h e r a h i g h
p H ( a b o v e 8.5) o r a h i g h p e r c e n t of sodium on t h e s o i l
exchange complex ( o v e r 1 0 t o 1 5 % ) .
High s o i l p H c a n
i n d i c a t e a h i g h sodium c o n t e n t .
T h i s c o n d i t i o n may b e
c o r r e c t e d by d i s p l a c i n g t h e sodium w i t h s o l u b l e calci.um.
Both a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r and a n y r e n o v a t e d w a t e r c o l l e c t e d
from
the
aquifer
for
r e u s e o r d i s c h a r g e s h o u l d be
monitored.
Applied wastewater a n a l y s e s a r e necessary f o r
process control to ensure t h a t t h e design hydraulic loading
is m a i n t a i n e d .
Renovated w a t e r t h a t is r e c o v e r e d 'or a n y
p u r p o s e must m e e t w h a t e v e r water q u a l i t y c r i t e r i a have been
e s t a b l i s h e d for those purposes.
5.8.2
Maintenance
Basic maintenance requirements a r e a s follows:

o
P e r i o d i c s c a r i f i c a t i o n o r s c r a p i n g of
surfaces
RI
basin
P e r i o d i c mowing o f v e g e t a t e d s u r f a c e s
b a c t e r i a l a c t i v i t y and s o l i d s d e p o s i t i o n , a
m a t f o r m s on t h e s u r f a c e s o f i n f i l t r a t i o n a r e a s and r e d u c e s
Furthermore, wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n s
i n f i l t r a t i o n rates.
may c a u s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g s o i l s , a l l o w i n g
t h e f i n e s t o m i g r a t e t o t h e t o p and t o s e a l t h e s o i l
surface.
P e r i o d i c a l l y , b a s i n s u r f a c e s must be s c a r i f i e d
( r a k e d , h a r r o w e d , o r d i s k e d ) t o b r e a k u p t h e mat a n d l o o s e n
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e mat may b e s c r a p e d
the soil surface.
from t h e s o i l s u r f a c e w i t h a f r o n t - e n d l o a d e r [ 4 ] and
These o p e r a t i o n s should be performed
l a n d f i l l e d or b u r i e d .
whenever r e g u l a r d r y i n g f a i l s to r e s t o r e i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s
t o acceptable levels.
I f scraping alone does not r e s t o r e
t h e i n i t i a l i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e , t h e s o i - 1 s u r f a c e s h o u l d be
B a s i n s u r f a c e s may b e
l o o s e n e d by d i s k i n g o r h a r r o w i n g .
s c a r i f i e d f o l l o w i n g e a c h d r y i n g p e r i o d i f time, l a b o r , and
equipment are a v a i l a b l e ; b a s i n s c a r i f i c a t i o n o r s c r a p i n g
s h o u l d be done a t least once e v e r y 6 months t o 1 y e a r .
I f g r a s s e s o r o t h e r v e g e t a t i o n are grown o n b a s i n s u r f a c e s ,
t h e v e g e t a t i o n c a n b e a l l o w e d t o grow a n d d i e w i t h o u t
maintenance.
Heavy m e c h a n i c a l e q u i p m e n t t h a t w o u l d c o m p a c t
t h e s o i l s u r f a c e s h o u l d n o t be o p e r a t e d o n t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n
basins.
F o r a e s t h e t i c r e a s o n s , p e r i o d i c mowing o f t h e g r a s s
o r h a r r o w i n g o f t h e s o i l s u r f a c e may b e d e s i r a b l e .
In cold
w e a t h e r c l i m a t e s , v e g e t a t i o n s h o u l d b e mowe'd d u r i n g l a t e
O c t o b e r o r e a r l y November t o p r e v e n t ice c h u n k s f r o m
f r e e z i n g t o t h e v e g e t a t i o n and t h e r e b y c o o l i n g t h e a p p l i e d
wastewater.
5.9
Design and C o n s t r u c t i o n Guidance
Some s p e c i f i c items t h a t a r e u n i q u e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d b e con side red:^
to
RI
design
and
Underdrains w i l l
operate only i n saturated
soil.
I f t h e water t a b l e d o e g n o t r i s e , o r i s
n o t a l r e a d y a t t h e e l e v a t i o n of t h e d r a i n s , t h e y
w i l l n o t r e c o v e r a n y water.
f i l t e r sock can .be used i n p l a c e of a g r a v e l
envelope around p l a s t i c d r a i n p i p e i n sandy
soil.
T h e - f i l t e r sock w i l l c l o g r however, w i t h
f i n e s i f used a l o n e i n s i l t y c l a y soils.
R I b a s i n s , when c o n s t r u c t e d , s h o u l d b e r i p p e d t o
a l l e v i a t e t r a f f i c compaction.
After ripping,
t h e s u r f a c e s h o u l d be smoothed and l e v e l e d , b u t
n e v e r compacted.
If
soils a t
the ,RI site contain varying
p e r c e n t a g e s of c l a y or s i l t , t h e h e a v i e r soils
s h o u l d be s e g r e g a t e d a n d u s e d f o r b e r m s .
Berms
s h o u l d be c o m p a c t e d , b u t i n f i l t r a t i o n s u r f a c e s
s h o u l d n o t be compacted.
5.10
References
1.
Aulenbach, D.B. Long Term Recharge of Trickling Filter

Effluent into Sand.
U. S. Environmental Protection
March 1979.
Agency. EPA-600/2-79-068.
2.
Baillod, C.R., et al.

Preliminary Evaluation, of 88
Years of Rapid Infiltration of Raw Municipal Sewage at
Calumet, Michigan.
In:
Land as a Waste Management
Alternative. Ann Arbor Science. 1977.
3.
&
Affiliates,
Inc., and Engineering
Benham-Blair
Enterprises,
Inc.
Long-term
Effects
of
Land
Application of Domestic Wastewater: Milton, Wisconsin,
Rapid Infiltration Site. U.S. Environmental Protection
August 1979.
Agency. EPA-600/2-79-145.
4.
Rapid-Inf iltration Research at

Bouwer, H., et al.
Flushing Meadows Project, Arizona.
Journal Water
Pollution Control Federation. 52(10):2457-2470.
1980.
5.
Koerner, E.T., and D.A. Haws.

Long-Term Effects of
Land Application of Domestic Wastewater: Vineland, New
Jersey Rapid Inf iltration Site.
U. S. Envir.onmenta1
Protection Agency. EPA-600/2-79-072.
March 1979.
6.
Pound, C.E., R.W. Crites, and J.V. Olson.

Long-Term
Effects of Land Application of Domestic Wastewater Hollister, California, Rapid Infiltration Site.
U.S.
EPA-600/2-78-084.
April 1978.
7.
Dornbush, J.N.
Infiltration
Land
Treatment of
Stabilization Pond Effluent.
Technical Progress
Report 3.
South Dakota State University, Brookings,
South Dakota. April 1978.
8.
Satterwhite, M.B.,
B.J. Condike, and G.L. Stewart.
Treatment
of
Primary
Sewage
Effluent
by
Rapid
Infiltration.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Cold
Regions Research ,and Engineering Laboratory. Dli3cember
1976.
9.
Smith,
D.G.,
K.D.
Linstedt,
and
E.R.
Bennett.
Treatment of Secondary Effluent by 1nfilt:rationPercolation.
U.S
Environmental Protect ion ,Agency.
EPA-600/2-79-174.
August 1979.
10.
Broadbent,
F.E.,
K.B.
Tyler,
and
G.N.
Hill.
Ammonical
Fertilizers
in
Some
Nitrification
of
California Soils. Hilgardia. 27:247-267.
195'7,
11.
Vaccaro,
R.F.,
e t al.
R e t r i e v a l a t Cape Cod.
Agency.
EPA-600/2-79-176.
Wastewater
R e n o v a t i o n and
Environmental P r o t e c t i o n
A u g u s t 1979.
U. S.
12.
Merrell, J . C . ,
Jr., e t a l .
The S a n t e e R e c r e a t i o n
Project:
Santee, California (Final Report).
U.S.
D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r , F e d e r a l Water P o l l u t i o n
Control
Administration,
Water
Pollution
Control
1967.
R e s e a r c h S e r i e s P u b l i c a t i o n N o . WP-20-7.
13.
C.P.
G e r b a , and J.L.
Melnick.
virus
Lance, J . C . ,
Movement i n S o i l Columns F l o o d e d w i t h S e c o n d a r y Sewage
Effluent.
A p p l i e d and E n v i r o n m e n t a l M i c r o b i o l o g y .
32:520-526.
1976.
14.
Lance.
P o l i o v i r u s Removal from
G e r b a , C.P. and J . C .
primary
and
Secondary
sewage
Effluent
by
Soil
Filtration.
A p p l i e d and E n v i r o n m e n t a l M i c r o b i o l o g y .
36:247-251.
1978.
15.
e t al.
V i r u s and Bacteria Removal from
G i l b e r t , R.G.,
Wastewater
by
Land
Treatment.
Applied
and
Environmental Microbiology.
3 2 ( 3 ) :333.
1976.
16.
Lance.
P a t h o g e n Removal from
and J . C .
~ u r i n g Groundwater
Recharge.
In:
for
Proceedings of
Symposium o n Wastewater Reuse
G r o u n d w a t e r R e c h a r g e , Pomona, C a l i f o r n i a .
S e p t e m b e r 67 , 1979.
Gerba,
C.P.
Wastewater
17.
U.S.
Environmental
Protection
p l a n n i n g , 1982.
EPA-430/9-81-012.
1981.
18.
Pound, C . E . ,
and R.W. C r i t e s .
Wastewater T r e a t m e n t and
Reuse
by
Land
Application.
U.S.
Environmental
EPA-660/2-73-0O6a
and b.
August
1973.
19.
Summary
L e a c h , E . , C.G. E n f i e l d , and C.C. H a r l i n , Jr.
.of Long-Term R a p i d I n f i l t r a t i o n S y s t e m S t u d i e s .
U. S.
EPA-600/2-80-165.
J u l y 1980.
20.
F.D. W h i s l e r , and R.C.

Rice.
Maximizing
Lance, J.C.,
aenitrification
During
Soil
Filtration
of
Sewage
Water
Journal of Environmental Q u a l i t y
5:102.
197 6.
Agency.
FRD-25.
Facilities
September
21.
C l a p p , R. B. and G.M. H o r n b e r g e r .
Empirical Eqllations
f o r Some S o i l H y d r a u l i c P r o p e r t i e s .
Water R e s o u r c e s
Research.
14(4):601-604.
1978.
I
22.
Bouwer, H.
I n f i l t r a t i o n - P e r c o l a t i o n Systems.
'In:
Land A p p l i c a t i o n o f W a s t e w a t e r .
Proceedings of a
R e s e a r c h Symposium S p o n s o r e d by t h e USEPA, Region 111,
Newark, D e l a w a r e .
pp. 85-92.
November, 1974.
23.
Bouwer, H.
Zoning A q u i f e r s f o r T e r t i a r y T r e a t m e n t o f
Wastewater.
Ground Water.
14(6):386.
NovemberDecember 1976.
24.
B i a n c h i , W. C. and C. Muckel.
Ground-Water Recharge
Hydrology.
U.S.
Department
of
Agriculture,
A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Service.
ARS 41161.
December
1970.
25.
H a n t u s h , M.S.
Growth and Decay o f Groundwater--Mounds
i n R e s p o n s e t o Uniform P e r c o l a t i o n .
Water Resources
3(1):227-234.
1967.
Research.
26.
Bouwer,
H.
Renovating
Secondary
Effluent
by
Groundwater Recharge w i t h I n f i l t r a t i o n Ba si n s.
In:
C o n f e r e n c e o n R e c y c l i n g T r e a t e d M u n i c i p a l Wastewater
T h r o u g h F o r e s t and C r o p l a n d .
U.S.
Environmental
EPA-660/2-74-003.
1974.
27.
Kirkham, D., S. T o k s o z , and R.R. v a n d e r P l o e g .

Steady
In:
Drainage f o r
Flow
t o Drains
and W e l l s .
J. v a n S c h i f g a a r d e , e d .
American S o c i e t y
Agriculture.
1974.
o f Agronomy S e r i e s o n Agronomy, N o . 1 7 .
28.
D r a i n a g e Manual.
U.S.
Department
Bureau o f R e c l a m a t i o n .
1978.
29.
Drainage f o r A g r i c u l t u r e .
J.
American S o c i e t y of
Agronomy
No. 17.
1974.
30.
and J . H .
Lehr.
Water W e l l T e c h n o l o g y .
C a m p b e l l , M.D.
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
N e w York.
1973.
31.
P.A.
Monitoring
Considerations
for
Blakeslee,
Municipal Wastewater E f f l u e n t and S l u d g e A p p l i c a t i o n t o
Land.
I n : P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e J o i n t Conferen,ce on
R e c y c l i n g M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e s and E f f l u e n t s o n Land,
Champaign, I l l i n o i s .
J u l y 9-13, 1 9 7 3 .
of
the
Interior,
van S c h i f g a a u d e , e d.
S e r i e s o n Agronomy,
32.
Dunlap, W.J.,
et al.
Sampling for Organic Chemicals
and
Microorganisms
in
the
Subsurf ace.
U.S.
EPA-600/2-77-176.
August 1977.
CHAPTER 6
OVERLAND FLOW PROCESS DESIGN
6.1
Introduction
The d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e f o r o v e r l a n d f l o w (OF) i s p r e s e n t e d i n
F i g u r e 6-1.
A p p l i c a t i o n r a t e and h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a r e t h e m o s t important design s t e p s because
these values plus the storage requirement f i x t h e lanp area
requirements.
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t c a n be i n c r e a s e d i f
i n a d e q u a t e l a n d area is a v a i l a b l e .
6.1.1
S i t e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and E v a l u a t i o n
Overland flow is b e s t s u i t e d f o r use a t s i t e s having s u r f a c e

s o i l s t h a t are s l o w l y p e r m e a b l e o r h a v e a r e s t r i c t i v e l a y e r
s u c h a s a c l a y p a n a t d e p t h s o f 0 . 3 t o 0.6 m (1 t o 2 f t ) .
O v e r l a n d f l o w c a n a l s o b e u s e d on m o d e r a t e l y p e r m e a b l e s o i l s
u s i n g h i g h e r l o a d i n g r a t e s t h a n would b e p o s s i b l e w i t h a n SR
system.
I t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e s i g n a n OF s y s t e m on v e r y
permeable s o i l s by c o n s t r u c t i n g an a r t i f i c i a l b a r r i e r t o
p r e v e n t downward water movement t h r o u g h t h e s o i l , a l t h o u g h
t h e c a p i t a l c o s t s o f s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n may b e p r o h i b i t i v e
f o r a l l b u t t h e smallest s y s t e m s .
O v e r l a n d f l o w may b e u s e d a t s i t e s w i t h g e n t l y s l o p i n g t e r r a i n w i t h g r a d e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 t o 1 2 % . S l o p e s c a n be
c o n s t r u c t e d o n n e a r l y l e v e l t e r r a i n and terraced c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n be u s e d when t h e n a t u r a l s l o p e g r a d e e x c e e d s a b o u t
1 0 % . T o p o g r a p h i c maps o f p r o p o s e d s i t e s w i t h 0.3 m (1 f t )
contour
intervals
should
be
used
in
detailed
site
evaluation.
6.1.2
Water Q u a l i t y R e q u i r e m e n t s
Most o f t h e t r e a t e d w a t e r l e a v i n g a n OF s i t e o c c u r s a s s u r f ace r u n o f f , a n d d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o r e c e i v i n g w a t e r s
P r o t e c t i o n o f g r o u n d water q u a l i t y a t OF s i t e s
must be m e t .
i s g e n e r a l l y e n s u r e d by t h e f a c t t h a t l i t t l e w a t e r ( u s u a l l y
less t h a n 2 0 % ) p e r c o l a t e s and t h e h e a v y c l a y s o i l s remove
m o s t of t h e p o l l u t a n t s .
Based o n l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e w i t h OF
on moderately permeable soils, a long-term d e c r e a s e . i n t h e
p e r c o l a t i o n rate c a n be expected due t o c l o g g i n g of s o i l
p o r e s a n d a r e l a t i v e l y small p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e a p p l i e d
I f OF is c o n s i d e r e d f o r u s e on
,wastewater w i l l p e r c o l a t e .
m o d e r a t e l y p e r m e a b l e s o i l s , however, i t is recommended t h a t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n b e g i v e n t o g r o u n d water i m p a c t s a s d i s c u s s e d
f o r SR s y s t e m s i n C h a p t e r s 4 a n d 9.
6-1
FIGURE 6 - 1
OVERLAND FLOW DES l GN PROCEDURE
6.1.3
The b a s i c
T a b l e 6-1.
D e s i g n and O p e r a t i n g P a r a m e t e r s
design
and
operating
parameters
are
defined
TABLE 6-1
OF DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
Definition
Parameter
Hydraulic
loading rate
Average flowrate divided

by the wetted slope area
0.6-6.7 cm/d
6.3-40 cm/wk
Application
rate
Flowrate applied to the

slope per unit width of slope
0.03-0.24
Application
period
Length of time per day of

wastewater application
5-24 h/d
Application
frequency
Number of days per week

that wastewater is applied
to the slope
5-7 d/wk
Note:
6.2
Range of values
in practice
m3/m.h
P r o c e s s Performance
Knowledge o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f p r o c e s s p e r f o r m a n c e and
d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r OF s y s t e m s i s n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e t h e d e s i g n
c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d .
The r e m o v a l mechanisms d i s c u s s e d i n
t h i s s e c t i o n relate to o p e r a t i n g parameters, s l o p e l e n g t h s ,
A summary o f d e s i g n
and l e v e l s o f p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t .
and o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r e x i s t i n g m u n i c i p a l OF
H e a l t h and
s y s t e m s is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s 6-2 and 6-3.
e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s of trace e l e m e n t s and t r a c e o r g a n i c s
are d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 9.
6.2.1
BOD Removal
B i o l o g i c a l o x i d a t i o n i s t h e p r i n c i p a l mechanism r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r t h e removal of
soluble organic materials
i n the
wastewater.
The d i v e r s e m i c r o b i a l p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e s o i l
and t h e s u r f a c e o r g a n i c l a y e r s o r b a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y o x i d i z e
t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s i n t o s t a b l e end p r o d u c t s much l i k e t h e
S u s p e n d e d and
b i o l o g i c a l s l i m e s o n t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r media.
c o l l o i d a l o r g a n i c materials, which c o n t r i b u t e a b o u t 50% o f
a r e removed by
t h e BOD l o a d i n raw d o m e s t i c s e w a g e ,
s e d i m e n t a t i o n and f i l t r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s u r f a c e g r a s s and
organic layers.
S u b s e q u e n t breakdown o f t h e d e g r a d a b l e
s e t t l e d p a r t i c u l a t e m a t e r i a l s is a l s o a c h i e v e d by t h e microorganisms on t h e slope.
T y p i c a l r e m o v a l s o f BOD a r e
TABLE 6-2
SUMMARY OF PROCESS OPERATING PARAMETERS,
BOD AND SS PERFORMANCE AT OF SYSTEMSa
wastewater
applied
Raw
wastewater
Primary
effluent
Slope
length,
Location
Application
rate,
m3/m-h
Hydraulic
loading
rate,
cm/d
Application
Period,
h/d
Wng/L
F'requencv,
d/wk
SS, Mg/L
BOD,
-----------Influent
Effluent
Influent
Effluent
[I]
[I1
0.075
0.098
1.63
3.3
8
12
6
6
150
132
8
10
160
185
Pauls
Valley,
Oklahoma
46
0.041
0.73
117
14.8
105
5.2
[2 1
Easley ,
South
Carolina
55
0.22
2.36
200
23
186
[31
Ada,
Oklahoma
36
0.065
0.098
2.5
3.3
12
12
6
6
70
70
8
8
56
56
7
7
(11
Hanover,
30.5
0.075
0.127
1.25
2.8
5
7
5
5
72
72
9
9
74
59
10
7
141
151
250
0.24
2.3
24
507
12
233
19
161
45
6.25
3.51
28
Oklahoma
New
8
16
Reference
36
Ada,
Hampshire
Melbourne,
Australia
Secondary
effluent
Ada,
Oklahoma
Hanover,
New
Hampshire
S t a b i l i z a t i o n Pauls"
Pond
Valley,
. Oklahoma
effluent
Utica,
Mississippi
"--,
-.
dc=ry,
South
Carolina
a.
Performance during warn season
15
60
40
131
TABLE 6-3
SUMMARY OF NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS
PERFORMANCE AT O F S Y S T E M S ~
--
Wastewater
applied
Raw
wastewater
Primary
.effluent
Secondary
effluent
Location
Hydraulic
loading
rate,
cm/d
Influent
Effluent
Influent
Ada,
Oklahoma
1.63
3.3
23.6
34.0
2.1
7
17.0
23.0
0.6
2
<1
0.4
2
10.0
8
4.3
4.5
[I]
111
Pauls
Valley,
Oklahoma
0.73
24.2
9.8
16,7
5.3
<O.l
0.4
8.3
8.7
(21
Easley,
South
Carolina
2.36
30.5
7.7
16.0
3.3
1.4
0.3
8.9
4.0
[31
Ada,
Oklahoma
2.5
3.3
19
19
5
5
14.0
14.0
1.5
1.5
3
3
7
7
4.7
5.2
1x1
Hanover,
New
Hampshire
1.25
2.8
45
36
9.4
11.3
37.6
24.0
5.8
4.5
0.9
(0.1
1.6
3.5
5.7
6.6
1.1
4.4
[dl
I51
Melbourne,
Australia
2.3
55.6
39.7
31
10.1
0.3
9.0
8.4
I61
Ada,
Oklahoma
4.2
6.7
16
16
8.5
8.5
6
6
0.5
0.5
8
8
5.5
7.5
7
7
5.0
5.9
111
[1]
1.25
31.3
13.7
21.7
7.1
6.2
6.0
3.6
141
Pauls
valley,
Oklahoma
1.66
15.5
11.4
1.7
0.4
<0.1
0.2
6.3
5.1
[21
Utica,
Mississippi
1.27
2.54
2.54
5.08
1.27
20.5
20.5
20.5
20.5
20.5
4.3
7.5
7.3
10.0
7.0
15.6
15.6
15.6
15.6
15.6
0.1
0.8
0.7
1.1
0.8
11.0
(1.0
(1.0
11.0
(1.0
1.0
2.6
3.1
4.8
3.2
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
10.3
4.9
6.1
5.9
8.2
7.1
I71
I71
I71
171
171
Easley,
South
Carolina
3.58
6.7
2.1
1.0
0.4
2.4
1.1
3.8
2.2
133
ano over,
T o t a l N , mg/L
Ammonia-N
, mg/L
Effluent
31
itr rate-N, mg/L
Influent
0.8
Effluent
T o t a l P, mq/L
Influent
Effluent
Reference
New
Hampshire
Stabilization
pond
effluent
a.
Performance d u r i n g warm season.
The p e r f o r m a n c e o f OF s y s t e m s t r e a t i n g p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y
e f f l u e n t i n c o l d r e g i o n s was e v a l u a t e d i n Hanovczr, New
F o r p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t , i t was found t h a t
Hampshire [ 4 ] .
r u n o f f BOD c o n c e n t r a t i o n was n o t s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t e d by
t e m p e r a t u r e u n t i l t h e s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e dropped t o a b o u t
Below 10 OC, e f f l u e n t BOD l e v e l s i n c r e a s e d
1 0 OC ( 5 0 OF).
A t s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s below
with decreasing temperatures.
4 OC (39 OF) e f f l u e n t BOD l e v e l s e x c e e d e d 30 mg/L,.
For
s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t , OF e f f l u e n t BOD v a l u e s remained below
S t o r a g e may be
1 5 mg/L a t s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 4 OC.
required d u r i n g c o l d w e a t h e r t o m e e t s t r i n g e n t BOD d i s c h a r g e
requirements.
R e l a t i o n s h i p s between BOD removal and t h e p r o c e s s o p e r a t i n g
However, r e s u l t s of r e c e n t
parameters a r e n o t w e l l defined.
s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d t o d e v e l o p r a t i o n a l d e s i g n methods f o r O F
i n d i c a t e t h a t , f o r p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t , BOD removal i s l a r g e l y
a f u n c t i o n o f a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e and s l o p e l e n g t h and i s i n d e e n d e n t o f h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e w i t h i n t h e r a n g e s used a t
{ x i s t i n g s y s t e m s [ 5 , 81 ( s e e S e c t i o n 6 . 1 1 ) .
6.2.2
Suspended S o l i d s Removal
Suspended and c o l l o i d a l s o l i d s a r e removed by s e d i m e n t a t i o n ,

f i l t r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e g r a s s and l i t t e r , and a d s o r p t i o n o n
Because o f t h e low f l o w
the biological s l i m e layer.
v e l o c i t i e s and s h a l l o w f l o w d e p t h s on t h e OF s l o p e s , :most SS
a r e removed
within a
few meters
from t h e p o i n t o f
application.
Removal o f a l g a e from s t a b i l i z a t i o n pond e f f l u e n t by OF
s y s t e m s is somewhat v a r i a b l e and d e p e n d s on t h e n a t u r e o f
t h e algae.
I f OF i s n o t b e i n g used i n t h e 1 o c a l i . t ~f o r
t r e a t m e n t o f pond e f f l u e n t , p i l o t s t u d i e s may be a d v i s e d t o
a s c e r t a i n t r e a t a b i l ity.
Removal o f SS r e q u i r e s t h a t a t h i c k s t a n d o f v e g e t a t i o n be
m a i n t a i n e d and t h a t g u l l i e s o r o t h e r s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g down
t h e s l o p e s be a v o i d e d .
Removal of
SS i s r e l a t i v e l y
u n a f f e c t e d by c o l d w e a t h e r o r c h a n g e s i n p r o c e s s l o a d i n g
p a r a m e t e r s compared t o BOD removal.
6.2.3
N i t r o g e n Removal
removal
Important
mechanisms
responsible
for
nitrogen
OF
include
crop uptake,
biological
nitrificationd e n i t r i f i c a t i o n , and ammonia v o l a t i l i z a t i o n .
Removal o f
n i t r o g e n by c r o p h a r v e s t d e p e n d s on t h e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t o f
t h e c r o p and t h e d r y m a t t e r y i e l d o f t h e c r o p a s d i s c u s s e d
The w a t e r t o l e r a n t f o r a g e g r a s s e s used
i n S e c t i o n 4.3,2.1.
f o r OF g e n e r a l l y have h i g h n i t r o g e n u p t a k e c a p a c i t i e s .
by
Annual nitrogen uptake measured at the Utica, Mississippi,

system for a grass mixture of Reed canary, Kentucky 31 tall
fescue , perennial ryegrass, and common Bermuda ranged
between 222 and 179 kg/ha (198 and 160 lb/acre).
Crop
uptake at the Utica system accounted for approximately 11
and 33% percent of the applied nitrogen at the high and low
hydraulic loading rates, respectively (see Table 6-3) [7]
Ammonia volatilization is known to occur during OF.

Researchers at the Utica site estimated volatilization
losses to be about 9% of the applied pond effluent
nitrogen [7].
Nitrification-denitrification is usually the major removal

mechanism. At Utica, the losses attributable to denitrification ranged from 34 to 42% of the applied nitrogen [7].
Nitrification takes place in the aerobic environment at the
soil surface.
The nitrates then diffuse through the
organic-rich surface materials where anaerobic conditions
necessary for denitrification exist.
Denitrification
requires the presence of a readily available carbon
source. Consequently, the best nitrogen removals are found
using raw wastewater or primary effluent that have high
carbon to nitrogen ratios (>3).
Lesser nitrogen removals
are found using secondary or pond effluent when the carbon
to nitrogen ratios are about one.
Typical effluent values for the different nitrogen forms are
indicated in Table 6-3. The effects of operating parameters
on nitrogen removal are not well understood.
Specific
design and operating criteria to optimize nitrogen removal
or ammonia conversion have not been established.
However,
some general relationships can be stated:
1.
Total nitrogen and ammonia removal is inversely

related to application rate and directly related to
slope length.
2.
The rate of nitrification is reduced if wastewater

is applied continuously.
3.
The overall nitrogen removal and ammonia conversion

efficiency is reduced as the soil temperature drops
With pond
below 13 to 14 OC (55 to 57 OF).
effluent at the Utica system, nitrogen removal
efficiency decreased from 90% in the spring and
summer to less than 80% during the winter [2].
Results obtained at the Hanover system with primary
and secondary effluents, showed that nitrogen
removal efficiency dropped to about 30% during the
w i n t e r [5]
temperatures.is
the biological
cess as w e l l a s
6.2.4
The r e d u c e d e f f i c i e n c y i n c o l d e r
a t t r i b u t e d to t h e decreased rate of
n i t r i f i c a t i o n - d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n proreduced p l a n t uptake.
P h o s p h o r u s Removal
The m a j o r mechanisms r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l by
OF i n c l u d e s o r p t i o n o n s o i l l c l a y c o l l o i d s and p r e c i p i t a t i o n
a s i n s o l u b l e c o m p l e x e s of c a l c i u m , i r o n , and aluminulm. When
l o w p e r m e a b i l i t y s u r f a c e s o i l s a r e p r e s e n t , a s i s I:he case
f o r m o s t OF s y s t e m s , much of t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s
o v e r t h e s u r f a c e and d o e s n o t c o n t a c t t h e s o i l m a t r i x and
A s a r e s u l t of t h i s l i m i t e d
p h o s p h o r u s a d s o r p t i o n sites.
s o i l c o n t a c t , p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l s a c h i e v e d a t e x i s t i n g OF
s y s t e m s g e n e r a l l y r a n g e from 40 t o 60%.
Phosphorus d a t a
f r o m some OF s y s t e m s a r e shown i n T a b l e 6-3.
Improved p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y c a n be a c h i e v e d by
t h e a d d i t i o n o f aluminum s u l f a t e t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r p r i o r t o
a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e land.
A p p l i c a t i o n s o f aluminum s u l f a t e
t o r a w sewage a t a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 20 mg/L r e d u c e d t h e
p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n from 8.8 mg/L t o 1 . 5 mg/L o r 85%
r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y i n e x p e r i m e n t s a t Ada, Oklahokna [9].
A d d i t i o n o f aluminum s u l f a t e t o s t a b i l i z a t i o n pond c*kf f l u e n t
i n a m o u n t s e q u a l t o 1:1, aluminum t o p h o s p h o r u s , p r i o r t o
a p p l i c a t i o n r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n of phosphorus
i n t h e r u n o f f t o a b o u t 1 mg/L o r r e m o v a l e f f i c i e n c y b e t t e r
t h a n 80% a t t h e Utica s y s t e m [ l o ] .
6.2.5
T r a c e E l e m e n t Removal
The major mechanisms r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t r a c e e l e m e n t removal

i n c l u d e s o r p t i o n o n c l a y c o l l o i d s and o r g a n i c m a t t e r a t t h e
s o i l s u r f a c e l a y e r , p r e c i p i t a t i o n as i n s o l u b l e hydroxy
c o m p l e x e s , and f o r m a t i o n o f o r g a n o m e t a l l i c c o m p l e x c ~ s w i t h
t h e o r g a n i c matter a t t h e s l o p e s u r f a c e .
The l a r g e s t
p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e heavy m e t a l s accumulate i n t h e biomass on
t h e s o i l s u r f a c e and c l o s e t o t h e p o i n t o f e f f l u e n t
application.
T r a c e m e t a l r e m o v a l d a t a r e p o r t e d from t h e
U t i c a s y s t e m a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 6-4 t o i l l ~ s t r ~ a tt eh e
r e m o v a l l e v e l s t h a t c a n b e a c h i e v e d w i t h OF.
6.2.6
M i c r o o r g a n i s m Removal
The m a j o r mechanisms r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e m o v a l o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s i n OF s y s t e m s i n c l u d e s e d i m e n t a t i o n , f i l t r a t i o n t h r o u g h
s u r f a c e o r g a n i c l a y e r and v e g e t a t i o n , s o r p t i o n t o s o i l p a r t i c l e s , p r e d a t i o n , i r r a d i a t i o n , and d e s i c c a t i o n d u r i n g d r y ing periods.
TABLE 6-4
REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF HEAVY METALS
AT DIFFERENT HYDRAULIC RATES AT
UTICA, MISSISSIPPI [7]
Hydraulic
loading
r a t e , cm/d
Runoff c o n c e n t r a t i o n , mg/L
Cadmium
Nickel
Copper
Removal e f f i c i e n c y , %
Zinc
Cadmium
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
93.1
88.4
87.4
78.8
75.4
1.27
0.0046
0.0131
0.0129
2.54
0.0036
0.0217
0.0293
0.0558
0.0525
85.4
90.9
92.1
87.6
3.81
0.0079
0.0302
0.0382
0.0757
77.7
79.6
82.4
73.5
5.08
0.0142
0.0486
0:0524
0.0853
63.2
66.0
64.4
Generally, the removal efficiency of OF systems for

pathogenic organisms such as viruses and indicator organisms
is comparable to that which is achieved in conventional
secondary treatment systems without chlorination. Disinfection may be required by the regulatory agency.
6.2.7
Trace Organics Removal
Removal of trace organics in OF systems is achieved by the

mechanisms of sorption on soil clay colloids or organic
matter, biodegradation, photodecomposition, and volatilization.
The importance of one or a combination of these
mechanisms will depend on the nature of the trace organic
substance.
6.2.8
E fect of Rainfall
The effect of rainfall on OF process performance was studied

at Paris, Texas; Utica, Mississippi; Ada, Oklahoma; and
In all of these studies,
Hanover, New Hampshire [ll, 7, 4 1 .
it was observed that precipitation events occurring during
application did not significantly affect the concentration
of the major constituents in the runoff. However, the mass
discharges of constituents did increase due to the increased
water volume from the storm events.
In situations where
discharge permits are based on mass discharge, discussions
with regulatory officials should be held to determine if
permits can be written to reflect background loadings
occurring as a result of rainfall runoff from OF fieMs or
to allow higher mass discharges during periods of high flow
in receiving waters. In some cases, collection and recycle
of stormwater may be necessary.
6.2.9
E f f e c t o f S l o p e Grade
The e f f e c t of s l o p e g r a d e on t r e a t m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e h a s been
e v a l u a t e d a t s e v e r a l s y s t e m s [2, 7 , 8 1 .
The c o n c l u s i o n from
a l l s t u d i e s w a s t h a t slope grade i n t h e range of 2 t o 8%
d o e s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t t r e a t m e n t performarice when
s y s t e m s a r e o p e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s
r e p o r t e d i n T a b l e 6-2.
6.2.10
P e r f o r m a n c e During S t a r t u p
A p e r i o d o f s l o p e a g i n g o r a c c l i m a t i o n is r e q u i r e d f o l l o w i n g
i n i t i a l s t a r t u p b e f o r e p r o c e s s performance approaches s a t i s factory

levels.
During
this
period,
the
microbial
p o p u l a t i o n on t h e s l o p e s i s i n c r e a s i n g and s l i m e l a y e r s a r e
forming.
The i n i t i a l a c c l i m a t i o n p e r i o d may be a s l o n g a s 3
t o 4 months.
I f a variance t o allow discharge during t h i s
p e r i o d c a n n o t be o b t a i n e d , p r o v i s i o n s s h o u l d be made t o
s t o r e and/or r e c y c l e t h e e f f l u e n t u n t i l e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y
improves t o t h e r e q u i r e d l e v e l .
An a c c l i m a t i o n p e r i o d a l s o s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d f o l l o w i n g
w i n t e r s t o r a g e periods f o r those systems i n cold climates.
A c c l i m a t i o n f o l l o w i n g w i n t e r shutdown s h o u l d r e q u i r e l e s s
t h a n 1 month.
Acclimation is not necessary following shutdown f o r h a r v e s t u n l e s s t h e h a r v e s t p e r i o d i s e x t e n d e d t o
more t h a n 2 o r 3 weeks due t o i n c l e m e n t w e a t h e r .
6.3
Preapplication
treatment
before
OF
is
provided
to
(1) p r e v e n t o p e r a t i n g p r o b l e m s w i t h d i s t r i b u t i o n , s y s t e m s
and,
( 2 ) prevent
nuisance
conditions
during
storage.
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n treatment t o p r o t e c t p u b l i c h e a l t h is n o t
usually
c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h OF s y s t e m s b e c a u s e ' p u b l i c
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e t r e a t m e n t s i t e i s u s u a l l y c o n t r o l l e d and no
c r o p s a r e grown f o r human consumption.
E x c e p t i n t h e c a s e of h a r m f u l o r t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s from
(see S e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 3 ) ,
preapplication
industrial
sources
t r e a t m e n t of m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r is n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e
O F p r o c e s s t o a c h i e v e maximum t r e a t m e n t .
The O F p r o c e s s i s
c a p a b l e of removing h i g h e r l e v e l s of c o n s t i t u e n t s t h a n a r e
n o r m a l l y p r e s e n t i n m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r and maximum u s e
s h o u l d be made of t h i s r e n o v a t i n g c a p a c i t y .
Consequently,
t h e l e v e l o f p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t p r o v i d e d s h o u l d be t h e
minimum n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e t h e two s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s .
Any
additional treatment, i n m o s t cases, w i l l only increase
c o s t s and e n e r g y u s e , a n d , i n some c a s e s , c a n i m p a i r o r
reduce t h e c o n s i s t e n c y - o f p r o c e s s performance.
Alga.:L s o l i d s
h a v e p r o v e n d i f f i c u l t t o remove from some s t a b i l i z a t i o n pond
e f f l u e n t s and r e d u c e d n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d
with secondary e f f l u e n t s .
These s t a t e m e n t s d o n o t imply
t h a t e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s s h o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d
f o r use i n preapplication treatment.
T h e , EPA h a s i s s u e d g u i c l e l i n e s f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e l e v e l of
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t n e c e s s a r y f o r OF s y s t e m s .
The
g u i d e l i n e s a r e as follows:
1.
Screening o r comminution--acceptable
s i t e s w i t h n o p u b l i c access.
2.
S c r e e n i n g o r comminution p l u s a e r a t i o n t o c o n t r o l
odors during storage o r application--acceptable f o r
u r b a n l o c a t i o n s w i t h n o p u b l i c access.
for
isolated
M u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r c o n t a i n s r a g s , p a p e r , h a i r , and o t h e r
l a r g e a r t i c l e s t h a t c a n b l i n d and c l o g o r i f i c e s and v a l v e s
i n s u r f a c e and s p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s .
Comminution
is
generally
not
sufficient
to
eliminate
clogging
problems.
Fine screening o r primary sedimentation with
s u r f a c e skimming i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t o p e r a t i n g d i f f i c u l ties.
For s p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems, s c r e e n s i z e s
should be less t h a n one-third t h e d i a m e t e r of t h e s p r i n k l e r
nozzle.
S t a t i c i n c l i n e d s c r e e n s w i t h 1 . 5 mm ( 0 . 0 6 i n . )
o p e n i n g s h a v e b e e n u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r raw wastewater
screening.
removal is a d v i s a b l e f o r w a s t e w a t e r s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h
G r i t r e d u c e s pump l i f e . and c a n d e p o s i t i n l o w
g r i t loads.
velocity distribution pipelines.
G r i t
6.4
Design C r i t e r i a S e l e c t i o n
The p r i n c i p a l OF d e s i g n and o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s a r e d e f i n e d
i n S e c t i o n 6 . 1 and v a l u e s u s e d a t e x i s t i n g s y s t e m s a r e g i v e n
i n T a b l e 6-1.
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , OF d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n h a s
been a n e m p i r i c a l procedure based on a s e t of g e n e r a l guidel i n e s established through successive t r i a l s with t h e various
p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s a t d i f f e r e n t OF s y s t e m s .
The g u i d e l i n e s ,
a s p r e s e n t e d h e r e , r e f l e c t s u c c e s s f u l c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i o n of f u l l - s c a l e systems, b u t t h e d e g r e e of c o n s e r v a t i o n
i n h e r e n t i n t h e g u i d e l i n e s h a s n o t been e s t a b l i s h e d .
The
d e s i g n c r i t e r i a shown i n T a b l e 6-5 h a v e b e e n u s e d a t e x i s t i n g OF s y s t e m s d u r i n g s p r i n g , summer, and f a l l t o a c h i e v e
e f f l u e n t BOD and s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l e s s t h a n
2 0 mg/L, t o t a l n i t r o g e n l e s s t h a n 1 0 mg/L, ammonia n i t r o g e n
l e s s t h a n 5 mg/L, and t o t a l p h o s p h o r u s l e s s t h a n 6 mg/L.
TABLE 6-5
OVERLAND FLOW DESIGN GUIDELINES
Preapplicat i o n
treatment
Hydraulic
loading r a t e ,
cm/d
Application
rate,
m3/m h
Application
period,
h/d
Application
frequency,
d/wk
Slope
length,
m
Screening
0.9-3
0.07-0.12
8-12
5-7
36-45
Primary sedimentation
1.4-4
0.08-0.12
8-12
5-7
30-36
S t a b i l i z a t i o n pond
1.3-3.3
0.03-0.10
8-18
5-7
45
Complete secondary
biological
6.4.1
Traditionally, hydraulic loading rate has been used as the

principal OF design parameter. Current guidelines call for
hydraulic loadings rates to be varied with the degree of
preapplication treatment as indicated in Table 6-5.
For
systems operating year-round, the hydraulic loading rates
generally have been reduced during the winter to compensate
for the reduction in BOD and nitrogen removal efficiency
when soil temperatures drop below 10 to 15 OC (50 to 59 OF)
(see Sections 6.2.1 and 6.2.3).
Reductions in hydraulic
loading rates during the winter have been somewhat arbitrary
and guidelines are not well established.
A 30% reduction
from summer rates has been used at the Ada system while a
50% reduction has been recommended at the Utica system.
The performance of OF systems is dependent on the detention
time of the wastewater on the slope. The detention time is
in turn
directly related
to the application rate.
Therefore, it is possible to compensate for lower winter
temperatures by decreasing the application rate and increasing the application period while maintaining the hydraulic
loading rate constant.
It is also possible to increase
hydraulic loading rates for short periods, such as when a
portion of the system is shutdown for harvesting or repair,
without affecting performance, by increasing the application
period and maintaining the application rate constant.
6.4.2
Application Rate
Design guidelines for application rates based on existing

systems are presented in Table 6-5. Values at the high end
of the range may be used during spring, summer, an'd fall,
while values at the low end should be used when soil temperatures drop below about 10 OC or if maximum removal
efficiency for any constituent is desired. These rates are
based on slope lengths in the range of 30 to 40 m (98 to
131 ft).
Application rates less than the minimum values
shown in Table 6-5 may be difficult to distribute uniformly
with surface distribution systems.
Hydraulic loading rate is related to application rate,
period, and the slope length as shown in Equation 6-1.
where
L,
Ra =
hydraulic loading rate, cm/d

application rate, m 3 /hem
P =
application period, h/d
S =
slope lengt.h, m
The calculation can be started in one of two ways:

1.
Select application rate, period, and slope length

and calculate hydraulic loading rate, or
2.
Select application period, slope length, and

hydraulic loading rate and calculate application
rate.
6.4.3
Application Period
A wide range of application periods has been used successfully, ranging from just a few hours to as high as 24 h/d.
The application periods that have been used most frequently
in existing OF projects range between 6 and 12 h/d.
Use of design application periods of 12 h/d or less allows
more operating flexibility during periods when parts of the
system must be shutdown for harvest or repair.
Forinstance, if the design application period is 8 h/d, wastewater normally would be applied to one-third of the total
land area at any given time assuming a 24-hour system operation. If one-third of the system were shutdown for harvest,
the application period could be increased to 12 h/d on the
remaining two portions of the system, and the entire flow
could be applied without increasing the application rate.
Systems generally are designed to operate on a 24 hour basis
to minimize land requirements. For small systems, it may be
more convenient or cost effective to operate only during one
working s h i f t .
I n t h i s c a s e , t h e e n t i r e l a n d a r e a would
r e c e i v e t h e f u l l d e s i g n d a i l y wastewater flow d u r i n g t h e
8 hour a p p l i c a t i o n period.
s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s w'ould b e
r e q u i r e d t o h o l d wastewater f l o w d u r i n g t h e 1 6 h o u r n o n o p e r a t i n g period.
6.4.4
A p p l i c a t i o n Frequency
f r e q u e n c y o f 7 d/wk i s g e n e r a l l y u s e d
t o minimize l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s and e l i m i n a t e or r e d u c e
A design application
storage requirements.
T h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o be a n y
advantage i n t e r m s of p r o c e s s performance t o using less
frequent applications.
For s m a l l systems w i t h s t o r a g e
f a c i l i t i e s , it may b e more c o n v e n i e n t t o u s e a n a p p l i c a t i o n
f r e q u e n c y o f 5 d/wk a n d s h u t down o n w e e k e n d s .
6.4.5
Historically,
C o n s t i t u e n t Loading Rates
OF d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n b a s e d o n
mass l o a d i n g r a t e s o f wastewater c o n s t i t u e n t s s u c h as BOD,

suspended s o l i d s , and n i t r o g e n .
The r a t e s u s e d a t e x i s t i n g
s y s t e m s a p p a r e n t l y a r e w e l l below t h o s e t h a t m i g h t a f f e c t
p r o c e s s performance, s i n c e no c o r r e l a t i o n s between p r o c e s s
perform a n c e and c o n s t i t u e n t l o a d i n g have been found.
6.4.6
S l o p e Length
I n g e n e r a l , OF p r o c e s s p e r f o r m a n c e h a s b e e n shown t o be
d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o s l o p e l e n g t h and i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o
a p p l i c a t i o n rate (see S e c t i o n 6.11).
Thus, l o n g e r s l o p e
l e n g t h s s h o u l d be used w i t h h i g h e r a p p l i c a t i o n rates o r ,
c o n v e r s e l y , s h o r t e r s l o p e l e n g t h s s h o u l d b e u s e d w i t h lower
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s t o a c h i e v e a n e q u i v a l e n t d e g r e e of t r e a t ment.
The c o m b i n a t i o n s o f s l o p e l e n g t h s and a p p l i c a t i o n
rates t h a t are s u g g e s t e d f o r d e s i g n a r e i n d i c a t e d i n
T a b l e 6-5.
The minimum s l o p e l e n g t h s i n d i c a t e d h a v e b e e n u s e d w i t h
s u r f ace d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s o r l o w - p r e s s u r e s p r a y s y s t e m s
the
t h a t d i s t r i b u t e t h e wastewater across t h e t o p o f
slope.
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , l o n g e r s l o p e l e n g t h s ( 4 5 t o 1150m o r
1 5 0 t o 200 f t ) h a v e b e e n u s e d w i t h f u l l - c i r c l e , .
highp r e s s u r e impact s p r i n k l e r s .
However, n e a r l y a l l o f t h e
e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i m p a c t s p r i n k l e r OF d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s h a s
been w i t h h i g h s t r e n g t h food p r o c e s s i n g wastewater.
There
are n o d a t a t o i n d i c a t e t h e n e e d f o r l o n g e r s l o p e l e n g t h s
Withwhen u s i n g s p r i n k l e r s t o a p p l y m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r .
o u t s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e recommended minimum s l o p e l e n g t h
f o r s p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems i s 45 m (150 f t ) f o r p a r t
circle s p r i n k l e r s .
For
full
circle s p r i n k l e r s ,
the
recommended minimum s l o p e l e n g t h is t h e s p r i n k l e r d i a m e t e r
p l u s a b o u t 20 m ( 6 5 f t ) .
From a p r o c e s s c o n t r o l s t a n d p o i n t , it i s d e s i r a b l e t o have
a l l s l o p e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same l e n g t h .
However, t h i s may
n o t a l w a y s be p o s s i b l e d u e t o t h e s h a p e of t h e s i t e boundI f s l o p e l e n g t h must d i f f e r
a r i e s or s i t e topography.
s u b s t a n t i a l l y ( > l o m o r 3 3 f t ) from t h e d e s i g n v a l u e , t h e n
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e u s e d on t h e s e s l o p e s may need t o b e
adjusted.
For d e s i g n , a f i r s t approximation t o t h e a d j u s t e d
r a t e may be made by e q u a l i z i n g t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e o n
a l l slopes.
E q u a t i o n 6-1 may be used t o e s t i m a t e t h e n e c e s sary application rate.
Adjustment i n t h e f i e l d during opera t i o n may be n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e e q u i v a l e n t t r e a t m e n t .
6.4.7
S l o p e Grade
A l t h o u g h s l o p e g r a d e s r a n g i n g from l e s s t h a n 1%t o 10 o r 1 2 %
h a v e been used e f f e c t i v e l y f o r O F , e x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h e
optimum r a n g e t o be b e t w e e n 2 and 8 % . S l o p e g r a d e s l e s s
t h a n 2% i n c r e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r ponding, w h i l e t h o s e
I t h a s been
g r e a t e r than 8% i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k of e r o s i o n .
shown t h r o u g h s e v e r a l s t u d i e s t h a t s l o p e g r a d e s i n t h e r a n g e
of 2 t o 8% do n o t af e c t p r o c e s s performance.
Therefore,
t h e r e i s n o need t o a d j u s t s l o p e l e n g t h o r a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e
f o r changes i n s l o p e grade w i t h i n , t h i s range.
Slope grades
g r e a t e r t h a n a b o u t 8 % a l s o i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k of s h o r t
c i r c u i t i n g and c h a n n e l i n g and may r e q u i r e lower a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e s o r longer slope lengths t o achieve adequate treatment,
a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e no p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a t o c o n f i r m t h i s .
A l t h o u g h t h e r e e x i s t some c i r c u m s t a n c e s where n a t u r a l ground
contours can provide t h e s l o p e grade necessary f o r e f f e c t i v e
t r e a t m e n t , few s i t e s o f f e r c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a r e i d e a l f o r t h e
smooth s h e e t f l o w o f w a t e r a l o n g t h e ground s u r f a c e , which
i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e OF c o n c e p t .
T h e r e f o r e , i t is a l m o s t
a l w a y s n e c e s s a r y t o r e s h a p e t h e s i t e i n t o a n e t w o r k of
s l o p e s t h a t conform t o t h e l e n g t h and g r a d e g u i d e l i n e s
outlined previously.
The g r a d e o f e a c h s l o p e is e s t a b l i s h e d
by t h e e x i s t i n g s i t e c o n d i t i o n s .
F o r example, i f t h e s i t e
h a s a g e n e r a l s l o p e g r a d e o f 4 % , t h e s l o p e s h o u l d a l s o be
I f t h e s i t e is very f l a t , 2% g r a d e s
s h a p e d t o 4% g r a d e s .
s h o u l d be u s e d .
I f t h e s i t e is q u i t e s t e e p , t h e s l o p e
g r a d e s s h o u l d be r e d u c e d t o 8 % . T h i s p r o c e d u r e w i l l m i n i Since natural
mize t h e cost r e q u i r e d t o r e s h a p e t h e s i t e .
g r a d e s c a n v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of a
s p e c i f i c s i t e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l OF s l o p e s can vary i n grade
a l t h o u g h e a c h s h o u l d be w i t h i n t h e 2 t o 8 % r a n g e .
6.4.8
Land R e q u i r e m e n t s
The a r e a of l a n d t o which w g s t e w a t e r i s a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d i s
termed s l o p e a r e a .
In addition t o the slope area, the t o t a l
l a n d area r e q u i r e d f o r a n O F s y s t e m i n c l u d e s l a n d f o r p r e application
treatment,
administration
and
maintenance
(see S e c t i o n
buildings,
service
roads,
buffer
zones
4.5.4.2),
and s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s .
A t e x i s t i n g systems,
o t h e r a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s ( n o t i n c l u d i n g b u f f e r zclnes o r
s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s ) h a v e r a n g e d from 1 5 t o 4 0 % of t h e s l o p e
area.
F o r s y s t e m s where s t o r a g e is p r o v i d e d , t h e s , l o p e a r e a
requirsement may be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g e q ~ ~ a t i o n s .
where
As
AVs =
Q =
s l o p e a r e a , ha
n e t l o s s o r g a i n i n s t o r a g e volume d u e t o
p r e c i p i t a t i o n , e v a p o r a t i o n , and s e e p a g e , rn3/yr
a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w , m3/d
Da =
number of o p e r a t i n g d a y s / y r
L, =
d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , cm/d
The v a l u e o f
AV
d e p e n d s on t h e a r e a of t h e s t o r a g e
reservoir.
T h u s , h e f i n a l d e s i g n s l o p e a r e a must be d e t e r mined a f t e r t h e s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r d i m e n s i o n s a r e d e t e r m i n e d .
Combining e q u a t i o n s 6-1 and 6-2 a l l o w s c a l c u l a t i o n o f A
b a s e d o n a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e and s l o p e l e n g t h .
E q u a t i o n s 6-8
a n d 6-3 c a n a l s o be used f o r s y s t e m s w i t h no s t o r a g e s i n c e
t h e term AVs w i l l t h e n b e e q u a l t o z e r o .
where
As
Q =
AVs
Da =
slope a r e a , ha
a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w , m3/d
net storage
o r l o s s , m3/yr
number of o p e r a t i n g d a y s p e r y e a r
Ra
d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , m 3 /h-m
P =
d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d , h/d
S =
slope length, m
E q u a t i o n s 6-2 and 6 - 3 may a l s o be used f o r s y s t e m s i n warmer

c l i m a t e s t h a t o p e r a t e year-round w i t h o u t reducing h y d r a u l i c
A s s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , it
loading r a t e s during the winter.
i s p o s s i b l e t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r lower removal e f f i c i e n c y a t
low s o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s , w i t h o u t r e d u c i n g h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g
r a t e s , by d e c r e a s i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e and i n c r e a s i n g t h e
application period.
This w i n t e r operating procedure w i l l
m i n i m i z e s l o p e a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s and e l i m i n a t e t h e need f o r
any w i n t e r s t o r a g e .
I f lower h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s a r e used d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r ,
f o r a system o p e r a t i n g year-round,
t h e d e s i g n e r h a s two
a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t h a t may be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
slope a r e a requirements.
Under t h e f i r s t a l t e r n a t i v e , s l o p e
a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t is b a s e d o n l y on t h e w i n t e r h y d r a u l i c l o a d ing r a t e ,
i n which c a s e no w i n t e r s t o r a g e w i l l b e
required.
Under t h e s e c o n d a l t e r n a t i v e , s l o p e a r e a would be
b a s e d on t h e h i g h e r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s used d u r i n g t h e
rest o f t h e y e a r , i n which c a s e a p o r t i o n of t h e w i n t e r f l o w
would h a v e t o be s t o r e d . The f i r s t a p p r o a c h would r e s u l t i n
maximum l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s and c o n s e r v a t i v e l o a d i n g s
d u r i n g t h e warmer p e r i o d s of t h e y e a r , b u t would e l i m i n a t e
storage r e q u i r e m e n t s .
The second approach w o u l d minimize
l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t b u t may r e q u i r e p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t ment f a c i l i t i e s f o r s t o r a g e , An economic a n a l y s i s s h o u l d be
p e r f o r m e d t o d e t e r m i n e which a l t e r n a t i v e is most c o s t - e f f e c tive.
I f s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s a r e g o i n g t o be p r o v i d e d f o r
o t h e r r e a s o n s (see S e c t i o n 6 . 5 ) , t h e n t h e second a l t e r n a t i v e
w i l l p r o b a b l y p r o v e most c o s t e f f e c t i v e .
S l o p e a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s u s i n g t h e f i r s t a l t e r n a t i v e may be
computed u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n , a s s u m i n g a 7 d/wk
a p p l i c a t i o n frequency:
where
As
Qw =
hW
=
s l o p e a r e a , ha
a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w d u r i n g w i n t e r , m5/d
w i n t e r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , cm/d
S l o p e area r e q u i r e m e n t s u s i n g t h e s e c o n d a l t e r n a t i v e may be
compluted u s i n g t h e following equation:
where
As
Q =
6.5
s l o p e area, h a
a n n u a l a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w , m3/d
AVs =
n e t g a i n o r l o s s o f w a t e r from s t o r a g e , m3/yr
bw=
w i n t e r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , cm/d
Daw =
number of o p e r a t i n g d a y s a t w i n t e r r a t e
&,
non-winter
Das
number o f o p e r a t i n g d a y s a t n o n - w i n t e r
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , cm/d
rates
S t o r a g e Requirements
S t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s may be r e q u i r e d a t a n OF s y s t e m f o r a n y
of t h e following t h r e e reasons:
1.
S t o r a g e o f w a t e r d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r due t o reduced
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s o r c o m p l e t e shutdown,.
2.
Storage of stormwater runoff t o m e e t m a s s discharge

limitations.
3.
E q u a l i z a t i o n o f incoming
a p p l i c a t i o n rates.
flows t o permit constant
E s t i m a t i n g s t o r a g e volume r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e a b o v e r e a s o n s
is d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
Storage reservoir design
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.6.3.
6.5.1
S t o r a g e R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r Cold W e a t h e r
Due t o t h e l i m i t e d o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e w i t h OF i n d i f f e r e n t
p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y , c o l d w e a t h e r s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e
not w e l l defined.
I n g e n e r a l , OF s y s t e m s must be s h u t down
f o r t h e w i n t e r when e f f l u e n t q u a l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n n o t b e
m e t due t o c o l d t e m p e r a t u r e s even a t reduced a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e s o r when i c e b e g i n s t o form o n t h e s l o p e . The d u r a t i o n
of t h e shutdown p e r i o d a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e q u i r e d s t o r a g e p e r i o d w i l l , of c o u r s e , v a r y w i t h t h e l o c a l c l i m a t e and
t h e required effluent quality.
I n s t u d i e s a t t h e Hanover s y s t e m , a s t o p a g e p e r i o d o f 1 1 2
b e r e q u i r e d when
days including acclimation w a s estimated
t r e a t i n g p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t t o BOD and s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s l i m i t s
o f 30 mg/L 141.
T h i s estimate w a s r e a s o n a b l y close t o t h e
1 3 0 s t o r a g e d a y s p r e d i c t e d b y t h e EPA-1 p r o g r a m u s i n g 0 OC
( 3 2 OF) mean t e m p e r a t u r e ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 6 . 2 ) .
For design
p u r p o s e s , t h e EPA-1 o r EPA-3 p r o g r a m s may be u s e d t o c o n s e r v a t i v e l y estimate w i n t e r s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r OF. A map
s h o w i n g e s t i m a t e d s t o r a g e d a y s f r o m t h e EPA-1 p r o g r a m i s
shown i n F i g u r e 2-5 and t a b u l a t e d d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
Appendix F.
I n areas o f t h e c o u n t r y below t h e 40 d a y
s t o r a g e c o n t o u r , OF s y s t e m s g e n e r a l l y c a n b e o p e r a t e d y e a r round.
However, w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e d a t a a t t h e p r o p o s e d OF
s i t e s h o u l d b e compared w i t h t h o s e a t e x i s t i n g s y s t e m s t h a t
o p e r a t e year-round t o d e t e r m i n e i f a l l y e a r o p e r a t i o n is
feasible.
to
S t o r a g e i s r e q u i r e d a t OF s y s t e m s t h a t a r e o p e r a t e d y e a r round b u t a t reduced h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rates d u r i n g t h e

winter.
The r e q u i r e d s t o r a g e volume f o r s u c h s y s t e m s c a n b e
estimated using t h e following equation:
where
Vs
s t o r a g e volume, m3
Qw =
a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w d u r i n g w i n t e r , m3/d
Dw =
number of d a y s i n w i n t e r p e r i o d
As -
s l o p e area, m2
kw=
Daw
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e d u r i n g w i n t e r , cm/d
number o f o p e r a t i n g d a y s i n w i n t e r p e r i o d
The d u r a t i o n o f t h e r e d u c e d l o a d i n g p e r i o d
s y s t e m s g e n e r a l l y h a s b e e n a b o u t 90 d a y s .
at
existing
U n l e s s t h e w i n t e r s t o r a g e r e s e r v o i r is a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
t h e p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t system, t h e w i n t e r s t o r a g e
r e s e r v o i r should be bypassed d u r i n g t h e w a r m s e a s o n operat i o n t o m i n i m i z e a l g a e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e a p p l i e d wastewater
and t o m i n i m i z e e n e r g y c o s t s f o r p r e s t o r a g e t r e a t m e n t .
S t o r e d water s h o u l d b e b l e n d e d w i t h f r e s h i n c o m i n g wastewater b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n o n t h e OF s l o p e s .
6.5.2
S t o r a g e f o r S t o r m w a t e r Runoff
I n some cases, d i s c h a r g e p e r m i t s may a l l o w d i s c h a r g e o f

stormwater r u n o f f f r o m t h e OF s y s t e m b u t r e q u i r e m o n t h l y
mass discharges for certain constituents to be within

specified limits. In such cases, stormwater runoff ]:nayneed
to be stored and discharged at a later time when mass
discharge limits would not be exceeded.
A procedure for
estimating storage requirements for stormwater runoff is
outlined below.
*
1.
Determine the maximum monthly

allowed
by
the
permit
for
constituent.
2.
Determine expected runoff concentrations of regulated constituents under normal operat:ion (no
precipitation).
3.
Estimate monthly runoff volumes from the system

under normal operation by subtracting estimated
monthly ET and percolation losses from, design
hydraulic loading.
4.
Estimate the mon'ijhly mass discharge under' normal

operation by multiplying the values from Steps 2
and 3.
5.
Calculate the allowable mass discharge of regulated

constituents resulting from storm runoff by
subtracting the estimated monthly mass discharge in
Step 5 from the permit value in Step 1.
6.
Assuming that storm runoff contains the same

concentration of constituents as runoff during
normal operation, calculate the volume of storm
runoff required to produce a mass discharge equal
to the value in Step 5.
7.
Estimate runoff as a fraction of rainfall for the

particular site soil conditions. Consult tlie local
SCS office for guidance.
8.
Calculate the total rainfall required to produce a

mass discharge equal to the value in Step 5 by
dividing the value in Step 6 by the value in
Step 7.
9.
Determine for each month a probability distribution

for rainfall amoui~ts and the probability that the
rainfall amount in Step 8 will be exceeded,
10.
In consultation with regulatory officials, determine what probability is an acceptable risk before
storm runoff storage is required and use this value
(Pd) for design.
mass
each
discharge
regulated
11.
S t o r a g e must be p r o v i d e d f o r t h o s e months i n which

t o t a l r a i n f a l l p r o b a b i l i t y exceeds t h e design value
( p d ) determined i n S t e p 10.
12.
D e t e r m i n e t h e change i n s t o r a g e volume e a c h month

b y s u b t r a c t i n g t h e a l l o w a b l e r u n o f f volume i n
S t e p 6 from t h e r u n o f f volume e x p e c t e d from r a i n In
f a l l h a v i n g a n o c c u r r e n c e p r o b a b i l i t y o f pd.
months when t h e e x p e c t e d s t o r m r u n o f f e x c e e d s t h e
a l l o w a b l e s t o r m r u n o f f , t h e d i f f e r e n c e w i l l be
added t o s t o r a g e .
I n months when a l l o w a b l e r u n o f f
e x c e e d s e x p e c t e d r u n o f f , w a t e r i s d i s c h a r g e d from
storage.
13.
D e t e r m i n e c u m u l a t i v e s t o r a g e a t t h e end o f e a c h
month by a d d i n g t h e c h a n g e i n s t o r a g e d u r i n g o n e
month t o t h e a c c u m u l a t e d q u a n t i t y from t h e p r e v i o u s
month.
The c o m p u t a t i o n s h o u l d b e g i n a t t h e s t a r t
o f t h e wettest period.
Cumulative s t o r a g e cannot
be l e s s t h a n z e r o .
14.
The r e q u i r e d s t o r a g e volume i s t h e l a r g e s t v a l u e o f
cumulative storage.
The s t o r a g e volume must b e
a d j u s t e d f o r n e t g a i n o r loss d u e t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n
and e v a p o r a t i o n ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 6 . 3 ) .
I f s t o r e d s t o r m r u n o f f d o e s n o t meet t h e d i s c h a r g e p e r m i t
concentration l i m i t s f o r regulated constituents, then the
s t o r e d w a t e r must be r e a p p l i e d t o t h e O F s y s t e m . The amount
of s t o r e d s t o r m r u n o f f i s e x p e c t e d t o be s m a l l r e l a t i v e t o
t h e t o t a l volume of w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i e d , and t h e r e f o r e ,
i n c r e a s e s i n s l o p e a r e a s h o u l d n o t be n e c e s s a r y .
The a d d i t i o n a l water volume c a n be accommodated by i n c r e a s i n g t h e
application period a s necessary.
6.5.3
Storage f o r Equalization
From a p r o c e s s c o n t r o l s t a n d p o i n t i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o o p e r a t e
a n O F s y s t e m a t a c o n s t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e and a p p l i c a t i o n
F o r systems t h a t do n o t have s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s f o r
period.
o t h e r r e a s o n s , s m a l l e q u a l i z i n g b a s i n s c a n be used t o e v e n
o u t flow v a r i a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r i n municipal wastewater
A s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y of 1 d a y f l o w s h o u l d be B u f f i systems.
c i e n t t o e q u a l i z e flow i n m o s t c a s e s .
The s u r f a c e a r e a o f
b a s i n s s h o u l d be minimized t o r e d u c e i n t e r c e p t e d p r e c i p i t a tion.
However, a n a d d i t i o n a l h a l f d a y of s t o r a g e c a n be
to
hold
intercepted
precipitation
in wet
considered
climates.
For systems providing o n l y s c r e e n i n g o r primary sedimentaa e r a t i o n should be
t i o n a s preapplication treatment,
p r o v i d e d t o k e e p t h e b a s i n c o n t e n t s mixed and p r e v e n t
anaerobic odors.
The added c o s t of a e r a t i o n , i n most c a s e s ,
w i l l be o f f s e t by s a v i n g s r e s u l t i n g from r e d u c e d pump s i z e s
and peak power demands.
The d e s i g n e r s h o u l d a n a l y z e t h e
cost e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h i s a p p r o a c h f o r t h e s y s t e m i n
question.
6.6
Distribution
W a s t e w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t o O F s l o p e s c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d
by s u r f a c e methods, low p r e s s u r e s p r a y s , and h i g h p r e s s u r e
impact s p r i n k l e r s .
The c h o i c e of s y s t e m s h o u l d be based on
t h e following factors:
1.
M i n i m i z a t i o n of o p e r a t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s , s u c h a s
Uneven w a s t e w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t o t h e s l o p e s
short-circuit,ing
and
and
t h e c r e a t i o n of
channeling
a
Solids
accumulation
application
at
the
point
of
P h y s i c a l d,amage due t o m a i n t e n a n c e a c t i v i t i e s
and f r e e z i n g
2.
6.6.1
C a p i t a l , o p e r a t i n g , and e n e r g y c o s t s
S u r f a c e Methods
S u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n methods i n c l u d e g a t e d aluminum p i p e
commonly used f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l i r r i g a t i o n ( S e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 2 ) ,
and s l o t t e d o r p e r f o r a t e d p l a s t i c p i p e .
C o m m e r c i a l ~ ya v a i l a b l e g a t e d p i p e c a n h a v e g a t e s p a c e s r a n g i n g from 0.6 t o 1 . 2
m ( 2 t o 4 f t ) and g a t e s c a n be p l a c e d on o n e o r b o t h s i d e s
A 0.6 m ( 2 f t ) s p a c i n g i s
of t h e p i p e ( s e e F i g u r e 6 - 2 ) .
recommended t o p r o v i d e o p e r a t i n g f l e x i b i l i t y .
Slide gates
r a t h e r t h a n screw a d j u s t a b l e o r i f i c e s a r e recommended f o r
wastewater d i s t r i b u t i o n .
G a t e s c a n be a d j u s t e d marnually t o
achieve reasonably uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n along t h e pipe.
However, t h p i p e s h o u l d be o p e r a t e d u n d e r low p r e s s u r e , 1 . 5
t o 3.5 N/cm5 ( 2 t o 5 l b ~ i n . ~ )t o, a c h i e v e good u n i f o r m i t y a t
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s recommended i n T a b l e 6-5, e s p e c i a l l y
with long pipe lengths.
P i p e l e n g t h s up t o 520 m ( 1 , 7 0 0 f t )
h a v e b e e n u s e d , b u t s h o r t e r l e n g t h s a r e recommended.
For
p i p e l e n g t h s g r e a t e r t h a n 100 m ( 3 0 0 f t ) , i n l i n e v a l v e s
s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d a l o n g t h e p i p e t o a l l o w a d d i t i o n a l f l o w
control
and
isolation
of
pipe
segments
for
separate
operation.
FIGURE 6-2
SURFACE DlSTRiBUTlON USING GATED PIPE FOR OF
Slotted
or
perforated
plastic
pipe
have
fixed
openings
at
i n t e r v a l s r a n g i n g from 0 . 3 t o 1 . 2 m (1 t o 4 f t ) .
These
s y s t e m s o p e r a t e u n d e r g r a v i t y or v e r y low p r e s s u r e and t h e
p i p e must be l e v e l t o a c h i e v e u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Conseq u e n t l y , s u c h methods s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d o n l y f o r s m a l l
s y s t e m s h a v i n g r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p i p e l e n g t h s t h a t c a n be
e a s i l y leveled.
The p r i n c i p a l a d v a n t a g e s of s u r f a c e s y s t e m s a r e low c a p i t a l
c o s t and l o w e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n and power c o s t s .
The m a j o r
disadvantage w i t h s u r f a c e systems
is t h e t e n d e n c y o f
d i s c h a r g e o r i f i c e s t o a c c u m u l a t e d e b r i s and become p a r t i a l l y
plugged;
C o n s e q u e n t l y , o r i f i c e s must be i n s p e c t e d r e g u l a r l y
and c l e a n e d a s n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n p r o p e r d i s t r i b u t i o n .
A n o t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e o f s u r f a c e s y s t e m s is t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r
d e p o s i t i o n of s o l i d s a t t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n when
t r e a t i n g wastewaters w i t h high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f ' suspended
solids.
D e p o s i t i o n p r o b l e m s have n o t been r e p o r t e d w i t h
su.rface d i s t r i b u t i o n systems applying municipal wastewater,
e i t h e r s c r e e n e d raw o r p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t , a t c o n v e n t i o n a l
' h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rates and a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s .

However,
s o l i d s b u i l d u p h a s o c c u r r e d when a p p l y i n g f o o d p r o c e s s i n g
wastewater w i t h s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s > 5 0 0 mg/L.
6.6.2
Low P r e s s u r e S p r a y s
Low p r e s s u r e , 1 0 t o 1 5 ~ / c m ( 1~ 5 t o 20 1 b / i n a 2 ) , f a n s p r a y
n o z z l e s mounted o n f i x e d risers t h a t d i s t r i b u t e wastewater
across t h e t o p o f t h e s l o p e h a v e b e e n u s e d s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h
(see F i g u r e 6-3).
However,
s t a b i l i z a t i o n pond e f f l u e n t
e x p e r i e n c e u s i n g t h i s method f o r s c r e e n e d raw wastewater h a s
been mixed.
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t w i t h f i n e scircsens i s
e s s e n t i a l f o r t h i s method t o b e u s e d w i t h r a w w a s t e w a t e r o r .
primary e f f l u e n t .
FIGURE 6-3
D I S T R I B U T I O N FOR OF U S I N G LOW PRESSURE FAN SPRAY N(:lZZLES
Low pressure fan nozzles mounted on rotating booms were used

previously but found to require too much maintenance to be
practical.
6.6.3
High Pressure Sprinklers'
~ to 80 1 b / i n 2 ) impact
High pressure, 35 to 55 ~ / c m (50
sprinklers have been used successfully with food processing
wastewaters containing suspended solids concentrations
>500 mg/L.
The position of the impact sprinkler on the
slope depends on whether the sprinkler rotation is fullcircle or half-circle and on the configuration of the
slopes. Several possible sprinkler location configurations
are
illustrated in Figure 6-4.
With configuration
(a), slope lengths in the range of 45 to 60 m (150 to
200 ft) are required to prevent spraying into runoff
channels and to provide some downslope distance beyond the
spray pattern.
Use of half-circle sprinklers, configurations (c) and (d), or full-circle sprinkler in coniguration '(b) allows the use of slope lengths less than 45 m
(Section 6.4.6).
The spacing of the sprinkler along the slope depends on the
design application rate and
must
be
determined
in
conjunction with the sprinkler discharge capacity and the
spray diameter.
The relationship between OF application
rate and sprinkler spacing and discharge capacity is given
by the following equation:
where
q =
OF application rate, m 3/hem
Qs =
sprinkler discharge rake," L/s
Ss =
sprinkler spacing, m
The sprinkler spacing should allow for some overlap of spray

diameters.
A spacing of abouf 80% of the spray diameter
should be adequate for OF. Using the design OF application
rate and the above criteria for spray diameter, a sprinkler
can be selected from a manufacturer's catalog.
Sprinkler
selection is discussed in Appendix E. Application rate can
be adjusted by regulating the sprinkler operating pressure.
SPRAY DIAMETER
SPRIHKLER
(FULL CIRCLE)
RUNOFF COLLECT l OH CHAN
SPRAY
a,
SPRINKLER-
FF COLLECTION CHANN
(HALF CIRCLE)
F l GURE 6 - 4
ALTERNATIVE SPRINKLER CONFIGURATIONS
FOR OVERLAND FLOW DISTRIBUTION
S p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems are c a p a b l e of p r o v i d i n g a
u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n across t h e s l o p e and d i s t r i b u t i n g a
h i g h s o l i d s l o a d o v e r a l a r g e area t o a v o i d a c c u m u l a t i o n .
O p e r a t o r a t t e n t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s are e x p e c t e d t o be less w i t h
s p r i n k l e r systems than with s u r f a c e systems.
Disadvantages
associated with sprinkl-er distribution include r e l a t i v e l y
h i g h c a p i t a l costs, h i g h e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s , and p o t e n t i a l
s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g d u e t o wind d r i f t of s p r a y s .
Preapplicat i o n t r e a t m e n t must be s u f f i c i e n t t o p r e v e n t n o z z l e c l o g g i n g
( S e c t i o n 6.3 )
6.6.4
B u r i e d V e r s u s Aboveground S y s t e m
Low p r e s s u r e s p r a y s a n d s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s may h a v e e i t h e r
Surface piping generally has
a b o v e g r o u n d or b u r i e d p i p i n g .
a lower c a p i t a l c o s t , b u t b q r i e d p i p e h a s a l o n g e r s e r v i c e
l i f e . a n d i s n o t a s s u s c e p t i b l e t o damage f r o m f r e e z i n g o r
h a r v e s t i n g equipment.
6.6.5
Automation
Both g r a v i t y and p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s c a n be
The v a l u e o f
automated t o any d e g r e e t h a t is d e s i r e d .
a u t o m a t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e s i z e of t h e system.
The
c o m p o n e n t s r e q u i r e d t o e f f e c t i v e l y a u t o m a t e a n OF s y s t e m a r e
relatively
simple
and
trouble-free.
Care
should
be
exercised to avoid over-designing
an automatic control
system.
T h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e i s t o allow t h e o p e r a t o r t o
p r o g r a m a n y p o r t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m t o operate a t a n y t i m e f o r
P n e u m a t i c a l l y or h y d r a u l i c a l l y o p e r a t e d
any l e n g t h of t i m e .
diaphragm v a l v e s , t i e d i n t o a c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d c o n t r o l
A clock-timer
system coupled
s t a t i o n , a r e commonly u s e d .
w i t h a l i q u i d l e v e l c o n t r o l l e r f o r t h e pumping s y s t e m i s
u s u a l l y adequate to provide a s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n t r o l system.
6.7
V e g e t a t i v e Cover
6.7.1
V e g e t a t i v e Cover @ u n c t i o n
A c l o s e g r o w i n g g r a s s c o v e r c r o p is e s s e n t i a l f o r e f f i c i e n t
The c o v e r c r o p s e r v e s t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e o f OF s y s t e m s .
following functions i n the process.
1.
Erosion
protection
crop
provides
s u r f ace
r o u g h n e s s w h i c h a c t s t o s p r e a d t h e wate.r f l o w o v e r
t h e s u r f a c e and r e d u c e s t h e v e l o c i t y of s u r f a c e
flow t h u s h e l p i n g t o p r e v e n t channeling.
2.
S u p p o r t media f o r microorganisins - , t h e b i o l o g i c a l
s l i m e l a y e r t h a t develops on t h e s l o p e s u r f a c e is
supported
by
t h e g r a s s s h o o t s and v e g e t a t i v e
litter.
3.
N u t r i e n t u p t a k e - c r o p t a k e s up n i t r o g e n
p h o s p h o r u s which c a n be removed by h a r v e s t i n g .
6.7.2
and
V e g e t a t i v e Cover S e l e c t i o n
An OF c o v e r c r o p s h o u l d h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
p e r e n n i a l g r a s s e s ; h i g h m o i s t u r e t o l e r a n c e ; l o n g growing
s e a s o n ; h i g h n u t r i e n t u p t a k e ; and s u i t e d f o r t h e l o c a l
c l i m a t e and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s .
g r a s s e s is g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d o v e r a s i n g l e
species.
The m i x t u r e s h o u l d c o n t a i n g r a s s e s whose g r o w t h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s compliment e a c h o t h e r , s u c h a s sod f o r m e r s
and bunch g r a s s e s and s p e c i e s t h a t a r e d o r m a n t a t d i f f e r e n t
t i m e s of t h e year.
Another advantage of u s i n g a m i x t u r e is
t h a t , d u e t o n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n , o n e o r two g r a s s e s w i l l
o f t e n predominate.
One p a r t i c u l a r m i x t u r e which h a s been
found t o be q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l i s Reed c a n a r y g r a s s , t a l l
f e s c u e , r e d t o p , d a l l i s g r a s s , and r y e g r a s s .
In northern
c l i m a t e s , s u b s t i t u t i o n o f o r c h a r d g r a s s f o r t h e reditop and
d a l l i s g r a s s is suggested.
Although t h i s m i x t u r e h a s p r o v e n
e f f e c t i v e i n a v a r i e t y of c l i m a t e s , i t i s a l w a y s b e s t t o
c o n s u l t w i t h a l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l a d v i s o r when s e l e c t i n g a
s e e d mix t o meet t h e c r i t e r i a g i v e n above.
A mixture of
S a l t s e n s i t i v e p l a n t s , s u c h a s most v a r i e t i e s o f c l o v e r ,
s h o u l d be a v o i d e d
P u r e s t a n d s o f g r a s s e s whose g r o w t h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e d o m i n a t e d by a s i n g l e s e e d s t a l k s u c h a s
J o h n s o n g r a s s , y e l l o w f o x t a i l , and most of t h e g r a i n s s h o u l d
be avoided.
I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of g r o w t h , t h e s e g r a s s e s
p r o v i d e a q u i c k and e f f e c t i v e c o v e r .
However, a s t h e p l a n t
m a t u r e s , t h e b o t t o m l e a v e s w i t h e r and d i s a p p e a r , l e a v i n g
o n l y t h e p r i m a r y s e e d s t a l k which e v e n t u a l l y produlces t h e
g r a i n crop.
When t h i s h a p p e n s , t h e v a l u e of t h e s e c r o p s a s
OF c o v e r v e g e t a t i o n i s g r e a t l y r e d u c e d .
Of c o u r s e , c r o p s
having l o w moisture . t o l e r a n c e , such a s a l f a l f a , should n o t
be used.
6.8
Slope Construction
6.8.1
System L a y o u t
The g e n e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l s l o p e s s h o u l d be s u c h
t h a t g r a v i t y f l o w from t h e s l o p e s t o t h e r u n o f f c o l l e c t i o n
c h a n n e l s and f i n a l l y t o t h e main c o l l e c t i o n c h a n n e l s w i l l be
A g r a d i n g p l a n s h o u l d be p r e p a r e d t h a t w i l l m i n i possible.
mize earthwork c o s t s .
C r i t e r i a f o r selecting slope grades
are g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 6.4.7.
From a n o p e r a t i o n a l s t a n d p o i n t ,
it i s p r e f e r a b l e t o have t h e g r a d i n g p l a n r e s u l t i n a s i n g l e
f i n a l discharge point.
O c c a s i o n a l l y , however,
existing
t e r r a i n f e a t u r e s w i l l make a s i n g l e p o i n t d i s c h a r g e impractical.
I n s u c h c a s e s , it i s u s u a l l y more c o s t e f f e c t i v e t o
c r e a t e m u l t i p l e d i s c h a r g e p o i n t s (and monitoring s t a t i o n s )
r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t t o overcome t h e t e r r a i n c o n s t r a i n t s w i t h
e x t e n s i v e earthwork.
6.8.2
Grading O p e r a t i o n s
S i n c e t h e p r i n c i p l e of smooth s h e e t f l o w down t h e s l o p e i s
of c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e t o c o n s i s t e n t OF p r o c e s s p e r f o r m a n c e ,
appropriate
emphasis
must
be
placed
on
the
proper
c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s l o p e s .
Naturally occurring slopes,
e v e n i f t h e y a r e w i t h i n t h e r e q u i r e d l e n g t h and g r a d e r a n g e ,
seldom h a v e t h e u n i f o r m o v e r a l l s m o o t h n e s s r e q u i r e d t o
prevent
channeling,
short-circuiting,
and
ponding.
Therefore, it is necessary t o completely c l e a r t h e s i t e of
a l l v e g e t a t i o n and t o r e g r a d e i t i n t o a s e r i e s o f OF s l o p e s
a'nd r u n o f f c o l l e c t i o n c h a n n e l s .
The f i r s t p h a s e o f t h e
g r a d i n g o p e r a t i o n i s commonly r e f e r r e d t o a s r o u g h g r a d i n g
and s h o u l d be a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h i n a g r a d e t o l e r a n c e o f 3 c m
(0.1 f t ) .
I f a buried d i s t r i b u t i o n system is being used,
t h e r o u g h g r a d i n g p h a s e i s g e n e r a l l y f o l l o w e d by t h e
i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p i n g and a p p u r t e n a n c e s .
A f t e r t h e s l o p e s have been formed i n t h e r o u g h g r a d i n g
o p e r a t i o n , a f a r m d i s k s h o u l d be u s e d t o b r e a k up t h e c l o d s ,
and t h e s o i l s h o u l d t h e n be smoothed w i t h a l a n d p l a n e ( s e e
Figure 6-5).
U s u a l l y , a g r a d e t o l e r a n c e o f p l u s o r minus
1 . 5 c m ( 0 . 0 5 f t ) c a n be a c h i e v e d w i t h t h r e e passes of t h e
land plane.
S u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p i n g may be i n s t a l l e d a t
t h i s stage,
S o i l s a m p l e s o f t h e r e g r a d e d s i t e s h o u l d be t a k e n and
a n a l y z e d by a n a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o r a t o r y to d e t e r m i n e t h e
amounts o f l i m e and f e r t i l i z e r t h a t a r e needed.
The
appropriate quantities
should
t h e n be added p r i o r t o
seeding.
A l i g h t d i s k s h o u l d be used t o e l i m i n a t e a n y wheel
t r a c k s on t h e s l o p e s a s f i n a l p r e p a r a t i o n f o r seeding.
6.8.3
S e e d i n g and Crop E s t a b l i s h m e n t
I t h a s b e e n found t h a t a B r i l l i o n s e e d e r i s c a p a b l e o f d o i n g
an e x c e l l e n t job of seeding t h e slopes.
The B r i l l i o n s e e d e r
carries
a
precision
device
to
drop
seeds
between
c u l t i p a c k e r - t y p e r r o l l e r s s o t h a t t h e seeds a r e firmed i n t o
s h a l l o w d e p r e s s i o n s , a l l o w i n g f o r . q u i c k g e r m i n a t i o n and
protection against erosion.
H y d r o s e e d i n g may a l s o be used
i f t h e r a n g e of t h e d i s t r i b u t o r i s s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i d e
c o v e r a g e of t h e s l o p e s s o t h a t t h e v e h i c l e d o e s n o t have t o
t r a v e l o n t h e s l o p e s . When s e e d i n g is c o m p l e t e d , r e g a r d l e s s
o f t h e means, t h e r e s h o u l d be no wheel t r a c k s on t h e s l o p e s .
FIGURF 6-5
LAND PLANE USED FOR F I N A L GRADING
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e s t a b l i s h a good v e g e t a t i v e covel:. p r i o r
t o applying wastewater t o t h e slopes.
Good p l a n n i n g w i l l
m i n i m i z e t h e e f f o r t and c o s t r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e t h i s .
The
c o n s t r u c t i o n s c h e d u l i n g s h o u l d be o r g a n i z e d s o t h a t t h e
s e e d i n g o p e r a t i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d d u r i n g t h e optimum p e r i o d s
f o r planting g r a s s i n the p a r t i c u l a r project l o c a l i t y * This
i s g e n e r a l l y sometime d u r i n g t h e f a l l o r s p r i n g of e a c h
year.
During t h e s e p e r i o d s , s u f f i c i e n t n a t u r a l p r e c i p i I n a r i d and
t a t i o n is o f t e n a v a i l a b l e t o d e v e l o p g r o w t h .
s e m i a r i d c l i m a t e s o r whenever s e e d i s p l a n t e d d u r i n g a d r y
p e r i o d , i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o i r r i g a t e t h e s i t e w i t h f r e s h
water, i f w a s t e w a t e r i s u n a v a i l a b l e , t o e s t a b l i s h t h e g r a s s
crop.
I n these cases, a portable sprinkler i r r i g a t i o n
s y s t e m s h o u l d be used t o p r o v i d e d i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r c o v e r a g e
o v e r t h e e n t i r e s l o p e a r e a , s i n c e u s e of t h e OF d i s t r i b u t i o n
I t may be
s y s t e m would c a u s e e r o s i o n o f t h e b a r e s l o p e s .
n e c e s s a r y t o sow a d d i t i o n a l s e e d o r t o r e p a i r e r o s i o n t h a t
may o c c u r as a r e s u l t of heavy r a i n s p r i o r t o t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e s l o p e s .
a g e n e r a l r u l e , w a s t e w a t e r s h o u l d n o t be a p p l i e d a t
d e s i g n r a t e s u n t i l t h e c r o p h a s grown enough t o r e c e i v e one
cutting.
Cut g r a s s from t h e f i r s t c u t t i n g may be l e f t on
the s l o p e t o h e l p b u i l d a n o r g a n i c mat a s l o n g a s t h e
As
c l i p p i n g s a r e s h o r t ( 0 . 3 m o r 1 f t ); l o n g c l i p p i n g s t e n d t o
r e m a i n o n t o p o f t h e c u t g r a s s t h u s s h a d i n g t h e s u r f a c e and
r e t a r d i n g regrowth.
6.9
Runoff C o l l e c t i o n
The p u r p o s e o f
the runoff
c o l l e c t i o n channels is to
t r a n s p o r t t h e t r e a t e d r u n o f f and s t o r m r u n o f f t o a f i n a l
d i s c h a r g e p o i n t and a l l o w r u n o f f t o f l o w f r e e l y o f f t h e
slopes.
The c o l l e c t i o n c h a n n e l s a r e u s u a l l y v e g e t a t e d w i t h
t h e same s p e c i e s of g r a s s e s growing o n t h e s l o p e s and s h o u l d
be g r a d e d t o p r e v e n t e r o s i o n .
T h e r e a r e some c a s e s ,
Sharp
however, where a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y .
bends o r s t e e p g r a d e s a l o n g r u n o f f c h a n n e l s w i l l i n c r e a s e
t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e r o s i o n , and i t may be n e c e s s a r y to
provide additional protection
in the
form o f
riprap,
concrete, o r other stabilizing agent a t these points.
Runoff c h a n n e l s s h o u l d b e g r a d e d t o no g r e a t e r t h a n 2 5 % o f
t h e s l o p e g r a d e t o p r e v e n t c r o s s flow on t h e s l o p e .
I n humid r e g i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e t o p o g r a p h y i s q u i t e
f l a t and t h e r u n o f f c h a n n e l s have s m a l l g r a d e s , g r a s s
c o v e r e d c h a n n e l s may n o t d r y o u t e n t i r e l y .
T h i s may
i n c r e a s e c h a n n e l m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m s and e n c o u r a g e m o s q u i t o
populations.
I n t h e s e c a s e s , c o n c r e t e or a s p h a l t can b e
u s e d o r a more e l a b o r a t e s y s t e m i n v o l v i n g p o r o u s d r a i n a g e
I t should
pipe l y i n g i n t h e channel beneath a g r a v e l cover.
b e e m p h a s i z e d , however, t h a t i t i s u s u a l l y n o t n e c e s s a r y t o
go t o t h e s e l e n g t h s t o o b t a i n f r e e - f l o w i n g
yet erosionprotected runoff channels.
S m a l l c h a n n e l s a r e n o r m a l l y Vshaped, w h i l e major conveyance c h a n n e l s have t r a p e z o i d a l
cross-sections.
I n addition t o transporting treated e f f l u e n t to t h e f i n a l
d i s c h a r g e p o i n t , t h e r u n o f f c h a n n e l s must a l s o be c a p a b l e o f
t r a n s p o r t i n g a l l s t o r m w a t e r r u n o f f from t h e s l o p e s .
The
c h a n n e l s s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d , a s a minimum, t o c a r r y r u n o f f
Both
from a storm w i t h a 2 5 y e a r r e t u r n f r e q u e n c y .
i n t e n s i t y and d u r a t i o n o f t h e storm m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d .
A
f r e q u e n c y a n a l y s i s of r a i n f a l l i n t e n s i t y m u s t be p e r f o r m e d
and a r a i n f a l l - r u n o f f r e l a t i o n s h i p d e v e l o p e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e
f l o w r a t e d u e to storm r u n o f f t h a t m u s t b e c a r r i e d i n t h e
channels.
The l o c a l SCS o f f i c e c a n p r o v i d e a s s i s t a n c e i n
performing t h i s design.
R e f e r e n c e s 112, 131 c a n a l s o be
consulted.
I n some cases, i t may be d e s i r a b l e t o p r o v i d e a
p e r i m e t e r d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l a r o u n d t h e OF s i t e t o e x c l u d e
o f f s i t e s t o r m w a t e r from e n t e r i n g t h e O F d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s .
6.10
S y s t e m M o n i t o r i n g and Management
The p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e
treated effluent that
Therefore, a monitoring
program are n e c e s s a r y
discharge requirements.
6.10.1
o f t h e OF s y s t e m i s t o p r o d u c e a
is w i t h i n t h e p e r m i t requirements.
program and a p r e v e n t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e
t o e n s u r e continued compliance with
Monitoring
6.10.1.1
I n f l u e n t and E f f l u e n t
The i n f l u e n t and e f f l u e n t m o n i t o r i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s w i l l
u s u a l l y b e d i c t a t e d by t h e d i s c h a r g e p e r m i t e s t a b l i s h e d f o r
t h e s y s t e m by t h e r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t i e s .
An o p e n c h a n n e l
flow measuring d e v i c e ( P a r s h a l l flume, w e i r , e t c . ) equipped
w i t h a c o n t i n u o u s f l o w r e c o r d e r is g e n e r a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y
f o r monitoring t h e t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t .
Most t y p e s o f p o r t a b l e
o r p e r m a n e n t a u t o m a t i c s a m p l e r s c a n be u s e d f o r s a m p l i n g .
6.10.1.2
Ground Water
The need t o i n s t a l l g r o u n d w a t e r m o n i t o r i n g wel-1.s w i l l

g e n e r a l l y be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t i e s .
In
c e r t a i n cases, t h e a u t h o r i t i e s w i l l a l s o e s t a b l i s h t h e
number and l o c a t i o n o f m o n i t o r i n g w e l l s .
I f those decisions
a r e l e f t t o t h e d e s i g n e r , however, i t i s a d v i s a b l e t o
c o n s i d e r a minimum o f t w o g r o u n d w a t e r m o n i t o r i n g w e l l s , o n e
l o c a t e d u p s t r e a m o f g r o u n d w a t e r movement t h r o u g h t h e
t r e a t m e n t s i t e which w i l l s e r v e a s a b a c k g r o u n d w e l l , and
t h e s e c o n d i m m e d i a t e l y downstream f r o m t h e s i t e t o show a n y
i m p a c t s from t h e t r e a t m e n t o p e r a t i o n .
6.10 - 1 . 3
S o i l s and V e g e t a t i o n
S u g g e s t e d m o n i t o r i n g p r o g r a m s f o r s o i l s and v e g e t a t i o n g i v e n
i n S e c t i o n s 4.10.2 and 4.10.3 f o r SR s y s t e m s a r e a l s o a p p l i I f t h e v e g e t a t i o n on t h e t r e a t m e n t
c a b l e t o OF s y s t e m s .
s i t e is h a r v e s t e d and u s e d f o r f o d d e r , s a m p l e s may be t a k e n
a t e a c h h a r v e s t and a n a l y z e d f o r v a r i o u s n u t r i t i v e p a r a meters s u c h a s p e r c e n t p r o t e i n , f i b e r , t o t a l d i g e s t i b l e
n u t r i e n t s , p h o s p h o r u s , and d r y matter.
6.10.2
S y s t e m Management
6.10.2.1
O p e r a t i o n and Maintenance
P r o c e s s c o n t r o l i n v o l v e s r e g u l a t i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n system
t o p r o v i d e d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s and a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s ,
and a d d i n g water t o and r e l e a s i n g w a t e r from s t o r a g e a t t h e
a p p r o p r i q t e t i m e s ( s e e S e c t i o n 6.4 and 6 . 5 ) .
A routine
o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e s c h e d u l e s h o u l d be f o l l o w e d
i n c l u d i n g a d a i l y i n s p e c t i o n o f s y s t e m components (pumps,
v a l v e s , s p r i n k l e r s , d i s t r i b u t i o n o r i f i c e s on s u r f a c e syst e m s , f lowme t e r s )
A p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s and p e r i o d s s h o u l d be
checked and m a i n t a i n e d w i t h i n d e s i g n l i m i t s .
6.10.2.2
Crop Management
A f t e r t h e c o v e r c r o p h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e s l o p e s w i l l
need l i t t l e , i f a n y , m a i n t e n a n c e work.
I t w i l l , however, be
A few s y s t e m s h a v e
n e c e s s a r y t o mow t h e g r a s s p e r i o d i c a l l y .
been o p e r a t e d w i t h o u t c u t t i n g , b u t t h e t a l l g r a s s tends t o
i n t e r f e r e with maintenance operations.
Normal p r a c t i c e h a s
As
b e e n t o c u t t h e g r a s s two o r t h r e e t i m e s a y e a r .
m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e f i r s t c u t t i n g may be l e f t o n t h e
slopes.
A f t e r t h a t , however, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o remove t h e
cut grass.
The a d v a n t a g e s of d o i n g s o a r e t h a t a d d i t i o n a l
n u t r i e n t removal i s a c h i e v e d , c h a n n e l i n g p r o b l e m s may be
more r e a d i l y o b s e r v e d , and r e v e n u e c a n sometimes be produced
by t h e s a l e of hay.
Depending o n t h e l o c a l m a r k e t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e c o s t of h a r v e s t i n g c a n a t l e a s t be o f f s e t by t h e
s a l e of hay.
S l o p e s m u s t be a l l o w e d t o d r y s u f f i c i e n t l y s u c h t h a t mowing
e q u i p m e n t c a n be o p e r a t e d w i t h o u t l e a v i n g r u t s o r t r a c k s
t h a t w i l l l a t e r r e s u l t i n channeling of t h e flow.
The
d r y i n g t i m e r e q u i r e d b e f o r e mowing v a r i e s w i t h t h e s o i l and
c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s and c a n r a n g e
from a
few d a y s t o a few
weeks.
The downtime r e q u i r e d f o r h a r v e s t i n g c a n be r e d u c e d
by a week o r more i f g r e e n - c h o p h a r v e s t i n g i s p r a c t i c e d
However, l o c a l
i n s t e a d of mowing, r a k i n g , and b a l i n g .
m a r k e t s f o r g r e e n - c h o p m u s t e x i s t f o r t h i s method t o be
feasible.
I t i s common f o r c e r t a i n n a t i v e g r a s s e s and weeds t o b e g i n
growing on t h e s l o p e s .
Their presence u s u a l l y has l i t t l e
i m p a c t o n t r e a t m e n t e f f i c i e n c y and i t i s g e n e r a l l y n o t
n e c e s s a r y t o e l i m i n a t e them.
However, t h e r e a r e e x c e p t i o n s
and t h e l o c a l e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e s s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d f o r
advice.
P r o p e r management o f t h e s l o p e s and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s c h e d u l e
w i l l prevent c o n d i t i o n s conducive t o mosquito breeding.
O t h e r i n s e c t s a r e u s u a l l y no c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n , a l t h o u g h a n
i n v a s i o n o f c e r t a i n p e s t s s u c h a s army worms may be h a r m f u l
t o t h e v e g e t a t i o n and may r e q u i r e p e r i o d i c i n s e c t i c i d e
application.
6.11
A l t e r n a t i v e D e s i g n Methods
Recently,
two r a t i o n a l methods h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g OF d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
One, b a s e d o n d e t e n t i o n
t i m e o n t h e s l o p e , w a s d e v e l o p e d a t t h e U.S. Ariny Cold
R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h and E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y ( C R R E L ) [ 1 4 ] .
The o t h e r , b a s e d o n s l o p e d i s t a n c e and a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e was
Both
developed a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Davis [15].
a p p r o a c h e s h a v e b e e n v a l i d a t e d w i t h r e s u l t s fronn o t h e r
s t u d i e s and have been used f o r p r e l i m i n a r y o r p i l o t s c a l e
A d e s i g n example compar:ii~g t h e
d e s i g n o f OF s y s t e m s .
t r a d i t i o n a l e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h w i t h t h e s e two methods c a n be
f o u n d i n Appendix C.
6.11.1
CRREL Method
6.11.1.1
Method D e s c r i p t i o n
The b a s i s o f t h e CRREL method i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between

d e t e n t i o n t i m e and mass BOD r e d u c t i o n u s i n g p e r f o r m a n ~ c e d a t a
f r o m t h e CRREL s y s t e m , and v a l i d a t e d w i t h d a t a from t h e
Utica a n d U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s , s y s t e m s , ,
With
t h i s relationship,
t h e r e q u i r e d d e t e n t i o n t i m e . can be
This
c a l c u l a t e d f o r a s p e c i f i e d mass BOD r e d u c t i o n .
d e t e n t i o n t i m e i s t h e n u s e d i n a n e q u a t i o n which r e l a t e s
d e t e n t i o n t i m e , s l o p e l e n g t h , and s l o p e g r a d e t o a p p l i c a t i o n
rate.
Thus, f o r a n OF s l o p e w i t h a g i v e n l e n g t h and g r a d e ,
t h e r e q u i r e d a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f o r a
s p e c i f i e d d e t e n t i o n t i m e o r , i n d i r e c t l y , f o r a s p e c i f i e d BOD
reduction.
The a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e i s t h e n u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e r e q u i r e d l a n d area.
6.11.1.2
1.
Design P r o c e d u r e
C a l c u l a t e d e t e n t i o n time.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n d e t e n t i o n t i m e and m a s s BOD r e d u c t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d as:
where
E =
p e r c e n t mass BOD r e m o v a l
A =
n o n s e t t l e a b l e f r a c t i o n o f BOD i n a p p l i e d
wastewater ( c o n s t a n t = 0.52)
K =
a v e r a g e k i n e t i c r a t e c o n s t a n t ( 0 . 0 3 rnin'l)
t =
d e t e n t i o n t i m e , min
2.
C a l c u l a t e a v e r a g e OF r a t e .
The a v e r a g e OF r a t e n e e d e d t o o b t a i n t h i s r e q u i r e d d e t e n t i o n
t i m e is c a l c u l a t e d using t h e following equation:
q = (0.078~)/(~'/~t)
where
q =
a v e r a g e OF f l o w r a t e (qapplied
(6-9)
qrunoff)/2,
m3/h-m o f s l o p e w i d t h
S =
l e n g t h of s e c t i o n , m
G =
s l o p e o f s e c t i o n , m/m
t =
d e t e n t i o n t i m e , min
To u s e E q u a t i o n 6-9, s e c t i o n l e n g t h ( s ) and s e c t i o n s l o p e
( G I m u s t f i r s t b e d e t e r m i n e d by a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e
proposed s i t e .
This investigation should y i e l d a s e c t i o n
w i t h l e n g t h and w i d t h d i m e n s i o n s and w i t h a s p e c i f i c s e c t i o n
will
be
used
when
determining
area
slope
which
requirements.
A c t u a l l y , more t h a n o n e s e c t i o n s i z e c a n b e
s e l e c t e d i f t h e t o p o g r a p h y o f t h e s i t e i s s u c h t h a t less
l a n d f o r m i n g would b e r e q u i r e d i f t h e s i t e were n o t composed
of uniform s e c t i o n s .
qua ti on 6-9 would t h e n b e u s e d w i t h
t h e p a r a m e t e r s from e a c h s e c t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a v e r a g e OF
rate f o r each section.
3.
C a l c u l a t e a p p l i c a t i o n rate.
The f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n is u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e f o r each section:
where
Q =
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , m 3/ h p e r s e c t i o n
q =
a v e r a g e OF f l o w r a t e [qapplied
3
/2 I m /hqm
w =
width of s e c t i o n , m
r =
(1.0
runoff fraction)/2
The r u n o f f f r a c t i o n i s t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e a p p l i e d wastew a t e r which r e a c h e s t h e r u n o f f c o l l e c t i o n d i t c h e s .

The
runoff
fraction
must
be
assumed
in
order
to
use
E q u a t i o n 6-10.
The r u n o f f f r a c t i o n r a n g e s f r o m 0.6 t o 0.9
depending
on t h e permeability
of
t h e s o i l and e v a l o o r a t i o n
losses.
4.
Calculate annual loading r a t e .
The a n n u a l l o a d i n g r a t e ( m 3 / y r ) m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h
section.
To d o t h i s , t h e number o f d a y s o f a p p l i c a t i o n p e r
y e a r m u s t be c a l c u l a t e d and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d must b e
selected.
G i v e n t h e s e v a l u e s and t h e l o a d i n g r a t e s , t h e
a n n u a l l o a d i n g r a t e s f o r e a c h s e c t i o n c a n be calculatzed.
5.
C a l c u l a t e t o t a l a n n u a l w a t e r volume.
An estimate o f t h e volume o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n m i n u s e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n t h a t w i l l collect i n t h e s t o r a g e or p r e a p p l - i c a t i o n

t r e a t m e n t b a s i n m u s t b e made and a d d e d t o t h e a n n u a l . w a s t e w a t e r volume t o o b t a i n t h e t o t a l a n n u a l w a t e r volume,,
6.
C a l c u l a t e l a n d area r e q u i r e m e n t s .
The number o f s e c t i o n s a r e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e t o t a l . a n n u a l
water volume a n d a n n u a l a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e t o e a c h s e c t i o n .
However, t h e number o f s e c t i o n s o f a p a r t i c u l a r s i z e may b e
The l a n d
determined by physical c o n s t r a i n t s a t t h e site.
r e q u i r e m e n t i s now c a l c u l a t e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e number o f
s e c t i o n s o f e a c h p a r t i c u l a r s i z e by i t s a r e a .
6.11.2
U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s ,
6.11.2.1
( U C D ) Method
Method D e s c r i p t i o n
The b a s i s f o r t h e UCD method i s a model w h i c h d e s c r i b e s BOD

removal as a f u n c t i o n o f s l o p e l e n g t h and a p l i c a t i o n r a t e ,
w h e r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e h a s t h e u n i t s mEj/h-m o.E s l o p e
width.
T h i s model w a s d e v e l o p e d u s i n g p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a f r o m
t h e UCD s y s t e m and w a s s u b s t a n t i a t e d u s i n g d a t a firom t h e
CRREL s y s t e m .
By knowing t h e i n f l u e n t BOD r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e
m o d e l c a n p r e d i c t e i t h e r t h e r e q u i r e d s l o p e l e n g t h or
a p p l i c a t i o n rate, once t h e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r h a s been f i x e d .
Once b o t h parameters a r e known and a d e s i g n d a i l y f l o w r a t e
is g i v e n , t h e a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s can be determined.
6.11.2.2
1.
Design p r o c e d u r e
Determine s l o p e l e n g t h o r a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e .
E i t h e r s l o p e l e n g t h or a p p l i c a t i o n rate can be c a l c u l a t e d ,
o n c e t h e o t h e r parameter h a s b e e n f i x e d , u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g
equation:
C ~ / C= ~A ~ [ ( - K s ) / ( ~ " ) I
(6-11)
where
Cs
Co =
c o n c e n t r a t i o n BOD a t p o i n t S , mg/L
i n i t i a l BOD c o n c e n t r a t i o n , mg/L
A =
c o n s t a n t = 0.72
K =
r a t e c o e f f i c i e n t ( c o n s t a n t = 0.01975 m/h)
S =
d i s t a n c e downslope, m
q =
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , m3/h-m s l o p e w i d t h
n =
exponent ( c o n s t a n t = 0.5)
S i t e c o n d i t i o n s may d i c t a t e t h e a l l o w a b l e s l o p e l e n g t h , i n
which c a s e s l o p e l e n g t h would be t h e i n d e p e n d e n t p a r a m e t e r
I
and a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e would be t h e computed p a r a m e t e r .
s l o p e l e n g t h is n o t r e s t r i c t e d , then a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e should
be u s e d a s t h e i n d e p e n d e n t p a r a m e t e r .
Cur e n t l y , t h e model
i s v a l i d i n t h e r a n g e of 0.08 t o 0.24 m./h*m and so t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s e l e c t e d f o r a d e s i g n s h o u l d be w i t h i n t h i s
range.
The e f f e c t o f w a t e r loss due t o e v a p o r a t i o n and p e r c o l a t i o n

is incorporated i n t o the r a t e c o e f f i c i e n t ( K )
Significant
c h a n g e s i n t h e v a l u e of K a r e n o t e x p e c t e d a s a r e s u l t of
changes
i n water
l o s s e s n o r m a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h OF
systems.
Additional
field
testing
is necessary
to c o n f i r m
this.
2.
S e l e c t an a p p l i c a t i o n period.
S e e S e c t i o n 6.4.4
t i o n period.
3.
f o r a discus.sion on s e l e c t i n g an a p p l i c a -
Compute t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w t o OF s y s t e m .
To compute t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w r a t e , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
s e a s o n ( d a y s of a p p l i c a t i o n p e r y e a r ) must be c a l c u l a t e d .
A l s o , t h e volume of p r e c i p i t a t i o n minus e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n
t h a t w i l l c o l l e c t i n the storage basin o r preapplication
t r e a t m e n t b a s i n must be e s t i m a t e d .
With t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n
and t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y w a s t e w a t e r f l o w r a t e , t h e a v e r a g e ' d a i l y
f l o w t o t h e OF s y s t e m c a n be c a l c u l a t e d .
4.
Compute t h e r e q u i r e d w e t t e d a r e a .
The w e t t e d a r e a is computed u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :
Area = QS/qP
6-12)
where
Q =
a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w t o t h e O F s y s t e m , m3/d
S =
slope length, m
q =
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , m3/h-rn
P =
a p p l i c a t i o n p e r l i o d , h/d
6.11.3
C o m p a r i s o n o f A l t e r n a t i v e Methods
A l t h o u g h t h e CRREL a n d UCD, e q u a t i o n s a p p e a r d i f f e r e n t , t h e
b a s i c a p p r o a c h a n d c a l c u l a t i o n method a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r .
C o m b i n i n g a n d r e a r r a n g i n g ~ ~ u a t i o n6-8
s
a n d 6-9 f r o m t h e
CRREL m e t h o d p r o d u c e s :
where
Ms
mass o f BOD a t p o i n t S , k g
Mo
mass o f BOD a t t o p o f s l o p e , kg
S =
slope length, m
G =
s l o p e g r a d e , m/m
q =
a v e r a g e o v e r l a n d f l o w , m3/h*m
T h i s i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e UCD
qua ti on 6-11:
A l l terms a r e d e f i n e d p r e v i o u s l y .
The major d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e t w o r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e :
1.
U s e o f s l o p e g r a d e a s a v a r i a b l e i n CRREL e q u a t i o n
a n d n o t i n UCD e q u a t i o n .
2.
Use
3.
Value o f e x p o n e n t s and c o e f f i c i e n t s .
o f m a s s u n i t s i n CRREL e q u a t i o n
t r a t i o n u n i t s i n UCD e q u a t i o n .
and
~concen-
6.12
References
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D e v e l o p m e n t a l R e s e a r c h f o r O v e r l a n d Flow
Technology.
In:
Proceedings of t h e N a t i o n a l Seminar o n
Overland
Flow
Technology,
Dallas,
Texas.
U.S.
EPA-600/9-81-022.
Environmental
S e p t e m b e r 1980.
2. H a l l , D.H. , e t a l .
M u n i c i p a l Wastewater T r e a t m e n t by
the
Overland
Flow
Method
of
Land
Application.
Environmental
EPA-600/2-79-178.
August 1979.
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D e s i g n and O p e r a t i o n o f O v e r l a n d Flow
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Wastewater T r e a t m e n t i n C o l d
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Development o f a R a t i o n a l D e s i g n
P r o c e d u r e f o r O v e r l a n d Flow S y s t e m s .
CRREL, U.S. Army
Corp
of
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preparation).
December 1981.
6.
S c o t t , T.M.
a n d D.M.
Fulton.
Removal o f P o l l u t a n t s i n
t h e O v e r l a n d Flow ( G r a s s F i l t r a t i o n ) S y s t e m .
Progress
Water
T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y
,
v
o
l
.
11,
Nos.
4
a
n
d
5.
p p 301in
313.
1979.
7. P e t e r s ,
R.E.,
C.R.
Lee,
and
D.J.
Bates.
Field
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f O v e r l a n d Flow T r e a t m e n t o f M u n i c i p a l
Lagoon E f f l u e n t .
U.S. Army E n g i n e e r Waterways E x p e r i (In
ment
Station,
Vicksburg,
Massachusetts.
preparation).
8.
S m i t h , R.G.
Development o f a R a t i o n a l B a s i s f o r t h e
~ e s i g no f O v e r l a n d Flow S y s t e m s .
In:
Proceeding of t h e
N a t i o n a l S e m i n a r o n O v e r l a n d Flow T e c h n o l o g y .
Dallas,
U.S.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency,
EPATexas.
600/9-81-022.
S e p t e m b e r 1980.
e t al.
O v e r l a n d Flow T r e a t m e n t o f Raw
9. Thomas, R . E . ,
Wastewater w i t h Enhanced P h o s p h o r u s Removal.
USEPA,
O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d Development.
EPA-660/2-76-131.
1976.
1 0 . P e t e r s , R.E. , e t a l .
F i e l d I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f Advanced
T r e a t m e n t of M u n i c i p a , l Wastewater b y O v e r l a n d Flow.
Volume 2.
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium o n
Hanover, N e w Hampshire.
Land T r e a t m e n t o f Wastewater.
A u g u s t 1978.
11. L a w , J . P . , e t a l .
N u t r i e n t Removal from C a n n e r y W a s t e s
b y S p r a y I r r i g a t i o , n ,of G r a s s l a n d .
Water P o l l u t i o n Cont r o l R e s e a r c h S e r i e s , 16080-11/69.
U. S. D e p a r t m e n t o f
November 1 9 6 9 .
the Interior.
W a s h i n g t o n , D. C.
~ a i n f a l lF r e q u e n c y A t l a s o f t h e
1 2 . U.S. Dept. o f Commerce.
U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r D u r a t i o n s f r o m 30 m i n u t e s t o 2 4 h o u r s
a n d R e t u r n p e r i o d s f r o m 1-100 Y e a r s .
Technical Paper
40.
1961.
13. Water R e s o u r c e s
Determing Flood
1967.
Council.
A Uniform
Technique
Flow F r e q u e n c i e s .
B u l l e t i n No.
for
15.
1 4 . Martel, C . J .
e t al.
R a t i o n a l D e s i g n o f O v e r l a n d Flow
Systems.
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e ASCE N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o f
Environmental Engineering.
J u l y 1980.
1 5 . S m i t h , R.G.
Development of a P r e d i c t i v e Model t o
~ e s c r i b et h e Removal o f O r g a n i c Material w i t h t h e OverUniversity
l a n d Flow T r e a t m e n t P r o c e s s .
Ph. D. T h e s i s .
of C a l i f o r n i a , D a v i s .
1980.
CHAPTER 7
SMALL SYSTEMS
7.1
Introduction
The p r o c e d u r e s i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e i t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y f o r
s y s t e m s w i t h w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s o f 950 m /d ( 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d ) o r
l e s s , b g t , i n some s i t u a t i o n s , may b e u s e d f o r f l o w s up t o
3 , 7 8 5 m /d (1 M g a l / d ) .
The o b j e c t i v e s f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m s a r e t h e same r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e community s i z e .
However, t h e d e s i g n o f s m a l l s y s t e m s s h o u l d i n c l u d e s p e c i a l
e m p h a s i s o n t h e ease o f o p e r a t i o n and o n m i n i m i z i n g
c o n s t r u c t i o n and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s .
Most c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h i s
s i z e range cannot h i r e full-time treatment p l a n t o p e r a t o r s ,
and t h e t r e a t m e n t system must be c a p a b l e of p r o v i d i n g
c o n s i s t e n t , r e l i a b l e treatment i n t h e absence of f r e q u e n t
attention.
I n g e n e r a l , m o s t t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s t h a t meet
t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s a r e n o n m e c h a n i c a l and h a v e no d i s c h a r g e t o
s u r f ace w a t e r s .
The p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r c a n b e u s e d t o
s t r e a m l i n e Phase 1 of t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s .
Limited f i e l d
work s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g P h a s e 2 t o v e r i f y P h a s e 1
a s s u m p t i o n s and t o o p t i m i z e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a , p a r t i c u l a r l y
When more d e t a i l e d p l a n n i n g o r
when d e s i g n i n g R I s y s t e m s .
d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s are n e e d e d , t h e e n g i n e e r s h o u l d r e f e r t o
C h a p t e r s 4 r 5 r and 6 .
7.2
F a c i l i t y Planning
The p r o c e d u r e s f o r p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n o f s m a l l s y s t e m s a r e
s i m i l a r t o , b u t less d e t a i l e d t h a n , t h e requirements f o r
large facilities.
Maximum u s e i s made o f l o c a l e x p e r t i s e
and
existing
published
information.
The
area
Soil
C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e (SCS) s t a f f , t h e c o u n t y a g e n t , and
l o c a l f a r m e r s c a n a l l p r o v i d e a s s i s t a n c e and a d v i c e .
The
t y p e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t s h o u l d be o b t a i n e d from t h e s e
l o c a l o r p u b l i s h e d s o u r c e s a r e summarized i n T a b l e 7-1.
The
l e v e l o f d e t a i l and t h e p e r i o d o v e r which d a t a h a v e b e e n
r e c o r d e d w i l l v a r y w i t h t h e community.
7.2.1
Process Considerations
Any of t h e t h r e e m a j o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s (SR, R I , a n d
OF) o r combinations of these processes a r e s u i t a b l e f o r
s m a l l communities.
Seepage ponds have been used s u c c e s s f u l l y i n many s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s and a r e s i m i l a r t o RI i n
t h a t r e l a t i v e l y h i g h h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s are used and
t r e a t m e n t o c c u r s a s wastewater p e r c o l a t e s t h r o u g h t h e
soil.
The p r i m a r y d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t s e e p a g e ponds a r e
loaded c o n t i n u o u s l y , whereas R I systems use a l o a d i n g c y c l e
t h a t i n c l u d e s b o t h a p p l i c a t i o n and d r y i n g p e r i o d s , r e s u l t i n g
i n improved t r e a t m e n t and maximum l o n g - t e r m i n f i l t r a t i o n
rates.
O t h e r p r o c e s s e s , i n c l u d i n g c o m p l e t e r e t e n t i o n and
c o n t r o l l e d d i s c h a r g e pond s y s t e m s , a l s o h a v e p o t e n t i a l f o r
small communities,
I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e s e pond s y s t e m s c a n be
f o u n d i n t h e EPA P r o c e s s D e s i g n Manual f o r W a s t e w a t e r
T r e a t m e n t Ponds [ I ] .
TABLE 7-1
TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
OF SMALL LAND TFUCATMENT SYSTEMS
Type of data
Wastewater quantity and quality
Soil type and permeability
Temperature (mean monthly and
growing season)
Precipitation (mean monthly,
maximum monthly)
Evapotranspiration and
evaporation (mean monthly)
Land use
Zoning
Agricultural practices
Surface and ground water
discharge requirements
Ground water (depth and quality)
Principal sources
Local wastewater authorities

SCS soil survey
SCS soil survey, NOAA, local airports,
newspapers
newspapers
newspapers, agricultural extension service
SCS soil survey, aerial photographs from
the Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service, and county assessors'
plats
Community planning agency, city or county
zoning maps
SCS soil survey, agricultural extension
service, county agents
State or EPA
State water agency, USGS, drillers' logs
of nearby wells
D e s i g n f e a t u r e s , s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and r e n o v a t e d w a t e r
q u a l i t y of t h e t h r e e major land t r e a t m e n t processes a r e
summarized i n T a b l e s 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3.
General charact e r i s t i c s o f s m a l l l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s a r e summa~rized i n
T a b l e 7-2.
T h i s t a b l e sh o u l d be used a s a g u i d e t o p r o c e s s
selection.
F i n a l c r i t e r i a s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d d u r i n g
f a c i l i t i e s design.
7.2.1.1
O p e r a t i o n and Ownership A l t e r n a t i v e s
S m a l l s y s t e m s may b e ~ o w n e d and o p e r a t e d by a m u n i c i p a l i t y o r
wastewater a u t h o r i t y ,
a l t h o u g h m u n i c i p a l o w n e r s h i p and
I n a l l cases, o v e r a l l
o p e r a t i o n are n o t a l w a y s n e c e s s a r y .
s y s t e m management s h o u l d be u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e muniOpporc i p a l agency h e l d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r performance.
t u n i t i e s o f t e n e x i s t , and s h o u l d b e s o u g h t , f o r c o n t r a c t u a l
a g r e e m e n t s w i t h l o c a l f a r m e r s t o t a k e and u s e p a r t i a l l y
t r e a t e d w a s t e w a t e r f o r i r r i g a t i o n and o t h e r p u r p o s e s .
By
t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f s u c h a g r e e m e n t s , a community c a n a v o i d
i n v e s t m e n t s i n e q u i p m e n t and l a n d , and c a n e l i m i n a t e t h e
need t o h i r e and t r a i n new employees.
TABLE 7-2
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL
( ( 9 5 0 m3/d
OR <250,000 g a l / d ) LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Process
Slow rate
Surface
application
Sprinkler
application
Minimum
preapplication
treatment
Crops
Annuals
primary
Ponds
perennials
or double
cropplng
Application
schedule
Storage
requirements
Growing season
(3-5 months)
Year-round with
exception of downtime for planting,
harvesting,
maintenance, and
cold-weather
storage if necessary
8 h, 1 d/wk
See Figure s
:
2
8 h, 1 d/wk
See Figure 2-5
~ ~ ~ i i c a t iseason
on
Rapid
infiltration
Primary
Not
applicable
Year-round
2 d application, 7-30 d for

emergencies
10-18 d drying
Overland
flow
Screening and
comminution
Perennial
grasses
Year-round with
exception of downtime for planting,
harvesting,
maintenance, and
cold-weather
storage if necessary
8-12 h/d,
5-7 d/wk
See Figure 2-5
A r r a n g e m e n t s between l o c a l f a r m e r s and c o m m u n i t i e s c a n
i n v o l v e a n y of s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s .
For example, t h e
community c a n p r o v i d e p a r t i a l l y t r e a t e d w a s t e w a t e r t o a
f a r m e r , who i s t h e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l components o f t h e
land treatment process.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e community may
p r o v i d e and m a i n t a i n i r r i g a t i o n e q u i p m e n t t h a t i s used by a
f a r m e r who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s .
In
e i t h e r c a s e , t h e farmer a g r e e s to t a k e a predetermined
A third
amount o f w a t e r e a c h y e a r t o u s e on h i s own l a n d .
a l t e r n a t i v e is f o r t h e community t o p u r c h a s e o r l e a s e l a n d
and e q u i p m e n t f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t and assume r e s p o n s i b l i t y
f o r a l l a s p e c t s of t h e system except p l a n t i n g , c u l t i v a t i n g ,
and h a r v e s t i n g .
T h e s e t h r e e t a s k s a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e
l o c a l f a r m e r on a c o n t r a c t u a l o r c r o p s h a r i n g b a s i s .
Land used f o r w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n e i t h e r c a n be p u r c h a s e d
o u t r i g h t ( fe e - s i m p l e a c q u i s i t i o n ) o r l e a s e d o n a l o n g - t e r m
basis.
Long-term l e a s e s s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e i t e m s summarized
Grant e l i g i b l e c o s t s of a long-term l e a s e
i n T a b l e 2-15.
a r e p a i d t o t h e community i n a lump sum a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
t h e l e a s i n g term.
C o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s between l o c a l
m u n i t i e s should s p e c i f y t h e following:
farmers
and
com-
The d u r a t i o n o f t h e a g r e e m e n t .
P r o j e c t e d q u a l i t y o f w a t e r t h a t w i l l be d e l i v e r e d
t o farmers.
Any l i m i t s on a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s ,
runoff control.
Any l i m i t a t i o n s o n c r o p t y p e s d u e t o l o c a l o r s t a t e
requirements.
C o s t t o l o c a l f a r m e r a n d / o r community.
b u f f e r zones,
or
Method and t i m i n g o f p a y m e n t s ( g e n e r a l l y a n n u a l ) .
a
Method o f t r a n s f e r r i n g c o n t r a c t .
A r r a n g e m e n t s b e t w e e n l o c a l f a r m e r s and c o m m u n i t i e s a r e m o s t
p r a c t i c a l when f o r a g e g r a s s e s o r g r a z i n g a n i m a l s a r e
involved, s i n c e t h e r e is l e s s c o n s t r a i n t on a p p l i c a t i o n of
wastewater i n y e a r s o f h i g h r a i n f a l l .
Other a g r i c u l t u r a l
c r o p s w i t h s h o r t e r g r o w i n g s e a s o n s o r which a r e l e s s w a t e r
t o l e r a n t t h a n f o r a g e g r a s s e s may r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l s t o r a g e
or o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Most a r r a n g e m e n t s h a v e i n v o l v e d SR
systems.
O v e r l a n d f l o w s y s t e m s n o r m a l l y a r e owned by t h e
community t o e n s u r e c o n t r o l o v e r s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n .
However,
c o n t r a c t h a r v e s t o f OF g r a s s e s is a d v a n t a g e o u s j.n comm u n i t i e s t h a t l a c k t h e n e c e s s a r y e q u i p m e n t and e x p e r t i s e .
R a p i d i n f i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s a l s o t e n d t o b e m u n i c i p a l l y owned
and o p e r a t e d t o e n s u r e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
process.
No c r o p s a r e i n v o l v e d ; t h u s , t h e o n l y p o t e n t i a l
a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n f a r m e r and community a r e f o r l a n d
l e a s i n g , p r o p e r t y e a s e m e n t s , o r u s e o f r e c o v e r e d water.
7.2.1.2
Water R i g h t s C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
I n t h e w e s t e r n s t a t e s , w a t e r r i g h t s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d .
R e t u r n o f r e n o v a t e d water, i n c l u d i n g OF r u n o f f a n d SR a n d RI
p e r c o l a t e , t o t h e o r i g i n a l p o i n t o f community d i s c h a r g e may
be n e c e s s a r y .
S o m e t i m e s , R I b a s i n s c a n be l o c a t e d so t h a t
s e e p a g e and s u b f l o w p r o c e e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e s t r e a m o r w a t e r
body ( F i g u r e 1-2c; S e c t i o n 5 . 7 . 1 ) t h a t r e c e i v e d d i s c h a r g e
from t h e p r e v i o u s system.
The l o c a l w a t e r r i g h t s s i t u a t i o n
should be checked w i t h t h e s t a t e agency i n charge.
7.2.1.3
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n Treatment
Most
land
treatment
systems
include
a
preapplication
treatment step.
I n s m a l l communities, wastewater s t o r a g e
o f t e n is provided i n t h e p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t process.
The u s e o f e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t f a c i l . i t i e s may r e d u c e t h e
c a p i t a l c o s t o f a l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m b u t may n e c e s s i t a t e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of s e p a r a t e s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s .
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s should be a s c l o s e t o
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e as t h e topography, land a v a i l a b i l i t y ,
and s y s t e m o b j e c t i v e s a l l o w .
Most e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t
f a c i l i t i e s s e r v i n g s m a l l communities are l o c a t e d a t a
r e l a t i v e l y l o w e l e v a t i o n t o a l l o w a g r a v i t y sewer system.
Thus, i f e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e used, it probably w i l l n o t
be
possible
to locate
the application site near the
it is o f t e n
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t system.
Instead,
n e c e s s a r y t o pump t h e p a r t i a l l y t r e a t e d w a s t e w a t e r t o t h e
application site.
7.2.1.4
S t a f f i n g Requirements
'
S t a f f i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s depend o n t h e t y p e s o f p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t and l a n d t r e a t m e n t , t h e s i z e o f t h e s y s t e m , and
whether
t h e community o r a f a r m e r o p e r a t e s t h e l a n d
t r e a t m e n t p o r t i o n of t h e system.
Staffing requirements f o r
m u n i c i p a l l y owned and o p e r a t e d ' s y s t e m s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
F i g u r e 2-9.
S t a f f i n g requirements a t a v a r i e t y of smaller
s y s t e m s are s h o w n i n Table 7-3.
7.2.2
Site Selection
B e f o r e a community c a n b e g i n t h e s i t e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s , it
m u s t be a b l e t o e s t i m a t e t h e amount o f . l a n d t h a t a l a n d
t r e a t m e n t system w i l l r e q u i r e .
A p p r o x i m a t e l a n d area
r e q u i r e m e n t s have been p l o t t e d as a f u n c t i o n o f a v e r a g e
d e s i g n flow f o r each of t h e t h r e e major t y p e s of land
t r e a t m e n t i n F i g u r e 7-1.
A l t h o u g h l a n d area estimates a r e
.shown o n l y f o r f l o w s o f 950 m3/d ( 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 g l / d ) o r l e s s ,
l a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r f l o w s o f up t o 3 , 7 8 5 m3 /d ( 1 Mgal/d)
c a n be e x t r a p o l a t e d from t h e c u r v e s .
I n a d d i t i o n , f o r SR a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s b e t w e e n 6 a n d 1 2
m o n t h s p e r y e a r , l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n be i n t e r p o l a t e d
from t h e two S R c u r v e s .
F o r OF a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s g r e a t e r
t h a n o r less t h a n 1 0 . 5 m o n t h s p e r y e a r and R I a p p l i c a t i o n
p e r i o d s l e s s t h a n 1 2 months p e r y e a r , l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s
RI
curves,
can
be
extrapolated
from
the
OF
and
respectively.
F i g u r e 7-1 c a n be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e what s i z e
s i t e to s e a r c h f o r d u r i n g t h e s i t e s e l e c t i c n p r o c e s s , b u t
s h o u l d , n o t be used f o r d e s i g n p u r p o se s.
Final 1 3
r e q u i r e m e n t s w i l l v a r y w i t h t h e c r o p grown, s i t e c h a r acteristics,
and w h e t h e r t h e s i t e i s o p e r a t e d by t h e
community o r a l o c a l f a r m e r .
TABLE 7 - 3
TYPICAL STAFFING REQUIREMENTS
AT SMALL SYSTEMS
Municipal staff requirements
1980 flow
Location
Chapman,
Nebraska
Falkner,
Mississippi
Kennett
Square,
Pennsylvania
Ravenna,
Michigan
m3/d
gal/d
Site use
Site control
66
17,400
Grass (RI)
City
106
28,000
Grasses (OF) City
190
50,000
Forest
275
72,000
Santa Anna,
Texas
285
Wayland,
Michigan
950
Winters,
Texas
1,130
Open, uncultivated
fields
75,000 Alfalfa,
grass,
pasture
250,000 Hay, corn
297,000
PreLand
application
treatment
Annual
components, components, total,
man-days/yr man-days/yr man-days
City
130
68
City
68
Farmer owns,
city operates
equipment
City owns,
farmer
harvests
Farmer owned
54
46
104
68
52
'
Note: Preapplication treatment by ponds.

a. Includes labor spent maintaining three pumping stations in collection system.
The s i t e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o p a r t s :
site
( S e c t i o n s 2.2.4
and
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and s i t e s c r e e n i n g
2.2.5).
I n s m a l l communities, t h e f i r s t s t e p i n i d e n t i f y i n g
p o t e n t i a l l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e s i s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r any
of t h e l o c a l farmers a r e w i l l i n g t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a land
treatment project o r a r e interested i n s e l l i n g o r leasing
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and
property f o r a land treatment site.
m e e t i n g s w i t h l o c a l g r o u p s c a n be p a r t i c u l a r l y h e l p f u l when
making t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
I f o n e o r more f a r m e r s a r e
i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g and have enough l a n d t o t a k e and
use t h e wastewater, o r a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s e l l i n g o r l e a s i n g
site
enough
property
for
a
land
treatment
site,
i n v e s t i g a t i o n can begin.
I f t h e l o c a l farmers a r e not
i n t e r e s t e d o r i f t h e i n t e r e s t e d f a r m e r s d o n o t have enough
s u i t a b l e l a n d , i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o i d e n t i f y and s c r e e n
potential
sites
using
existing
soils,
topographical,
h y d r o g e o l o g i c a l , and l a n d u s e d a t a .
The i d e n t i f i c a i t i o n and
*'NUMBER
AVERAGE DESIGN W A S T E W A T E R FLOW OF C o N r u N l T r
@F MONTHS E R YEAR THAT UASTEUATER I S A P P L I E D TO LAND.
FIGURE 7-1
LAND AREA EST l MATES FOR PRE L l M l NARY PLAMN l NG PURPOSES
( INCLUD ING LAND FOR PREAPPLI CAT l ON TREATMENT)
screening processes a r e d e t a i l e d i n Chapter

h i g h l i g h t s are presented i n t h i s chapter.
2;
only
tlie
A s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 2.2.4,
e x i s t i n g d a t a c a n be u s e d t o
c l a s s i f y b r o a d areas of l a n d n e a r t h e community a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e i r land treatment s u i t a b i l i t y .
F a c t o r s t h a t s h o u l d be
c o n s i d e r e d i n c l u d e c u r r e n t and p l a n n e d l a n d u s e , p a r c e l
s i z e , topography, p r e s e n t v e g e t a t i v e cover, s u s c e p t i b i l i t y
t o f l o o d i n g , s o i l t e x t u r e , g e o l o g y , d i s t a n c e from t h e a r e a
w h e r e wastewater is g e n e r a t e d , and need f o r u n d e r d ~ r a i n a g e
( b a s e d o n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f l o c a l SCS r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ) .
G e n e r a l l y , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c l o s e s t suitab:l.e s i t e
w i l l g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e land t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m t y p e t o be d e s i g n e d .
The d e t a i l e d r a t i n g f a c t o r
approach i n Chapter 2 is u s u a l l y unnecessary because
e c o n o m i c s w i l l l i m i t t h e number o f s i t e s t h a t c a n be
considered.
7.2.3
Site Investigations
A s i n l a r g e r communities, f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e conducted
t o v e r i f y a n y d a t a u s e d t o s e l e c t s i t e s and, t o v e r i f y
o v e r a l l land treatment s u i t a b i l i t y .
However, t h e l e v e l o f
e f f o r t needed t o co n d u c t s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n s m a l l e r
I n s m a l l e r communities, it is
c o m m u n i t i e s i s much l o w e r .
more p r a c t i c a l t o c o n d u c t m i n i m a l f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and
assume r e l a t i v e l y c o n s e r v a t i v e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a t h a n t o
c o m p l e t e t h e e x t e n s i v e and e x p e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s needed
to p i n p o i n t optimal design c r i t e r i a .
G e n e r a l l y , s o i l s i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e from t h e a r e a SCS
o f f i c e and l i m i t e d f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s w i l l y i e l d s u f C i c i e n t
i n f o r m a t i o n f o r m o s t SR and OF s y s t e m d e s i g n s .
The! f i r s t
s t e p i n t h e s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d be t o v i s i t
t h e p o t e n t i a l s i t e w i t h a l o c a l SCS r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
The
primary purpose of t h e s e s i t e v i s i t s i s t o confirm t h e d a t a
u s e d t o i d e n t i f y and s e l e c t s u i t a b l e s i t e s .
A few, s h a l l o w ,
hand-auger b o r i n g s t o i d e n t i f y t h e s o i l p r o f i l e sh o u l d be
c o n d u c t e d t o c o n f i r m t h e SCS d a t a and c h e c k f o r impermeable
l a y e r s o r s h a l l o w ground w a t e r .
I n f i l t r a t o n tests ( s e e
S e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 1 ) a r e u s u a l l y o n l y needed f o r R I s i t e s .
For R I
s i t e s , a few b a c k h o e p i t s t o 3 m ( 1 0 f t ) o r more a r e a l s o
recommended, b u t d r i l l h o l e s a r e u s u a l l y d e f e r r e d u n t i l
preliminary design.
I f c r o p s w i l l b e grown, a s i t e v i s i t w i t h t h e c o u n t y a g e n t
o r l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l o r f o r e s t r y a d v i s o r i s recommended.
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s i t e v i s i t i s t o o b t a i n a d v i c e o n t h e
t y p e o f c r o p s t o u s e and o n crop management p r a c t i c e s .
7.3
Facility ~ e s i g n
Because o n l y l i m i t e d f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e c o n d u c t e d i n
s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s , i t is i m p o r t a n t t o u s e c o n s e r v a t i v e
design c r i t e r i a .
The a p p l i c a t i o n s c h e d u l e s and s t o r a g e
requirements
presented
i n T a b l e 7-2
are examples of
conservative c r i t e r i a .
O t h e r d e s i g n c r i t e r i a t h a t must be
i d e n t i f i e d i n c l u d e t h e l e v e l and t y p e of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n
t r e a t m e n t and s t o r a g e , t h e l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e d , w a s t e w a t e r
l o a d i n g r a t e s and s c h e c l u l e s , and pumping n e e d s and o t h e r
mechanical d e t a i l s .
Land a r e a r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e e s t i m a t e d
d u r i n g t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s and a r e r e f i n e d a s t h e h y d r a u l i c
loading
rate,
method o f
preapplication treatment,
and
s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e d e f i n e d more p r e c i s e l y .
7.3.1
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n T r e a t m e n t and S t o r a g e
EPA g u i d a n c e o n minimum l e v e l s of
i s summarized i n T a b l e 7-4.
preapplication treatment
TABLE 7-4
RECOMMENDED LEVEL O F
PREAPPLICATION TREATMENT
Type of land
treatment
Situation
Recommended
preapplication treatment
Slow rate
Isolated location; restricted public

Primary.
access; crops not for human consumption.
Controlled agricultural irrigation;
Biological (ponds or in-plant
crops not to be eaten raw by humans.
processes) with control of fecal
coliforms to <1,000 MPN/100 mL.
Public access areas such as parks,
Biological (ponds or in-plant
go1 f courses.
processes) with disinfection to
log mean fecal coliforms of
5200 MPN/100 mL.
Rapid
infiltration
Isolated location; restricted public

access.
Urban location; controlled public
access.
Overland flow
Isolated site; no public access.

Urban location; no public access.
Prim'ary.
Biological (ponds or.in-plant
processes).
Screening or comminution.
Screening or comminution with
aeration to control odors during
storage or application.
I n s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s , ponds a r e u s u a l l y t h e most p r a c t i c a l
form of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and s t o r a g e .
They a r e
r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o o p e r a t e , r e q u i r e minimal m a i n t e n a n c e , a r e
l e s s e x p e n s i v e t h a n many t y p e s of t r e a t m e n t , and e l i m i n a t e
t h e need f o r s e p a r a t e s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s .
~ l t h o u g h some
c o m m u n i t i e s w i l l want t o u s e o r u p g r a d e o t h e r e x i s t i n g
f a c i l i t i e s f o r use a s p r e a p p l i c a t i o n treatment f a c i l i t i e s ,
many s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s w i l l f i n d i t a d v a n t a g e o u s t o c o n v e r t
t o pond s y s t e m s b e c a u s e of t h e i r c o n s i s t e n c y , r e l i a b i l i t y ,
f l e x i b i l i t y , e a s e o f o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e , and c o s t .
G e n e r a l l y , ponds a r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h one t o t h r e e c e l l s .
I n a t h r e e - c e l l s y s t e m , t h e f i r s t c e l l i s u s u a l l y s r n a l l and
may be
aerated
t o c o n t r o l odors.
Alternatively,
if
s u f f i c i e n t l a n d is a v a i l a b l e , t h e f i r s t c e l l may be d e s i g n e d
as a f a c u l t a t i v e c e l l w i t h a BOD l o a d i n g o f a b o u t
The w a t e r l e v e l i n t h i s c e l l
120 k g / h a 0 d ( 1 0 7 l b / a c r e - d ) .
i s u s u a l l y c o n s t a n t and c a n be c o n t r o l l e d w i t h a n a d j u s t a b l e
The f i n a l c e l l s c a n be
o v e r f l o w w e i r o r a g a t e d manhole.
used f o r s t o r a g e and f l o w e q u a l i z a t i o n .
t h e s e two c e l l s a r e made a s d e e p a s p o s s i b l e .
Typical
d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s f o r s e v e r a l t y p e s of ponds a r e p r e s e n t e d
i n T a b l e 7-5.
TABLE 7-5
TYPICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR SEVERAL
TYPES OF PONDS [ 2 ]
Aerobic
Pond size (individual
cells), ha
Detention time, d
Depth, m
BOD5 loading, kg/haSd
BOD5 removed, %
Effluent suspended
solids, mg/L
<4
10-40
1-1.5
40-120
80-95
80-140
Facultative
1- 4
7-30
1-2.5
15-200
80-95
40-100
Anaerobic
0.2-1
20-50
2.5-5
200-500
50-85
80-160
1 ha = 2.47 acres
1 m = 3.28 ft
1 kg/ha-d = 0.893 lb/acre-d
An a d d i t i o n a l b e n e f i t of u s i n g ponds i s t h a t t h e l o n g
d e t e n t i o n t i m e s ( 3 0 d a y s o r more) promote n i t r o g e n removal
and p a t h o g e n i n a c t i v a t i o n .
P r e l i m i n a r y models t o E?S t i m a t e
n i t r o g e n and b a c t e r i a l r e m o v a l s i n ponds a r e g i v e n i n
S e c t i o n 4.4.1.
7.3.2
H y d r a u l i c Loading R a t e s
The f i r s t s t e p i h d e s i g n i n g t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t p o r t i o n o f
A s an
t h e system is to select a h y d r a u l i c loading r a t e .
i n i t i a l a s s u m p t i o n , t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e f o r SF[ and RI
s y s t e m s i s b a s e d o n t h e m o s t l i m i t i n g SCS p e r m e a b i l i t y
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e s o i l s a t t h e s e l e c t e d s i t e . Hydraulic
l o a d i n g r a t e s t h a t may be used i n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e m a j o r
t y p e s of l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d a s a
f u n c t i o n of SCS p e r m e a b i l i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n F i g u r e s 7-2
and 7-3.
Both f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t a v e r a g e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g
rates.
I n F i g u r e s 7-2 and 7-3, whenever a r a n g e o f l o a d i n g
r a t e s i s s i v e n , t h e l o w e r end o f t h e r a n s e s h o u l d be used
f o r p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t s , t h e mid zone f o r p&d e f f l u e n - t s , and
t h e upper p o r t i o n of t h e range f o r secondary e f f l u e n t .
Lower l o a d i n g r a t e s t h a n s h o w n i n F i g u r e s 7-2 a n d 7-3 c a n b e
I f OF i s used t o p o l i s h
used b u t w i l l r e q u i r e more l a n d .
t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r o r activated sludge e f f l u e n t , loading r a t e s
o f 30 t o 40 cm/wk ( 1 2 t o 1 6 in./wk) c a n be u s e d .
Loading r a t e s a t SR and R I s y s t e m s t h a t o v e r l i e p o t e n t i a l
d r i n k i n g water a q u i f e r s may be l i m i t e d by n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g
r a t h e r than s o i l permeability.
A t t h e s e systems, t h e ground
w a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n i t r a t e i s l i m i t e d t o 1 0 mg/L a s '
n i t r o g e n a t t h e p r o j e c t b o u n d a r y ( o r t h e background n i t r a t e
Rapid
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , i f it is g r e a t e r t h a n 10 mg/L).
i n f i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s s h o u l d n o t be l o c a t e d a b o v e d r i n k i n g
w a t e r a q u i f e r s u n l e s s thorough f i e l d t e s t i n g is conducted to
v e r i f y t h a t t h e n i t r a t e s t a n d a r d can be m e t o r u n l e s s t h e
renovated
water
will
be
recovered
(Sections
5.4.3.1
and 5 . 7 ) .
7.3.2.1
Slow R a t e
F o r S R s y s t e m s . l o c a t e d above d r i n k i n g w a t e r a q u i f e r s , t h e
f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s h o u l d be u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e maximum
a l l o w a b l e n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g r a t e based on n i t r o g e n l i m i t s :
Cp(Pr
Lw(n) =
where
Lw(n)
(1 -
ET)
10U
f) ( C n
Cp)
wastewater h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e based
o n n i t r o g e n l i m i t s , cm/yr ( i n . / y r )
Cp
percolate nitrogen concentration,

mg/L = 1-0 mg/L
Pr
p r e c i p i t a t i o n r a t e , cm/yr
ET
e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e , cm/yr
c r o p n i t r o g e n uptake r a t e , kg/ha*yr
(lb/acre-yr)
(in./yr)
(in./yr)
f r a c t i o n of a p p l i e d n i t r o g e n removed
by v o l a t i l i z a t o n , d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n , and
s t o r a g e = 0.15
Cn
nitrogen concentration i n applied

w a s t e w a t e r , mg/L
C o n s e r v a t i v e v a l u e s s h o u l d be assumed f o r n i t r o g e n l o s s e s
and c r o p u p t a k e r a t e s t o e n s u r e a d e q u a t e n i t r o g e n removal.
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , n i t r o g e n s t o r a g e and ammonia v o l a t i l i z a t i o n
are i g n o r e d i n E q u a t i o n 7-1 and t h e d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n r a t e i s
assumed t o e q u a l 1 5 % of t h e n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g r a t e .
Nitrogen
l o s s e s d u r i n g p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t depend on t h e t y p e o f
treatment.
For c o n v e n t i o n a l primary o r secondary t r e a t m e n t ,
n i t r o g e n l o s s i s n e g l i g i b l e . A s d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.4.1,
t h e n i t r o g e n l o s s i n a pond
c a n be e s t i m a t e d from
Conservative n i t r o g e n uptake
t y p i c a l c r o p s i n T a b l e 7-6.
NITROGEN
values
are
.presen,ted
TABLE 7-6
UPTAKE RATES FOR SELECTED C R O P S ~
Crop
Nitrogen uptake
rate, kg/ha. yr
Forage
Alfalfa
Bromegrass
Coastal bermudagrass
Kentucky bluegrass
Quackgrass
Reed canarygrass
Ryegrass
Sweet clover
Tall fescue
Field
Barley
Corn
Cotton
Milomaize (sorghum)
Potatoes
Soybeans
Wheat
a.
70
180
80
90
230
110
60
Values represent lower end of ranges

presented in Table 4-12 and are
intended for use in Equation 7-1.
1 kg/ha-d = 0..893 lb/acre.d
for
The c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e from E q u a t i o n 7-1 o f ' Lw( 1 i s t h e n

d i v i d e d by t h e number o f weeks p e r y e a r o? e x p e c t e d
o p e r a t i o n and compared w i t h t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e
o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 7-2. A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e e n g i n e e r s h o u l d
c h e c k w i t h t h e l o c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l or f o r e s t r y a d v i s e r t o
v e r i f y t h a t t h e s e l e c t e d c r o p i s t o l e r a n t o f t h e lower o f
t h e two c a l c u l a t e d l o a d i n g r a t e s .
I f so, t h e lower o f t h e
If
two l o a d i n g r a t e s s h o u l d b e u s e d f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s .
t h e s e l e c t e d c r o p cannot tolerate t h e d e s i g n loading r a t e , a
crop with higher moisture tolerance o r nitrogen uptake
should be s e l e c t e d .
I n s m a l l communities, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s c h e d u l e s presented i n
T a b l e 7-2 are recommended.
Again, i f a farmer a g r e e s t o
t a k e and u s e t h e w a s t e w a t e r o n h i s own l a n d , h e may c o n t i n u e
t o use any a p p l i c a t i o n schedule t h a t h a s r e s u l t e d i n a w e l l managed a g r i c u l t u r a l s y s t e m .
7.3.2.2
Rapid I n f i l t r a t i o n
s y s t e m s c a n be
Hydraulic loading r a t e s
for s m a l l RI
e s t i m a t e d u s i n g F i g u r e 7-3.
The p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e m o s t
r e s t r i c t i n g s o i l l a y e r i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e c a n be m e a s u r e d
u s i n g t e c h n i q u e s d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 3.4.
I n F i g u r e 7-3,
t h e lower c u r v e s h o u l d be u s e d when p r i m a r y o r pond e f f l u e n t
is t o b e a p p l i e d , and t h e u p p e r c u r v e c a n b e u s e d when
secondary e f f l u e n t is t o be a p p l i e d .
7.3.2.3
Overland F l o w
The h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s f o r s m a l l O F s y s t e m s a r e t h e
same a s recommended i n C h a p t e r 6 , T a b l e 6-5.
Because o f
o p e r a t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i t is recommended t h a t e i t h e r
8 or 1 2 h/d a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s b e u s e d , w h i c h e v e r i s m o s t
convenient.
S i m p l e a u t o m a t i o n u s i n g t i m e s w i t c h e s and
s o l e n o i d v a l v e s allows f l e x i b i l i t y i n s e l e c t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n
periods.
7.3.3
Once t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d , t h e
amount
of
land
required
for
land
treatment
can
be
calculated.
For systems t h a t o p e r a t e year-round, t h e l a n d
r e q u i r e d is s i m p l y t h e d e s i g n a v e r a g e w a s t e w a t e r f l o w
For systems
d i v i d e d by t h e a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e .
t h a t are n o t o p e r a t e d year-round,
t h e area r e q u i r e d is
c a l c u l a t e d as follows:
(Metric u n i t s )
A =
where
Q ( 3 6 5 )( 1 0 0 )
(Lw)(t)(7.48)(43,560)
(U.S.
customary u n i t s )
A =
area r e q u i r e d , h a ( a c r e s )
Q =
d e s i g n a v e r a g e wastewater f l o w , m3/d
(gal/d 1
Lw =
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , cm/wk ( i n . / w k )
(see S e c t i o n 7 , 3 . 2 )
t =
number o f weeks p e r y e a r d u r i n g which

wastewater i s a p p l i e d
F o r e x a m p l e , if a s y s t e m is o p e r a t e d 43 weeks out. o f t h e
y e a r , t h e a c c e p t a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s 5 , 8 cm/wk
(2.3 in./wk),
and t h e d e s i g n a v e r a g e w a s t e w a t e r f l o w i s
900 m3/d ( 2 4 0 , 0 0 0
g a l / d ) , t h e area r e q u i r e d
for
land
t r e a t m e n t is:
= 13.2 h a ( 3 2 . 5 a c r e s )
~ d d i t i o n a lland is required f o r preapplication treatment,

s t o r a g e , access r o a d s , and i n some cases b u f f e r z o n e s .
A
p r e l i m i n a r y a l l o w a n c e o f 1 5 t o 20% o f t h e f i e l d a r e a is
o f t e n made f o r r o a d s , b u f f e r z o n e s , and s m a l l u n u s a b l e l a n d
areas.
Land r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and
s t o r a g e are d e t e r m i n e d i n t h e p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n of t h e s e
components.
7.3.4
D i s t r i b u t i o n Systems
D e t a i l e d information on SR d i s t r i b u t i o n systems is presented

i n S e c t i o n 4.7 a n d Appendix E.
Additional considerations
for s m a l l communities are p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n .
~ i s t r i b u t i o nm e t h o d s a r e s e l e c t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f t e r r a i n ,
type of l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m , and l o c a l p r a c t i c e .
In s m a l l
c o m m u n i t i e s , it i s p r u d e n t t o c h o o s e a d i s t r i b u t i o i ? method
t h a t i s u s e d l o c a l l y o r t h a t w i l l r e s u l t i n a sys.t:em t h a t
r e q u i r e s only part-time operational a t t e n t i o n .
If a locally
used
d i s t r i b u t i o n method
is s e l e c t e d ,
e q u i p m e n t and n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t i s e w i l l
available.
any s p e c i a l i z e d
b e more r e a d i l y
T r a v e l i n g g u n s r e q u i r e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h a m o u n t s o f l a b o r and
a r e more a d a p t a b l e t o s y s t e m s where s e v e r a l , odd-shaped
f i e l d s a r e i r r i g a t e d e a c h s e a s o n , s o t h e y a r e u s u a l l y owned
B o t h s o l i d s e t and c e n t e r
and o p e r a t e d by a l o c a l f a r m e r .
p i v o t i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s c a n be a d a p t e d t o e i t h e r munic i p a l l y owned o r f a r m e r owned s m a l l i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s .
C e n t e r p i v o t s w i l l g e n e r a l l y n o t be a p p l i c a b l e Eor v e r y
s m a l l SR s y s t e m s ( b e l o w 1 6 h a o r 40 a c r e s ) .
D i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s f o r R I and OF f a c i l i t i e s a r e d e s c r i b e d
i n S e c t i o n s 5 . 6 . 1 a n d 6.6, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
7.4
T y p i % c a lS m a l l Community S y s t e m s
i l l u s t r a t e some o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f s m a l l s c a l e l a n d
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s , f o u r c a s e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s section.
T h e s e i n c l u d e two SR o p t i o n s , o n e R I , and o n e OF
system.
It is not intended t h a t t h e site s p e c i f i c criteria
f o r t h e s e f o u r s y s t e m s b e a p p l i e d f o r p r o c e s s d e s i g n elsewhere.
The c o n c e p t s w i l l be v a l i d , b u t s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i a
w i l l depend o n i n d i v i d u a l s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
To
7.4.1
Slow R a t e F o r a g e System
7.4.1.1
Introduction
pond s y s t e m u s i n g SR a p p l i c a t i o n o f wastewater o n t o
s e v e r a l g r a s s e d p l o t s is o f t e n a workable d e s i g n f o r a s m a l l
community t h a t d o e s n o t g e n e r a t e s u f f i c i e n t wastewater f l o w
t o be e c o n o m i c a l l y b e n e f i c i a l f o r i r r i g a t i n g a c a s h c r o p .
7.4.1.2
Population
The community, l o c a t e d i n e a s t e r n N e b r a s k a , h a s a p r e s e n t
p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300.
The d e s i g n p o p u l a t i o n f o r
t h e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y is 310.
7.4.1.3
Flow
The f l o w t o t h e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y i s s t r i c t l y d o m e s t i c
wastewater,
because
there
are
no
industries
in
the
community.
The s y s t e m i s d e s i g n e d t o t r e a t a n a v e r a g e p e r
c a p i f a f l o w o f 0.25 m3/d ( 6 5 g a l / d ) , o r a t o t a l f l o w o f
(20,000 g a l / d ) .
Low p e r c a p i t a f l o w s a r e v e r y
76 m /d
common f o r s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s h a v i n g no i n d u s t r i e s and v e r y
minimal commercial development.
Actual flows t o t h e system
h a v e g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d a s r e s i d e n t s s w i t c h e d ram t h e i r
old
septic
tank
systems to
t h e municipal
system.
Flows a r e commonly i n t h e 57 t o 9 5 m3/d
25,000 g a l / d ) r a n g e .
7.4.1.4
collection
(15,000 t o
Climate
The normal a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s 84 cm/yr ( 3 3 i n . / y r ) and

t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l g r o s s l a k e e v a p o r a t i o n i s 1091 cm/yr
(43 in./yr).
The mean number o f d a y s i n which t h e maximum
d a i l y t e m p e r a t u r e e x c e e d s 32 O C ( 9 0 O F ) i s 40, and t h e mean
number o f d a y s i n which t h e minimum d a i l y t e m p e r a t u r e f a l l s
below 0 OC ( 3 2 OF) i s 130.
I n an average year, t h e r e a r e
232 d a y s between t h e l a s t k i l l i n g f r o s t i n t h e s p r i n g and
the f i r s t frost i n the fall.
7.4.1.5
The s i l t loam s o i l s a t t h e p r o p o s e d t r e a t m e n t s i t e a r e d e e p ,
S u r f a c e s o i l s a r e s i l t loam
n e a r l y l e v e l , and w e l l d r a i n e d .
Permeability is
and t h e s u b s o i l s are s i l t y c l a y loam.
m o d e r a t e l y s l o w i n t h e 1 . 0 t o 1 . 5 cm/h ( 0 . 4 t o 0.6 i n . / h )
r a n g e . . The s i t e i s r e l a t i v e l y l e v e l and d o e s n o t o v l e r l i e a
potable aquifer.
7.4.1.6
T r e a t m e n t F a c i l i t y Design
The t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y c o n s i s t s of a s i n g l e c e l l u n a e r a t e d
pond f o l l o w e d by a s e r i e s of f o u r g r a s s e d p l o t s which
is
not
r e c e i v e wastewater
from t h e pond.
Effluent
disinfected.
The pond p r o v i d e s b o t h w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
and s t o r a g e .
The d e g r e e o f t r e a t m e n t i n t h e pond i s n o t a
s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n design, o t h e r than providing a t l e a s t
t h e n e c e s s a r y p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t f o r removal of heavy s o l i d s
and r a g s t h a t c o u l d p l u g d i s t r i b u t i o n p i p i n g .
The s t o r a g e
volume f a c i l i t a t e s o p e r a t i o n of t h e s y s t e m , s i n c e i t i s n o t
n e c e s s a r y t o have a n o v e r f l o w d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f heavy
p r e c i p i t a t i o n o r o t h e r u n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s , and t h e
g r a s s e d p l o t s c a n be a l l o w e d t o d r y between a p p l i c a t i o n s t o
a l l o w mowing and m a i n t e n a n c e .
The d e s i g n i n f o r m a t . i o n i s
summarized i n - T a b l e 7-7.
The s i n g l e c e l l pond i s s i z e d s i m i l a r l y t o t h e f i r s t c e l l o f
a c o n v e n t i o n a l f a c u l t a t i v e pond s y s t e m .
The d e s i g n BOD
l o a d i n g i s 34 kg/ha:d
(31 lb/acre:d), a g e n e r a l l y accepted
l o a d i n g r a t e i n N e b r a s k a , and r e s u l t s i n minimal s e l p t i c i t y
o r blue-green a l g a e problems.
H i g h e r l o a d i n g s may be
a l l o w e d b y o t h e r s t a t e s where ponds d o n o t become i c e
By h a v i n g a 1 . 8 m ( 6 f t ) wa e r
covered i n t h e winter.
d e p t h , 1 . 2 m ( 4 f t ) o f s t o r a g e volume i s p r o v i d e d above ?
tI e
0.6 m ( 2 f t ) w a t e r l e v e l .
The s t o r a g e volume i n t h e 0.7 ha
( 1 . 7 a c r e ) pond i s 7,378 m3 ( 1 . 9 5 Mgal) above t h e 0.6 m
( 2 f t ) depth.
This capacity provides adequate storage
d u r i n g t h e approximately 1 3 3 d a y s ( 1 9 weeks) e a c h w i n t e r
t h a t t h e p l o t s are n o t i r r i g a t e d , based on t h e d e s i g n f l o w
and s e e p a g e l o s s e s o f 0 . 3 c m ( 0 . 1 2 5 i n . ) p e r d a y .
TABLE 7-7
DESIGN INFORMATION
FOR SR SYSTEM
-
Design flow, m3/d

BOD loading, kg/d
Design population
Treatment pond
Size, ha
Depth, m
Capacity above 0.6 m lkvel, m3
Bermed grassed plots
Number
Size (each), ha
76
24
310
0.7
1.8
7,378
4
0.35
The t o t a l s i z e o f t h e g r a s s e d p l o t s was d e t e r m i n e d a s
follows.
C a l c u l a t e d d e s i g n losses f r o m t h e p o n d , i n c l u d i n g
s e e p a g e and n e t e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n ,
totaled
1 4 2 cm/yr
( 56 i n . / y r )
Using t h i s v a l u e , t h e d e s i g n o v e r f l o w from t h e
pond ( Q o ) w a s c a l c u l a t e d :
cm/h
Using
the
limiting
soil
permeability
of
1.0
(0.4in./h),
a hydraulic
loading
rate
of
3.8
cm/wk
( 1 . 5 i n . / w k ) w a s o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 7-2.
Next, t h e area
r e q u i r e d f o r SR w a s c a l c u l a t e d ( E q u a t i o n 7 - 4 ) :
A = [(17,800 m3)/(3.8
= 1.4
cm/wk x 3'3 wk)]
(7-4)
ha (3.5 acres)
F o u r g r a s s e d p l o t s , e a c h 0.35 h a ( 0 . 8 8 a c r e ) were d e s i g n e d .
M u l t i p l e s m a l l p l o t s were s e l e c t e d f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s .
Each p l o t is s m a l l enough t o f a c i l i t a t e u n i f o r m f l o o d i n g .
A l s o , t h e u s e of m u l t i p l e p l o t s makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e
o p e r a t o r t o mow o r make r e p a i r s on a d r y p l o t w h i l e t h e
o t h e r p l o t s a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n ,
Any o n e p l o t d o e s n o t r e c e i v e more w a t e r t h a n c a n p e c c o l a t e
within 12 hours.
T h i s h e l p s p r e v e n t damage t o t h e g r a s s
c o v e r and a l s o p r o v i d e s some leeway i n c a s e p r e c i p i t a k i o n is
r e c e i v e d a f t e r a c e l l h a s been f l o o d e d .
I g n o r i n g evapot r a n s p i r a t i o n , t h e l i m i t i n g s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y r a t e of 1.0
cm/h ( 0 . 4 i n . / h ) d i c t a t e s t h a t n o t more t h a n 1 2 cm ( 4 . 7 i n . )
To o b t a i n
can be a p p l i e d p e r each 1 day a p p l i c a t i o n period.
a n a v e r a g e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e o f 3 . 8 cm/wk ( 1 . 5 i n . / w k ) ,
e a c h a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d must be f o l l o w e d by 21 d a y s o f
drying.
I n p r a c t i c e , o n e p l o t i s f l o o d e d on e a c h o f 4 cons e c u t i v e days.
A f t e r a n a d d i t i o n a l 18 d a y s of c3ryingf
E l o o d i n g i s resumed.
This sequence c o n t i n u e s f o r approxim a t e l y 232 d a y s .
During t h e w i n t e r ( approximateLy 1 3 3
d a y s ) , a l l w a s t e w a t e r i s s t o r e d . i n t h e pond.
The o v e r f l o w c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d f o r t h i s s y s t e m
r e q u i r e s minimal o p e r a t o r a t t e n t i o n .
The s t r u c t u r e u s e s a n
o v e r f l o w p i p e t h a t c a n be r a i s e d o r l o w e r e d i n i n c r e m e n t s t o
r e l e a s e t h e n e c e s s a r y volume of e f f l u e n t . A c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
d e t a i l of t h e s t r u c t u r e is i n c l u d e d i n F i g u r e 7-4.
The g r a s s e d p l o t s are q u i t e s h a l l o w , h a v i n g o n l y 0 . 6 m
( 2 ft) h i g h d i k e s .
The s l o p e s a r e 4 : 1 , making t h e b a s i n s
r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o mowing e q u i p m e n t .
This design helped
m i n i m i z e t h e amount o f e a r t h w o r k n e c e s s a r y d u r i n g cons t r u c t i o n and a l s o maximized t h e amount of u s a b l e a r e a s i n c e
Jess d i k e a r e a w a s r e q u i r e d .
L o c a l SCS o f f i c e s and p u b l i c a t i o n s were c o n s u l t e d t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y infor:mation
f o r s e l e c t i n g a s e e d i n g m i x t u r e , which needed t o be s u i t a b b e
for p e r i o d i c f l o o d i n g .
A mixture of
Reed c a n a r y g r a s s ,
switchgrass,
redtop,
and
intermediate
wheatgrass
was
planted.
E f f l u e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n t o t h e g r a s s e d p l o t s i s by g a t e d p i p e
a l o n g t h e toe o f t h e i n n e r s l o p e o f o n e s i d e .
This allows
more u n i f o r m f l o o d i n g o f t h e b a s i n a s compared t o a s i n g l e
i n l e t structure.
The a r e a u n d e r t h e p i p e and i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n of f l o w from t h e p i p e h a s a l a y e r o f r o c k t o
m i n i m i z e e r o s i o n and c h a n n e l i z a t i o n o f t h e flow.
GATES
TWIST LINK
MACHINE C H A I N
RE INFORCEO
CONCRETE P I P E
RON
11SER
CONCRETE F I L L E T
FIGURE 7-4
OVERFLOW CONTROL STRUCTURE FOR
POND D ISCHARGE TO SR SYSTEM
7.4.1.7
Performance
When t h e f a c i l i t y was f i r s t s t a r t e d up, f l o w s were q u i t e l o w

u n t i l a l l of t h e r e s i d e n c e s w e r e c o n n e c t e d .
The pond
p r o v i d e d c o m p l e t e r e t e n t i o n of a l l f l o w s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t
2 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n , w i t h no o v e r f l o w t o t h e g r a s s e d
plots.
I n t h e t h i r d y e a r , o n l y two a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s were
used:
o n e i n t h e s p r i n g and o n e i n t h e f a l l .
The number
of a p p l i c a t i o n s p e r y e a r h a s been g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g a s
flows have approached t h e a n t i c i p a t e d d e s i g n l o a d i n g s .
A
good s t a n d o f g r a s s h a s been m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
plots.
T h i s g r a s s c o v e r e n h a n c e s i n f i l t r a t i o n and p r o v i d e s
maximum e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i e d .
7.4.1.8
Staffing
The s y s t e m r e q u i r e s o n l y o n e p a r t - t i m e o p e r a t o r .
Duties a t
t h e pond i n c l u d e mowing, v a l v e o p e r a t i o n , weed c o n t r o l , and
m a i n t e n a n c e o f f e n c e s , access r o a d , v a l v e s , and d i s t r i b u t i o n
piping.
7.4.2
Slow R a t e F o r e s t S y s t e m
7.4.2.1
Introduction
T h i s f o r e s t e d SR s y s t e m is l o c a t e d a t K e n n e t t S q u a r e i n
southeastern Pennsylvania,
The s y s t e m , c o n s i s t i n g o f a
s e r i e s of t r e a t m e n t p o n d s f o l l o w e d b y s p r i n k l e r a p p l i c a t i o n ,
h a s been o p e r a t e d s i n c e 1973.
The s y s t e m s e r v e s two
r e t i r e m e n t c o m m u n i t i e s and i s o p e r a t e d b y t h e w a s t e w a t e r
authority.
7.4.2.2
p o p u l a t i o n and Flow
The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s t o t a l s 725.

The f l o w ,
w h i c h is e n t i r e l y d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r , i s c u r r e n t l y 1 8 9 m3/d
(50,000 g a l / d ) .
The d e s i g n f l o w i s 265 m3/d ( 7 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d ) .
7.4.2.3
Climate
P r e c i p i t a t i o n and e v a p o r a t i o n are n e a r l y e q u a l w i t h average

a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n a t 1 1 0 c m ( 4 3 i n . ) and a v e r a g e , a n n u a l
pan e v a p o r a t i o n e s t i m a t e d t o be 120 c m ( 4 7 i n . ) .
Average
a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e i s 1 1 . 9 OC ( 5 3 . 4 OF).
7.4.2.4
The a p p l i c a t i o n area i s c o v e r e d w i t h a n a t i v e s t a n d o f
The s o i l s a r e b a s i b e e c h , m a p l e , p o p l a r , and o a k t r e e s .
c a l l y s i l t loams w i t h predominant s l o p e s between 3 and 8%.
S o i l s are m o d e r a t e l y d e e p and p e r m e a b l e w i t h s l i g h t l y a c i d i c
p H values.
The s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y o f 1 . 5 t o 5 cm/h ( 0 . 6 t o 2
i n . / h ) would s u p p o r t a l o a d i n g r a t e o f 5 cm/wk ( 2 i n . / w k ) o r
more o n a h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g b a s i s ( F i g u r e 7 - 2 ) .
7.4.2.5
Treatment F a c i l i t y Design
is
presented
in
The
layout
of
treatment
facilities
F i g u r e 7-5; p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e t r e a t m e n t pond and s p r . i n k l e r
a p p l i c a t i o n are shown i n F i g u r e 7-6.
Wastewater is t r e a t e d
i n t h r e e t r e a t m e n t p o n d s , d i s i n f e c t e d , and a p p l i e d v i a
The f i r s t pond i s
s p r i n k l e r s o n t o 3.24 h a ( 8 a c r e s ) .
a e r a t e d , c o v e r s a s u r f ace area o f 0.128 h a (0.. 3 acre11, and
is 4 m ( 1 3 f t ) deep.
A e r a t i o n i s p r o v i d e d b y a 7 . 5 kW
(10 hp) f l o a t i n g s u r f a c e a e r a t o r .
W a s t e w a t e r t h e n f l o w s by
g r a v i t y through t w o nonaerated ponds t h a t are 2.1 m . ( 7 f t )
a n d 2.4 m ( 8 f t ) d e e p and c o v e r 0.68 h a ( 1 . 6 9 a c r e s ) and
T o t a l d e t e n t i o n i.n t h e
0.30 h a ( 0 . 7 5 a c r e ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
t h r e e p o n d s i s 80 d a t c u r r e n t f l o w s .
tI
SPllWKLEI
HEADS
NO. 3
h3
OLD F I E L D
NO. 1 1
LEGEND
LATERAL W I T H
S P R I N K L E R HEADS
eaouwo W A T E R
M O N I T O R I N G WELLS
FACILITY
MA1 NTENANCE
n
A
OXlOATlON
POND
BAR SCREEN
AND COYMINUTOR
TREATMENT FAC l L l TY LAYOUT
CONTROL
BUILDING
POLISHIMP
POND
DISTRIBUTION
PUMPS
FIGURE 7 - 5
KENNETT SQUARE, PENNSYLVANIA, SR SYSTEM
TREATMENT POMD
S P R I N K L E R A P P L I C A T I O N I N E X I S T I N G HARDWOOD F O R E S T
FIGURE 7-6
SR FAC l L I T l ES AT KENNETT SQUARE, PENNSYLVAN l A
The d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s 5 . 1 cm/wk ( 2 i n . / w k ) ,
which i s t h e S t a t e o f P e n n s y l v a n i a g u i d e l i n e .
The n i t r o g e n
l o a d i n g i s ,279 k g / h a - y r ( 2 4 8 l b / a c r e - y r ) f o r t h e d e s i g n f l o w
which i s somewhat h i g h f o r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a n e x i s t i n g
hardwood f o r e s t .
Because of t h e r e l a t i v e l y m i l d c l i m a t e ,
y e a r - r o u n d a p p l i c a t i o n was p l a n n e d .
The a p p l i c a t i o n a r e a i s d i v i d e d i n t o 1 4 s e p a r a t e a r e a s o r
plots.
W a s t e w a t e r i s a p p l i e d f o r 24 h o u r s o n 4 t o 6 p l o t s
On t h i s s c h e d u l e , a n i n d i v i d u a l
e a c h d a y , 5 d a y s p e r week.
p l o t r e c e i v e s e f f l u e n t e v e r y f o u r t h day.
Storage f o r
weekends and c o l d w e a t h e r is p o s s i b l e i n t h e t r e a t m e n t
ponds.
The main l i n e s and l a t e r a l s a r e b u r i e d w i t h d r a i n
v a l v e s to d r a i n t h e l i n e s a f ter a p p l i c a t i o n s are complete.
A b u f f e r zone of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 46 t o 6 1 m ( 1 5 0 t o 200 f t ) i s
m a i n t a i n e d between t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e and t h e n e a r e s t
All
residence.
T h i s a r e a i s c o v e r e d w i t h g r a s s and t r e e s .
s t o r m w a t e r r u n o f f from t h e community i s d i v e r t e d a r o u n d t h e
site.
Stormwater generated o n s i t e is allowed t o run o f f
onto adjacent land.
S i t e a c c e s s i s c o n t r o l l e d by s i g n s and
f e n c i n g ; however, t h e r e a r e some n a t u r e t r a i l s i n t h e a r e a
t o which a c c e s s i s p e r m i t t e d .
7.4.2.6
O p e r a t i o n and P e r f o r m a n c e
During
The s y s t e m h a s o p e r a t e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y f o r 8 y e a r s .
is p r a c t i c e d
until
the
winter
operation,
sprinkling
t e m p e r a t u r e d r o p s t o -6.7 OC ( 2 0 OF).
F r o s t heave problems
have a f f e c t e d v a l v e boxes placed i n t h e f o r e s t .
Screening
o f t h e a p p l i e d w a t e r i s needed t o a v o i d n o z z l e c l o g g i n g from
d e b r i s t h a t f a l l s i n t o t h e ponds.
T r e a t m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e s y s t e m c a n be measured u s i n g
The d e p t h t o g r o u n d
t h e ground water monitoring w e l l s .
w a t e r v a r i e s from 3.6 t o 9 . 1 m ( 1 2 t o 30 f t ) i n t h e 11
monitoring w e l l s .
The r a n g e o f n i t r a t e n i t r o g e n concent r a t i o n s is from 0 t o 4.8 mg/L and i n d i c a t e s s a t i s f a c t o r y
p e r f o r m a n c e , i n s p i t e of t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h n i t r o g e n
l o a d i n g ( S e c t i o n 7.4.2.5).
7:4.2.7
S t a f f i n g and Budget
One o p e r a t o r s p e n d s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 h / d , 5 d/wk o p e r a t i n g
and m a i n t a i n i n g t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m .
Of t h i s
t o t a l , 2 h/d
is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e SR l a n d t r e a t m e n t
system.
t o t a l o f $15,00O/yr i s b u d g e t e d f o r o p e r a t i o n and m a i n - ,
t e n a n c e of t h e s y s t e m .
Of t h i s t o t a l , 3 7 % o r $4,07O/yr i s
associated with land treatment.
7.4.3
Rapid I n f i l t r a t i o n
7.4.3.1
Introduction
An R I s y s t e m f o r a s m a l l community need n o t be d e s i g n e d f o r
i n t e n s i v e w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n s a t maximum R I r a t e s , , which
c o u l d i n v o l v e t h e need f o r r e c o v e r y o f r e n o v a t e d w a t e r and a
r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l of o p e r a t i o n and management.
Instead,
t h e d e s i g n c a n b e s i m p l i f i e d t o m e e t t h e o b j e c t j ; . v e s of
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t and s t i l l m a i n t a i n e a s e of o p e r a t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g example i l l u s t r a t e s a n a d a p t a t i o n o f a n R I
s y s t e m t h a t n o r m a l l y o p e r a t e s a t v e r y low a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s ,
b u t h a s t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t r e a t i n g t h e e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h
flows t h a t occur occasionally.
7.4.3.2
Population
The f a c i l i t y s e r v e s t h e s m a l l , r u r a l community o f Chapman i n

e a s t c e n t r a l Nebraska..
The community i s p r i m a r i l y resid e n t i a l , w i t h a s m a l l commercial d i s t r i c t , b u t w i t h no i n dustries.
The p r e s e n t p o p u l a t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d t o be 400.
The t r e a t m e n t pond was d e s i g n e d t o s e r v e a popu1at:ion o f

500.
When t h e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y was d e s i g n e d , t h e r e was n o
p a s t h i s t o r y o f w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s and a n a v e r a g e p e r c a p i t a
c o n t r i b y t i o n o f 0.26 m3/d
(70 g a l / d ) , o r t o t a l flow o f
A c t u a l dry-'weather
132.5 m /d ( 3 5 , 0 0 0 g a l / d ) , was assumed.
flows h a v e a v e r a g e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 66 m3/d
17,400 g a l / d )
T h i s f l o w amounts t o l e s s t h a n 0.19
m /capitaad
(50
g a l / c a p i t a - d ) , b u t i s t y p i c a l f o r t h i s t y p e of s m a l l , r u r a l
community where a v e r a g e w a t e r u s e i s low.
The f a c t . t h a t t h e
town d o e s n o t h a v e a m u n i c i p a l w a t e r s y s t e m i s a n o t h e r
r e a s o n t h a t w a t e r u s e and w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s a r e v e r y low.
'3
I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e low a v e r a g e d r y - w e a t h e r f l o w s , however,
are v e r y h i g h p e a k f l o w s d u r i n g p e r i o d s when p a r t s o f t h e
c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m are s u b j e c t t o i n f i l t r a t i o n from h i g h
ground w a t e r e l e v a t i o n s .
Peak f l o w s have r a n g e d t o a s h i g h
as 1 , 3 4 1 m3/d ( 3 5 4 , 4 0 0 g a l / d ) on a m o n t h l y a v e r a g e .
The
p e a k f l o w s a r e s u s t a i n e d , and have i n t h e p a s t s t a y e d h i g h
This is a s i g n i f i c a n t
f o r a s l o n g a s 6 months a t a t i m e .
f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g a t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y s i n c e t h e pond s y s t e m
m u s t h a n d l e , a t t i m e s , f l o w s r a n g i n g from 2 t o 1 0 times t h e
d e s i g n average flow.
7.4.3.4
Climate
The normal a n n u a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n i s 63.5 cm/yr ( 2 5 ii.n./yr)

and t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l g r o s s laKe e v a p o r a t i o n i s 1 1 4 , 3 cm/yr
I
T h e r e a r e 4 5 d a y s p e r y e a r when maximum d a i l y
(45 in./yr).
t e m p e r a t u r e s e x c e e d 3 2 O C ( 9 0 OF) a n d 1 5 0 d a y s when t h e
minimum t e m p e r a t u r e i s below 0 O C ( 3 2 OF).
The mean l e n g t h
of t h e f r o s t - f r e e p e r i o d i n t h e area i s 1 6 0 d a y s .
7.4.3.5
S o i l s i n t h e area formed i n a l l u v i u m o n r i v e r b o t t o m l a n d s ,
A t t h e pond s i t e ,
and t h e t o p o g r a p h y is r e l a t i v e l y f l a t .
t h e p r e d o m i n a n t s o i l t y p e is a m o d e r a t e l y d e e p , n e a r l y
l e v e l , somewhat p o o r l y d r a i n e d loam f o r m e d i n c a l c a r e o u s
loamy a l l u v i u m .
The d e p t h t o t h e water t a b l e r a n g e s f r o m
The loam s u r f a c e l a y e r and
0.6 t o 1 . 2 m ( 2 t o 4 f t ) .
s u b s o i l h a v e m o d e r a t e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f 1 . 5 t o 5 . 1 cm/h ( 0 . 6
t o 2.0 i n . / h ) .
The u n d e r l y i n g g r a v e l l y s a n d , w h i c h i s f o u n d
5 1 t o 1 0 2 c m ( 2 0 t o 40 i n . ) b e l o w t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e , h a s
v e r y r a p i d p e r m e a b i l i t y o f o v e r 5 1 cm/h ( 2 0 i n . / h ) .
7.4.3.6
Treatment F a c i l i t y Design and

Performance
The t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y i n c l u d e s a pond a n d a s i n g l e R I
b a s i n ; d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s a r e summarized
i n T a b l e 7-8.
The pond c o n s i s t s o f two c e l l s , o n e h a v i n g a
s u f a c e a r e a o f 0.7 h a (1.8 acres) and t h e o t h e r h a v i n g
0.4 h a ( 1 . 0 a c r e ) . The maximum water d e p t h o f t h e c e l l s i s
1.5 m (5.0 f t )
~ i k e s a r o u n d t h e pond h a v e a n o v e r a l l
h e i g h t o f 2.4 m ( 8 f t ) . The s o i l s a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e pond
w e r e medium nd f i n e s a n d s .
B e n t o n i t e w a s added a t t h e rate
o f 4.5 kg/m2 ( 2 0 t o n s / a c r e ) t o t h e b o t t o m o f t h e pond t o
l i m i t s e e p a g e t o l e s s t h a n 0.64 cm/d ( 0 . 2 5 i n . / d ) .
TABLE 7-8
DESIGN INFORMATION FOR CHAPMAN R I SYSTEM
Design flow, m3/d
BOD loading, kg/d
Year b u i l t
Design population
Pond c e l l No. 1
Surface area, ha
Depth, m
Capacity above drawoff l e v e l , m3
0.7
1.5
6,190
Pond c e l l No. 2
Surface area, ha
Depth, m
Capacity above drawoff l e v e l , m3
Total detention time above drawoff
l e v e l a t d e s i g n flow, d
70
I n f i l t r a t i o n basin s i z e , ha
Hydraulic loading r a t e a t d e s i g n flow, m/yr
0.6
5
0.4
1.5
3,160
The d e s i g n o f t h e pond i s s u c h t h a t t h e two c e l l s c a n be

The o v e r f l o w c o n t r o l
operated e i t h e r i n series o r p a r a l l e l .
box c a n b e a d j u s t e d s o t h a t t h e w a t e r l e v e l i n e i t h e r o f t h e
c e l l s c a n be drawn down o r s e t f o r c o n s t a n t o v e r f l o w from
Water i s drawn from t h e pond c e l l s a t
one or b o t h cells.
t h e 0.6 m ( 2 f t ) d e p t h .
The normal o p e r a t i n g s e q u e n c e f o r t h e s y s t e m h a s been s e r i e s
f l o w t h r o u g h t h e two c e l l s when t h e pond is n o t i c e c o v e r e d ,
w i t h a c o n s t a n t o v e r f l o w from t h e s e c o n d c e l l i n s e r i e s t o
t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n basin.
During t h e w i n t e r when t h e pond
c e l l s are i c e c o v e r e d , o p e r a t i o n i s s w i t c h e d t o para:l-lel t o
s p r e a d t h e incoming l o a d o v e r t h e maximum s u r f a c e a r e a .
T h i s r e s u l t s i n a s h o r t e r r e c o v e r y p e r i o d i n t h e s p r i n g when
t h e ice c o v e r melts and t h e c e l l s g o from t h e a n a e r o b i c t o
t h e aerobic state.
T h e r e i s n o r m a l l y some o v e r f l o w t o t h e
A t t h e design flow,
i n f i l t r a t i o n basin during t h e winter.
t h e n e t $ e a r l y o v e r f l o w t o t h e i n i l t r a t i o n b a s i n would be
29,300 m ( 7 r 4 4 4 , 0 0 0 g a l ) .
To
The t w o pond c e l l s a r e f o l l o w e d by a s i n g l e R I b a s i n .
t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e h i g h e r p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e . u n d e r l y i n g
s o i l m a t e r i a l s , t h e t o p 0.9 m ( 3 f t ) o f R I b a s i n soil was
stripped during basin construction.
However, t h e d e s i g n
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e was l i m i t e d t o 5.0 m/yr ( 1 6 . 4 f t / y r )
to s i m p l i f y b a s i n o p e r a t i o n .
A b a s i n a r e a o f 0.6
ha
( 1 . 4 a c r e s ) was n e c e s s a r y t o a l l o w t h e d e s i g n l o a d i n g r a t e
a t t h e d e s i g n pond o v e r f l o w r a t e .
Following c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
t h e b a s i n w a s s e e d e d w i t h a m i x t u r e of Reed c a n a r y g r a s s and
bromegrass.
A g r a s s cover h a s been maintained t o h e l p
preserve the s o i l s permeability.
Currently, t h e average i n f l u e n t flow is approximately h a l f
t h e d e s i g n f l o w ( T a b l e 7-9) and t h e n e t o v e r f l o w t o t h e
infiltration
basin
averages
5,150
m3/yr
(1,360,000
gal/yr).
The r e s u l t i n g h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s 0.9 m/yr
(2.9 f t / y r ) .
However, d u r i n g p e r i o d s of heavy i n f i l t r a t i o n
i n t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n system, t h e average d a i l y flow to t h e R I
b a s i n is 1 , 3 7 5 m3/d ( 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d ) .
This r e s u l t s i n a
p e r i o d i c h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e of 22.6 cm/d ( 8 . 9 i n . / ' d ) , o r
82.5 m/yr ( 2 7 1 f t / y r ) e x p r e s s e d a s a n a n n u a l r a t e .
Although
t h i s t e m p o r a r y r a t e i s w e l l below t h e measured s o i l permeab i l i t y o f a t l e a s t 5 1 cm/h ( 2 0 i n . / h ) , i t e x c e e d s t h e recommended l o a d i n g shown i n F i g u r e 7-2 somewhat.
TABLE 7-9
WASTEWATER FLOWS TO CHAPMAN R I SYSTEM
m3/d
Monthly f l o w s
. -
Year
Minimum
Maximum
870.6
63.0
65.5
292
55.1
58.7
1,341
79.0
82.1
60.2
71.9
78.3
132.1
1974
Jan- Jun
Jul-Dec
1976
1977
197ga
65.9
8.6 3
----
a.
Avg d a i l y f l o w
--
---
--- -
D u r i n g t h e months of May, J u n e , a n d J u l y ,
f l o w s wer2 a b o v e n o r m a l a n d w e r e i n t h e
122-132 m /d r a n g e .
T h i s corresponded t o
a p e r i o d o f h i g h ground w a t e r e l e v a t i o n s .
A l t h o u g h t h e d e s i g n and a c t u a l a v e r a g e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g
r a t e s are c o n s i d e r a b l y lower t h a n t h e r a n g e o f 5 0 t o 60 m/yr
( 1 6 5 t o 200 f t / y r ) recommended i n F i g u r e 7-2, t h e u s e of a
lower r a t e was a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s , i n c l u d i n g :
A grass
c o v e r c a n be m a i n t a i n e d i n t h e bottom o f
t h e basin to h e l p preserve s o i l permeabiity.
The
treatment
facility
is
able
to
treat
peak
wastewater flows t h a t g r e a t l y exceed d e s i g n average

flows.
7.4.3.7
Ground W a t e r Q u a l i t y
S i n c e h i g h ground w a t e r l e v e l s a r e t y p i c a l of t h e a r e a i n
which t h e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y i s l o c a t e d , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of
t h e f a c i l i t y i n t e r m s of p o s s i b l e ground w a t e r contamination
is an important consideration.
The pond h a s been i n
o p e r a t i o n f o r 1 5 y e a r s , so t h e r e h a s b e e n a d e q u a t e t i m e f o r
p o s s i b l e water q u a l i t y c h a n g e s c a u s e d by pond o p e r a t i o n t o
h a v e been d e t e c t e d . The d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e f a c i l i t y h a s
n o t c a u s e d i n c r e a s e d ground w a t e r l e v e l s o f n i t r a t e s or
chlorides
that
could
be
associated
with
wasQewater
discharges.
7.4.3.8
C o s t s and S t a f f i n g
The t o t a l c o s t f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m a n d
The t r e a t m e n t
t r e a t m e n t ponds i n 1 9 6 5 was $1101958.
f a c i l i t y p o r t i o n o f t h e t o t a l amounted t o $40,520.
The e n t i r e s y s t e m h a s b e e n o p e r a t e d by o n e p a r t - t i m e
o p e r a t o r whose d u t i e s i n c l u d e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h r e e pumping
stations
in
the
collection
s y s t e m and
o p e r a t i o n and
m a i n t e n a n c e a t t h e pond s i t e .
Work a t t h e t r e a t m e n t
facilities
c o n s i s t s of
operating valves,
mowing,
weed
c o n t r o l a r o u n d t h e e d g e of t h e w a t e r i n t h e pond c e l l s and
and m a i n t e n a n c e of a c c e s s r o a d and
i n the RI basin,
fences.
S i n c e t h e r e i s no s u r f a c e d i s c h a r g e of e f f l u e n t
from t h e f a c i l i t y , l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g of w a t e r q u a l i t y h a s
n o t been r e q u i r e d .
7.4.4
O v e r l a n d Flow
7.4.4.1
Introduction
s m a l l , f u l l - s c a l e OF s y s t e m i s o p e r a t i n g a t C a r b o n d a l e ,
~ l l i n o i s , t r e a t i n g pond
effluent.
The w a s t e w a t e r i s
clomestic i n n a t u r e and g e n e r a t e d a t t h e 5 4 u n i t Cedar Lane
T r a i l e r Court.
The p o p u l a t i o n of 1 3 5 h a s been r e l a t i v e l y
s t a b l e s i n c e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e 1950s.
Wastewater flow is
38 m3/d ( 1 0 , 0 0 0 g a l / d ) .
p r i o r t o 1 9 7 6 , w a s t e w a t e r was t r e a t e d u s i n g a s e p t i c t a n k
f o l l o w e d by a 0.28 h a ( 0 . 7 a c r e ) s t a b i l i z a t i o n pond and
surface water discharge.
E f f l u e n t from t h e pond d i d n o t
meet
Illinois
intermittent
stream
requirements,
which
i n c l u d e a 1 . 5 mg/L ammonia n i t r o g e n l i m i t on t h e d i s charge.
An u p g r a d i n g o f t h e t r e a t m e n t , t h e r e f o r e , was
required.
7.4.4.2
The t e r r a i n i s r o l l i n g and t h e g r a s s c o v e r e d s i t e , which i s

n e a r t h e pond, h a s s l o p e s r a n g i n g from 7 t o 1 2 % . The s o i l
i s f i n e g r a n u l a r g l a c i a t e d m a t e r i a l w i t h low p e r m e a b i l i t y .
A s e c t i o n of t h e s l o p e c 1 0 m ( 3 0 f t ) wide and 60 m ( 2 0 0 f t )
l o n g ( d o w n s l o p e ) was used.
7.4.4.3
Treatment F a c i l i t y ~ e s i g n
The h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s 44 cm/wk ( 1 7 . 3 i n . / w k ) , which

is h i g h e r t h a n recommended i n F i g u r e 7-2.
The f i r s t . 30 m
( L O O f t ) of s l o p e is a t 7 % g r a d e and t h e l a s t 30 m i s a t
1 2 % . The pond e f f l u e n t i s pumped t o t h e t o p o f t h e s l o p e
and a p p l i e d u n i f o r m l y a c r o s s t h e t o p o f t h e s l o p e v i a a 10
cm (4 in.) perforated pipe.
The p r e d o m i n a n t g r a s s on t h e
The s y s t e m was c o n s t r u c . t ~ e d by
s l o p e is t a l l fescue.
S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s u n i v e r s i t y and used f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s a s a
research f a c i l i t y .
No s t o r a g e i s p r o v i d e d o t h e r t h a n t h e
e x i s t i n g s t a b i l i z a t i o n pond [ 3 ] .
7.4.4.4
operation
During 1976 and 1977, a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s v a r i e d from 0.29 t o

The a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d
0.57 m3/m-h ( 2 4 t o 4 2 g a l / f t t h ) .
A t y p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d was
v a r i e d f r o m 4 t o 24 h/d.
Runoff f r o m t h e s l o p e s a c c o u n t e d f o r o v e r 8 0 % o f t h e
9 h/d.
applied wastewater.
E r o s i o n w a s n o t a problem.
7.4.4.5
Performance
The t r e a t m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e OF s y s t e m w a s m o n i t o r e d
r e l a t i v e l y i n t e n s e l y i n t h e f a l l o f 1976.
The r e s u l t s a r e
TABLE 7-10
TREATMENT PERFORMANCE OF CARBONDALE OF SYSTEM [ 4 ]
mg/L e x c e p t a s n o t e d
-
Constituent
Applied wastewater
Treated runoff
BOD
SS
Phosphorus, total
Ammonia nitrogen
Fecal coliforms,
colonies/100 mL
3- 4
20-40
0.2-0.5
0.1-1.5
35,000
I n 1 9 7 7 when a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s a n d d a i l y a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s
w e r e i n c r e a s e d , t h e treatment performance d e c l i n e d .
For
e x a m p l e , when a p p l i c a t i o n t i m e s o f 24 h/d were u s e d , r e m o v a l
o f ammonia d r o p p e d o f f s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
The r u n o f f a f t e r 60 m
( 2 0 0 f t ) , h o w e v e r , c o n t a i n e d less t h a n 1 mg/L ammonia when
a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s were 1 2 h/d o r l e s s .
7.5
References
1. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency.
P r o c e s s D e s i g n Manual
( I n Preparation).
f o r Wastewater T r e a t m e n t Ponds.
2,Metcalf
&
Eddy,
Inc.
T r e a t m e n t , D i s p o s a l , Reuse.
N e w Y o r k , N.Y.
1979.
Wastewater
Engineering:
McGraG H i l l Book Company.
3, H i n r i c h s , D.J. e t a l . Assessment o f C u r r e n t I n f o r m a t i o n
o n O v e r l a n d Flow T r e a t m e n t of M u n i c i p a l Wastewater.
Environmental
protection
Agency,
Off i c e
of
Water
MCD-66.
May 1 9 8 0 .
Programs.
EPA 430/9-80-002.
CHAPTER 8
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND CONSERVATION
8.1
Introduction
Land t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s e n e r g y n e e d s c o n s i s t o f p r e a p p l i cation treatment, transmission t o the application site,

d i s t r i b u t i o n pumping ( i f n e c e s s a r y ) , a n d t a i l w a t e r r e c o v e r y
o r pumped d r a i n a g e ( i f r e q u i r e d ) .
The e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y depending on
t h e d e g r e e of t r e a t m e n t planned.
The d e g r e e o f t r e a t m e n t
d e p e n d s o n t y p e o f s y s t e m , l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s , and r e g u l a t o r y
requirements.
Determining energy requirements f o r a l l prea p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s i s beyond t h e s c o p e o f t h i s
manual; however, e q u a t i o n s f o r e s t i m a t i n g e n e r g y consumption
o f minimum p r e a p p l i c a t i o n u n i t p r o c e s s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
S e c t i o n 8.6.
Energy r e q u i r e d f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t o o s i t e s p e c i f i c to b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s m a n u a l .
E n e r g y f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n from t h e p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t
s i t e t o t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e d e p e n d s o n t o p o g r a p h y and
distance.
T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t when c o n s i d e r i n g
alternative sites.
The e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n
pumping c a n r a n g e anywhere from z e r o t o n e a r l y 1 0 0 % o f t h e
energy r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a land t r e a t m e n t system.
T h i s may
o f t e n j u s t i f y a h i g h e r p r i c e d p a r c e l o f l a n d closer t o t h e
T r a n s m i s s i o n pumping i s s o m e t i m e s deapplication site.
signed t o also p r o v i d e p r e s s u r e f o r s p r i n k l e r a p p l i c a t i o n .
F o r s i t e s l o c a t e d below p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s
w i t h s u r f a c e a p p l i c a t i o n s y s t e m s , pumping u s u a l l y w i l l n o t
be required.
Slow r a t e s y s t e m s v a r y i n terms o f d i s t r i b u t i o n e n e r g y and
p o s s i b l e tailwater c o n t r o l .
D i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s may b e
surface o r sprinkler.
T a i l w a t e r c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s depend
o n t h e t y p e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m and d i s c h a r g e s t a n dards.
S p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s c a n be c o n t r o l l e d s o t h a t n o
tailwater is produced.
S u r f ace s y s t e m s w i l l u s u a l l y h a v e
t a i l w a t e r t h a t m u s t b e c o n t a i n e d and r e a p p l i e d .
Rapid i n i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s are u s u a l l y d e s i g n e d f o r s u r f a c e
d i s t r i b u t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n and so r e q u i r e m i n i m a l energy.
T h e r e i s n o t a i l w a t e r pumping, b u t pumped d r a i n a g e
may be n e c e s s a r y t o c o n t r o l g r o u n d water l e v e l s o r r e c o v e r
treated percolate.
Overland flow systems can use s u r f a c e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h l o w
head r e q u i r e m e n t s ( S e c t i o n 6.6.1).
S p r i n k l e r systems can
also
be
used
so
energy
will
be
required
for
pressurization. There is no significant subsurface drainage

with OF so this potential energy requirement is avoided.
8.2
Under conditions with favorable topography, a gravity

transmission system may be possible and pumping not
required.
If pumping is required, the energy needs vary
substantially depending on the required head and how the
transmission system is designed.
The effect of tclpography
on pumping costs and energy use should be thoroughly evaluated during the planning process.
Energy efficient design involves coordination of (all elements of the system including sizing of pumps, pipelines,
and storage facilities, as well as system operating strategy.
The system operating strategy involves placement and
sizing of storage facilities. Wet wells are typically not
designed for significant flow equalization.
Transmission
pumping systems are sized to handle the peak community
flows. This can be accomplished by multiple pumps, one pump
with a variable speed drive, or some combination. Each system has differing constraints that alter decisions on its
design.
Ideally, all flow is equalized to provide nearly
constant flow pumping. This allows selection of a pump at a
maximum efficiency.
variable speed drives, which are not as efficient as constant speed drives, would not be required. unfortunately,
flow equalization is not always feasible.
In some instances, equalization cost's may not be recovered by energy
savings.
The choice of pumping and equalizatiorl system
design is site-specific.
Regardless of the pumping system
used, pipeline size can be optimized. Optimization of pipeline size will provide the optimum transmission systtem.
The following pipe size optimization procedure was taken
Obviously, larger pipe sizes result in
from reference [l]
lower pumping energy; however, excessively large pipes are
not economical.
where
Dopt = optimum pipeline diameter, m (ft)
constant, 3.53 (2.92)
Q = average flow, m3/s ( ft3/s)
C = Hazen-Williams coefficient
K = a v e r a g e p r i c e of e l e c t r i c i t y , $/kwh
T = design l i f e , y r
P = u n i t cost of p i p e ,
$ / l i n e a r m0mm d i a .
in. dia. )
($/linear ft*
E = o v e r a l l pumping s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y ,
decimal
F o r e x a m p l e , a t a f l o w of 0.219 m 3 / s ( 7 . 7 f t 3 / s ) , a HazenWilliams c o e f f i c i e n t of 100, a p i p e l i n e c o s t of $0.26/linear
m-mrn d i a m e t e r , a n o v e r a l l pumping s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y o f 7 5 % ,
e l e c t r i c i t y a t $O.O45/kWh, and a d e s i g n l i f e o f 20 y e a r s ,
t h e optimum p i p e d i a m e t e r i s 0.50 m ( 2 0 i n . ) 123.
With t h e l i n e s i z e d e t e r m i n e d and a pumping s y s t e m s e l e c t e d ,
t h e a c t u a l e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t c a n be d e t e r m i n e d .by t h e f o l lowing e q u a t i o n .
E n e r g y , kWh/yr = ( Q ) ( T D H ) ( t )
(F)( E l
where
Q = flow,
L/min
(gal/min)
TDH = t o t a l dynamic h e a d , m ( f t )
t = pumping t i m e , h / y r
F = constant,
6,123 (3,960)
E = o v e r a l l pumping s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y , d e c i m a l
The o v e r a l l e f f i c i e n c y v a r i e s n o t o n l y w i t h d e s i g n s p e c i f i c s
Raw
b u t a l s o w i t h t h e q u a l i t y o f l i q u i d b e i n g pumped.
w a s t e w a t e r pumping r e q u i r e s pumps t h a t p a s s l a r g e r s o l i d s
than treated effluent.
T h e s e pumps a r e less e f f i c i e n t .
When a s p e c i f i c d e s i g n i s b e i n g c o n t e m p l a t e d , t h e o v e r a l l
e f f i c i e n c y s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g pump, m o t o r , and
d r i v e r e f f i c i e n c i e s d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e e q u i p m e n t t o be
used.
F o r i n i t i a l p l a n n i n g o r p r e l i m i n a r y work s u c h a s s i t e
s e l e c t i o n , o v e r a l l s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c i e s c a n b e assumed a s
follows.
Raw w a s t e w a t e r
40%
primary e f f l u e n t
65%
Secondary or b e t t e r e f f l u e n t , t a i l w a t e r ,
recovered ground w a t e r , o r stormwater
75%
8.3
General Process Energy Requirements

8.3.1
Slow Rate
Energy consumption for SR consists, of

transnlission,
distribution, possible tailwater reapplication, and crop
management.
A wide range of surface and sprinkler
distribution techniques is possible.
Surface systems
require energy for distribution and tailwater reapplication
to the site.
Sprinkler systems are highly variable with
possible pressure requirements ranging from 10 to 70 m (30
to 230 ft). Generally, pressures will be in the 15 to 30 m
(50 to 100 ft) range.
Crop production energy varies substantially between the type
of crops grown.
Table 8-1 shows energy requirements for
corn and forage crops.
TABLE 8-1
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR
CROP PRODUCTION [3]
R e q u i r e m e n t , MJ/ha
Operation
corn
T i l l a g e and s e e d i n g
1.41
0.22
Cultivation
0.37
NA
Harvest
0.37
Drying
4. 6gb
Transportation
1.04
-
1.53
-
8.25
3.63
Total
a.
8.3.2
Alfalfa
1. 51a
N A ~
b.
Hay.
M e c h a n i c a l l y d r i e d ; may i n some c a s e s
be f i e l d dried.
c.
Not a p p l i c a b l e ,
f i e l d dried.
Rapid Infiltration
Rapid infiltration system energy requirements are primarily

thpse needed for transmission.
Surface distribution is
normally used.
There are no crops grown so no fuel is
consumed for that purpose.
Occasionally, there are
situations where recovery wells and pumps are used.
Fuel
will be needed for basin scarification, but the quantity is
not significant because the operation is infrequent.
8.3.3
Overland Flow
Overland flow treatment can use either surface distribution

or sprinkler distribution.
Surface distribution require's
while
sprinkler
minimal
energy
(see
Section 8.6),
distribution requires pressurization energy.
To prevent nozzle clogging, raw wastewater or primary
effluent should
be
screened
prior
to distribution.
Mechanically cleaned screens are preferred over comminution
since shredded material returned to the stream can still
cause clogging. The amount of energy required for screening
is insignificant compared to the pumping energy required.
Equation 8-2 applies for the pumping energy computation.
Overland flow systems require a cover crop that is often
harvested and removed from the site. Energy is required in
the
form
of
diesel
fuel
for operating harvesting
equipment.
Fuel required is the same as presented in
Table 8-1 for alfalfa harvest.
A summary of energy requirements for land treatment
processes is shown on Table 8-2. The values presented are
typical of actual practice.
TABLE 8-2
MOST COMMON UNIT ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR LAND
TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER
Treatment
system
Slow rate
Component
Pumping for distribution
Crop planting, cultivation,
harvest, drying, transport
Energy credit for fertilizer
value of wastewater
Total
Electricity
kWh/1,000 mj
Fuel,
~ ~ / 1 , 0 0m3
0
0.14
--
0.14
--
0.68
0.20
(0.50)
0.18
(0.14)
0.20
---
--
-0.14
Rapid
infiltration
Distribution (gravity)
Recovery wells
Total
Overland flow
Transmission
Forage harvest
-0.05
0.05
--
0.10
--
Total equivalent,
kh'h/1,000 m3
0.05
0.05
0.10
Total
Note:
See Appendix G for metric conversions; kwh are used for electricity and total,
equivalent energy, MJ used for fuel.
8.4
Energy C o n s e r v a t i o n
8,4.1
A r e a s o f P o t e n t i a l Energy S a v i n g s
With r e s p e c t t o e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n , t h e r e a r e t w o . main
First
is transmission t o t h e s i t e .
a r e a s t o review.
Location of t h e f a c i l i t y should, i f p o s s i b l e , provide f o r
a d e q u a t e d r o p i n e l e v a t i o n between
the preapplication
t r e a t m e n t and t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e s .
T h i s l a y o u t is
sometimes p o s s i b l e w i t h R I s y s t e m s and c e r t a i n S R s y s t e m s .
I t i s more d i f f i c u l t t o d e s i g n OF s y s t e m s i n t h i s manner
For
s i n c e s l o p i n g l a n d is n e c e s s a r y a s p a r t of t h e p r o c e s s .
OF s y s t e m s , s i t e g r a d i n g is u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n
is
typically
desired
slope
so
distribution
pumping
necessary.
The s e c o n d a r e a o f p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y s a v i n g s i s w i t h t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n method.
F o r d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r w i t h minimal
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n treatment, s u r f a c e systems a r e p r e f e r r e d ,
s i n c e s u r f a c e s y s t e m s a r e n o t a s s u b j e c t t o c l o g g i n g and
u s u a l l y r e q u i r e less energy.
D i s t r i b u t i o n f o r S R s y s t e m s i s a f u n c t i o n o f t o p o g r a p h y and
t h e crop.
S u r f a c e s y s t e m s c a n be used on l e v e l o r g r a d e d
s i t e s (see S e c t i o n 4 . 7 . 1 ) .
I n t h e p a s t , s u r f a c e systems
were p r e f e r r e d by t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l i n d u s t r y ; however, due t o
i n c r e a s e d l a b o r costs and p o o r i r r i g a t i o n e f f i c i e n c i . e s , some
e x i s t i n g s u r f a c e s y s t e m s have been c o n v e r t e d t o s p r i n k l e r
irrigation.
F o r m u n i c i p a l a u t h o r i t i e s where l a b o r wages a r e
h i g h e r t h a n f a r m w o r k e r wages, t h e i n c r e a s e d l a b o r c o s t s a r e
important.
S p r i n k l e r d i s t r i b u t i o n systems a r e r e l a t i v e l y high-.pressure
devices.
R e c e n t a d v a n c e s h a v e been made i n s p r i n k l e r n o z z l e
d e s i g n t o lower h e a d l o s s w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g u n i f o r m i t y of
application.
F i g u r e 8-1 i l l u s t r a t e s a c e n t e r p i v o t s y s t e m
w i t h t w o t y p e s of s p r i n k l e r s .
The i m p a c t s p r i n k l e r s have a
t y p i c a l p r e s s u r e l o s s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 t o 6 5 m ( 2 0 0 t o
215 f t ) ; w h e r e a s , d r o p n o z z l e s have a h e a d l o s s of 1 5 t o 20 m
( 5 0 t o 65 f t ) . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t s a n energy' s a v i n g s
o f a b o u t 9 5 kWh/1000 m3, w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g d i s t . r i b u t i o n
efficiency.
S u r f a c e s y s t e m s may n o t r e q u i r e pumping e n e r g y e x c e p t f o r
tailwater recycling.
In t h i s case,
automated s u r f a c e
s y s t e m s ( F i g u r e 8-2) c a n be i n t r o d u c e d t o m i n i m i z e t a i l w a t e r
recycling requirements.
D R O P N O Z Z L E SYSTEM
IMPACT S P R I N K L E R SYSTEM
FIGURE 8-1
CENTER PIVOT SYSTEM
Wastewater
Reuse pump
F I G U R E 8-2
AUTOMATIC SURFACE I R R I G A T I O N SYSTEM
8.4.2
Example:
[4']
Energy S a v i n g s i n Slow R a t e De.sign
The f o l l o w i n g example i l l u s t r a t e s how e f f e c t i v e p l a n n i n g and

design can r e s u l t i n energy conservation.
A summary o f
assumed s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s used f o r t h i s example is
TABLE 8-3
EXAMPLE SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Average flow, m3/d
System
Preapplication treatment
Application season
Hydraulic loading, m/yr
Net land area, ha
Crop
Topography
Tailwater control
38,000
Slow rate
Pond
May to October ( 5 months9
1.2
1,130
Corn
Nearly level, suitable for
all types of irrigation
No surface discharge of
applied wastewater allowed
Three systems will be considered:

surface distribution by
ridge and furrow, and two examples of center-pivot application. Since transmission of wastewater is essentially the
same with all alternatives, it will not be included in this
discussion.
Ridge and furrow distribution does not require pumping for
distribution; but due to a no discharge of tailwater
requirement, energy is required to return tailwater back to
the application point (assumed head: 3 meters).
Depending
on the system design,the maximum tailwater recycle will
range from 30 to 70% of that applied. Conventional ridge
and furrow designs result in lower efficiency, with the
higher recycle pumping requirement.
Alternatively, ridge
and furrow systems with automated recycle cutback or
automated valves can improve efficiency by lowering pumping
requirements. The potential savings from system automation
is summarized in Table 8-4.
TABLE 8-4.
COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL AND AUTOMATED RIDGE
AND FURROW SYSTEMS FOR 38,000 m3/da
system
Tailwater
pumping,
kWh/yr
Electricity,
$/yr
Labor,
h/yr
Conventional
89,300
2,950
2,800
33,500
1,100
1,400
15,400
45,000
55,800
1,850
1,400
15,400
-29,000
Automated
Difference
a.
Labor
cost,
$/yr
30,800
Capital
cost, $
16,000
Amortized
capital,
$/yr
Total
annual
cost,
$/yr
1,520
35,270
20,800
4,300
-2,780
14,470
E l e c t r i c i t y a t $0.036/kWh.
Labor a t 1.2 h/ha-d f o r automated systems;
L a b o r cost a t $ l l . O O / h .
Capital Costs
2.5 h/ha/d f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l systems.
f o r p i p e l i n e , d i s t r i b u t i o n system, r e u s e system meters (January 1980).
C a p i t a l a m o r t i z e d a t 7-1/8% f o r 2 0 y e a r s .
The potential savings using automated irrigation systems are

significant; both energy consumption and cost can be reduced
substantially.
In this example, energy requirements were
reduced by about two-thirds, at an overall cost savings of
over 50%.
If a center pivot irrigation system is used, tailwater
recovery is not needed. However, pumping energy is required
to provide nozzle pressure. In this case the main factor in
energy conservation is nozzle design. The general goal is
to achieve uniform distribution at the lowest possible
pressure loss.
A conventional center pivot rig employs
impact sprinklers on top of the pivot pipeline.
These
devices require a pumping pressure of approximately 65 m
(21 ft).
Alternatively, drop nozzles are used in modern
r i g s which d e v e l o p a h e a d l o s s o f a b o u t 1 5 m ( 1 5 0 f t ) .
Drop
n o z z l e s have a n a d d i t i o n a l advantage of producing l e s s aerosol t h a n impact systems.
C a p i t a l c o s t s , and o p e r a t i o n and
electricity)
are
maintenance
requirements
(except
for
c o m p a r a b l e b e t w e e n t h e s e two s y s t e m s .
The i m p a c t 06 e n e r g y
I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , c o s t s were
s a v i n g s i s shown o n T a b l e 8-5.
r e d u c e d and a e r o s o l s were d e c r e a s e d by d e s i g n i n g t o c o n s e r v e
energy.
TABLE 8-5
COMPARISON OF IMPACT AND DROP-TYPE
CENTER PIVOT SYSTEM NOZZLE DESIGNS
ON ENERGY REQ IREMENTS ,
38,000 m / d a y
Electricity,
kWh/yr
Energy
c o s t , $/yr
Impact
2,230,000
73,600
Drop
1,030,000
34,000
1,200,000
39,600
Nozzle t y p e
Difference
8.4.3
Summary
For purposes of comparison t h e t o t a l energy ( e l e c t r i c i t y

(1 Mgal/d) s y s t e m s i s
p l u s f u e l ) f o r t y p i c a l 3 , 7 8 5 m3/d
l i s t e d i n T a b l e 8-6 i n o r d e r o f i n c r e a s i n g e n e r g y r e q u i r e ments.
I t i s q u i t e a p p a r e n t from T a b l e 8-6 t h a t i n c r e a s i n g
e n e r g y e x p e n d i t u r e s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y produce inc:reasing
water q u a l i t y benefits.
The f o u r s y s t e m s a t t h e t o p o f t h e
l i s t , r e q u i r i n g t h e l e a s t e n e r g y , p r o d u c e e f f 1 u e n t . s comp a r a b l e t o t h e bottom f o u r t h a t r e q u i r e t h e most.
8.5
P r o c e d u r e s f o r Energy E v a l u a t i o n s
The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s s t e p - b y - s t e p p r o c e d u r e s f o r
computing e n e r g y use f o r e a c h of t h e t h r e e l a n d t r e a t m e n t
systems.
Examples are a l s o p r o v i d e d .
The e n e r g y comput a t i o n r e q u i r e s s i t e s e l e c t i o n and a d e c i s i o n c o n c e r n i n g
l o c a t i o n o f p r e a p p l i c a t i o n and s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s b e c a u s e
The d i s t r i e l e v a t i o n d i f f e r e n c e s f o r pumping a r e c r i t i c a l .
b u t i o n method m u s t a l s o b e d e t e r m i n e d .
TABLE 8-6
TOTAL ANNUAL ENERGY FOR TYPICAL 3.78 5 m3/d
(1 Mgal/d) SYSTEM (ELECTRICAL PLUS FUEL,
EXPRESSED AS 1 , 0 0 0 kWh/yr) [ 5 ]
E f f l u e n t q u a l i t y , mg/L
Treatment system
BOD
Rapid i n f i l t r a t i o n ( f a c u l t a t i v e pond)
Slow r a t e , r i d g e
furrow ( f a c u l t a t i v e pond)
Overland flow ( f a c u l t a t i v e pond)
5
1
SS
1
--
10
intermittent f i l t e r
15
15
microscreens
30
30
intermittent f i l t e r
15
15
20
20
+ sludge drying
Extended a e r a t i o n + i n t e r m i t t e n t f i l t e r
Trickling f i l t e r + anaerobic d i g e s t i o n
RBC
anaerobic d i g e s t i o n
Trickling f i l t e r
gravity f i l t r a t i o n
Trickling f i l t e r
N removal
Activated sludge
Activated sludge
+
+
+
Activated sludge
sludge i n c i n e r a t i o n
Activated sludge
AWT
Activated sludge
filter
nitrification
filter
filter
P h y s i c a l chemical advanced secondary

NOTE:
15
15
30
30
30
30
20
10
20
10
20
20
15
10
15
10
20
20
<10
10
10
RBC = r o t a t i n g b i o l o g i c a l c o n t a c t o r .
8.5.1
S t e p 1:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
F a c u l t a t i v e pond
Extended a e r a t i o n
1 0 . 1
F a c u l t a t i v e pond
Aerated pond
Slow R a t e
T r a n s m i s s i o n Pumping
Elevation a t site
m
Elevation a t source
m
Elevation difference
m
Averase annual f l o w r a t e
L/min
urnp pin^ s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y
8
Pipeline diameter
cm
pipeline length
m
Pipeline headloss
m
~ o t a dynamic
l
head
m
Energy r e q u i r e m e n t
kWh/yr
--
15
-------
--
-- 20
-- --- --- --- --
<1
1
--
---<1
--
Energy,
1,000
kWh/yr
S t e p 2:
D i s t r i b u t i o n Energy
6.
7.
Flowrate
~/min
Pressure h e a d r e k u i r e d
m
Svstem e f f i c i e n c v
%
Operating t i m e
h/yr
P i ~ e l i n eh e a d l o s s
m
~ o k a ldynamic head
m
kWh/yr
S t e p 3:
T a i l w a t e r Pumping ( i f r e q u i r e d )
1.
-2.
3.
4.
5.
- -
1.
2.
3
-.
4.
5.
6.
S t e p 4:
Flowrate
L/min
Lift r e q u m
m
Headloss
m
Assumed pumping s y s t e m e f f i , c i e n c y
Operating t i m e
h/yr
kWh/yr
'
(Eq. 8-2)
C r o p P r o d u c t i o n ( T a b l e 8-1)
T i l l a g e and s e e d i n g
MJ/ha-yr
Cultivation
MJ-r
I n s e c t i c i d e s and h e r b i c i d e s
MJ/ha-yr
Harvest
MJ/ha0 y r
MJ/haeyr
Drying
Transportation
MJ/ha-yr
Crop area
ha
Total f u e l requirement
MJ/Y~
S t e p 5:
Combine S t e p s 1 t h r o u g h 4 , e x p r e s s e d a s kWh/yr
8.5.2
S t e p 1:
Rapid I n f i 1 t r a t : i o n
Elevation a t site
m
Elevation a t source
m
m
Average f l o w
L/Assumed pumping s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y
Pipeline diameter
cm
Pipeline length
m
Pipeline headloss
m
T o t a l dynamic h e a d
m
kWh/yr
Step 2:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Step 3 :
8.5.3
Step 1:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Step 2:
rain age
Water Control (if necessary)
Elevation of water source

m
Elevation of discharge
m
Difference in elevations
m
Pumping system efficiency
%
Operatinu hours
h/vr
pumped,f iow -~/min'*
Energy requirement
kWh/yr
Combine Steps 1 and 2
Overland Flow
Elevation at site
m
Elevation at source
m
m
Averase annual flow
L/m in
~ssumedpumping system ef fi&iency
Pi~elinediameter
cm
Pipeline length
m
m
Pipeline headloss
Total dynamic head
m
kWh/yr
Energy requirement
Distribution System
Type of system
Flowrate
L/min
Pressure head required
m
Assumed pumping efficiency
Operating time
h/yr
Total dynamic head
m
Energy requirement
kWh/yr
Step 3:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Step 4:
8.5.4
Grass Removal (Table 8 - 1 )

Maintenance reauirements, fuel use
MJ/harvest
Grass removal frequency
harvest/yr
Fuel for harvest
M-~~KT
Total fuel required
MJ/year
Combine Steps 1 through 3, express as k~h/yr
Examples
using the previously presented step-by-step procedures, the

following example problems were developed,
8.5.4.1
Slow R a t e
The slow r a t e s y s t e m i s d e s i g n e d t o t r e a t pond e f f l u e n t a s

follows:
Average f l o w
Season
Applied flow
C r o p grown
Distance t o site
T a i l w a t e r pumping
Area
S t e p 1:
1 5 , 0 0 0 L/min
5 months
36,000 L/min
Corn
100 m
Not r e q u i r e d
650 h a
E l e v a t i o n a t s i t e 50 m
E l e v a t i o n a t s o u r c e 48 m
Elevation difference 2 m
A v e r a g e a n n u a l f l o w r a t e 1 5 , 0 0 0 L/min
Pumping s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y 40%
P i p e l i n e d i a m e t e r 76 c m
P i p e l i n e l e n g t h 100 m
P i p e l i n e h e a d l o s s 3.4 m
T o t a l dynamic head 5.4 m
E n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t 2 8 9 , 7 1 1 kWh/yr
S t e p 2:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S t e p 3:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
D i s t r i b u t i o n Energy
F l o w r a t e 36,000 L/min
P r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d 10 m
System e f f i c i e n c y 75%
Operating t i m e 3r600 h/yr
Pipeline headloss 2 m
T o t a l dynamic head 1 2 m
E n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t 338 ,658 kWh/yr
T a i l w a t e r Pumping ( i f r e q u i r e d ) ( n o t r e q u i r e d w i t h
sprinklers)
Flowrate
L/min
L i f t requm
Assumed p u m p i n m i c i e n c y
Operating t i m e
h/yr
Energy requirement
kWh/yr
Step 4:
Crop Production (full)

Tillage and seeding 1.41 MJ/ha-yr
Cultivation 0.37 MJ/ha*yr
Insecticides and herbicides 0.37 MJ/ha*yr
Harvest 0.37 MJ/ha*yr
Drying 4.69 MJ/haayr
Transportation 1.04 MJ/ha0yr
Crop area 650 ha
Total fuel requirement 5,120 MJ/yr = 1,422 kWh/yr
Step 5:
Total energy use = 629,791 kWh/yr

8.5.4.2
Rapid Infiltration
The rapid infiltration system is designed to treat primary

effluent as follows:
Flowrate
Distance to site
f rain age
Step 1:
15,000 L/min
5,000 m
pumped we1 1s
Elevation at site 1,115 m
Elevation at source 1,105 m
Average flow 15,000 L/min
Assumed pumping system efficiency 65%
Pipeline diameter 50 cm
Pipeline length 5,000 m
Pipeline headloss 20 m
Total dynamic head 30 m, operating 8,760 h/yr
Energy requirement 990,465 kWh/yr
Step 2:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Step 3:
Drainage Water Control (if necessary)

Elevation of water source 1,105 m
Elevation of discharge 1,115 m
Difference in elevations 10 m
Pumping system efficiency 75%
Operating hours 2,920 h/yr
Pumped flow 1-0,000 L/min
Energy requirement 63,585 kWh/yr
Total energy use = 1,054,050 kWh/yr
8.5.4.3
O v e r l a n d Flow
An o v e r l a n d f l o w s y s t e m i s p l a n n e d f o r a s m a l l community.
The system w i l l b e u s e d t o t r e a t s c r e e n e d raw wast:ewater.
Design p a r a m e t e r s are as follows:
Design flow
D i s t r i b u t i o n method
D i s t a n c e from s o u r c e t o , s i t e
Hydraulic loading
Land area
S t e p 1:
1 3 7 m3/d
Gated p i p e
100 m
4 . 5 m/yr
1 ha
Elevation a t site 125 m
E l e v a t i o n a t s o u r c e of 120 m
A v e r a g e a n n u a l f l o w 95 L/min
Assumed pumping s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y
P i p e l i n e diameter 10 cm
P i p e l i n e l e n g t h 100 m
P i p e l i n e h e a d l o s s 1.22 m
T o t a l dynamic h e a d 6.22 m
E n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t 2 , 1 1 3 kWh/yr
Step 2:
40%
D i s t r i b u t i o n System
Type o f s y s t e m - g a t e d p i p e
F l o w r a t e 9 5 L/min
P r e s s u r e head r e q u i r e d 3 m
Assumed pumping e f f i c i e n c y 40%
Operating t i m e 8,760 h/yr
T o t a l dynamic h e a d 3.3 m
E n e r g y r e q u i r e d 1 , 1 2 1 kWh/yr
S t e p 3:
1.
2.
3.
4.
S t e p 4:
8.6
Grass Removal
M a i n t e n a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , f u e l u s e 0.59 M J / ' h a r v e s t
G r a s s removal frequency 3 h a r v e s t / y r
Fuel f o r harvest ( including t r a n s p o r t a t i o n )
3.04 MJ/ha ,
T o t a l f u e l r e q u i r e d 3.63 MJ/yr3 = 1 . 0 kwh
T o t a l e n e r g y u s e = 3 , 2 3 5 kWh/yr
Equations f o r Energy Requirements
I n a d d i t i o n t o E q u a t i o n 8-1, a l a r g e number o f e q u a t i o n s
have been d e v e l o p e d from t h e c u r v e s i n r e f e r e n c e [ 6 ] and a r e
S e l e c t e d e q u a t i o n s are prepresented i n reference [5].
s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n t o a l l o w t h e e n g i n e e r t o estimate
e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r minimum p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t and
f o r the three land treatment processes.
In a l l equations,
Y i s t h e e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t i n kWh/yr.
8.6.1
Mechanically Cleaned S c r e e n s
l o g Y = 3.0803
0.0467
+ 0.0428
0.183$J(log
(log X)3
(log X)
(8-3
X)
w h e r e Y = e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y r e q u i r e d , kWh/yr
= f l o w , m3/d
(Mgal/d)
Assumptions = normal r u n t i m e s are 1 0 min/h,

b a r spacing 1.9 cm (0.75 i n . ) ,
w o r m g e a r d r i v e i s 50% e f f i c i e n t
Comminutors
l o g Y = 3.6704 + , 0 . 3 4 3 ( 1 0 g X )
+ 0.04.37 ( l o g X )
+ 0.0267 ( l o g X )
G r i t Removal
Y = AX 0 . 2 4
A = 73.3 (530)
X = f l o w , m /d ( M g a l / d )
A s s u m p t i o n s = n o n a e r a t e d , s q u a r e t a n k , 2 h/d
(8-5
operation
A e r a t e d Ponds
Y = AX 1 . 0 0
A = 68.7 ( 2 9 0 , 0 0 0 )
x = f l o w , m /d ( M g a l / d )
A s s u m p t i o n s = low s p e e d m e c h a n i c a l a e r a t o r s , 30 d d e t e n t i o n ,
1.1 k g 02/kWh
O t h e r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s w i l l i n v o l v e many
p o t e n t i a l s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and d i s p o s a l o p t i o n s and are
included i n r e f e r e n c e [5]
8.6.2
Lqnd T r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s
F o r s p r i n k l e r a p p l i c a t i o n i n e a c h l a n d t r e a t m e n t pr,&ess a n d
OF and R I d i s t r i b u t i o n , u s e t h e p r e v i o u s c h e c k l i y s t and
E q u a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r r i d g e and f u r r o w ,
and g r a d e d b o r d e r SR a p p l i c a t i o n a l o n g w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n s .
R i d g e a n d Furrow
A p p l i c a t i o n = 250 d / y r , t a i l w a t e r r e t u r n a t
25% a n n u a l l e v e l i n g and r i d g e
and f u r r o w r e p l a c e m e n t
Y = A
~ - e lce c t r i~c a l
A = 3.17 ( 1 3 , 0 0 0 )
X = f l o w , m /d (Mgal/d)
Y = AX~*OO
6uel
Y = MJ/yr ( 1 0 B t u / y r )
A = 1.55 ( 2 8 )
= f l o w , m /d
(8-7~
(8-8
(Mgal/d)
Graded b o r d e r
A p p l i c a t i o n = 250 d / y r ,
t a i l w a t e r r e t u r n a t 25%
y = Axl.oo
A = 4.2 (16j000)
X = f l o w , , m /d (Mgal/d)
(8-9)
8.7
References
1.
Culp/Wesner/Culp.
Energy C o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n Wastewater
Treatment.
CWC, Cameron P a r k , C a l i f o r n i a .
September,
1980.
2.
Patton,
J.L. r
and
Distribution
Energy
No. 6.
J u n e 1980.
3.
S t o u t , B.A.
Energy U s e i n A g r i c u l t u r e .
A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e and T e c h n o l o g y .
R e p o r t Number 68.
A u g u s t 1977.
4.
E i s e n h a u e r , D.E.
a n d P.E.
Fischbach.
Automat.ion o f
Proceedings of t h e I r r i g a t i o n
S u r f ace I r r i g a t i o n .
A s s o c i a t i o n Annual C o n f e r e n c e .
F e b r u a r y 1978.
5.
Middlebrooks,
E. J.
and C. J. M i d d l e b r o o k s .
Energy
Requirements
or
Small
Flow
Wastewater
Treatment
Systems.
R e p r i n t o f CRREL SR 79-7.
MCD-60, OWPO,
USEPA.
A p r i l 1979.
Horsley.
AWWA
Appetite.
M.B.
Curbing
Journal,
the
72,
Counc::il f o r
Ames,
Iowa.
6.
Wesner, G.M.,
et al.
Energy Considerations
in
Municipal Wastewater Treatment, MCD-32.
USEPA, Off ice
of Water Program Operations. March 1977.
8
Chapter 9
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
9.1
Introduction
Wastewater c o n s t i t u e n t s t h a t are o f m a j o r c o n c e r n f o r . h e a l t h
o r environmental reasons are:
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
iss solved s o l i d s
Trace elements
Microorganisms
Trace organics
p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f t h e s e c o n s t i t u e n t s v a r y among t h e t h r e e
major t y p e s of l a n d t r e a t m e n t , a s shown i n T a b l e 9-1.
The
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f wastewater c o n s t i t u e n t s t o h e a l t h e f f e c t s i s
In general,
c o n s t i t u e n t r e m o v a l s a r e g r e a t e s t f o r SR
systems.
H e a l t h and e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f R I s y s t e m s
d e p e n d o n s i t e s e l e c t i o n and d e s i g n f a c t o r s s u c h a s
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e and l e n g t h o f a p p l i c a t i o n and r e s t i n g
cycles.
Overland f l o w h a s t h e f e w e s t p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t s on
g r o u n d water b e c a u s e v e r y l i t t l e water p e n e t r a t e s below t h e
s o i l surface.
However, r e n o v a t e d water f r o m OF s y s t e m s i s
n o r m a l l y d i s c h a r g e d t o l o c a l s u r f a c e waters a s a p o i n t
s o u r c e , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , c a n a f f e c t s u r f a c e water q u a l i t y .
R e c e n t l y , t h e EPA h a s f u n d e d e x t e n s i v e s t u d i e s a t s e v e r a l
o p e r a t i n g l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s t o e v a l u a t e p o t e n t i a l longt e r m h e a l t h and e n v i r o n m e n t a l e f f e c t s .
The t e n s t u d y s i t e s
a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 9-3.
R e s u l t s f r o m t h e s e and o t h e r
s t u d i e s are i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
TABLE 9-1
LAND TREATMENT METHODS AND CONCERNS [l]
Potential Concerns
SR
RI
OF
Nitrogen
Health: drinking water aquifers
Environment: eutrophication
crops
Phosphorus
Environment:
eutrophication
Dissolved solids
Environment:
soils
crops
ground water
Trace elements
crops
Environment: ' crops
animals
Microorganisms
crops
aerosols
Environment:
animals
Trace organics
crops
Note:
An X in the matrix indicates the possibility for

concern. The magnitude of the impact is not considered.
RELATIONSHIP
TABLE 9-2
OF POLLUTANTS TO HEALTH E F F E C T S ~
Pollutant (agent)
Principal health effect
Nitrate nitrogen
Sodium
Trace elements
Microorganisms
~ethemoglobinemia
Cardiovascular
Toxicity
Infection, disease
Bacteria
Virus
Protozoa
Helminths
Trace organics
Toxicity, carcinogenesis
a.
Adapted from reference [23.
TABLE 9-3
EPA LONG-TERM EFFECTS STUDIES
Location
Slow rate
systems
Camarillo,
California [31
Date
operation
started
Flow
during
Study,
m3/8
Level of
preapplication
treatment
1966
0.130
Dickinson,
North Dakota [41
1959
0.044
Mesa,
Arizona [5]
1950
0.208
Roswell,
New Mexico 161
1944
0.175
San Angelo,
Texas 171
Tooele,
Utah [81
1959
0.241
1967
0.061
Secondary
(trickling
filters) with
disinfection
Rapid
iniltration
systems
Hollister,
California [91
Lake George,
New York I101
1945
0.044
Primary
1939
0.058
Milton,
Wisconsin [Ill
1957
0.013
Vineland,
New Jersey
1926
0.215
Secondary
(trickling
filters)
Secondary
(activated
sludge)
Primary
9.2
Crops
Secondary
(activated
sludge) with
disinfection
Secondary
(aerated
ponds) with
disinfection
Secondary
(trickling
filters)
Secondary
(trickling
filters followed
by oxidation
ditch) with
disinfection
Primary
Tomatoes,
broccoli
1.6
Forage
grasses
1.4
Grain, .corn,
barley
Corn, alfalfa,
sorghum
Forage grasses,
pasture
Forage grasses,
alfalfa. Test
plots of beans,
carrots, lettuce,
peas, radishes,
sweet corn, wheat
2.9
0.6
--
--.-
Note:
Hydraulic
loading
rate, m/yr
.---- . --- -. - --
19
.- -- -
-.
..--.- -.-
Nitrogen
Both n i t r a t e s and ammonia a r e o f c o n c e r n i n l a n d t r e a t m e n t

systems.
O t h e r n i t r o g e n compounds e i t h e r a r e h a r m l e s s o r
a r e degraded during land treatment.
S t o r a g e ponds c a n be used i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h l a n d t r e a t m e n t
t o a c h i e v e h i g h n i t r o g e n removals.
A l t h o u g h s u c h ponds work
w e l l f o r S R a n d OF s y s t e m s , t h e r e s u l t i n g a l g a l g r o w t h may
cause s o i l clogging a t R I systems.
The u s e o f s t o r a g e ponds
f o r n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l is d e s c r i b e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n
S e c t i o n 4.4.1.
9.2.1
Crops
I n t h e g e n e r a l c a s e , n i t r o g e n is b e n e f i c i a l f o r crops,
i n c r e a s i n g y i e l d s and q u a l i t y .
However, u p t a k e of e x c e s s
n i t r o g e n i n some c r o p s c a n i n c r e a s e s u c c u l e n c e beyond
d e s i r a b l e l e v e l s c a u s i n g l o d g i n g i n g r a i n c r o p s and r e d u c e d
Higl? l e v e l s
s u g a r c o n t e n t i n b e e t s and c a n e , f o r example.
o f n i t r o g e n o r a p p l i c a t i o n beyond s e a s o n a l n e e d s ma:y i n d u c e
more
vegetative
than
fruit
growth,
and
also
delay
ripening.
High. n i t r a t e c o n t e n t i n f o r a g e s c a n be a c o n c e r n
i f t h e s e are t h e p r i n c i p a l r a t i o n f o r l i v e s t o c k .
C a t t l e can
a l s o s u f f e r from g r a s s t e t a n y , which i s r e l a t e d t o a n
i m b a l a n c e o f n i t r o g e n , p o t a s s i u m , and magnesium i n p a s t u r e
grasses.
These p o t e n t i a l n i t r o g e n r e l a t e d c r o p e f f e c t s a r e
n o t expected with t y p i c a l municipal wastewaters applied t o
p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d and w e l l managed l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s .
9.2.2
Ground Water
A s i n d i c a t e d i n p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , EPA g u i d a n c e r e q u i r e s a
(MCL) of
1 0 mg/L
nitrate as
maximum c o n t a m i n a n t l e v e l
n i t r o g e n a t t h e l a n d t r e a t m e n t boundary.
This is t o avoid
t h e p o t e n t i a l o f methemoglobinemia i n v e r y young i n f a n t s
A s a r e s u l t , n i t r o g e n is o f t e n t h e
using t h e water supply.
l i m i t i n g parameter f o r land treatment design.
Methods t o
i n the design
s a t i s f y t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t are d e s c r i b e d
c h a p t e r s ( S e c t i o n s 4.5.2 and 5 . 4 . 3 . 1 ) .
9.2.3
S u r f a c e Water
Un-ionized
ammonia i s t o x i c t o s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f young
freshwater fish.
The oxygen c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f c e r t a i n
f i s h c a n be i m p a i r e d a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a s low a s 01.3 mg/L
un-ionized
ammonia ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.5 mg/L t o t a l ammonia
n i t r o g e n a t normal pH v a l u e s ) [ 1 3 ] .
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , many
l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s t h a t d i s c h a r g e t o s u r f a c e wat-ers a r e
u s i n g normal a p p l i c a t i o n
designed to provide n i t r i f i c a t i o n .
rates,
OF
and
SR
systems produce
a
well
nitrified
effluent.
Renovated w a t e r from R I s y s t e m s c o n t a i n s v e r y
l i t t l e ammonia n i t r o g e n i f r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t a p p l - i c a t i o n
p e r i o d s are a l t e r n a t e d w i t h somewhat l o n g e r d r y i n g p e r i o d s
( T a b l e 5-13).
Land t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s t h a t d i s c h a r g e t o s u r f a c e w a t e r s i n
which n i t r o g e n i s t h e l i m i t i n g n u t r i e n t a r e d e s i g n e d t o
a c h i e v e n i t r o g e n removal t o a v o i d a l g a l blooms and i n c r e a s e d
r a t e s of e u t r o p h i c a t i o n .
Methods f o r a c h i e v i n g n ' i t r o g e n
r e m o v a l a r e d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n s 4 . 5 . 2 , 5.4.3.11 and 6.5,2.
9.3
Phosphorus
P h o s p h o r u s i s n o t known t o c a u s e a d v e r s e h e a l t h e f f e c t s .
Like n i t r o g e n , it is an important n u t r i e n t f o r crops.
B e c a u s e t h e r e a r e n o d r i n k i n g o r i r r i g a t i o n water s t a n d a r d s ,
t h e p r i n c i p a l concern is t h a t phosphorus can be t h e l i m i t i n g
n u t r i e n t t h a t c o n t r o l s e u t r o p h i c a t i o n o f s u r f a c e waters.
9.3.1
Soils
The p r i n c i p a l p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l mechanisms a t SR and R I

s y s t e m s a r e s o i l a d s o r p t i o n and p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
Removals
a c h i e v e d a t o p e r a t i n g SR and R I s y s t e m s a r e shown i n T a b l e s
4-3 and 5-3.
9.3.2
Crops
Normal c r o p u p t a k e o f p h o s p h o r u s o c c u r s i n b o t h SR and OF
systems w i t h l o a d i n g s f a r i n e x c e s s of c r o p needs.
No
a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o n c r o p s from p h o s p h o r u s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d .
9.3.3
Ground Water
P h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s f o u n d i n p e r c o l a t e s from S R and R I
s y s t e m s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s 4-3 a n d 5-3.
A s shown i n
t h e s e two t a b l e s , p e r c o l a t e p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e
reduced
substantially
within
relatively
short
travel
distances.
9.3.4
S u r f a c e Water
B e c a u s e p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n SR and R I p e r c o l a t e s
adequate
g e n e r a l l y a r e q u i t e low ( l e s s t h a n 1 mg/L),
phosphorus removal u s u a l l y o c c u r s b e f o r e any p e r c o l a t e
i n t e r c e p t s s u r f a c e water.
A t OF s y s t e m s , w h e r e p h o s p h o r u s
r e m o v a l a v e r a g e s 50 t o 6 0 % , a d d i t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t may be
n e c e s s a r y i f p h o s p h o r u s i s l i m i t e d by t h e d i s c h a r g e p e r m i t .
9.4
iss solved S o l i d s
S a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n d o m e s t i c wastewater v a r y w i d e l y ,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s a l i n i t y o f t h e l o c a l water s o u r c e and t h e
c h e m i c a l s added d u r i n g p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t ( i f a n y ) .
Depending o n t h e s a l i n i t y o f t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r , s o i l
properties,
crops,
and water f o r l i v e s t o c k and human
c o n s u m p t i o n may be a f f e c t e d .
9.4.1
Soils
High c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f sodium i n a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r c a n
c a u s e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f sodium i o n s f o r o t h e r c a t i o n s i n t h e
soil.
his
s u b s t i t u t i o n tends t o disperse clay p a r t i c l e s
w i t h i n t h e s o i l , l e a d i n g t o decreased p e r m e a b i l i t y , lowered
shear
strength,
and
increased
compressibility
[14].
Wastewater w i t h a n SAR of l e s s t h a n 4 h a s c a u s e d no c h a n g e s
No a d v e r s e s o i l i m p a c t s a r e
i n these properties [8].
e x p e c t e d u n l e s s t h e SAR e x c e e d s 9.
9.4.2
Crops
S a l i n i t y , a s measured by t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e
water, can cause y i e l d reductions i n crops.
Crops v a r y
widely i n tolerance to s a l i n i t y .
The s a l i n i t y .to:Lerances
and l e a c h i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s of s e v e r a l f i e l d and f o r a g e c r o p s
a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 9-4.
S a l i n i t y e f f e c t s a r e generally only
o f c o n c e r n i n a r i d r e g i o n s where a c c u m u l a t e d s a l t s a r e n o t
f l u s h e d from t h e s o i l p r o f i l e by n a t u r a l p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
No
s a l i n i t y p r o b l e m s h a v e been r e p o r t e d a t t h e s y s t e m s l i s t e d
i n T a b l e 9-3.
Boron t o x i c i t y c a n o c c u r b e c a u s e t h i s e l e m e n t t e n d s t o be
u n a f f e c t e d by most p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t prcscesses.
F r u i t and c i t r u s trees a r e a f f e c t e d a t 0.5 t o 1 . 0 mg/L;
f i e l d c r o p s c a n be a f f e c t e d a t 1 . 0 t o 2.0 mg/L; and most
g r a s s e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y t o l e r a n t a t 2.0 t o 10.0 mg/L.
Sodium and c h l o r i d e i o n s a r e u s u a l l y p r e s e n t t o g e k h e r i n
wastewaters.
Most t r e e c r o p s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o sodium and
c h l o r i d e t a k e n up by t h e r o o t s .
Leaves o f many c r o p s may
show
leaf-burn
due
t o excessive
sodium o r
chloride
a d s o r p t i o n o r b i c a r b o n a t e d e p o s i t i o n under low-humidity,
high-evaporation
conditions.
Irrigating
a t n i g h t or
i n c r e a s i n g t h e r o t a t i o n s p e e d of s p r i n k l e r h e a d s c a n h e l p
avoid t h e s e problems.
9.4.3
Ground Water
The s a l i n i t y o f p e r c o l a t e from some s y s t e m s may l i r n i t t h e

p o t e n t i a l f o r r e u s e of renovated water.
National drinking
w a t e r s t a n d a r d s recommend
t h a t finished potable water
c o n t a i n s l e s s t h a n 500 mg/L t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s (TDS),
b u t more s a l i n e waters have been used w i t h o u t ill e f f e c t s .
E x c e s s i v e TDS c a n c a u s e p o o r t a s t e i n d r i n k i n g w a t e r , may
have
l a x a t i v e e f f e c t s on consumers,
and may c o r r o d e
equipment
in
water
distribution
systems.
Salinity
r e s t r i c t i o n s o n w a t e r f o r l i v e s t o c k u s e s are n o t a s
s t r i n g e n t as f o r d r i n k i n g w a t e r .
I n g e n e r a l , a TDS o f
1 0 , 0 0 0 mg/L i s t h e u p p e r l i m i t f o r h e a l t h y l a r g e r a n i m a l s
s u c h as cows and s h e e p ; a l i m i t o f 5,000 mg/L TDS s h o u l d b e
u s e d f o r smaller a n i m a l s ( i n c l u d i n g p o u l t r y ) , l a c t a t i n g
a n i m a l s , and young a n i m a l s [13].
TABLE 9-4
TOLERANCE OF S E L E C T E D C R O P S TO
S A L I N I T Y I N I R R I G A T I O N WATER [15]
Y i e l d decrement t o be e x p e c t e d due t o
s a l i n i t y of i r r i g a t i o n water
0%
EC
~nho,76m
Field crops
Barley
Sugarbeets
Cotton
Safflower
Wheat
Sorghum
Soybean
Rice (paddy)
Corn
Sesbania
Broadbean
Flax
Beans ( f i e l d )
8
6.7a
6.7
5.3
4.7a
4
50%
EC
mmhoy6m
5.3
4.5
4.5
3.5
3.1
2.7
LR I
%
12
11
11
12.5
8
7.4
ECe I
mmho/cm
ECWr
mmho/cm
18
16
16
14
14
12
LR 1
8
12
10.7
10.7
27
26
26
28.5
23
22
9.3
8
Forage c r o p s
Bermudagrass
T a l l wheatgrass
Crested wheatgrass
T a l l fescue
Barley (hay)
Perennial rye
Harding g r a s s
Birdsfoot t r e f o i l
Beardless wild rye
Alfalfa
Orchardgrass
Meadow f o x t a i l
Clover
Notes :
ECe = e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f s a t u r a t i o n e x t r a c t .
ECw = e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r .
LR = l e a c h i n g r e q u i r e m e n t : t h a t f r a c t i o n o f t h e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r t h a t must
b e l e a c h e d through t h e a c t i v e r o o t zone t o c o n t r o l s o i l s a l i n i t y a t t h e
tolerance level.
T h i s i s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r t a k e n up by
the plants.
, ( F o r a n approximate c o n v e r s i o n t o TDS,
x 100/ECd
mg/L, o r p p m l L ~ u ; t t 3 y nunho/cn
640.)
&
ECdw = maximum c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s a l t s i n d r a i n a g e w a t e r t h a t c a n b e t o l e r a t e d
by crop. A t 100% e f f i c i e n c y , a p p l i e d w a t e r (needed t o s a t i s f y ET
LR)
i s e q u a l t o ET/(l'
LR).
Conversion from ECw t o ECe assumes t h a t i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r s a l t s i n c r e a s e t h r e e

T h i s o c c u r s i n t h e more
f o l d i n s a l i n i t y i n becoming s o i l w a t e r s a l t g (ECswl.
(EC, x 3 = ECsw; ECsw
2 = ECe)
a c t i v e p a r t of t h e r o o t zone h e t o ET.
a.
T o l e r a n c e d u r i n g g e r m i n a t i o n ( b e e t s ) o r e a r l y s e e d l i n g s t a g e (wheat, b a r l e y )
i s l i m i t e d t o ECe = a b o u t 4 mmho/cm i n t h e upper s o i l a r e a where g e r m i n a t i o n
and e a r l y growth taKe p l a c e .
Maximum
ECdw I
mmho/cm
24
42
42
28
40
36
If t h e s a l i n i t y o f a community's w a s t e w a t e r i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
h i g h e r t h a n t h e s a l i n i t y of t h e ground w a t e r , l a n d t r e a t m e n t
may be l i m i t e d t o p r o c e s s e s t h a t d i s c h a r g e t o s u r f a c e w a t e r s
o r r e n o v a t e d w a t e r r e c o v e r y may be r e q u i r e d t o p r o t e c t
ground w a t e r q u a l i t y . T h i s c o n d i t i o n o c c u r s most f r e q u e n t l y
i n t h e a r i d w e s t e r n s t a t e s where w a t e r r e s o u r c e s a r e l i m i t e d
and p r o t e c t i o n o f ground w a t e r from i n c r e a s i n g s a l i n i t y i s a
major concern.
9.5
Trace Elements
Trace elements (heavy m e t a l s ) i n municipal wastewaters a r e

c o n t r i b u t e d by b o t h d o m e s t i c and i n d u s t r i a l d i s c h a r g e r s ;
c o n t r i b u t i o n s vary widely with industry.
Frequently,, t r a c e
element c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n municipal wastewaters a r e lower
Therefore,
than t h e l i m i t s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r drinking water.
i n most c o m m u n i t i e s , l a n d t r e a t m e n t i s u n l i k e l y t o c a u s e
d i r e c t adverse h e a l t h o r environmental e f f e c t s [16].
The f a t e o f t r a c e e l e m e n t s d u r i n g
c o n c e r n p r i m a r i l y f o r two r e a s o n s :
land
Trace
elements,
particularly
accumulate i n t h e food c h a i n .
Trace elements
ground water.
9.5.1
can
move
through
treatment
cadmium,
soil
and
is
can
enter
Soils
Movement o f t r a c e e l e m e n t s i n t o and t h r o u g h t h e s o i l may

occur during wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n o r a f t e r land treatment
o p e r a t i o n s have ceased.
For t h i s r e a s o n , i t is i m p o r t a n t t o
u n d e r s t a n d removal mechanisms and t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t
i n f l u e n c e r e t e n t i o n i n and t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h t h e s o i l -(see
S e c t i o n s 4.2.4 and 5 . 2 . 4 ) .
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f trace e l e m e n t s r e t a i n e d i n t h e s o i l
p r o f i l e a t S R and R I s i t e s a r e h i g h e s t n e a r t h e s o i l s u r f a c e
and d e c r e a s e w i t h d e p t h [ 1 7 ] .
Removal e f f i c i e n c i e s a t
s e l e c t e d s y s t e m s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s 4-4 and 5-4.
Soils
c a n r e t a i n a f i n i t e amount o f t r a c e e l e m e n t s ; t h e c a p a c i t y
o r d e s i g n l i f e f o r m e t a l s removal i s a t l e a s t t h e same o r d e r
For e x a m p l e , i n t y p i c a l New
o f magnitude a s for phosphorus.
England s o i l s , t h e d e s i g n l i f e f o r c o p p e r and cadmium b a s e d
o n l y o n i o n exchange c a p a c i t y c o u l d be s e v e r a l hundred y e a r s
u s i n g a n SR s y s t e m and s e a s o n a l w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n [ I ] .
OF s y s t e m s , t r a c e e l e m e n t s a r e a d s o r b e d a t t h e s o i l
s u r f a c e i n t h e o r g a n i c . l a y e r o f decomposing o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l
and p l a n t r o o t s .
Because a d s o r p t i o n o c c u r s a s t h e a p p l i e d
At
w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s a c r o s s t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , metals t e n d t o
accumulate n e a r t h e p o i n t of wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n .
In
p i l o t s t u d i e s n e a r U t i c a , M i s s i s s i p p i , approximately 50% of
t h e m o n i t o r e d t r a c e e l e m e n t s (cadmium, c o p p e r , n i c k e l , and
z i n c ) w a s removed o n t h e u p p e r t h i r d o f t h e t r e a t m e n t s l o p e
[18].
D a t a from t h e same p i l o t s t u d i e s , p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e
9-5, i n d i c a t e t h a t m o s t o f t h e t r a c e e l e m e n t s e n t e r i n g t h i s
system a r e r e t a i n e d n e a r t h e s o i l s u r f a c e .
The s y s t e m h a s
n o t a p p r o a c h e d i t s f u l l c a p a c i t y f o r trace e l e m e n t r e m o v a l .
TABLE 9-5
MASS BALANCE OF TRACE ELEMENTS I N O F
SYSTEM AT U T I C A , MISSISSIPPI [ 1 8 ]
Percent
of applied
Metal
Component
Grams
Cadmium
Applied
Grass
Runoff
Soil
46.21
0.54
3.50
42.14
1.2
7.6
91.2
Applied
Grass
Runoff
Soil
90.39
3.59
13.13
73.67
4.0
14.5
81.5
Applied
Grass
Runoff
Soil
110 .ll
1.50
5.20
103.39
1.4
4.7
93.9
Applied
Grass
Runoff
Soil
264.05
20.03
32.06
212.03
7.6
12.1
80.3
CoPPe r
Nickel
Zinc
The r e s u l t s o f o n e s t u d y o n a n abandoned R I b a s i n a r e
These d a t a , c o l l e c t e d approximately
r e p o r t e d i n T a b l e 5-5.
1 y e a r a f t e r t h e l a s t wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n , i n d i c a t e t h a t
r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e l e a c h i n g o c c u r r e d both d u r i n g t h e 33 y e a r s
o f o p e r a t i o n and i n t h e y e a r f o l l o w i n g o p e r a t i o n .
Leaching,
s h o u l d n o t b e a p r o b l e m p r o v i d e d a s o i l pH o f a t l e a s t 6 . 5
is maintained.
At
t h i s pH, m o s t t r a c e e l e m e n t s a r e
p r e c i p i t a t e d a s i n s o l u b l e compounds.
Methods f o r a d j u s t i n g
s o i l pH a r e d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4.9.1.3.
9.5.2
Crops
B i o c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t r a c e e l e m e n t s i n t h e food c h a i n is most
l i k e l y t o o c c u r d u r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n a l y e a r s of a l a n d
t r e a t m e n t system.
P l a n t u p t a k e o f trace e l e m e n t s o c c u r s
when t h e e l e m e n t s a r e p r e s e n t i n s o l u b l e o r e x c h a n g e a b l e
form i n t h e r o o t zone.
Generally, t h i s occurs i n increasing
amounts a s more a d s o r p t i o n s i t e s a r e o c c u p i e d and a s t h e
s o i l pH d e c r e a s e s .
To m i n i m i z e t h e p l a n t u p t a k e of: t r a c e
e l e m e n t s , t h e s o i l pH s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d a t (5.5. o r
above.
The t r a c e e l e m e n t s t h a t a r e of g r e a t e s t c o n c e r n a r e
cadmium, c o p p e r , molybdenum, n i c k e l , and z i n c .
With r e g a r d t o h e a l t h e f f e c t s , n i c k e l and z i n c a r e of l e a s t
concern because they cause v i s i b l e adverse e f f e c t s i n p l a n t s
b e f o r e p l a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e h i g h enough t o be of c o n c e r n
t o a n i m a l s o r man.
Cadmium, c o p p e r , and molybdenum a l l may
b e h a r m f u l t o a n i m a l s a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h a t a r e t o o low t o
visibly a f f e c t plants.
Copper i s n o t a h e a l t h h a z a r d t o man
o r m o n o g a s t r i c a n i m a l s , b u t c a n be t o x i c t o r u m i n a n t s (cows
and s h e e p ) .
These a n i m a l s ' t o l e r a n c e f o r copper i n c r e a s e s
a s a v a i l a b l e molybdenum i n c r e a s e s .
Molybdenum i t s e l f may
c a u s e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n a n i m a l s a t L O t o 2 0 ppm i n f o r a g e
t h a t is low i n c o p p e r [ 1 3 ] .
Cadmium i s t o x i c t o b o t h man
and a n i m a l s i n d o s e s a s low a s 1 5 ppm, b u t r u m i n a n t s a b s o r b
v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e cadmium t h e y i n g e s t ,
Once
a b s o r b e d , however, t h i s m e t a l is s t o r e d i n t h e k i d n e y s and
l i v e r [ 1 9 ] , s o t h a t most meat and m i l k p r o d u c t s remain
unaffected
by h i g h cadmium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
ingested
by
l i v e s t o c k 1131.
With r e g a r d t o e f f e c t s on c r o p s , t r a c e e l e m e n t s have n o t
c a u s e d a n y a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o n any of t h e c r o p s grown a t t h e
S R s y s t e m s l i s t e d i n T a b l e 9-3.
S i m i l a r l y , a n a l y s e s of
f o r a g e c r o p s grown a t t h e Melbourne., A u s t r a l i a , s.ystem,
which h a s o p e r a t e d s i n c e 1 8 9 6 , show r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e
i n c r e a s e i n t r a c e element uptake over forage crops i r r i g a t e d
with
potable
water
[20].
Typical
trace
element
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n f o r a g e g r a s s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 9-6
w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n f o r a g e c r o p s grown a t s e l e c t e d SR
sites.
t h e OF s i t e n e a r U t i c a , t r a c e e l e m e n t s have had no
A s with t h e s o i l i n
a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o n t h e g r a s s e s grown.
t h i s s y s t e m , g r a s s u p t a k e of t r a c e e l e m e n t s is g r e a t e s t n e a r
t h e p o i n t o f w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n and d e c r e a s e s w i t h
d i s t a n c e down t h e t r e a t m e n t s l o p e .
Grass uptake accounted
f o r o n l y 1 . 2 , 1 . 4 , 4.0, and 7 . 6 % of t h e a p p l i e d cadmium,
n i c k e l , c o p p e r , and z i n c , r e s p e c t i v e l y [ 1 8 ] .
I f . trace
element uptake is a concern, t h e use of Festuca r u b i a ( r e d
f e s c u e ) a t OF s y s t e m s i s recommended b e c a u s e t r a c e e l e m e n t
u p t a k e by t h i s p l a n t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t h i r d t h e t r a c e
e l e m e n t u p t a k e o f most g r a s s e s [ 1 8 ] .
At
TABLE 9-6
TRACE ELEMEN,T CONTENT OF FORAGE, GRASSES A T
SELECTED SR SYSTEMS [ 4 , 7 , 211
PPm
Melbourne,
Australia
Trace
element
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Zinc
a.
Dickinson,
North Dakota
Typical
range
Wastewater
Control irrigated
site
forage
Control
site
1.0-80
0.2-0.8
0.1-0.5
0.05-0.5
2.0-15
250-600
0.1-10
15-200
0.1-4.0
0.1-3.5
8.0-60
NT"
NT
0.77
0.64-1.28
6.9
6.9-28
~0.64 <0.64-1.28
6.5
11-19
970
361-987
<2.5
~2.5
149
44-54
NT
NT
2.7
2.7-9.1
50
58-150
14.1
<5
2
<1
7.4
NT
<5
53
~0.05
c0.5
22
San Angelo,
Texas
Wastewater Wastewater
irrigated
irrigated
forage
forage
19.6
<5
<5
<1
6.8
NT
<5
78
~0.05
<O. 5
37
NT
0.2-0.5
<O. 5-1.5
NT
3.8-9.1
NT
NT
NT
NT
1.2-4.0
10-61
Not tested.
9.5.3
Ground Water
Trace e l e m e n t s i n g r o u n d w a t e r c a n l i m i t i t s u s e f o r
drinking o r i r r i g a t i o n purposes.
For t h i s reason, t h e
p o t e n t i a l f o r trace e l e m e n t c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f ground w a t e r is
a c o n c e r n a t S R and R I s y s t e m s o v e r l y i n g p o t a b l e a q u i f e r s o r
a q u i f e r s t h a t c a n be u s e d a s i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r s u p p l i e s .
D r i n k i n g and i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r s t a n d a r d s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 9-7.
l e a d , and mercury-The m o s t t o x i c metals t o man--cadmium,

were d e m o n s t r a t a b l y a b s e n t i n t h e p e r c o l a t e a t f i v e o f t h e
t h e s i x t h s i t e gave
s i x SR s i t e s l i s t e d i n T a b l e 9-3;
i n c o n c l u s i v e d a t a b e c a u s e f a l l o u t from n e a r b y s m e l t e r s
contaminated t h e s o i l s .
C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e m e t a l s have
n o t approached t o x i c l e v e l s i n any of t h e s i t e s s t u d i e d
a f t e r up t o 50 y e a r s o f o p e r a t i o n .
Cadmium, l e a d , and m e r c u r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n s h a l l o w g r o u n d
w a t e r w e r e comparable to c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n c o n t r o l w e l l s a t
t w o o f t h e t h r e e RI s i t e s where t r a c e m e t a l s were m o n i t o r e d
[17]
A t Hollister, shallow ground w a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of
cadmium a n d l e a d were o n l y s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n c o n t r o l w e l l
concentrations
and
were
well
within
drinking
water
At
the sites studied,
t r a c e e l e m e n t constandards.
t a m i n a t i o n o f ground w a t e r h a s n o t been a problem.
A s long
a s t h e s o i l pH i s m a i n t a i n e d a t 6 . 5 o r h i g h e r , g r o u n d w a t e r
contamination is l i k e l y t o remain n o n e x i s t e n t .
TABLE 9-7
TRACE ELEMENT DRINKING AND IRRIGATION'
WATER STANDARDS [8, 13, 22-27]
mg/L
I r r i g a t i o n water
Drinking
water
Aluminum ( A l l
Antimony (Sb)
A r s e n i c (As)
Barium (Ba)
B e r y l l i u m (Be)
Boron (B)
0.145~
0.05~
1.0~
---
Cadmium (Cd)
O.Ole
Chromium ( ~ r + ~ )
0.05~
C o b a l t (Co)
C o p p e r (Cu)
I r o n (Fe)
L e a d (Pb)
Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel ( N i l
Selenium (Se)
S i l v e r (Ag)
Thallium (TI)
Vanadium (V)
Z i n c (Zn)
--
1.0~
0.3 f
0.05~
0.05~
0. 0 0 2 ~
---
For f i n e
textured
soilsa
For
any s o i l b
For
livestock
---
0. 2C
-2C
-0.5'
0. 75C
0.05'
1.oc
5C
sc
2oc
loC
1 0 . oc
--
0. lc
0. lc
2C
0.0lc
1.0"
0.5'
0 . 2C
5C
1.o'=
0.5'"
5.0'
0.02~
0 .1'=
-O.0lC
0.02~
4-89
0.02~
..-
1.oc
0. lc
sf
loC
--
5 . 0 ~
0.05"
0. lc
0.05~
2.oc
0. o l e
0.05~
0.004~
----
0.2~
--
-zc
-".
--
0 0 1'"
-.,.
-.,.
0.05':
-.-.-
O.l(:
2 5':
a.
Normal i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e f o r 20 y e a r s .
b.
d.
Normal i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e , n o t i m e l i m i t .
Recommended W a t e r Q u a l i t y S t a n d a r d s , 1972 R e p o r t t o EPA
on Water Q u a l i t y C r i t e r i a .
EPA T o x i c P o l l u t a n t s S t a n d a r d s f o r Human H e a l t h .
e.
EPA P r i m a r y D r i n k i n g W a t e r S t a n d a r d s .
f.
EPA S e c o n d a r y D r i n k i n g W a t e r S t a n d a r d s .
EPA Recommended I r r i g a t i o n W a t e r S t a n d a r d s .
c.
g.
9.6
Microorganisms
Three classes of microorganisms can be pathogenic to man and

animals :
Bacteria
Viruses
Parasitic protozoa and helminths
S e v e r a l a p p r o a c h e s have b e e n used a t l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s
t o m i n i m i z e t h e p u b l i c h e a l t h i m p a c t s of p a t h o g e n s .
Many SR
and R I s y s t e m s u s e p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n p r i o r t o l a n d
t r e a t m e n t , t h e r e b y removing most h e l m i n t h s .
H o l d i n g ponds
a l s o c a n b e . used b e f o r e l a n d t r e a t m e n t t o i n a c t i v a t e most
pathogens.
G e n e r a l l y , a l o n g d e t e n t i o n t i m e ( a b o u t 30 d a y s )
and m o d e r a t e
temperatures a r e required
for effective
p a t h o g e n removal ( S e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 1 ) .
Many SR and R I s y s t e m s
r e l y on t h e f i l t e r i n g c a p a c i t y of t h e s o i l t o remove
b a c t e r i a , h e l m i n t h s , and p r o t o z o a , and o n s o i l a d s o r p t i o n
f o r v i r u s removal.
T h e r e a r e f i v e p o t e n t i a l pathways
from l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s :
for
pathogen
transport
Soils
Crops
Ground w a t e r
Surface waters
Aerosols
9.6.1
Soils
S t r a i n i n g and m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y a r e t h e p r i m a r y
mechanisms f o r b a c t e r i a l removal a s w a s t e w a t e r p a s s e s
through soil.
F i n e r s o i l s , of c o u r s e , t e n d t o have h i g h e r
c a p a c i t y f o r pathogen removal.
~ e p e n d i n go n t h e p a r t i c u l a r
s y s t e m d e s i g n , t h e r e w i l l be e i t h e r a mat o n t o p o f o r a
zone w i t h i n t h e s o i l where i n t e n s e m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y
occurs.
Here, b a c t e r i a , p r o t o z o a , and h e l m i n t h s and t h e i r
e g g s a r e removed by s t r a i n i n g and t h e p r e d a t i o n s o f o t h e r
o r g a n i s m s , which consume t h e d e a d o r g a n i s m s a l o n g w i t h t h e
BOD i n t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r and c o n v e r t them p r i m a r i l y t o
c a r b o n d i o x i d e and ammonia.
No l a s t i n g a d v e r s e e f f e c t s t o
s o i l h a v e been n o t e d t h a t r e s u l t from t h e s e o r g a n i s m s .
B a c t e r i a removal i n t h e f i n e r t e x t u r e d s o i l s commonly
e n c o u n t e r e d a t SR s y s t e m s i s u s u a l l y q u i t e h i g h ( a s shown i n
R e s e a r c h h a s shown t h a t c o m p l e t e b a c t e r i a
Table 4-6).
removal g e n e r a l l y o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e t o p 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) of t h e
s o i l p r o f i l e [28]. Similar research has indicated t h a t dieo f f o c c u r s i n two p h a s e s ;
d u r i n g t h e f i r s t 48 h o u r s
f o l l o w i n g w a s t e w a t e r a p p l i c a t i o n , 90% o f t h e b a c t e r i a d i e d ;
t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e b a c t e r i a d i e d d u r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g
2 weeks [ 2 9 ] .
Removal e f f i c i e n c i e s a t s e l e c t e d R I s y s t e m s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e 5-6.
A s i n d i c a t e d by t h i s t a b l e , e f f e c t i v e b a c t e r i a
r e m o v a l s a r e a c h i e v e d a t R I s i t e s when a d e q u a t e s o i l t r a v e l
d i s t a n c e is provided.
A t OF s i t e s ,
b a c t e r i a a r e removed n e a r t h e s o i l s u r f a c e by
f i l t r a t i o n , b i o l o g i c a l p r e d a t i o n , and u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a ti o n .
F e c a l c o l i f o r m r e m o v a l s i n e x c e s s of 95%; c a n be
o b t a i n e d by maximizing t h e OF r e s i d e n c e t i m e ( i n c r e a s i n g t h e
r e m o v a l o f suspended s o l i d s ) and a p p l y i n g w a s t e w a t e r a t a
slow and r e l a t i v e l y c o n t i n u o u s r a t e 1301.
F o r example,
d a i l y a p p l i c a t i o n of w a s t e w a t e r f o r e x t e n d e d p e r i o d s ( 1 2 t o
1 8 h o u r s ) r e s u l t s i n b e t t e r removal e f f i c i e n c y t h a n s h o r t e r
application periods
( 6 hours)
a l t e r n a t e d w i t h weekend
drying.
A d s o r p t i o n i s t h e p r i m a r y mechanism f o r v i r u s removal a t
land t r e a t m e n t systems.
V i r u s removal a t SR s y s t e m s i s
quite effective,
V i r u s removal a t RI s i t e s d e p e n d s on
i n i t i a l concentration, hydraulic loading r a t e , s o i l type,
and d i s t a n c e t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h t h e s o i l .
Virus trartsmission
t h r o u g h s o i l a t R I s y s t e m s i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a ~ b l e9-8.
Removal a t OF s i t e s i s g e n e r a l l y t h e same o r d e r o f magnitude
a s v i r u s removal d u r i n g conventional secondary t r e a t m e n t .
I t is p o s s i b l e f o r p a r a s i t e eggs, such a s A s ca r i s and
h e l m i n t h s , t o s u r v i v e f o r months t o y e a r s i n s o i l . Although
n o c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e h a s been found t o l i n k t r a n s m i s s i o n
of p a r a s i t i c i n f e c t i o n s t o operating land treatment systems,
v e g e t a b l e s t h a t w i l l be consumed raw s h o u l d n o t be grown a t
land treatment sites f o r a t l e a s t 1 t o 2 years a f t e r land
treatment operations a r e terminated,
9.6.2
Crops
I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e u s e of w a s t e w a t e r f o r i r r i g a t i o n
of c r o p s t h a t a r e e a t e n r,aw is n o t common.
A t present,
c r o p s u s u a l l y grown i n c l u d e f i b e r ,
f e e d , f o d d ' e r , and
processed grains.
N o i n c i d e n t s o f i n f e c t i o n r e s u l t i n g from
c r o p s r e c e i v i n g w a s t e w a t e r have been i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e
United S t a t e s .
Sewage f a r m s i n P a r i s a p p l y raw w a s t e w a t e r
t o f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e c r o p s ( n o t e a t e n raw) which a r e
a p p r o v e d f o r p u b l i c consumption by t h e M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h ,
w i t h no r e p o r t e d h e a l t h problems.
S y s t e m i c u p t a k e o f p a t h o g e n s by c r o p s and s u b s e q u e n t
When
t r a n s m i s s i o n t h r o u g h t h e f o o d c h a i n i s n o t a problem.
e x t r e m e l y h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of v i r u s e s were a p p l i e d t o
damaged r o o t s and l e a v e s , p l a n t s d i d t a k e up o r g a n i s l n s a l o n g
w i t h w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s [ 3 1 ] .
S e v e r a l s t u d i e s performed
u s i n g t y p i c a l w a s t e w a t e r s on undamaged c r o p s show no
p a t h o g e n u p t a k e [ 4 , 61.
TABLE 9-8
VIRUS TRANSMISSION THROUGH SOIL AT
R I SYSTEMS [l]
Location
Sampling
distance,
rn
Virps concentration, PFU/L

At source
Phoenix,
Arizona
(Jan-Dec
1974)
3-9
8
27
24
2
75
--
Gainesville,
Florida
(Apr-Sep
1974)
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.14
Santee,
California
(1966)
Ft. Devens.
Massachusetts
(1974)
Medford,
New York
(Nov 1976Oct 1977)
(Aug 1976-
May 1977)
over
over
over
over
over
over
over
over
study
study
study
study
study
study
study
study
period )
period )
period)
period)
period)
period)
period)
period)
61
Concentrated type 3 polio
17
Indigenous virus, 276 (avg)

f2 bacte iophage seed,
2.2 x 10
Indigenous virus, 1.1-81.0
0.75-8.34
0.75
0.75
Vineland,
New Jersey
At sample point
0.6-16.8
Polio virus seed, 7 x lo4

(6 cm/h infiltration rate)
1.84 x lo5 (100 cm/h
infiltration rate)
13 (avg over study period)
17 samples negative;
6 positive, at 0.47
(avg); range 0.14-0.66
Range 0-25.5
Range 0.03 x lo4 to
97.5 x 10
9 of 10 positive, 1.62 avg
7 of 10 positive
When w a s t e w a t e r i s a p p l i e d by s p r i n l c l e r s , t h e p o t e n t i a l
e x i s t s f o r pathogens to s u r v i v e on t h e s u r f a c e of a p l a n t .
S u n l i g h t is an e f f e c t i v e d i s i n f e c t a n t , k i l l i n g pathogens i n
a few h o u r s t o a few d a y s ; b u t a n y p l a c e t h a t s t a y s warm,
d a r k , and m o i s t c o u l d h a r b o r b a c t e r i a .
w a s t e w a t e r is n o t used t o i r r i g a t e c r o p s t h a t a r e e a t e n raw
u n l e s s a v e r y h i g h d e g r e e of p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t i s
provided.
To p r o t e c t l i v e s t o c k , g r a z i n g s h o u l d n o t b e
a l l o w e d o n p a s t u r e i r r i g a t e d w i t h d i s i n f e c t e d pond o r
secondary e f f l u e n t f o r 3 t o 4 days following wastewater
A t l e a s t 1 week s h o u l d be a l l o w e d between
application.
a p p l i c a t i o n s o f p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t and g r a z i n g .
Longer
r e s t i n g p e r i o d s are recommended f o r c o l d , n o r t h e r n c l i m a t e s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y when f o r a g e c r o p s s u c h a s Reed c a n a r y g r a s s ,
o r c h a r d g r a s s , and b r o m e g r a s s a r e i r r i g a t e d [29 , 3 2 1
The N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l A d v i s o r y Committee o n W a t e r Q u a l i t y
a d v i s e s a s t a n d a r d o f . 1 , 0 0 0 f e c a l c o l i f o r m s / 1 0 0 mL f o r w a t e r
[20].
'Even l o w e r f e c a l c o l i f o r m
used i n a g r i c u l t u r e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c a n be a c h i e v e d , w i t h o u t d i s i n f e c , t i o n , by
s e t t l i n g and
storing
t'he
e f f l u e n t before
application
( S e c t i o n 4.4.1).
9.6.3
Ground Water
Because v i r u s e s c a n s u r v i v e o u t s i d e a n a n i m a l lnost f o r
l o n g e r p e r i o d s o f t i m e t h a n b a c t e r i a and o t h e r p a t h o g e n s ,
and b e c a u s e i n g e s t i o n of o n l y a few v i r u s e s miay c a u s e
d i s e a s e , v i r u s t r a n s m i s s i o n is t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n wheh
e v a l u a t i n g t h e ground w a t e r pathway.
Other pathogens a r e
removed l a r g e l y by f i l t r a t i o n or n a t u r a l d i e - o f f b e f o r e t h e y
h a v e a n o p p o r t u n i . t y t o m i g r a t e i n t o ground w a t e r .
Although
no v i r a l s t a n d a r d s h a v e been e s t a b l i s h e d , SR and R1: s y s t e m s
t h a t d i s c h a r g e t o p o t a b l e a q u i f e r s a r e d e s i g n e d t o meet t h e
The i n t e n t , of t h i s
b a c t e r i a l s t a n d a r d l i s t e d i n T a b l e 2-4.
standard is t o ensure t h a t renovated water is e s s e n t i a l l y
b a c t e r i a - and v i r u s - f r e e .
A s indicated
i n S e c t i o n 9 . 6 . 1 , v i r u s removal a t SE: s y s t e m s
i s q u i t e e f f e c t i v e , m a i n l y due t o t h e a d s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y o f
s o i l s used f o r SR s y s t e m s .
Thus, most r e s e a r c h on v i r u s
t r a n s m i s s i o n h a s been f o c u s e d on R I s y s t e m s and c o a r s e r
textured
soils,
such
as
the
studies
summarized
in
A s i n d i c a t e d i n t h i s t a b l e , v i r u s e s can e n t e r
T a b l e 9-8.
g r o u n d w a t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y when l a r g e v i r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
are a p p l i e d a t h i g h l o a d i n g r a t e s t o v e r y p e r m e a b l e s o i l s .
However, t h e number o f v i r u s e s t h a t a r e t r a n s m i t t e d i s low,
and t h e r i s k t o p o t e n t i a l consumers i s minimal p r o v i d e d
a d e q u a t e d i s t a n c e between t h e t r e a t m e n t s i t e and any ground
water w e l l s is m a i n t a i n e d .
C o l i f o r m l e v e l s found i n ground w a t e r u n d e r l y i n g SR and R I

s y s t e m s a r e shown i n T a b l e s 4-6 and 5-6.
These t a b l e s
i n d i c a t e t h a t o v e r 99% o f t h e a p p l i e d c o l i f o r m s i s removed
within short travel distances.
Provided adequate d i s t a n c e
i s a l l o w e d , i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r any w e l l - o p e r a t e d SR o r R I
system t o m e e t t h e c o l i f o r m standard f o r d r i n k i n g waters.
9.6.4
S u r f a c e Water
Land t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s t h a t d i s c h a r g e t o s u r f a c e w a t e r s used
f o r d r i n k i n g , i r r i g a t i o n , o r r e c r e a t i o n must meet l o c a l
As
m,entioned
d i s c h a r g e s t a n d a r d s f o r microorganisms.
p r e v i o u s l y , SR and R I s y s t e m s s h o u l d have no p r o b l e m s
m e e t i n g d i s c h a r g e s t a n d a r d s . The m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l q u a l i t y o f
r e n o v a t e d w a t e r f r o m OF s y s t e m s g e n e r a l l y i s c o m p a r a b l e t o
e f f l u e n t from c o n v e n t i o n a l s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s
without chlorination.
B a c t e r i a r e m o v a l s o f 90 t o 95% o r
h i g h e r and v i r u s r e m o v a l s o f 70 t o 90% a r e t y p i c a l a t OF
systems ( S e c t i o n 6.2.6).
9.6.5
Aerosols
A e r o s o l s a r e v e r y s m a l l a i r b o r n e d r o p l e t s , less t h a n 20
m i c r o n s i n d i a m e t e r , t h a t may be c a r r i e d beyond t h e r a n g e o f
d i s c e r n i b l e d r o p l e t s from s p r i n k l e r s .
Sprinkler generated
a e r o s o l s a r e s l i g h t l y s m a l l e r than ambient a e r o s o l s ; twot h i r d s t o t h r e e - f o u r t h s of t h e s p r i n k l e r g e n e r a t e d a e r o s o l s
a r e i n the p o t e n t i a l l y r e s p i r a b l e s i z e range of 1 t o 5
microns [33]
Aerosols may c a r r y b a c t e r i a ' and v i r u s e s , b u t
d o n o t n o r m a l l y c o n t a i n p a t h o g e n i c p r o t o z o a o r h e l m i n t h s and
t h e i r eggs.
A e r o s o l s may come from s o u r c e s o t h e r t h a n
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t s i t e s , s u c h a s c o o l i n g towers and
public f a c i l i t i e s .
A s a r e s u l t of t h e s e o t h e r s o u r c e s ,
a m b i e n t b a c t e r i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e a i r of some c i t i e s
a r e comparable t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
found n e a r l a n d
t r e a t m e n t s p r i n k l e r zones.
A s a e r o s o l s a r e g e n e r a t e d , they a r e immediately s u b j e c t e d t o
a n " i m p a c t f a c t o r " t h a t may r e d u c e b a c t e r i a c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
by 90% and v i r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s by 70% w i t h i n s e c o n d s [ 2 ] .
F u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n may be c a u s e d by d e s i c c a t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e ,
deposition,
and s o l a r r a d i a t i o n .
Aerosol d i s p e r s i o n ,
influenced
by. wind
speed,
air turbulence,
and l o c a l
topography, occurs concurrently.
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n of b a c t e r i a and v i r u s e s i n a e r o s o l s is a
f u n c t i o n of t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r
and t h e a e r o s o l i z a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y of t h e s p r a y p r o c e s s .
The
l a t t e r of these f a c t o r s d e p e n d s on n o z z l e s i z e , p r e s s u r e . ,
a n g l e of s p r a y t r a j e c t o r y , : a n g l e of s p r a y e n t r y i n t o t h e
w i n d , and i m p a c t d e v i c e s [ 3 4 ] .
S t u d i e s - have shown t h a t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.32% of t h e l i q u i d l e a v i n g t h e n o z z l e i s
aerosolized [35].
B a c t e r i a c a n n o t be d e t e c t e d i n a e r o s o l s a t d i s t a n c e s o f e v e n
1 0 m ( 3 3 f t ) from s p r i n k l e r s u n l e s s t h e b a c t e r i a conc e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e applied wastewater a r e a t l e a s t l o 3 t o
1 0 4 / m ~ , [36].
When u n d i s i n f e c t e d w a s t e w a t e r i s s p r i n k l e r
a p p l i e d , a e r o s o l b a c t e r i a have been found t o t r a v e l a
maximum d i s t a n c e o f 400 m ( 1 , 3 1 2 f t ) from a s p r i n k l e r l i n e
[37]
Under some c o n d i t i o n s , v i r u s e s have b e e n , d e t e c t e d a t
Concentrations of
d i s t a n c e s of up t o 100 m ( 3 2 8 f t ) [ 2 ]
b a c t e r i a and e n t e r o v i r u s e s t h a t have b e e n d e t e c t e d n e a r
v a r i o u s S R l a n d t r e a t m e n t s i t e s are shown i n T a b l e s 9-9 and
9-10.
TABLE 9-9
AEROSOL BACTERIA AT LAND
TREATMENT S I T E S [ 2 ]
Distance
downwind
from site, m
Density
rangea, ~o./m3
Wastewater type
Location
Raw or primary
Germany
Germany
California
Kibbutz Tzora,
Israel
Ponded,
chlorinated
Deer Creek,
Ohio
Control value
21-30
41-50 '
200
Standard
Standard
Standard
Standard
Secondary,
nondisinfected
Ft. Huachuca,
Arizona
Control value
Control value
45-4gc
Standard plate count

Coliforms
120-152C
Klebsiella
Pleasanton,
California
90-160b
63-400brc
32b
10
10
20
60
70
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
,
Control value
30-50
Bacteria
Coliforms
Coliforms
Coliforms
Coliforms
Fecal coliforms
Coliforms
Colif o m s
Salmonella
Coliforms
Coliforms
Coliforms
Coliforms
Colif o m s
Colifoms
Coliforms
plate
plate
plate
plate
count
count
count
count
a.
12-170
0-58
430-1,400
560-6,300
1-23
86-130
170-410
(28)
(2.41
(day)
(niqht)
(day)
(night)

Total coliforms
Fecal coliforms
Fecal streptococci
Total coliforms
Fecal coliforms
Fecal streptococci
Pseudomonas
Klebsiella
Clostridium perfringens
Mycobacterium
b.
c.
d.
23-403
(111)
46-1,5828 (485)
0-1,429d (417)
<0-223d
(37)
Numbers in parentheses indicate mean values.

Distance quoted is maximum distance at which coliforms were detected.
Upper values occurred during night hours.
Corrected for upwind background value.
43
<5
1.1
0.8
---,--
TABLE 9-10
AEROSOL ENTEROVIRUSES AT LAND
TREATMENT SITES [ 2 ]
Wastewater
type
Location
Nondisinfected
secondary
effluent
Pleasanton,
California
Raw
wastewater
Kibbutz
Tzora,
Israel
Distance
downwind
from
sprinkler, m
Wastewater enteroviruses, PFU/L
Range
Mean
50
45-330
188
36-42
50
70
100
0-650
125
650
6,585
16,466
--
170-13,000
0-82,000
Aerosol enteroviruses, P F U / ~ ~
Range
0.011-0.017
0-0.82
--
0-0.026
0-0.10
Mean
0.014
0.015
0.14
0.013
0.038
The d a t a i n T a b l e s 9-9 and 9-10 c a n be u s e d t o e s t i m a t e

human e x p o s u r e t o a e r o s o l b a c t e r i a a n d e n t e r o v i r u s e s .
For
e x a m p l e , a r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e may b e o b t a i n e d by u s i n g d a t a
from P l e a s a n t o n , C a l i f o r n i a .
A t a d i s t a n c e o f 50 m ( 1 6 4 f t )
downwind f r o m a s p r i n k l e r , a n a d u l t male e n g a g e d i n l i g h t
work and b r e a t h i n g a t a r a t e o f 1 . 2 m3/h ( 4 2 f t 3 / h ) would
i n h a l e an average of
1 plaque-forming
unit
(PFU) o f
e n t e r o v i r u s a f t e r 59 h o u r s o f e x p o s u r e .
Although t h i s
represents
an extremely
low r a t e o f
potential viral
e x p o s u r e , methods f o r r e c o v e r i n g e n t e r i c v i r u s e s c u r r e n t l y
a r e n o t e n t i r e l y e f f i c i e n t and a c t u a l v i r a l e x p o s u r e may be
somewhat h i g h e r [ 3 8 ] .
shown b y t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 9-11, a e r o s o l f e c a l c o l i f o r m
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e l o w e r a t SR s y s t e m s t h a n a t a c t i v a t e d
sludge f a c i l i t i e s .
T h u s , t h e r i s k o f d i s e a s e t r a n s f e r from
SR s i t e s s h o u l d b e n o g r e a t e r t h a n from a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
facilities.
For t h i s r e a s o n , e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s of t h e
h e a l t h e f f e c t s of aerosols from a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p l a n t s may
b e used t o c o n s e r v a t i v e l y e s t i m a t e t h e h e a l t h e f f e c t s o f S R
f a c i l i t y aerosols.
As
Epidemiological s t u d i e s of a c t i v a t e d sludge p l a n t s i n d i c a t e
t h a t t h e r e is no s i g n i f i c a n t d i s e a s e rate i n c r e a s e f o r
n e a r b y p o p u l a t i o n s [39-441. Based o n t h e s e s t u d i e s , i t ' d o e s
n o t appear: t h a t l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m e m p l o y e e s o r p e o p l e
l i v i n g n e a r s p r i n k l e r i r r i g a t i o n sites should a n t i c i p a t e a
r i s k of d i s e a s e due t o a e r o s o l s .
TABLE 9-11
COMPARISON OF COLIFORM LEVELS
I N AEROSOLS AT ACTIVATED SLUDGE AND
SLOW RATE LAND TREATMENT FACILITIES [ 3 7 r 451
Maximum
Median
Minimum
A c t i v a t e d sludgea
Aerosols, NO. /m3
Upwind
Over b a s i n s
ownw wind^
Wastewater, No./100
mG
Aerated pondb
Aerosols, N ~ . / ~ ~
Downwind
30 m
100 m
150 m
200 m
250 m
Wastewater, No./100 mL
Slow r a t e l a n d t r e a t m e n t a
Aerosols, No./m3
Upwind
I3ownwindd
Wastewater, No./100
a.
b.
c.
d.
Fecal
Total
Below
Up t o
nu,
coliform l e v e l s reported.
coliform l e v e l s reported.
detection.
30 m ( 9 8 f t ) downwind.
I f n e c e s s a r y , s e v e r a l measures can be used t o f u r t h e r reduce

b a c t e r i a l and v i r a l e x p o s u r e t h r o u g h a e r o s o l s .
First,
operating s p r i n k l e r s during daylight hours increases t h e
number o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s k i l l e d by u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a tion [2].
S p r i n k l i n g d u r i n g e a r l y morning h o u r s is p r e f e r a b l e i n a r i d or s e m i a r i d a r e a s f o r water c o n s e r v a t i o n
purposes.
Second, t h e use of downward-directed,
low
p r e s s u r e s p r i n k l e r s r e s u l t s i n f e w e r a e r o s o l s t h a n upwarddirected high pressure sprinklers.
Ridge-and-furrow i r r i g a t i o n or s u r f a c e f l o o d i n g a r e recommended when t h e s e
a p p l i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s are f e a s i b l e [2]. T h i r d , when p u b l i c
r e s i d e n c e s a r e n e a r t h e s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m , b u f f e r z o n e s may
b e u s e d t o s e p a r a t e t h e s p r a y s o u r c e and t h e g e n e r a l
public.
I n g e n e r a l , p u b l i c access t o t h e i r r i g a t i o n s i t e
s h o u l d be l i m i t e d .
F i n a l l y , p l a n t i n g v e g e t a t i o n around t h e
s i t e c a n r e d u c e t h e a e r o s o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s l e a v i n g the? s i t e
[46].
Coniferous o r deciduous v e g e t a t i o n have achieved up
t o 50% a e r o s o l
t h e s e t y p e s of
concentrations
d i s p e r s i o n and
9.7
r e m o v a l by f i l t r a t i o n .
Planted as a b a r r i e r ,
v e g e t a t i o n s h o u l d be a b l e t o r e d u c e a e r o s o l
s e v e r a l o r d e r s of magnitude through v e r t i c a l
dilution.
Trace Organics
Concern
over
trace
organics
arose
when
chlorinated
h y d r o c a r b o n s and o t h e r t r a c e o r g a n i c s were found i n p o t a b l e
water supplies.
A t land treatment s i t e s , t h e concern is
t h a t t r a c e o r g a n i c s may t r a v e l t h r o u g h t h e s o i l p r o f i l e and
e n t e r d r i n k i n g w a t e r a q u i f e r s or a c c u m u l a t e i n t h e s o i l
p r o f i l e and b e t a k e n up by p l a n t s .
9.7.1
Soils
Many t r a c e o r g a n i c s a r e a d s o r b e d a s t h e y move t h r o u g h t h e
Chloroform i s one such
s o i l p r o f i l e a t SR and R I s y s t e m s .
compound, a s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 4-7; o t h e r c h l o r i n a t e d
hydrocarbons behave s i m i l a r l y .
Although t h e a d s o r p t i v e
c a p a c i t y o f a s o i l i s l i m i t e d , o n c e t r a c e o r g a n i c s h a v e been
a d s o r b e d t h e y may b e b i o d e g r a d e d o r v o l a t i l i z e d and r e l e a s e d
t o t h e atmosphere,
In e i t h e r case, the adsorption site
becomes a v a i l a b l e f o r a d s o r p t i o n of a d d i t i o n a l o r g a n i c
molecules.
The amount o f t r a c e o r g a n i c s t h a t c a n be removed d u r i n g
Some
movement t h r o u g h t h e s o i l i s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d .
r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n West Germany u s i n g n a t u r a l
sand beds t o f i l t e r contaminated r i v e r water.
The r i v e r
w a t e r c o n t a i n s h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of
trace organics,
p a r t i c u l a r l y c h l o r i n a t e d h y d r o c a r b o n s , The o b s e r v e d r e m o v a l
A s shown i n t h i s
e f f i c i e n c i e s are p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 9-12,
t a b l e , t r a c e o r g a n i c s r e m o v a l c a n be h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e , e v e n
i n coarser soils.
TABLE 9-12
TRACE ORGANICS REMOVALS D U R I N G
SAND FILTRATION [ 4 7 ]
Constituent
Chlorobenzene
Dichlorobenzene
Trichlorobenzene
Chlorotoluene
Dichlorcitoluene
Dissolved organic chlorides
Dissolved nonpolar organic chlorides
Dissolved organic carbon
Benzene
Toluene
removal
9.7.2
Crops
Plants
can
a b s o r b many
organic pesticides
and
some
with
organophosphate i n s e c t i c i d e s through t h e i r r o o t s ,
subsequent t r a n s l o c a t i o n t o p l a n t f o l i a g e .
Uptake o f t h e s e
o r g a n i c s i s a f f e c t e d by t h e s o l u b i l i t y . , s i z e , c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,
and p o l a r i t y o f t h e o r g a n i c m o l e c u l e s ; t h e o r g a n i c c o n t e n t ,
p H , and m i c r o b i a l a c t i v i t y of t h e s o i l ; and t h e c l i m a t e
[48].
However, a r e c e n t s t u d y on h e a l t h r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n of s l u d g e h a s found t h a t t h e l e v e l o f
p e s t i c i d e and h e r b i c i d e a b s o r p t i o n i s q u i t e low; n o t more
t h a n 3% o f t h e m o l e c u l e s t h a t were i n t h e s o i l p a s s e d i n t o
p l a n t f o l i a g e [48].
Most t r a c e o r g a n i c s a r e t o o l a r g e t o
p a s s t h r o u g h t h e s e m i p e r m e a b l e membrane of p l a n t r o o t s .
Thus, i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t c r o p u p t a k e o f t r a c e o r g a n i c s
d u r i n g l a n d t r e a t m e n t i s s i g n i f i c a n t enough t o be h a r m f u l t o
man o r a n i m a l s .
9.7.3
Ground Water
m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n 9.7.1,
s o i l a d s o r p t i o n of t r a c e
o r g a n i c s a t SR and R I s i t e s c a n be a n e f f e c t i v e removal
mechanism.
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , o n l y l o w l e v e l s of t r a c e
o r g a n i c s would be e x p e c t e d t o m i g r a t e t o u n d e r l y i n g ground
water.
The r e s u l t s of
studies a t
two SR s y s t e m s
( T a b l e 9-13) and two R I s y s t e m s ( T a b l e 5-8) i n d i c a t e t h a t
s i g n i f i c a n t removals do occur a t t h e s e systems w i t h t h e
e x c e p t i o n of t h e M i l t o n R I s i t e which was o p e r a t e d a t
continuous (no drying) extremely high wastewater loadings.
A t t h e M i l t o n s i t e , h i g h r e m o v a l s a r e a c h i e v e d by t h e t i m e
g r o u n d water
travels
a d i s t a n c e of
45 m
(160 f t )
downgradient.
E n d r i n , m e t h o x y c h l o r , and t o x a p h e n e weice n o t
the
four
detectable
in
the
wastewaters
of
any
of
c o m m u n i t i e s , and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of l i n d a n e , 2,4--11, and
2,4,5-TP s i l v e x were a l l w e l l below d r i n k i n g w a t e r l i m i t s i n
t h e ground w a t e r s underlying t h e land t r e a t m e n t s i t e s
( T a b l e 2-4).
As
R e c e n t r e s e a r c h a t t h e p h o e n i x R I s i t e h a s examined t h e
r e m o v a l of r e f r a c t o r y v o l a t i l e o r g a n i c s d u r i n g R I u s i n g
The r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t [54]
T a b l e 9-14.
A s shown by t h i s t a b l e , f a i r l y h i g h removal
e f f i c i e n c i e s were o b t a i n e d ( 7 0 t o 1 0 0 % ) .
S i m i l a r r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d a t t h e F o r t Devens R I s i t e
i n d i c a t e d t h a t 80 t o 100% o f t h e a p p l i e d r e f r a c t o r y o r g a n i c s
i s removed d u r i n g R I ; a v e r a g e removal o f t r a c e o r g a n i - c s was
9 6 % [SO]
Based o n t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e s t u d i e s , i t . d o e s
n o t a p p e a r t h a t normal c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t r a c e o r g a n i c s i n
a p p l i e d w a s t e w a t e r s would c a u s e problem l e v e l s i n ground
waters u n d e r l y i n g SR and R I s i t e s . D e t a i l e d s t u d i e s on t h e
f a t e o f trace o r g a n i c s d u r i n g l a n d t r e a t m e n t a r e underway a t
the
Muskegon
SR
site;
these
studies
should
provide
a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e p o t e n t i a l r i s k of ground water
contamination.
TABLE 9-13
TRACE ORGANICS REMOVALS AT SELECTED SR SITES [ 4 , 61
ng/L
Roswell, New Mexico
Wastewater
Endrin
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene
2,4-D
2.4,s-TP
silvex
Ground water
c0.03
560
c0.01
cO.1
29.0
28.0
Dickinson, North Dakota

Wastewater
Ground water
<0.03
74.3
c0.01
~0.1
10.4
25.8
TABLE 9-14
REMOVAL OF REFRACTORY VOLATILE ORGANICS
BY CLASS AT PHOENIX R I SITE [ 4 9 ]
Class (typical example)
Removal, %
Chloroalkanes (tetrachloroethylene)
Chloroaromatics (p-dichlorobenzene)
Alkyabenzenes (0-xylene)
Alkyaphenols (p-isopropylphenol)
~lkylna~hthalenes
(2-methylnapthalene)
Alkanes (hexatriacontane)
Alcohols (2,4-dimethl-3-hexanol)
Ketones (2,6-d-t-butyl-p-benzoquinone)
Indoles, Indenes ( IH-indole)
Amides (N- [3-methylphenyll acetamide)
Alkoxyaromatics (butoxymethylbenzene)
Weighted average
9.7.4
S u r g a c e Water
D i s c h a r g e from t h e OF p r o c e s s w i l l d i r e c t l y i m p a c t s u r f a c e
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f trace o r g a n i c s
r e m o v a l d u r i n g OF h a s b e e n s t u d i e d a t a p i l o t s y s t e m i n
H a n o v e r , N e w Hampshire.
Chlorinated primary e f f l u e n t w a s
u s e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s ; t h i s e f i l u e n t c o n t a i n e d 6.7 t o 1 7 . 8
water i n m o s t cases.
pg/L c h l o r o f o r m , 10.2 t o 33.1 pg/L t o l u e n e , and l e s s e r

amounts
of
bromodichloromethane,
1,1,l-trichloroethane,
t e t r a c h l o r o e t h y l e n e , and c a r b o n t e t r a c h l o r i d e [ 5 1 ]
Using a
30.5 m ( 1 0 0 f t ) l o n g s l o p e w i t h a 5% g r a d e , chlorolIorm and
These
t o l u e n e r e m o v a l s were a s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 9-15.
efficient
removal
rates
are
thought
to
result
from
v o l a t i l i z a t i o n as t h e w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s o v e r t h e a l o p e o r
s o r p t i o n n e a r t h e s o i l s u r f a c e f o l l o w e d by e i t h e r m i c r o b i a l
degradation o r volatilization.
Based on t h e s e r e s u l t s , i t
appears t h a t v o l a t i l e t r a c e organics contamination of
s u r f a c e waters by r e n o v a t e d w a t e r from OF s y s t e m s s h o u l d n o t
be a p r o b l e m u n l e s s i n i t i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e e x c e s s i v e .
S t u d i e s a r e underway o n t h e removal of n o n v o l a t i l e o r g a n i c
compounds.
TABLE 9-15
CHLOROFORM AND TOLUENE REMOVAL
DURING OF [ 5 1 ]
Concentration a t v a r i o u s t r a v e l d i s t a n c e s , ug/L
Application
rate,
cmfh
Wastewater
Total
removal,
3.8 m
7.6 m
15.7 m
22.9 m
Runoff
Chloroform
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.05
1.32
Toluene
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.05
1.32
a.
9.8
BD
- c0o. 0n1c epq/L.

n t r a t i o n was below a d e t e c t i o n limit e s t i m a t e d a t
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A u g u s t 20-25, 1978.
20.
Reed,
S.C.
Health
Aspects
of
Land
Treatment.
Technology
Transfer
Seminars,
Land
Treatment
of
U.S.
Environmental
M u n i c i p a l Wastewater E f f l u e n t s .
P r o t e c t i o n Agency and U.S.
Army C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s .
J u n e 1979.
21.
S e a b r o o k , B.L.
Land A p p l i c a t i o n o f W a s t e w a t e r i n
Australia.
U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n . A g e n c y .
EPA430/9-75-017.
May 1975.
22.
Water Q u a l i t y C r i t e r i a .
Federal Register.
1979. pp. 15926-15970.
March 1 5 ,
23.
Federal Register.
1979. p p . 43660-43697.
,July 25,
24.
Federal Register.
1979.
pp. 56628-56657.
O c t o b e r 1,
25.
Metcalf
&
Eddy,
Inc.
Wastewater
Engineering :
Treatment,
Disposal,
and Reuse.
McGraw-Hill
Book
Company.
N e w York, N e w York.
1979.
26.
Manual o f T r e a t m e n t T e c h n i q u e s f o r M e e t i n g t h e I n t e r i m
p r i m a r y ~ r i n k i n gWater R e g u l a t i o n s .
EPA-600/8-77-005.
A p r i l 1978.
McKee,
J.E.
California
1963
and H.W.
Wolf.
Quality Control
Water
Board.
Q u a l i t y Criteria.
P u b l i c a t i o n 3A.
~ e n k i n s , T. F. and A. J. P a l a z z o .
Wastewater Treatment
U. S. Army C o r p s
by a Slow R a t e Land T r e a t m e n t System.
o f E n g i n e e r s , Cold R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h and E n g i n e e r i n g
CRREL
Report
81-14.
Hanover,
New
Laboratory.
Hampshire.
August 1981.
Bell,
R.G.
and J , B .
Bole.
Elimination of
Fecal
C o l i f o r m Bacteria f r o m S o i l I r r i g a t e d w i t h M u n i c i p a l
Sewage Lagoon E f f l u e n t .
Journal of
Environmental
7: 193-196.
1978.
Quality.
H o e p p e l , R. E. , R. G. R h e t t , and C. R. L e e .
F a t e and
Enumeration Problems of F e c a l Coliform Bacteria i n
Technical
Runoff Waters from ~ e r r e s t r i a l E c o s y s t e m s .
U. S.
Army
Engineer
Waterways
Report
EL-8 0-9.
September
Experiment S t a t i o n .
Vicksburg , M i s s i s s i p p i .
1980.
Shuval, H.I.
Land T r e a t m e n t o f Wastewater i n I s r a e l .
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Symposium o n Land T r e a t m e n t o f
Wastewater, V o l . 1, H a n o v e r , N e w Hampshire.
A u g u s t 202 5 , 1978.
POPPI L.
I r r i g a t i o n w i t h Sewage from t h e H y g e n i c
point-of-View.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Commission o n I r r i g a t i o n
raina age,
5th
Regional
Meeting.
Cambridge,
and
England.
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M i c r o b i o l o g i c a l Aerosols from a
Bausum, H.T. , e t a l .
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Source
During
Sprinkler
Irrigation
with
Wastewater.
p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Symposium o n Land
Wastewater,
Hanover,
New
Hampshire.
Treatment
of
A u g u s t 20-25, 1 9 7 8 .
S c h a u b , S.A.,
et al.
Monitoring of Microbiological
A e r o s o l s a t Wastewater S p r i n k l e r I r r i g a t i o n S i t e s .
p r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Symposium o n Land T r e a t m e n t o f
Wastewater, HanoVer, N e w Hampshire.
A u g u s t 20-25
1978.
45.
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S o r b e r , C. e t , a l .
B a c t e r i a l A e r o s o l s C r e a t e d by S p r a y
I r r i g a t i o n of Wastewater.
In:
Proceedings of t h e
S p r i n k l e r I r r i g a t i o n Technical Conference, S p r i n k l e r
I r r i g a t i o n Association.
R o c k v i l l e , Maryland.
1975.
46.
Spendlove,
J.C.,
e t al.
Supression of Microbial
A e r o s o l s by V e g e t a t i o n .
P r e s e n t e d a t t h e Water
pollution
Control
Federation
Conference,
Houston,
Texas.
O c t o b e r 7-12, i 9 7 9 .
47.
S o n t h e i m e r , H.
E x p e r i e n c e w i t h R i v e r Bank F i l t r a t i o n
Along t h e R h i n e R i v e r .
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e Symposium o n
Wastewater Reuse f o r Ground Water R e c h a r g e .
Pomona,
California.
S e p t e m b e r 6-7, 1979.
e t a l . H e a l t h R i s k s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h Land
48. ' P a h r e n , H.R.,
Application
of
Municipal
Sludge.
Journal
WPCF.
5 1 ( 1 1 ) : 2588-2601.
1979.
49.
Tomson, M.B.,
et al.
Ground Water C o n t a m i n a t i o n b y
T r a c e L e v e l O r g a n i c s from a R a p i d I n f i l t r a t i o n S i t e .
Water ~ e s e a r c h . I n P r e s s .
1981.
50.
Tomson, M.B.,
e t al.
Trace Organic Contamination o f
Methods f o r S t u d y and p r e l i m i n a r y
Ground Water :
Results.
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e 3 r d World C o n g r e s s o n
Water R e s o u r c e s .
Mexico C.ity. A p r i l 23-27, 1979.
51.
Jenkins, T . F . ,
D.C. Leggett, and C. J. Martel.
Removal
o f V o l a t i l e T r a c e Or g a n i c s from Wastewater by Overland
~ o ' u r n a lo f E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e
Flow Land T r e a t m e n t .
A15(3):211-224.
1980.
and H e a l t h .
APPENDIX
SLOW RATE DESIGN EXAMPLE

A.l
Introduction
T h i s d e s i g n example is p r e s e n t e d to i l l u s t r a t e t h e procedures described i n Chapter 4 f o r t h e preliminary design of

slow r a t e (SR) s y s t e m s .
The example is d e t a i l e d enough t o
allow cost c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e s . The f o c u s o f
t h i s example i s o n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e major d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s i n
land treatment systems including c r o p s e l e c t i o n , h y d r a u l i c
l o a d i n g r a t e , l a n d area r e q u i r e m e n t s , storage r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
and a p p l i c a t i o n method.
Supplemental components su c h a s
pumping and h e a d w o r k s r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y and
l i s t e d f o r cost comparison purposes.
A.2
S t a t e m e n t o f Problem
A.2.1
Background
C i t y A is l o c a t e d i n c e n t r a l M $ s s o u r i i n a n a r e a c h a r a c t e r i z e d by f e r t i l e s o i l s . a n d i n t e n s i v e f a r m i n g .
Rainfall is
more p l e n t i f u l t h a n i s needdd f o r m o s t c z o p s , b u t is d i s t r i buted unevenly during t h e y e a r ,
Supplemental i r r i g a t i o n is
b e n e f i c i a l t o m o s t c r o p s i h summer.
The
existing
wastewater
. t r e a t m e n t . fk c ' i l i t y
consists
of
s i n g l e s t a g e t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r : w s t h a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n and
sludge drying. beds.
The f a c i l i t y i s i n p o o r s t r u c t u r a l
condition
and
unable
to m e e t
present
NPDES
permit
requirements.
A.2.2
P o p u l a t i o n and Wastewater c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
P ~ p u l a t i o n and wastewater c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e A-1.
I n d u s t r i a l f l o w s are e x p e c t e d t o be n o n t o x i c and
biodegradable.
A.2.3
S u r f a c e d i s c h a r g e o f w a s t e w a t e r i s p r o h i b i t e d f o r streams i n
t h e a r e a , and t h e g r o u n d water a q u i f e r s i s u s e d a s a d r i n k i n g
water s o u r c e so d r i n k i n g water q u a l i t y w i l l be e x p e c t e d a t
t h e p r o j e c t boundary.
TABLE A-1
POPULATION AND WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Design year
2005
Population
Average annual f l o w , m3/d
Industrial
Municipal
Total
Maximum monthly avg flour, m3/d
I n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o sewers
None
(nonexcessive)
Wastewater strength, mg/L

BOD 5
Ss
Total nitrogen, mg/L ( a s N )

Total phosphorus, mg/L ( a s P)
A.2.4
The p r o p o s e d s i t e f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t y i s shown i n
The s i t e was c h o s e n b e c a u s e of i t s i s o l a t i o n
F i g u r e A-1.
from p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s , i t s l o c a t i o n downwind from t h e
c i t y , and t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of f l a t , w e l l - d r a i n e d s o i l s i n
t h e a r e a . A c c o r d i n g t o a n o l d SCS map, shown i n F i g u r e A - 1 ,
B o s k e t f i n e s a n d y loam dominat'es t h e t r e a t m e n t s i t e and
C o o t e r s i l t y c l a y d o m i n a t e s t h e t r e a t m e n t pond s i t e .
Both
areas h a v e 0 t o 1%s l o p e .
A.2.5
Climate
The a r e a i s s u b j e c t t o f r e q u e n t c h a n g e s i n w e a t h e r w i t h no
p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s of v e r y c o l d o r v e r y h o t w e a t h e r ,
The
l a s t f r e e z e i s u s u a l l y i n l a t e March and t h e f i r s t f r e e z e i n
e a r l y November.
Climatic data,
o b t a i n e d from t h e N a t i o n a l O c e a n i c and
A t m o s p h e r i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s C l i m a t o g r a p h y of t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s , are shown i n T a b l e A-2 f o r t h e n e a r e s t U n i t e d S t a t e s
No. 20 r e c o r d i n g s t a t i o n t o C i t y A.
The d a t a r e p r e s e n t t h e
worst y e a r i n 5 f o r m o n t h l y a v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n and
temperature.
PROPOSED TREATMENT
POND S l T E
PROPOSED SR S l T E
Predominant
soil series
Map
symbol
Bosket '
Depth to
seasonal high
water table, m
Depth from
surface. cm
Dominant USDA texture
Permeability,
cm/h
5-15
1.5-5
5-15'
Bun
BtB
>1.5
0-64
64-147
147-198
Fine sandy loam

Clay loam and sandy clay loam
Fine sandy loam and sand
Broseley
ByA,
BYC
>i.5
0-94
94-160
160-190
Loamy fine -and

Fine sandy loam
Loamy fine sand
Canalou
Cd
0.6-0.9
0-51
51-122
122-160
Loamy sand
Sandy loam
Sand
Cooter
Co
0.6-0.9
crevasse
CsB
Gideon
Gd,
Ge
Lb
St
0-38
38-152
0-25
25-152
0-114
114-173
0-94
0-30
Sixty clay
Loamy sand and sand
Loamy sand
Sand
Loam
Clay loam
Fine sandy loam
Sandy clay loam
Lilbourn
Sikeston
>1.0
0-0.3
0-0.5
0-0.3
FIGURE A-1
SO1 LS MAP
TABLE A-2
CLIMATIC DATA FOR THE WORST YEAR I N 5
Month
Temperature OC
Mean d a i l y ,
Mean
minimum
Days w i t h
mean
temperature,
<-4 OC
Jan
-0.7
-6.6
20
10.1
Feb
-0.9
-8.1
15
10.4
Mar
1.3
-5.6
12
APr
12.7
4.6
Jun
21.1
13.9
Jul
24.1
16.7
Se p
19.8
9.6
Oct
11.9
0.2
Nov
4.6
-3.1
12
Dec
-0.1
-6.6
17
Annual
A.3
Total
precipitation,
cm
80
13.0
162
Slow R a t e System S e l e c t i o n
The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e t y p e o f l a n d t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s i s d i c t a t e d by s i t e c o n d j - t i o n s , c l i m a t e , and r e g u l a t o r y r e q u i r e ments.

I n t h e c a s e o f C i t y A , t h e p r o h i b i t i o n of s u r f a c e
d i s c h a r g e e l i m i n a t e d o v e r l a n d f l o w from c o n s i d e r a t i o r n .
The
l i m i t o f 10 mg/L n i t r a t e i n t h e ground w a t e r , c o u p l e d w i t h
t h e h i g h ground w a t e r t a b l e , e l i m i n a t e d r a p i d i n f i 1 t : r a t i o n
a s an alternative.
The S R p r o c e s s a p p e a r e d f e a s i b l e based
on l a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y , s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y , and c l i m a t e .
A.3.1
The e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s c a n n o t be used f o r p r e rehabilitation.

application
treatment without
extensive
Consequently, t r e a t m e n t p r i o r to l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n is t o be
p r o v i d e d by a s e r i e s o f t r e a t m e n t / s t o r a g e ponds.
The p r i BOD
mary c e l l i s d e s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g t o s t a t e s t a n d a r d s : :
l o a d i n g e q u a l s 38.1 kg/ha-d ( 3 4 l b / a c r e = d ) w i t h an o p e r a t i n g
The s e c o n d a r y c e l l i s d e s i g n e d f o r s t o r a g e .
d e p t h o f 1.0 m.
A.3.2
Crop S e l e c t i o n
d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 4 . 3 , t h e c r o p s e l e c t e d f o r t h e SR
p r o c e s s depends on whether t h e o b j e c t i v e is c r o p production
f o r r e v e n u e o r m i n i m i z a t i o n o f l a n d area by m a x i m i z i n g
h y d r a u l i c loading rates.
F o r C i t y A, t h e o b j e c t i v e i s t o
m i n i m i z e l a n d area.
Based o n t h e s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a i n
C hapter 4 and c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h t h e local farm a d v i s o r ,
C i t y A c h o s e t o e v a l u a t e water t o l e r a n t f o r a g e g r a s s e s and
The
d e c i d u o u s f o r e s t a s t w o p o s s i b l e c r o p s i n a n SR s y s t e m .
p r o p o s e d s i t e shown i n F i g u r e A-1 would be u s e d f o r e i t h e r
crop.
As
A.4
System ~ e s i g n
A.4.1
Forage Crop A l t e r n a t i v e
M i n i m i z i n g l a n d a r e a r e q u i r e s t h e u s e o f t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e which i s g o v e r n e d e i t h e r by s o i l
Once t h e h y d r a u l i c
p e r m e a b i l i t y or n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g .
l o a d i n g r a t e is d e t e r m i n e d , f i e l d a r e a and s t o r a g e r e q u i r e ment a r e o b t a i n e d .
'
A.4.1.1
H y d r a u l i c L o a d i n g Based o n S o i l
Permeability
The g e n e r a l w a t e r b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g based on s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y
(Section 4 . 5 . 1 )
where
and is shown as:
Lw = w a s t e w a t e r h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , c m / u n i t
ET = e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n r a t e , cm/unit
time
time
P r = p r e c i p i t a t i o n r a t e , cm/unit t i m e
Pw = p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e , c m / u n i t t i m e
The c o m p u t a t i o n i s p e r f o r m e d o n a m o n t h l y b a s i s i n thG form
o f a water b a l a n c e t a b l e shown i n T a b l e A-3.
The p r o c e d u r e
and is o u t l i n e d
f o l l o w s t h a t p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 4.5.1
be l o w :
1.
~ e s i g np r e c i p i t a t i o n f o r e a c h month is b a s e d o n a
5 - y e a r r e t u r n p e r i o d and i s o b t a i n e d from c l i m a t i c
The f r e q u e n c y a n a l y s i s is p e r d a t a (Table A-2).
formed a c c o r d i n g t o s t a n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s a v a i l a b l e
i n m o s t h y d r o l o g y t e x t s o r r e f e r e n c e books.
The
p r e c i p i t a t i o n v a l u e s a r e e n t e r e d i n Column ( 1 ) .
2.
Estimated monthly e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n ( E T ) v a l u e s
f o r t h e f o r a g e g r a s s a r e o b t a i n e d from t h e l o c a l
C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e and a r e e n t e r e d i n
Column ( 2 ) .
3.
The n e t ET f o r e a c h month i s d e t e r m i n e d
t r a c t i o n o f Column (1) f r o m Column ( 2 ) .
4.
The maximum d e s i g n p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e i s b a s e d on 4%
o f t h e minimum p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e - (0.6 i n . / h ) .
A v a l u e o f 4 % i s used
1 . 5 cm/h
b e c a u s e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o be c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r
preliminary design.
F u r t h e r o p t i m i z a t i o n w i l l be
possible during f i n a l design.
The l i m i t i n g permea b i l i t y i s 1 . 5 cm/h i n t h e c l a y loam l a y e r a t 64 cm
The
(25 i n ; ) i n t h e Bosket s o i l s ( F i g u r e A - l ) ,
maximum d a i l y p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e i s computed a s
follows:
by
sub-
Pw ( d a i l y ) = 0.04 ( 1 . 5 c m / h ) ( 2 4 h / d )
= 1 . 4 4 cm/d
The m o n t h l y r a t e i s t h e n d e t e r m i n e d by m u l t i p l y i n g
t h e d a i l y r a t e by t h e number o f o p e r a t i n g d a y s
d u r i n g t h e month.
Some months may have nono p e r a t i n g days due to farming o p e r a t i o n s o r c o l d
weather.
Green chop h a r v e s t i n g is planned f o r t h i s system
s u c h t h a t downtime f o r h a r v e s t i n g w i l l n o t b e
necessary.
O p e r a t i o n w i l l s t o p on d a y s when t h e
mean t e m p e r a t u r e i s l e s s t h a n -4 O C ( 2 5 OF). Based
o n t h e c l i m a t i c d a t a i n T a b l e A-2,
nonoperating
days due t o c o l d weather are expected d u r i n g t h e
m o n t h s o f O c t o b e r t h r o u g h March.
For
example,
in
January,
the
design
percolation
r a t e is:
Operating days = 31
The d e s i g n p e r c o l a t i o n
e n t e r e d i n column ( 4 ) .
20 = 11 d
rate
for
each
month
is
5.
The a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e f o r e a c h month
i s computed by a d d i n g Column ( 3 ) a n d Column ( 4 ) .
The a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s computed by
r a t e s and
equals
326 c m
summing
the
monthly
(128 i n . ) .
TABLE A-3
HYDRAULIC LOADING RATES BASED ON SOIL
PERMEABILITY:
FORAGE CROP ALTERNATIVE
cm
(1).
Month
Precipitation
Pr
(2)
Evapotranspiration
ET
(3)
ET
Pr
(2)-(1)
(4)
Percolation
J?w
(5)
Hydraulic Loading
( Lw(p)
3)+(4)
Jan
Feb
Mar
APr
May
Jun
J u1
Aug
S eP
Oct
Nov
Dec
Annual
A.4.1.2
H y d r a u l i c L o a d i n g Based o n N i t r o g e n
Loading
The a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e b a s e d o n
d e t e r m i n e d b y u s i n g e q u a t i o n 4-4, shown below:
where
nitrogen
Lw(n) = allowable annual hydraulic loading rate

based on n i t r o g e n l i m i t s , c m
is
C~
Pr
= percolate nitrogen concentration, mg/L

= design pre~ipi~ation,
cm/yr
ET
= evapotranspiration rate, cm/yr
= crop nitrogen uptake, kg/ha0yr
= fraction of applied nitrogen removed by
volatilization, denitrification, and storage

Cn
= applied wastewater nitrogen ~oncentr~ation,
mg/L
The computation was performed using annual rates according

to the procedure presented in Section 4.5.2 and is outlined
.as follows:
1.
Determine parameter values for Equation 4-4.

a.
Crop uptake (U)

U = 224 kg/ha0yr (from Table 4-11)
b.
Volatilization
(V + D + S)
denitrification
storage
f = 0.2 (estimated,Section 4.2.2)
c.
Applied nitrogen concentration (C,)

Compute reduction in nitrogen concentration
during storage based on a 53 day storage
period which is the minimum detention time in
the treatment/storage ponds (Table A-7).
Cn = ( 3 8 mg/L)e-0*0075(53)
= 26 mg/L
d.
Percolate nitrogen concentration (Cp)

Cp = 10 mg/L
2.
(required)
Solve Equation 4-4.

(
- lO(84) + 224(10)
1
(1 - 0.2) (26) - 10
= 285 cm/yr (112 in./yr)
A-a
A. 4 .l.3
~ e s i g nH y d r a u l i c L o a d i n g R a t e
shown i n S e c t i o n s A.4.1.1
and A.4.1.2,
the allowable
annual h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g rate based on s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y is
326 c m ( 1 2 8 i n . ) and t h e r a t e b a s e d o n n i t r o g e n l i m i t s i s
285 c m ( 1 1 2 i n . ) .
S i n c e n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g l i m i t s t h e hydraul i c l o a d i n g rate i n t h i s example, t h e a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c
and
l o a d i n g r a t e is d e t e r m i n e d by comparing monthly L
As
W(P)
Monthly h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s b a s e d o n n i t r o g e n l i m i t s a r e
d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g E q u a t i o n 4-4 w i t h m o n t h l y v a l u e s f o r P r and
E T o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e A-3.
S u f f i c i e n t d a t a on n i t r o g e n
u p t a k e v e r s u s t i m e f o r f o r a g e c r o p s were n o t a v a i l a b l e , req u i r i n g monthly v a l u e s f o r U t o be e s t i m a t e d from t h e r a t i o
o f m o n t h l y ET t o t h e t o t a l g r o w i n g s e a s o n E T m u l t i p l i e d by
t h e a n n u a l c r o p u p t a k e v a l u e ( T a b l e A-4, Column 2 ) .
TABLE A-4
DESIGN HYDRAULIC LOADING RATE
(1)
Pr-ET,
(2)
Month
cm
U,
kg/ha
Jan
9.8
Feb
(3
Lw(n)
(4)
Lw(P)
(5)
D e s i g n Lwr
cm
cm
cm
0.9
9.9
6.0
6.0
9.7
2.0
10.8
9.0
9.0
Mar
13.0
6.1
17.7
14.4
14.4
Jun
0.9
38.5
36.5
42.3
36.5
Jul
-1.6
45.3
40.5
46.2
40.5
Au9
-1.6
40.1
35.6
46.2
35.6
Se P
5.8
25.7
29.2
37.4
29.2
Oct
4.9
14.4
17.9
34.0
17.9
N ov
13.0
5.3
16.9
12.9
12.9
Dee
12.4
1.7
13.1
7.8
7.8
Annual
267
The m o n t h l y v a l u e s
lower v a l u e u s e d
( T a b l e A-4, Column
loading rate g i v e s
267 c m ( 1 0 5 i n . ) .
A.4.1.4
o f Lw
a r e compared w i t h t h e
f o r t i e and
monthYy( P I d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c r a t e
5 ) . Summing t h e d e s i g n m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c
the design annual hydraulic loading r a t e ,
F i e l d A r e a Requirements
The d e s i g n a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f i e l d area r e q u i r e m e n t :
= Q(365)
lo4
where
+
(L,)
AV,
Aw = f i e l d a r e a , h a
Q = a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w , m5/d
AVs = n e t g a i n o r l o s s i n s t o r e d w a s t e w a t e r volume
d u e t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n , e v a p r a t i o n , and
s e e p a g e a t s t o r a g e pond, m / y r
Lw = d e s i g n a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e ; m / ' y r
F o r t h e f i r s t c a l c u l a t i o n o f f i e l d a r e a , ys i s assumed z e r o
(see S e c t i o n A.4.1.6) and t h e f i e l d a r e a 1s c a l c u l a t e d a s :
A.4.1.5
S t o r a g e o f wastewater i s r e q u i r e d f o r p e r i o d s when a v a i l a b l e
wastewater e x c e e d s d e s i g n h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e .
A water
t o estimate t h e s t o r a g e
balance
c o m p u t a t i o n i s used
requirement.
The p r o c e d u r e i s o u t l i n e d a s f o l l o w s :
1.
E n t e r t h e d e s i g n monthly
loading r a t e s
from
T a b l e A-4 (Column 5 ) i n t o T a b l e A-5, Column 1.
2.
D e t e r m i n e a v a i l a b l e w a s t e w a t e r f o r e a c h month.
where
Wa
= m o n t h l y a v a i l a b l e wastewater,
c~n/mo
= average d a i l y f l o w , m3/d
= days per m o n t h
A,
= f i e l d a r e a , ha
T h e average d a i l y f l o w i s a s s u m e d c o n s t a n t .
example
the
monthly
wastewater
available
J u n e is:
Wa J u n e
1 0 3 . 4 ha
wastewater
TABLE A-5
STORAGE VOLUME DETERMINATION:
cm
(1)
Hydraulic
loading,
Lw
(2)
Wastewater
available,
Wa
(3)
Change in
storage,
(2)-(1)
(4)
Cumulative
storage,
sc
Oct
17.9
22.7
4.8
4.8
Dec
7.8
22.7
14.9
28.8
Jan
6.0
22.7
16.7
45.5
Feb
9.0
20.5
11.5
57.0
Mar
14.4
22.7
8.3
65.3
APr
24.4
22.0
-2.4
62.9
May
33.0
22.7
-10.3
52.6
Jun
36.5
22.0
-14.5
38.1
Ju1
40.5
22.7
-17.8
20.3
Au9
35.6
22.7
-12.9
7.4
a.
for
= ( 7 , 5 7 0 rn3/d) ( 3 0 d / m o ) ( 0 . 0 1 )
T h e m o n t h l y v a l u e s of a v a i l a b l e
e n t e r e d i n C o l u m n ( 2 ) of T a b l e A-5.
Month
For
Rounding error, assume zero.
are
3.
Compute t h e c h a n g e i n s t o r a g e e a c h month 'by subt r a c t i n g h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g [Column (1) ] from a v a i l a b l e wastewater [Column ( 2 ) l . E n t e r t h e r e s u l t s i n

Column ( 3 )
4.
Compute t h e c u m u l a t i v e c h a n g e i n s t o r a g e i n ' t h e end

o f e a c h month b y a d d i n g t h e c h a n g e i n s t o r a g e i n
Column ( 3 ) t o t h e a c c u m u l a t e d q u a n t i t y from t h e
p r e v i o u s month i n Column ( 4 ) .
5.
Compute t h e r e q u i r e d t o t a l s t o r a g e volume u s i n g t h e
maximum c u m u l a t i v e s t o r a g e i n Column ( 4 ) and t h e
e s t i m a t e d f i e l d area:
Vs
= ScAw
= ( 6 5 . 3 c m ) ( 1 0 3 . 4 h a ) ( l O2
m 3/ c m * h a )
= 675,200 m3
A.4.1.6
F i n a l S t o r a g e a n d Pond D e s i g n
The f a c u l t a t i v e pond f o r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t . s e r v e s a s
the storage reservoir.
A two-cell pond s y s t e m i s s e l e c t e d
w i t h t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a of t h e primary c e l l based on t h e
state's
BOD
loading
criteria
of
3 8 . 1 kg
BOD/haed
( 3 4 1 b / a c r e o d ) a n d a n o p e r a t i n g d e p t h o f 1 . 0 m.
Ap = area ( p r i m a r y )
= 39.7
u s e 40 h a
Vp = volume ( p r i m a r y )
= ( 4 0 h a ) ( l o 4 m2/ha) ( 1 . 0 m)
= 400,000 m3
The s t o r a g e volume i n t h e
between t h e r e q u i r e d t o t a l
primary cell.
s e c o n d c e l l is t h e d i f f e r e n c e
s t o r a g e and t h e volume o f t h e
The a c t u a l volume of t h e s e c o n d a r y pond w i l l c h a n g e d u e t o

e v a p o r a t i o n , p r e c i p i t a t i o n a n d s e e p a g e i n t h e two c e l l pond
area.
To o b t a i n
s t e p s a r e used.
1.
the
final
storage
volume
the
following
C a l c u l a t e t h e s t o r a g e a r e a of t h e second c e l l using
a volume o f 2 7 5 , 2 0 0 m3 a n d a n o p e r a t i n g d e p t h o f
1 . 5 m.
= 183,500
m2
use 18 ha
Determine t h e monthly n e t g a i n or l o s s i n s t o r a g e
volume d u e t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n , e v a p o r a t i o n , and s e e p a g e ( T a b l e A-6, Column 3 ) . Annual l a k e e v a p o r a t i o n
e q u a l s 89 c m ( 3 3 i n . ) and is d i s t r i b u t e d monthly i n
t h e same r a t i o s o f m o n t h l y ET t o a n n u a l ET.
A
maximum s e e p a g e r a t e o f 0 . 1 5 cm/d i s a l l o w e d b y
state stand.ard.
A s a n example, t h e n e t g a i n ' o r
l o s s f o r ~ u l yis:
AV
= (Precipitation
~
~
l
~
x ( s u r f a c e area)
= (14.1
18.0
[ ( l o 2 m/cm)
= -49,300
evaporation
seepage)
4.6)(58 ha)
( 1 04 m 2/ h a ) ]
m3
3.
T a b u l a t e t h e volume o f wastewater a v a i l a b l e e a c h
m o n t h , Qm.
I n t h i s example, t h e d a i l y flow is
assumed c o n s t a n t and m o n t h l y f l o w s v a r y a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e number o f
d a y s p e r month
( T a b l e A-6,
Column 4 ) .
4.
Determine t h e a d j u s t e d f i e l d
t h e n'et g a i n from s t o r a g e .
area a c c o u n t i n g
for
TABLE A-6
FINAL DETERMINATION OF STORAGE VOLUME
(1)
Month
Evaporation,
cm
(2)
(3)
Seepage,
cm
Net gain/loss
AVs
m3 x 103
(4)
Available
wastewater
Applled
wastewater
m3*g8103
m3"~'103
(5!
(6)
Change in
storaqeb
m3 x 103
(7)
Cumulative
storage
SC,
m3 x 103
SOP
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
APr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Annual
a.
b.

Design storage volume
5.
C a l c u l a t e t h e m o n t h l y volume o f a p p l i e d wastewater
( T a b l e A-6,
Column 5 ) u s i n g t h e d e s i g n m o n t h l y
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e and a d j u s t e d f i e l d a r e a .
F o r example :
"JU~Y
= (Lw
July
4 m 2/ h a )
) (Awl)( 1 0
( l o m 2 m/crn)
(4-11)
6.
D e t e r m i n e t h e n e t c h a n g e ' i n s t o r a g e e a c h month
( T a b l e A-6,
Column 6 ) b a s e d o n m o n t h l y a p p l i e d
w a s t e w a t e r , Vwr a v a i l a b l e wastewater, Qm, and n e t
s t o r a g e g a i n / l o s s , hVS.
Change i n s t o r a g e = Q,
+ ~v~ - vW
7.
C a l c u l a t e t h e c u m u l a t i v e s t o r a g e volume f o r t h e e n d
o f e a c h month (Column 7 ) t o d e t e r m i n e t h e maximum
d e s i g n s t o r a g e volume.
8.
A d j u s t t h e d e p t h of t h e s e c o n d c e l l t o accommodate
t h e i n c r e a s e d s t o r a g e volume.
= 2.47
m , u s e 2.5 m.
The d e p t h o f g r o u n d water p r e v e n t s l o w e r i n g t h e d e p t h o f t h e
Conpond more t h a n 1 . 5 m ( 5 f t ) below t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e .
s e q u e n t l y , m o s t o f t h e storage pond volume w i l l be a b o v e
g r o u n d s u r f a c e and r e q u i r e embankments.
The d e s i g n c r i t e r i a
f o r t h e s t o r a g e l a g o o n s a r e shown i n T a b l e A-7.
TABLE A-7
D E S I G N C R I T E R I A FOR STORAGE LAGOONS :

Primary cell
Surface area, ha
Total depth, m
Operating depth, m
Total storage, d
Storage above 0.5 m, d
Secondary cell
Surface area, ha
Total depth, m
Operating depth, m.
Total storage at 2.5 m, d
Total storage at operating depth
Days
m3
A.4.1.7
D i s t r i b u t i o n and A p p l i c a t i o n
When s e l e c t i n g t h e t y p e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m , t h e d e s i g n e r
m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e t e r r a i n , c r o p , s o i l s , and c a p i t a l and
operation/maintenance c o s t s .
Based o n a c o s t c o m p a r i s o n n o t
i n c l u d e d i n t h e e x a m p l e , t h e d e s i g n e r recommended a c e n t e r
p i v o t i r r i g a t i o n system as t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e system
f o r t h e forage crop alternative.
The d e s i g n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m i s b a s e d o n t h e maxiI n t h i s case,
mum h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e p e r a p p l i c a t i o n .
t h e maximum m o n t h l y l o a d i n g e q u a l s 40.5 c m ( 1 5 . 9 i n . ) i n
July.
An a p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f f o u r t i m e s p e r month i s
s e l e c t e d t o a l l o w a d e q u a t e d r y i n g between a p p l i c a t i o n s ( s e e
Appendix E f o r g u i d e l i n e s o n making t h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n ) .
The h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e p e r a p p l i c a t i o n t h e n e q u a l s
10.1 c m (4.0 i n . ) .
I n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h manufacturers of c e n t e r pivok equipm e n t , it w a s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t two c e n t e r p i v o t s y s t e m s c o u l d
b e used f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n e a c h i r r i g a t i n g a n a r e a o f 53.8' h a
The u n i t c a p a a n d u s i n g a r e v o l u t i o n p e r i o d o f 170 h o u r s .
c i t y is t h e n d e t e r m i n e d a s f o l l o w s ( S e c t i o n E . 2 . 6 ) :
where
Q = d i s c h a r g e c a p a c i t y , L/S
C = c o n s t a n t , 28.1
(gal/min)
(453)
A = f i e l d area f o r o n e c e n t e r p i v o t , h a ( a c r e )
D = h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g / a p p l i c a t i o n d e p t h , cm ( i n . )
t = number o f o p e r a t i n g h o u r s p e r a p p l i c a t i o n
u s i n g t h e u n i t c a p a c i t y , t h e d e s i g n of t h e c e n t e r p i v o t
system is completed.
I n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n o z z l e and
p i p e l i n e s i z e , t h e d e s i g n must c o n s i d e r h e a d l o s s e a i n t h e
l i n e and t h e p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o e n s u r e p r o p e r o p e r a t i o n o f
t h e nozzles.
U n i t c a p a c i t y a l s o is used t o d e v e l o p d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r
t h e pumps.
Pumps a r e r e q u i r e d t o d e l i v e r w a s t e w a t e r t o t h e
s i t e and
a t a pressure sufficient
to
allow proper
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e wastewater.
Assuming t h e two p i v o t s
o p e r a t e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t h e pumps a r e s i z e d f o r a t o t a l f l o w
o f 179.6 L/s.
The d e s i g n e r c h o s e f o u r pumps and o n e s t a n d b y
The f o r c e m a i n i s s i z e d u s i n g a maximum
r a t e d a t 45 L/s.
v e l o c i t y o f 1 . 7 m / s and t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a :
A = Qt/V
where
A = area o f p i p e
Qt
= t o t a l flow
V = maximum v e l o c i t y
For c i r c u l a r pipes:
where
D = pipe diameter
Applying t h e e q u a t i o n g i v e s :
1 8 0 . ~ / s )(lo-'
m5/~)
(4)
0.37 m ,
u s e 0.38 m
f i n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e d e s i g n o f "he
center pivot
system is t h e d i s r u p t i o n of t h e t r a c k i n g system due t o w e t
s o i l conditions.
Because of t h e p i v o t r o t a t i o n a l s p e e d , t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e a t t h e u n i t c a p a c i t y e q u a l s 1 . 0 cm/h d u r i n g
t h e 9 to 10 h p e r i o d it t a k e s t o p a s s a g i v e n p o i n t .
A l t h o u g h t h i s r a t e i s less t h a n t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o r b a s i c
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e o f t h e s u r f a c e s o i l , p r e c a u t i o n s need t o
be taken.
These p r e c a u t i o n s i n c l u d e p r e p a r i n g t h e t r a c k i n g
r o u t e by e i t h e r s o i l compaction o r g r a v e l i n s t a l l a t i o n .
A
A summary o f d e s i g n d a t a f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t s i t e is g i v e n i n
T a b l e A-8.
F i g u r e A-2
system layout.
A.4.1.8
shows
the
pond
and
distribution
Cost Estimates
C o s t e s t i m a t e s of t h e f o r a g e c r o p i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m a r e
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m EPA p u b l i c a t i o n " C o s t o f Land T r e a t m e n t
u s i n g t h e c r i t e r i a shown i n
S y s t e m s " EPA-430/9-75-003,
T a b l e A-9.
C o s t e s t i m a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s and t o t a l c o s t s are
p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s A-10 a n d A - 1 1 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
INTERCEPTOR
FROM C I T Y
ADMINISTRATION BUlLDlNa
F O R C E M A I N , 0.38 in D I A M E T E R
S l T E BOUNDARY
CENTER P I V O T
I R R I G A T I O N SYSTEM
M O N I T O R I N G WELLS
100
SCALE
F l GURE A-2
SYSTEM LAYOUT : FORAGE CROP ALTERNAT I VE
200
300
400
500
METERS
TABLE A-8
SLOW RATE SYSTEM DESIGN DATA:
Irrigation system
Annual hydraulic loading rate, cm
Field area, ha
Application frequency, No./mo
Maximum hydraulic loading per application, cm
Application equipment, No. of center pivots
~iterallength, m
Operating pressure, N/cm2:
Field dimensions with buffer zone, m x m
Total area, ha
4
10.1
2..408
34.5
1,662
~
x 846.
140.6
Pumping
station
.
~ u t ypumps, NO. at m3/min
Standby pumps, NO. at m3/min
pumping time (peak flow)
h/d
d/wk
h/wk
-
Force main
Velocity, m/s
Average
Maximum
Pipe diameter, m
Maximum headloss, m/1,000 m
TABLE A-9
COST ESTIMATE C R I T E R I A -
FORAGE CROP
ALTERNATIVE^
Circulation date
Sewage treatment plant index update, 370.1/177.5
Sewer index update, 397.2/194.2
Operation and maintenance update, 2.13/1.00
Construction cost locality factor
Operation and maintenance/labor cost factor
Power cost locality factor
Interest rate, i
Interest period, n
Present worth factor, PWF
Capital recovery factor, CRF
a.
Based on "Cost of Land Treatment Systems,"

EPA-430/9-75-003.
October 1980
2.085
2.045
2.13
1.0
1.0
1.0
7.125%
20
0.2525
0.0953
TABLE A-10
COST ESTIMATE CALCULATIONS:
1.
Preliminary treatment
C a p i t a l ($48,000 x 2.085)
O p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e ($9,400 x 2.131
2.
Treatment
Capital
P r i m a r y c e l l ($150,000 x 1.7 x 2.085)
A s p h a l t l i n e r ($352,000 x 2.085)
O p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e ($10,000 x 2.13)
3.
Pumping t o a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e
Peak f l o w = 1 8 0 L / s
Avg f l o w = 1 3 5 L / s
C a p i t a l ($210,000 x 2.085 x 0.80)
4.
F o r c e main (2.6 km: 0.38 m)

C a p i t a l ($162,100 x 2.045)
O p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e ($400 x 2.13)
5.
S t o r a g e (D = 5913, d e p t h = 3.0 m)
C a p i t a l ($447,000 x 2.045)
O p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e ($2.400 x 2.13)
6.
Field preparation
Pond a r e a ( 5 8 ha x 1.25 = 72.5 h a , b r u s h e s and t r e e s )
C a p i t a l ($80,000 x 2.045)
A p p l i c a t i o n s i t e (53.8 h a x 2 = 107.6 h a , p a s t u r e )
C a p i t a l ($1,700 x 2.045)
7.
D i s t r i b u t i o n , c e n t e r p i v o t s (107.6 ha)
C a p i t a l 7$135,000 x 2.045)
8.
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e and l a b o r a t o r y
C a p i t a l ($64,000 x 2.045)
O p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e ($10,200 x 2.13)
9.
Monitoring w e l l s ( s i x w e l l s a t 1 2 m depth)
C a p i t a l ($4,800 x 2.045)
O p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e ($600 x 2.13)
10.
Roads and f e n c e s ( a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e , 140.6 h a )

C a p i t a l ($102,000 x 2.045)
11.
P l a n t i n g and h a r v e s t i n g
O p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e
V a r i a b l e c o s t s ($319/ha x 107.5 h a )
F i x e d c o s t s ($247/ha x 1 0 7 . 5 h a )
12.
Annual c r o p r e v e n u e
107.5 h a x 15.6 t o n s / h a x $ 4 2 / t o n
13.
Land c o s t s
Pond a r e a (72.5 ha x $2,00O/ha)
A p p l i c a t i o n a r e a (140.6 h a x $3,70O/ha)
$163,600
3,500
$208,600
5,800
TABLE A - 1 1
SUMMARY OF COSTS:
Component
Capital
salvagea
O p e r a t i o n and
maintenance
~reatment/storage'ponds
Pumping
F o r c e main
S i t e clearing
Distribution
Administration building
Monitoring
Roads and f e n c e s
Crop r e v e n u e
Total construction
Engineering, contingencies,
overhead, e t c
Land
Total p r o j e c t
P r e s e n t worth
T o t a l p r e s e n t worth
E q u i v a l e n t a n n u a l c o s tb
a.
S a l v a g e v a l u e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d by s t r a i g h t l i n e d e p r e c i a t i o n
o v e r t h e u s e f u l l i f e o f t h e components, e . g . , u s e f u l l i f e o f
ponds N = 40 y r ; p l a n n i n g p e r i o d P = 20 y r ; s a l v a g e v a l u e
F = (1 P/N) ( i n i t i a l c o s t ) = 0 . 5 ( 2 , 1 7 9 , 7 0 0 ) = 1,089,800.
b.
E q u i v a l e n t a n n u a l c o s t = p r e s e n t w o r t h x 0.0953.
A. 4 2
Deciduous
orest st
Crop A l t e r n a t i v e
A s i n the forage crop design,
t h e s e l e c t i o n of t h e nraximum
a l l o w a b l e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g f o r t h e f o r e s t c r o p a1t e r ' n a t i v e
~ninimizes t h e required land area.
In the City A region,
The
d e c i d u o u s t r e e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r p o p l a r , grow w e l l .
p o p l a r i s a f a s t - g r o w i n g t r e e and a p u l p wood m a r k e t e x i s t s .
A.4.2.1
H y d r a u l i c L o a d i n g Based o n S o i l
Permeability
The m o n t h l y water b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e d e t e r m i n e d as i n
The g r o w i n g s e a s o n f o r t h e
t h e f o r a g e c r o p water b a l a n c e .
d e c i d u o u s t r e e s e l e c t e d l a s t s 214 d a y 2 b a s e d o n a n a v e r a g e
mean t e m p e r a t u r e o f 1 0 OC ( 5 0 O F ) .
E v a p o r a t i o n from t h e
f o r e s t d u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g s e a s o n i s assumed t o e q u a l t h a t
from a f u l l c o v e r p a s t u r e l a n d .
No e v a p o r a t i o n i s assumed
f o r t h e nongrowing s e a s o n ; wastewater a p p l i e d d u r i n g t h i s
t i m e i s l i m i t e d b y p r e c i p i t a t i o n and p e r c o l a t i o n .
Elecause
t h e s i t e i s t h e same f o r b o t h f o r a g e and f o r e s t a l t e r n a t i v e ,
t h e d e s i g n p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e i s t h e same.
Applying t h e s e
a s s u m p t i o n s t o t h e water b a l a n c e E q u a t i o n 4-3 r e s u l t s i n a
maximum h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g o f 3 2 1 cm ( 1 2 6 i n . ) a n d a maximum
m o n t h l y l o a d i n g o f 46.2 c m ( 1 8 . 2 i n . ) .
A. 4.2.2
H y d r a u l i c Loading Based o n N i t r o g e n
Load i ng
E q u a t i o n 4-4 i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s
based o n n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g as i n t h e f o r a g e c r o p a l t e r n a t i v e
( S e c t i o n A.4.1.2).
No c r o p g r o w t h o r n i t r o g e n u p t a k e was
assumed f o r t h e months o f December t h r o u g h March.
Using a
w h o l e - t r e e h a r v e s t a p p r o a c h , t h e t o t a l a n n u a l n i t r o g e n upt a k e i s assumed t o e q u a l 200 kg/ha ( 1 7 8 l b / a c r e )
(see
Based o n t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s , t h e a n n u a l
S e c t i o n 4.3.2.1).
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g e q u a l s 268 c m ( 1 0 5 . 5 i n . ) .
A.4.2.3
D e s i g n H y d r a u l i c Loading R a t e
A s i n t h e forage crop a l t e r n a t i v e , nitrogen loading l i m i t s

t h e h y d r a u l i c loading rate.
Design monthly h y d . r a u l i c
l o a d i n g r a t e s are d e t e r m i n e d by c o m p a r i n g t h e m o n t h l y
h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e s b a s e d o n s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t y and
n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g and u s i n g t h e l o w e r v a l u e .
Based o n t h i s
comparison t h e d e s i g n annual h y d r a u l i c loading r a t e is
254 c m ( 1 0 0 i n . ) .
A. 4.2.4
F i e l d Area Requirements
A p p l y i n g E q u a t i o n 4-6 and a s s u m i n g t h e n e t g a i n / l o s s
s t o r a g e , AV,, is z e r o , t h e i n i t i a l f i e l d a r e a is:
A.4.2.5
from
A s i n t h e c a s e w i t h f o r a g e , s t o r a g e of w a s t e w a t e r d u r i n g
n o n o p e r a t i n g t i m e d e p e n d s o n m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g s and
available
wastewater.
Applying
the
water
balance
E q u a t i o n 4-3 and f o l l o w i n g s t e p s 1-4 o f S e c t i o n A.4.1.5
r e s u l t s i n T a b l e A-12.
The n e t s t o r a g e volume r e q u i r e d f o r
y e a r - r o u n d a p p l i c a t i o n i s shown below:
vSt
= ( 6 4 . 6 c m l ( 1 0 8 . 8 h a ) ( 1 0 2 ) = 702,800
m3
TABLE A-12
INITIAL DETERMINATION OF STORAGE VOLUME:
FOREST CROP ALTERNATIVE
cm
Month
ET
ET-P
Oct
9.9
5.0
-4.9
Pw
38.9
Lw(p)
Lw(n)
Lw
Available
wastewater
wa
34.0
17.3
17.3
21.5
Change in
storage
4.2
Cumulative
storage
Sc
0.2~
Jan
10.1
-10.1
15.8
5.7
9.4
5.7
21.5
15.8
28.3
Feb
10.4
-10.4
18.7
8.3
'9.6
8.3
19.5
11.2
44.1
Mar
15.1
-15.1
27.4
12.3
14.0
12.3
21.6
9.3
55.3
Apr
15.8
-10.2
43.2
33.0
23.8
23.8
20.9
-2.9
64.6
May
17.4
9.7
-7,7
44.6
36.9
32.0
32.0
21.6
-10.4
61.7
Jun
14.2
13.4
-0.9
43.2
42.3
35.1
35.1
20.9
-14.2
51.3
Jul
14.0
15.7
1.6
44.6
46.2
38.7
38.7
21.6
-17.1
37.1
Aug
12.2
13.9
1.6
44.6
46.2
34.1
34.1
21.6
-12.5
20.0
43.2
37.4
28.2
28.2
20.9
-7.3
7.5
Sep
Annual
a.
14.7
162
5.6
8.9
72
-5.8
-90
410
321
268
254
A. 4.2.6
F i n a l S t o r a g e and Pond D e s i g n
The s t e p s o u t l i n e d i n S e c t i o n A.4.1.6 a r e f o l l o w e d t o d e t e r mine t h e f i n a l s t o r a g e and pond d e s i g n .

The d e s i g n o f t h e
p r i m a r y c e l l r e m a i n s t h e same w i t h t h e s e c o n d a r y c e l l b e i n g
u s e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e n e t g a i n / l o s s from t h e pond a ~ r e ad u e
t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n , e v a p o r a t i o n , and s e e p a g e .
A s before, the
i n i t i a l d e p t h o f t h e s e c o n d a r y c e l l is assumed a t 1 . 5 m
(5 f t )
resulting
in
a
storage
pond
area
of
20 h a
(50 acres).
The a d j u s t e d f i e l d a r e a i s c a l c u l a t e d t o be
113.2 h a ( 280 a c r e s ) .
The r e s u l t s of s e c o n d a r y c e l l d e s i g n
are shown i n T a b l e A-13.
TABLE A-13
DESIGN DATA FOR STORAGE POND:
Secondary c e l l
S u r f a c e a r e a , ha
20
T o t a l depth, m
2.9
Operating depth, m
2.4
63
Storage a t operating depth, d

Total storage a t operating depth
Days
m3
A.4.2.7
116
880,000
D i s t r i b u t i o n and A p p l i c a t i o n
S o l i d s e t s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s , b o t h s u r f a c e and b u r i e d , a r e
t h e m o s t common methods used i n f o r e s t c r o p s f o r d i s t r i b u t i n g wastewater.
I n t h e c a s e o f C i t y A, t h e p r o p o s e d
t r e a t m e n t s i t e i s u n d e r p a s t u r e and t h e s u b s o i l s a r e u n i f o r m
w i t h o u t much d e b r i s ,
c o n s e q u e n t l y e i t h e r s y s t e m would
work.
The i n s t a l l a t i o n cost f o r t h e s u r f a c e s y s t e m is l e s s
t h a n t h e b u r i e d s y s t e m , b u t t h e c o s t f o r o p e r a t i o n and mainA f t e r comparing
t e n a n c e i s less f o r t h e b u r i e d s y s t e m .
t o t a l c o s t and d i s c u s s i n g w i t h C i t y A t h e i r d e s i r e f o r low
o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t , t h e d e s i g n e r se1ect:ed t h e
b u r i e d s o l i d s e t s p r i n k l e r system.
The d e s i g n o f t h e s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m i s b a s e d o n t h e maximum
hydraulic load per application.
An a p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y o f
4 t i m e s p e r month is c h o s e n t o a l l o w a d e q u a t e a e r a t i o n o f
t h e tree r o o t s y s t e m .
Based o n a maximum m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c
l o a d i n g o f 38.7 c m ( 1 5 . 2 i n . ) , t h e maximum h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g
Referring
p e r a p p l i c a t i o n of 9.7 c m ( 3 . 8 i n . ) is o b t a i n e d .
to manufacturers
literature
for
solid
set
irrigation
design
data
are obtained
and
presented
in
sys terns,
Table A-14
The pond and irrigation system layout is shown
in Figure A-3.
TABLE A-14
DESIGN DATA:
I r r i g a t i o n system
Annual h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e , c m
F i e l d a r e a , ha
Buffer, m
A p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y , No. /mo
T o t a l a r e a , ha
Maximum h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g p e r a p p l i c a t i o n , cm
D i s t r i b u t i o n system
Spacing, m x m
S p r i n k l e r f l o w , L/s a t N / c m 2
12
2
24
S e t t i n g s p e r day, No.
O p e r a t i n g t i m e , h/d
Duty pumps, No. a t m 3/min

Standby pumps, N.o. a t m 3/min
Pumping t i m e
h/d
d/wk
h/wk
F o r c e main
Velocity, m/s
Average
Maximum
Pipe diameter, m
Maximum h e a d l o s s , m/1,000 m
9.7
Buried s o l i d
s e t sprinklers
18 x 21
432
24
S p r i n k l e r s p e r l i n e , No.
Application period, h
Pumping s t a t i o n
15
4
123.5
0.85 @ 36, 0.63 cm diam
Lateral length, m
L a t e r a l s p e r s e t t i n g , No.
Pumping r a t e , 9 x 24 x 0.85,
2 54
113
L/S
9
184
METERS
A.4.2.8
Cost Estimates
C o s t e s t i m a t e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d by t h e same method used f o r

t h e f o r a g e c r o p a l t e r n a t i v e ( T a b l e A-9) and a r e summarized
i n T a b l e A-15.
Crop r e v e n u e i s b a s e d o n a h a r v e s t o f onef o u r t h of t h e a r e a e v e r y y e a r b e g i n n i n g t h e f o u r t h y e a r , a n
ton/
a n n u a l g r o w t h r a t e o f 25 t o n s / h a , a d r y w e i g h t o f 0 . 4
c o r d , and a stumpage p r i c e o f $ 4 / c o r d used f o r pulpwood.
TABLE A-15
SUMMARY OF COST: DECIDUOUS FORESTS
Capital
Component
T r e a t m e n t / s t o r a g e ponds
Pumping
' F o r c e main
S i t e clearing
Distribution
Administration building
O p e r a t i o n and
maintenance
Salvage
100,100
20,000
20,000
2,206,300
1,103,100
26,800
325,300
39,000
55,600
314,000
157,000
900
167,500
1,295,700
54,200
130,900
26,200
21,700
14,000
--
2,800
--
--
-28,000
Monitoring
Roads
Crop revenue
Total construction
$4,676,100
Engineering, contingencies,
o v e r h e a d , etc
1,169,000
$1,420,300
--
160,200
--
Land
Total project
--
P r e s e n t worth
T o t a l p r e s e n t worth
Annual e q u i v a l e n t c o s t
$7,497,600
$
714,500
-635,400
1,681,000
A.4.3
S e l e c t e d SR Design
Comparing a n n u a l e q u i v a l e n t c o s t s , t h e f o r a g e c r o p a l t e r n a t i v e is t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e
a l t e r n a t i v e , with an
a n n u a l e q u i v a l e n t c o s t o f $609,20O/yr, and i s s e l e c t e d .
Management o f
t h e s e l e c t e d a l t e r n a t i v e c o n s i s t s of a n
initial
seedbed
preparation,
seeding,
culti.vating ,
i r r i g a t i n g , and h a r v e s t i n g f o u r t i m e s p e r y e a r .
Prior to
h a r v e s t i n g , t h e f i e l d r e q u i r e s a drying period of 2 t o 3
weeks.
The h a r v e s t e d f o r a g e g r a s s i s t h e n chopped and
h a u l e d away f o r u s e .
The h a r v e s t i n g may be h a n d l e d e i t h e r
by C i t y A p e r s o n n e l or c o n t r a c t e d o u t s i d e .
Assuming
c o n t r a c t harvesting, t h e estimated s t a f f requirement f o r a l l
of t h e r e m a i n i n g o p e r a t i o n i s 1 . 5 man-years p e r y e a r .
A.4.4
Energy R e q u i r e m e n t s
The two a r e a s of o p e r a t i o n t h a t c o n t r i b u t e most; t o t h e

and
crop
system
energy
requirements
are
pumping
production.
Assuming 3 , 9 0 0 h o u r s o f o p e r a t i n g t i m e , 75%
o v e r a l l s y s t e m e f f i c i e n c y , and 20% h e a d l o s s t h r o u g h t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m , t h e e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r pu:mping i s
shown below:
TDH = p i p e losses
Energy
operating pressure
a t sprinkler
l o s s e s through
distribution
systern
= (Q)(TDH)(t)
(6,123) (E)
E n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r f o r a g e c r o p p r o d u c t i o n i s computed u s i n g
t h e e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t f a c t o r g i v e n i n T a b l e 8-1.
Energy
- 107.5 h a x ( 3 . 6 3 MJ/ha)
3.6 MJ/kWh
Therefore,
the
example is:
total
annual
energy
budget
for
this
SR
The t o t a l e n e r g y b u d g e t f o r a n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e and a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m o f e q u a l s i e would b e

6 8 0 , 0 0 0 kWh/yr e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y and 3 , 1 0 0 x 10' BTU/yr f u e l
e n e r g y o r a t o t a l o f 9 6 7 , 0 0 0 kWh/yr.
APPENDIX B
RAPID INFILTRATION DESIGN EXAMPLE
B.l
Introduction
The d e s i g n example d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s a p p e n d i x i s i n t e n d e d t o
demonstrate only t h e R I design procedures described i n
C h a p t e r 5 ; t h e r e f o r e , components t h a t are common t o m o s t
wastewater t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s , s u c h a s t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s
and pumping s t a t i o n s , a r e d e s c r i b e d b u t n o t d e s i g n e d i n
detail.
However, a c o s t e s t i m a t e and a n e n e r g y b u d g e t a r e
developed f o r t h e e n t i r e system.
B. 2
Design C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
B.2.1
D e s i g n Community
Community B i s l o c a t e d i n t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s on
the Coastal Plain.
The a r e a i n which t h e community is l o c a t e d is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e l a t i v e l y f l a t a r e a s l y i n g between
numerous c r e e k s and swamps t h a t d r a i n i n t o N o r t h C r e e k .
One
of t h e s e c r e e k s , South Creek, b o r d e r s t h e n o r t h e a s t edge of
t h e community.
The e l e v a t i o n o f Community B i s 45.7 m ( 1 5 0
f t ) ; n e a r t h e community, e l e v a t i o n s r a n g e from 42.7 t o
54.9 m ( 1 4 0 t o 180 f t ) .
B.2.2
W a s t e w a t e r Q u a l i t y and Q u a n t i t y
The d e s i g n a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w if 6 , 0 6 0 m3/d ( 1 . 6 Mgal/d) and

t h e d e s i g n p e a k f l o w i s 9 , 0 9 0 m /d ( 2 . 4 Mgal/d).
E x p e c t e d w a s t e w a t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u n d e r d e s i g n f l o w conWastewater is e s s e n t i d i t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e B-1.
a l l y d o m e s t i c i n c h a r a c t e r and e x p e c t e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f
t r a c e e l e m e n t s and o r g a n i c s a r e low.
TABLE B-1
PROJECTED WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Parameter
BOD5,
Value
mg/L
17 5
T o t a l suspended s o l i d s , mg/L
150
T o t a l n i t r o g e n , mg/L
50
Ammonia n i t r o g e n ( a s N) , mg/L
20
T o t a l phosphorus ( a s . P)
pH,
units
mg/L
10
6.9
B.2.3
E x i s t i n g Wastewater Treatment F a c i l i t i e s
The e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t ,
and t r e a t e d w a s t e w a t e r f a i l s t o m e e t p r e s e n t d i s c h a r g e
requirements.
The f a c i l i t i e s a r e o l d and would r e q u i r e
s i g n i f i c a n t r e p a i r s and a d d i t i o n s t o p r o d u c e t r e a t e d w a t e r
t h a t would meet a l l d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
B.2.4
Discharge r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s u r f a c e w a t e r s are p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e B-2.
The ammonia n i t r o g e n l i m i t d u r i n g summe~r months
is i n t e n d e d t o p r e v e n t ammonia t o x i c i t y t o f i s h .
The i n h i b i t e d t e s t f o r c a r b o n a c e o u s BOD d o e s n o t measure n i t r o g e n o u s
BOD.
The t e s t i s o f t e n s p e c i f i e d f o r s y s t e m s t h a t n i t r i f y
w a s t e w a t e r , b e c a u s e s u c h s y s t e m s t e n d t o have h i g h e r BOD5
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s although t h e water q u a l i t y is equivalent.
t
TABLE 8-2
SURFACE WATER DISCHARGE REQUIREMENTS
Parameter
BOD5 Y mg/L
( i n h i b i t e d t e s t f o r carbonaceous BOD)
Dissolved oxygen, mg/L
PH
T o t a l suspended s o l i d s , mg/L
F e c a l c o l i f o r m s , MPN/100 mL
Ammonia n i t r o g e n ( a s N ) , mg/L
(May-October o n l y )
B.2.5
North
Creek
South
Creek
3o
2o
6-9
6-9
30
20
200
200
Climate
Average t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n Community B w e r e

o b t a i n e d from l o c a l c l i m a t o l o g i c a l d a t a and a r e shown by
A r a i n f a l l frequency distr:ibution
month i n T a b l e B-3.
c u r v e , d e v e l o p e d from 26 y e a r s of r e c o r d e d d a t a , i n d i c a t e s
t h a t t h e wettest y e a r i n 1 0 y i e l d s 1 3 7 c m ( 5 4 i n . ) o f p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n Community B.
The a v e r a g e t o t a l a n n u a l g r e c i p i t a t i o n ( r a i n p l u s snow) i s 111 c m (43.7 i n . ) .
TABLE B-3
AVERAGE METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Precipitation, cm
Temperature,
Month
O C
Jan
8.6
Feb
Mar
Rain
snowa
9.3
12.6
6.71
8.05
9.24
0.25
0.51
1.02
APr
17.5
9.17
0.00
May
Jun
22.2
26.0
7.34
10.87
Q. 00
Jul
$5.85
0.00
0.00
Aug
27.0
26.6
11.61
0.00
Oct
18.3
Nov
Dec
12.6
8.4
5.54
5.87
7.77
Year
17.8
108.43
a.
B.3
0.00
Trace
0.76
2.54
Water e q u i v a l e n t .
S i t e and P r o c e s s S e l e c t i o n
Community B c o n t a c t e d l a n d o w n e r s w i t h i n a 4 k m ( 2 . 5 m i l e )
r a d i u s of t h e e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s t o d e t e r m i n e
t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n l e a s i n g or s e l l i n g t h e i r p r o p e r t y f o r l a n d
treatment.
F i v e p o t e n t i a l s i t e s were i d e n t i f i e d d u r i n g
P h a s e 1 o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s and s c r e e n e d i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e i n C h a p t e r 2,
Two of t h e s i t e s were
a v a i l a b l e f o r p u r c h a s e and had s o i l s s u i t a b l e f o r R I
( S i t e s 1 and 2 on F i g u r e - 1
One of t h e s e t w o s i t e s
( S i t e 2 ) and t h e t h r e e r e m a i n i n g s i t e s had enough l a n d t o be
s u i t a b l e f o r SR.
None o f t h e s o i l s i n t h e a r e a were s u i t T h e r e f o r e , OF was e l i m i n a t e d from
a b l e f o r OF ( T a b l e B-4).
consideration a s a viable alternative.
During P h a s e 2 o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s , f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
w e r e c o n d u c t e d a t e a c h of t h e f i v e s i t e s .
Based o n t h e
f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n c r i t e r i a and c o s t
e s t i m a t e s were d e v e l o p e d .
This analysis indicated t h a t the
two R I a l t e r n a t i v e s were more c o s t e f f e c t i v e t h a n a n y o f t h e
SR a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d l o w e r i n t o t a l p r e s e n t w o r t h t h a n t h e
best
conventional
secondary
treatment
and
discharge
alternative.
The p r e l i m i n a r y . a n a l y s i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t
a n R I f a c i l i t y a t S i t e 1 would be s l i g h t l y less e x p e n s i v e
For t h e s e r e a s o n s , t h e a l t e r t h a n a n R I s y s t e m a t S i t e 2.
n a t i v e s e l e c t e d by Community B was R I a t S i t e 1.
OR
Pm
Sw
OKENEE SERIES
PLUMMER SERIES
SWAMP
SCALE
FIGURE B - 1
SOILS MAP, S I T E S 1 AND 2
METERS
TABLE B-4
GENERAL SOIL CHARACTERISTICS, SITES 1 AND 2
SCS
USDA
texture
Estimated
permeability,
cm/h
Depth t o
seasonal
high water
table, m
soil
series
Depth,
Caxville
(CX)
0-30
Fine sandy
loam t o
sandy loam
0.13-0.51
30-91
Sandy clay
loam t o
sandy clay
0.13-0.51
--
0-41
Sand t o
loamy sand
25
41-91
Loamy sand
t o sand
5.1-13
Huckabee
(HcBl
Lakeland
( L a , LaD,
LkA)
Norfolk
(NoA, NcB)
Norolk
cm
0-20
Sand
25
1.5+
-l.5+
20-137
Sand t o
loamy sand
6.4-13
--
0-76
Loamy sand
6.4-13
0.9
76-107
Sandy loam
6.4-13
--
0-33
Sandy loera
2.0-6.4
0.9
33-112
Sandy clay
loam
0.13-0.51
--
2.0-6.4
Sand loam
t o sandy
clay loam
0.51-2.0
--
0-28
Loamy sand
2.0-6.4
28-81
Loamy sand
0.51-2.0
--
Drainage
class
Available
water
capacity,
cm/m
ShrinkSwell
potential
Structure
poor
13
LOW
Crumb
--
12
Lowmoderate
subangular
blocky
Excessive
5.8
Low
5.8
Low
Crumb
5.8
Low
crumb
--
5.8
Low
structureless
Well
6.7
Low
--
6.7
Law
Well
8.3
LOW
--
8.3
LOW
Subangular
blocky
--
Excessive
pH
5.1-5.5
Fine t e x t u r e , low permeability; high water

table; poor drainage;
moderate-shrink-swell
5.6-6.0
High water t a b l e
5.6-6.0
Fine texture; low permeability; high water

table
5.1-5.5
Fine texture; low permeability; high water

t a b l e ; poor drainage;
moderate shrink-swell
Low permeability; high

water table; poor
drainage
subangular
blocky
(NsB)
Okenee
(Ok)
0-33
33-107
~lrrmmer
(Pm)
Swamp
(SW)
0-91
Loam
Variable
Variable
Limitations f o r rapid
infiltration
Poor
12
Moderate
crumb
--
14
Low
Subangular
blocky
poor
6.7
LOW
Crumb
5.1-5.5
--
5.7
Low
sub-
5.1-5.5
--
angular
blocky
Poor
Variable
Low
Variable
5.1-5.5
High water t a b l e ; poor

drainage
B.4
S i t e Investigations
The s e l e c t e d s i t e f o r R I i s 2.4 km ( 1 . 5 m i l e s ) from t h e

e x i s t i n g wastewater treatment f a c i l i t i e s .
The s i t e c o n t a i n s
48 h a ( 1 2 0 a c r e s ) o f l a n d and was c o v e r e d w i t h b r u s h and
trees.
Near N o r t h C r e e k , t h e ground s u r f a c e d r o p s v e r t i c a l l y about 6 m (20 f t ) , forming a r e l a t i v e l y s t e e p b l u f f a s
i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e B-2.
West of t h e b l u f f , e1t;vation
v a r i e s l e s s t h a n ' 0.6 m ( 2 f t )
B.4.1
A s i n d i c a t e d by F i g u r e B-1 and T a b l e B-4,

the soils a t
S i t e 1 t h a t are b e s t s u i t e d f o r R I a r e t h e Lakeland s a n d s
(LaB and LaD i n F i g u r e B - 1 ) .
These p e r m e a b l e s o i l s a r e
~ h u s ,RI
found a t S i t e 1 o n l y n e a r t h e c e n t e r of t h e s i t e .
is p o t e n t i a l l y f e a s i b l e o n l y i n a l i m i t e d p o r t i o n of
Because i t would have c o s t Community B a s m.uch t o
S i t e 1.
buy o n l y t h e l a n d needed f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m a s t o buy
t h e e n t i r e s i t e ( t h e unused p o r t i o n of t h e s i t e b e i n g m o s t l y
the
swamp and t h e r e f o r e u n d e v e l o p a b l e ) , a c q u i s i t i o n o f
e n t i r e s i t e was n e c e s s a r y .
To v e r i f y t h a t S i t e 1 h a s a d e q u a t e s o i l d e p t h and d e p t h t o
and t o a s c e r t a i n t h e a b s e n c e o f
g r o u n d water f o r R I ,
s h a l l o w , impermeable s o i l l a y e r s , n i n e t e s t holes; were
d r i l l e d a s shown i n F i g u r e B-2.
A t y p i c a l b o r i n g l o g from
t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e B-5.
A t this partic u l a r t e s t h o l e , t h e p r e s e n c e o f ground w a t e r a t a d e p t h o f
3.2 t o 3.5 m ( 1 0 t o 11 f t ) and a n impermeable c l a y l a y e r a t
6.5 m ( 2 1 f t ) means t h a t p e r c o l a t i o n c o u l d o c c u r o n l y t o a
d e p t h o f a b o u t 3.2 t o 3.5 m ( 1 0 t o 11 f t ) and t h a t t h e f l o w
o f water below t h i s d e p t h i s p r i m a r i l y h o r i z o n t a l r a t h e r
than vertical.
TABLE B-5
TYPICAL LOG OF TEST HOLE
Depth, m
USDA t e x t u r e
Remarks
0-1
1- 2
Loamy sand
Sandy loam
---
2-2.2
2.2-3.2
3.2-3.5
3.5-6.5
>6.5
Loamy sand
Sand
Sand
Sand
Clay
With t h i n s i l t l e n s e s
--
Ground water t a b l e
Saturated
Impermeable
SCALE
.
WATER
FIGURE 8 - 2
GROUNDWATER CONTOURS
B.4.2
Ground W a t e r C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
A t t h e s e l e c t e d s i t e , t h e d e p t h t o g r o u n d water r a n g e s from
1 . 5 t o 4.6 m ( 5 t o 1 5 f t ) and i s t y p i c a l l y 3 m ( 1 0 f t ) .
The
g r o u n d water a q u i f e r i s 1 . 5 t o 4.6 m ( 5 t o 1 5 f t ) t h i c k and
i s u n d e r l a i n by impermeable c l a y .
The c l a y l a y e r p r e v e n t s
d e e p v e r t i c a l p e r c o l a t i o n and c a u s e s t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t o
f l o w l a t e r a l l y t o w a r d N o r t h C r e e k , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e
a p p r o x i m a t e d g r o u n d water c o n t o u r s shown i n F i g u r e B-2.
B e c a u s e o f t h e s h a l l o w g r o u n d water t a b l e , t h e r e i s a p o t e n t i a l f o r mounding o f t h e p e r c o l a t e and u n d e r d r a i n s m u s t b e
considered.
Horizontal hydraulic conductivity
in the
aquifer
w a s measured
using
the
auger hole
technique
and a v e r a g e d 3.4 m/d (11 f t / d ) .
( s e c t i o n 3.6.2.1)
F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h g r o u n d w a t e r q u a l i t y is a d e q u a t e f o r
supply purposes, t h e a q u i f e r is t o o t h i n t o allow
The
p r o d u c t i o n w e l l s t o e x t r a c t g r o u n d water e c o n o m i c a l . l y .
c l o s e s t d o m e s t i c water s u p p l y w e l l t o t h e R I s i t e i.s 1 . 6 km
(1 m i l e ) s o u t h w e s t and u p g r a d i e n t o f t h e s i t e .
This w e l l
a n d o t h e r s i n t h e area pump water from d e p t h s o f 90 t o o v e r
1 5 0 m (300 to o v e r 5 0 0 f t ) .
Thus, t h e s h a l l o w a q u i f e r
u n d e r l y i n g t h e area t o b e u s e d f o r R I and betweein t h e RI
area a n d N o r t h C r e e k w i i l n o t be u s e d a s a p o t a b l e w a t e r
source.
C u r r e n t g r o u n d water q u a l i t y d a t a are- p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e B-6.
water
TABLE B-6
GROUND WATER QUALITY
Parameter
pH,
units
6.8
S p e c i f i c conductance, pmhos
120
N i t r a t e n i t r o g e n , mg/L
8.4
F e c a l c o l i f o r m s , MPN/100 mt
B.4.3
Concentration
Hydraulic Capacity
B a s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n tests a t t h e s e l e c t e d s i t e w e r e p e r f o r m e d
w i t h c l e a r water u s i n g 3.6 b y 3.6 by 0.5 m ( 1 2 b y 1 2 by
1 . 5 f t ) b a s i n s f i l l e d t o a d e p t h o f 22 t o 30 cm ( 9 t o
12 in.).
B e c a u s e t h e s o i l and g r o u n d w a t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
were g e n e r a l l y u n i f o r m t h ~ r o u g h o u t t h e s i t e , o n l y two b a s i n
I f t h e r e s u l t s of t h e s e
i n f i l t r a t i o n t e s t s were p e r f o r m e d .
t w o t e s t s had c o n f l i c t e d , a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s would h a v e b e e n
conducted.
R e s u l t s from o n e o f t h e two i n f i l t r a t i o n t e s t s
are p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e B-3.
A s shown i n t h i s f i g u r e , t h e
resulting limiting i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e a t t h i s basin was
ACCUMULATED INTAKE
AVERAOE INTAKE RATE
L I M I T I N G INFILTRATION RATE
1
50
150
200
250
30 0
950
ELAPSED T I M E , m i n
FIGURE 9-3
INTAKE CURVES
INFILTRATION BASIN 1
400
,
I .
450
T h i s was t h e minimum i n i l t r a t i . o n r a t e
2.5 cm/h (1 i n . / h )
from t h e t w o t e s t s and was used a s t h e b a s i s f o r d e s i g n .
B.5
D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f W a s t e w a t e r Loading R a t e
B.5.1
reapplication T r e a t m e n t L e v e l
The e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s a r e o l d and n e c e s s a r y
r e p a i r work would n o t ' be c o s t e f f e c t i v e .
T h e r e f o r e , new
p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s are needed.
To c o n s o l i d a t e t h e t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s , Community B d e c i d e d t o l o c a t e
t h e p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e RI
f a c i l i t i e s a t S i t e 1.
Because S i t e 1 i s c l o s e t o t h e
community, b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t p r i o r t o l a n d t r e a t m e n t was
a p p r o p r i a t e ( S e c t i o n 5.3.1).
The a r e a e x p e r i e n c e s m i l d
w i n t e r w e a t h e r , making ponds t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e form o f
preapplication treatment.
The l a n d a v a i l a b l e f o r p r e a p p l i c a t i o n t r e a t m e n t was somewhat
l i m i t e d ; t o m i n i m i z e t h e pond a r e a , a n a v e r a g e d e p t h o f
3.6 m ( 1 2 f t ) was s e l e c t e d .
The pond d e s i g n i n c l u d e d s u r f a c e a e r a t o r s t o be used p e r i o d i c a l l y f o r o d o r c o n t r o l and
t o k e e p t h e pond from becoming e n t i r e l y a n a e r o b i c . The pond
was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e a e r a t i o n c e l l s f o r f 1 e x i b i l : i t y and
A d e s i g n d e t e n t i o n t i m e o f 3 d a y s was s e l e c t e d
reliability.
and a d j u s t a b l e w e i r s were i n c l u d e d i n e a c h c e l l t o a l l o w
wastewater withdrawal a f t e r 1 t o 2 days i f t r e a t m e n t e f f i c i e n c y i s h i g h o r if t h e B0D:N r a t i o must be i n c r e a s e d t o
promote d e n i t r i f i c a t i o n d u r i n g R I .
The e x p e c t e d e f f l u e n t
q u a l i t y from t h e a e r a t e d l a g o o n s i s 75 mg/L BO:D5 and
90 mg/L SS.
Because o f t h e s h o r t d e t e n t i o n time., t h e
n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t w i l l r e m a i n a t 50 mg/L and t h e ,smmonia
n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t w i l l be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 mg/L.
B.5.2
H y d r a u l i c Loading R a t e
The a n n u a l h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e was d e s i g n e d t o be w i t h i n
10
t o 1 5 % of
the
limiting
basin
infiltration, rate
( T a b l e 5-11 and S e c t i o n 5 . 4 ) .
A median v a l u e of 1 2 . 5 % w a s
s e l e c t e d and t h e w a s t e w a t e r l o a d i n g r a t e was caLculaited a s
follows :
B.5.3
H y d r a u l i c Loading Cycle
Because t h e r e n o v a t e d w a t e r w i l l flow l a t e r a l l y or be
d r a i n e d i n t o N o r t h C r e e k , n i t r i f i c a t i o n o r ammonium n i t r o g e n
r e m o v a l i s n e c e s s a r y d u r i n g t h e months o f May t h r o u g h
October.
To maximize n i t r i f i c a t i o n , a l o a d i n g c y c l e o f
2 d a y s of f l o o d i n g a l t e r n a t e d w i t h 1 2 d a y s o f d r y i n g w a s
s e l e c t e d (Section 5.4.2).
Using t h i s l o a d i n g c y c l e and t h e
assumed l o a d i n g r a t e , t h e volume o f w a t e r a p p l i e d d u r i n g
e a c h l o a d i n g c y c l e is:
B.5.4
E f f e c t o f P r e c i p i t a t i o n on Wastewater Loading
Rate
A s shown i n T a b l e B-3,
p r e c i p i t a t i o n i n Community B a v e r a g e s
111 cm/yr ( 3 . 6 f t / y r ) and v a r i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r from
(2.2 t o 6.2 in./mo).
A s mentioned i n
5.5 t o 1 5 . 9 c m / m o
S e c t i o n B.2.5,
t h e w e t t e s t y e a r i n 1 0 would y i e l d 1 3 7 c m
(54 i n . ) of p r e c i p i t a t i o n .
T h i s amount r o u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d s
to
a
maximum
monthly
precipitation
of
20 cm/mo
( 8 . 0 in./mo)
Adding maximum m o n t h l y p r e c i p i t a t i o n t o t h e
(7.5 ft/mo)
a v e r a g e w a s t e w a t e r l o a d i n g r a t e o f 2.3 m/mo
r e s u l t e d i n a maximum m o n t h l y h y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e o f
2 . 5 m/mo ( 8 . 2 f t / m o ) .
T h i s combined l o a d i n g r a t e i s 1 3 % o f
t h e t e s t b a s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , was a c c e p t a b l e ( S e c t i o n 5.4.1).
For land requirement c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e p r e v i o u s l y c a l c u l a t e d

w a s t e w a t e r l o a d i n g r a t e ( 2 7 . 4 m/yr o r 90 f t / y r ) w a s u s e d
because p r e c i p i t a t i o n is r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t most of
the time.
B ..5.5
Underdrainage
A s discussed
i n S e c t i o n 5.7.2,
a t R I s i t e s where b o t h t h e
g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l e and . t h e i m p e r m e a b l e l a y e r u n d e r n e a t h t h e
a q u i f e r a r e r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , i t may be
p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d l e n g t h y mounding e q u a t i o n s by u s i n g t h e
following procedure:
1.
Assume u n d e r d r a i n s a r e n e e d e d .
2.
U s e E q u a t i o n 5-4
3.
If
t h e c a l c u l a t e d d r a i n s p a c i n g is r e a s o n a b l e
( b e t w e e n 1 0 m and 50 m o r 3 3 f t and 1 6 0 f t ) , d r a i n s
s h o u l d be u s e d .
to c a l c u l a t e d r a i n spacing.
4.
I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d s p a c i n g i s l e s s t h a n 1 0 m , no
mounding c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e needed b u t t h e cost o f
t h e u n d e r d r a i n s may c a u s e t h e s y s t e m n o t t o be c o s t
e f f e c t i v e and may n e c e s s i t a t e r e c o n s i d e r a t : i o n o f
o t h e r s i t e s i d e n t i f i e d d u r i n g P h a s e 1.
5.
I f t h e c a l c u l a t e d s p a c i n g i s g r e a t e r t h a n 50 m , a n
e v a l u a t i o n of ground w a t e r mounding i s n e c e s s a r y .
B e c a u s e S i t e 1 i s u n d e r l a i n by a r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w imperm e a b l e l a y e r , u n d e r d r a i n s would be t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d r a i n a g e
method.
A d r a i n d e p t h o f 3 m ( 1 0 f t ) and a n a l l o w a b l e
g r o u n d w a t e r mound h e i g h t above t h e d r a i n s o f 0.6 m ( 2 f t )
were assumed.
Using E q u a t i o n 5-4,
d r a i n s p a c i n g was
calculated :
where
S = d r a i n spacing, m
K = h o r i z o n t a l h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , m/d
= 3.4 m/d ( S e c t i o n B.4.2)
a l l o w a b l e h e i g h t o f t h e ground w a t e r mound
above t h e d r a i n s , in
= 0.6 m
d = d i s t a n c e from d r a i n s t o u n d e r l y i n g impermeable
layer, m
= 3 m
L
,
= a n n u a l w a s t e w a t e r l o a d i n g r a t e , m/d
P = a v e r a g e p r e c i p i t a t i o n r a t e , m/d
'26 m ( 8 5 f t )
B e c a u s e t h i s s p a c i n g i s r e a s o n a b l e and w i l l k e e p t h e mound
from becoming a p r o b l e m , a d d i t i o n a l mounding c a l c u l a t i o n s
were n o t n e c e s s a r y .
Because t h e p e r c o l a t e c o l l e c t e d j.n t h e
u n d e r d r a i n s w i l l be d i s c h a r g e d i n t o N o r t h C r e e k , i t was
n e c e s s a r y t o d e s i g n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e s y s t e m t o meet t h e
d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s summarized i n T a b l e B-2.
To d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e p r o p o s e d s y s t e m c o u l d m e e t t h e
summer ammonia n i t r o g e n d i s c h a r g e r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e n i t r i f i First, the
c a t i o n p o t e n t i a l of t h e system w a s evaluated.
nitrog.en loading rate w a s c a l c u l a t e d a s follows:
where
Ln = n i t r o g e n l o a d i n g r a t e , k g / h a - d
Cn = a p p l i e d t o t a l n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n , mg/L
Lw = a n n u a l l o a d i n g r a t e , m/yr
T h i s l o a d i n g r a t e is w e l l w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f n i t r i f i c a t i o n
r a t e s r e p o r t e d u n d e r f a v o r a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e and m o i s t u r e
conditions
(Section 5.2.2).
Because n i t r i f i c a t i o n
is
r e q u i r e d o n l y d u r i n g summer months when t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e
f a i r l y high, temperatures a t t h e R I system w i l l be f a v o r a b l e
for the required n i t r i f i c a t i o n .
Furthermore, t h e r e l a t i v e l y
s h o r t a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d s and l o n g e r d r y i n g p e r i o d s o f t h e
s e l e c t e d loading c y c l e w i l l e n s u r e f a v o r a b l e moisture condit i o n s and s h o u l d a l l o w v i r t u a l l y complete n i t r i f i c a t i o n
within
a
relatively
short
soil
travel
distance
( S e c t i o n 5.4.2).
B. 6
Land R e q u i r e m e n t s
B.6.1
P r e a p p l i c a t i o n Treatment F a c i l i t i e s
The a v e r a g e l i q u i d d e p t h of t h e a e r a t e d pond w a s d e s i g n e d t o
b e 3.6 m ( 1 2 f t ) , b a s e d o n a n a v e r a g e d e t e n t i o n p e r i o d o f
3 days.
An a d d i t i o n a l 1 m ( 3 . 3 f t ) of f r e e b o a r d was p r o v i d e d to a l l o w t h e l i q u i d d e p t h to v a r y d u r i n g peak f l o w s
and emergency c o n d i t i o n s .
Each pond c e l l berm was d e s i g n e d
t o have a 1 : 3 s l o p e ( v e r t i c a 1 : h o r i z o n t a l ) o n b o t h i n t e r i o r
and e x t e r i o r s i d e s and t o b e 1 . 2 m ( 4 f t ) wide o n t o p .
Thus, t h e t o t a l area r e q u i r e d f o r t h e pond i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1.7 ha (4.2 acres).
'
13.6.2
~ n f i l t r a t i o nB a s i n s
The area n e e d e d f o r i n f i l t r a t i o n w a s c a l c u l a t e d a s f o l l o w s :
where
A = a r e a r e q u i r e d , ha
Q = a v e r a g e wastewater f l o w , m3/d
Lw = a n n u a l l o a d i n g r a t e , m
x 6,060 m3/d)/(104
= 8.1 ha (19.9 a c r e s )
A = (365
B.6.3
x 27.4 m/yr)
O t h e r Land R e q u i r e m e n t s
A d d i t i o n a l l a n d w a s r e q u i r e d f o r berms a r o u n d t h e i n f i l t r a Preliminary system layt i o n b a s i n s and f o r access r o a d s .

o u t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a t o t a l o f a b o u t 1 4 h a ( 3 5 a c r e s ) would
be required.
T h i s number w a s used f o r p r e l i m i n a l r y c o s t
estimates; a c t u a l l a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g
f i n a l system design.
B.7
System Design
B.7.1
General Requirements
schematic of
Community B ' s
RI
s y s t e m i s shown i n
F i g u r e B-4.
The e x i s t i n g s c r e e n i n g and g r i t removal f a c i l i t i e s w i l l be r e t a i n e d and u s e d b e c a u s e t h e y a r e n e c e s s a r y t o
p r o t e c t t h e new pumping s t a t i o n .
s t a t i o n w i l l b e c o n s t r u c t e d a t t h e s i t e of t h e
abandoned t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s t o pump t h e s c r e e n e d wastewater t h r o u g h a 30 c~ ( 1 2 i n . ) f o r c e main t o t h e t r e a t m e n t
ponds.
T h r e e 3.14 m /min ( 8 3 0 g a l / m i n ) pumps w i l l be i n cluded.
Two pumps o p e a t e d t o g e t h e r w i l l be a b l e t o h a n d l e
a p e a k f l o w of 9,090 m 3/d ( 2 . 4 Mgal/d).
The t h i r d pump w i l l
be a standby.
S t a n d b y power a t t h e pumping s t a t i o n w i l l b e
p r o v i d e d by a d i e s e l g e n e r a t o r .
Distribution t o the infilt r a t i o n b a s i n s w i l l b e by g r a v i t y f l o w from t h e p o n d s .
A pumping
I n f i l t r a t i o n b a s i n s were l o c a t e d o n t h e a r e a h a v i n g the m o s t
B e c a u s e t h i s area i s r e l a t i v e l y f l a t , v e r y
s u i t a b l e soils.
l i t t l e g r a d i n g w a s r e q u i r e d and n e a r l y e q u a l - s i z e d b a s i n s
could be l o c a t e d a d j a c e n t t o one another.
The s e l e c t e d
1 4 d a y l o a d i n g c y c l e r e q u i r e d t h a t a t l e a s t 7 b a s i n s be
c o n s t r u c t e d t o e n a b l e dosing of a t least one b a s i n every
2 days.
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e area h a v i n g s u i t a b l e s o i l s w a s
d i v i d e d a s shown i n F i g u r e B-5, w i t h 7 b a s i n s r a n g i n g i n
s i z e from 0.98 t o 1 . 3 h a ( 2 . 4 t o 3.2 a c r e s ) .
AERATEO~FACULTATIVE
LAGOONS
SCREENS
- - - - ..- AND
G R I T REMOVAL
PUY PS
l N F l L T R A T l ON
BAS l N S
POST
AERATION
Q09UNDERDRAINS
FIGURE 8-4
COMMUN 1 TY B RAP1 D INFI LTRATl ON SYSTEM FLOWSHEET
D I S C H A R G E TO
WORTH CREEK
To c o n t r o l t h e b a s i n l o a d i n g r a t e , a d j u s t a b l e o v e r f l o w weirs
were d e s i g n e d f o r e a c h pond c e l l . D u r i n g n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n ,
t h e o v e r f l o w weirs are t o b e s e t a t t h e 3.65 m ( 1 2 f t ) , l e v e l
o f t h e pond ( t h e a v e r a g e w a t e r d e p t h ) ,
T h i s means t h a t t h e
i n s t a n t a n e o u s wastewater f l o w t o a b a s i n a t a n y t i m e ' d u r i n g
a 2 d a y l o a d i n g p e r i o d w i l l e q u a l t h e wastewater f l o w j u s t
pumped i n t o t h e pond.
I n o t h e r words a l t h o u g h t h e d e s i g n
a v e r a g e wa tewater f l o w r a t e i s 6 , 0 6 0 m'3 /d ( 1 . 6 M g a l / d ) , u p
t o 9 , 0 9 0 m 3 /d ( 2 . 4 Mgal/d) may b e d e l i v e r e d t o e a c h b a s i n
The p e a k w a s t e w a t e r
d u r i n g p e a k f l o w s ( S e c t i o n B.2.2).
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e w a s c a l c u l a t e d as follows:
where
%ax
= p e a k a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , cm/h
Qmax = p e a k w a s t e w a t e r f l o w , m3/d
Amin
%ax
= basin
area of smallest b a s i n , h a
9 , 0 9 0 m3/d
x 1 0 0 cm/m
= 3.86 cm/h
0.98 h a x 1 0 , 0 0 0 m2/ha x 24 h/d

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e a v e r a g e w a s t e w a t e r l o a d i n g r a t e is:
where
R = a v e r a g e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , cm/h
Q = a v e r a g e w a s t e w a t e r f l o w , m3/d
N = number o f i n f i l t r a t i o n b a s i n s
AT = t o t a l area c o v e r e d by b a s i n s , h a
Comparing t h e p e a k and a v e r a g e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s t o t h e
lowest m e a s u r e d b a s i n i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e of 2.54 cmfh o r
1 . 0 i n . / h ( S e c t i o n B.4.31, i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t d u r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n , i n f i l t r a t i o n would e x c e e d a p p l i c a t i o n a t l e a s t h a l f
the time.
A l s o , a l l o f t h e water a p p l i e d d u r i n g a 1 d a y
p e r i o d would i n i l t r a t e d u r i n g t h e same p e r i o d .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e b a s i n d e p t h n e c e s s a r y t o a l l o w up t o 1 2 h o u r s
of f l o o d i n g a t t h e peak a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e :
D = maximum d e p t h f o r w a s t e w a t e r , c m
where
ha, =
b a s i n a r e a o f l a r g e s t b a s i n , ha
I = l i m i t i n g i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e , cm/h
The r e q u i r e d t o t a l d e p t h w a s found by r o u n d i n g o f f D t o
15 cm ( 6 . 0 i n . ) and by a d d i n g 30 cm ( 1 2 i n . ) of f r e e b o a r d
( S e c t i o n 5.6.1).
The r e s u l t i n g d e s i g n b a s i n d e p t h was 45 c m
1 8 i n .
T h i s d e p t h s h o u l d p r o v i d e more t h a n a d e q u a t e
f r e e b o a r d d u r i n g normal o p e r a t i o n s and w i l l p r o v i d e a m a r g i n
o f s a f e t y f o r u n e x p e c t e d c o n d i t i o n s and e m e r g e n c i e s .
A t y p i c a l slope, of 1:2 w a s s e l e c t e d f o r t h e s i d e s of t h e
b e r m s , o n b o t h i n t e r i o r and e x t e r i o r s i d e s , and t h e w i d t h o f
A s i n g l e road around
e a c h berm w a s s e t a t 1 2 2 c m ( 4 8 i n . ) .
t h e o u t e r e d g e o f t h e b a s i n s was i n c l u d e d w i t h ramps i n t o
e a c h b a s i n f o r access.
With t h e s e a d d i t i o n s , t h e a r e a
c o v e r e d by t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n b a s i n s w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 . 3 h a
(20.5 acres), i n c l u d i n g 8 , l h a (19.9 a c r e s ) a v a i l a b l e f o r
infiltration.
B.7.2
Underdrainage
D r a i n l a t e r a l s and a c o l l e c t o r d r a i n were l o c a t e d a s shown

i n F i g u r e B-6.
D r a i n l a t e r a l s i z i n g w i l l v a r y between 1 5
and 20 c m ( 6 and 8 i n . ) , a s recommended i n S e c t i o n 5.7.3.
The c o l l e c t o r d r a i n w i l l b e 20 c m ( 8 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r t o
e n s u r e free flowing conditions.
To m e e t t h e d i s s o l v e d oxygen r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r d i s c h a r g e t o North Creek, t h e renovated
water w i l l b e r o u t e d t h r o u g h a c a s c a d e a e r a t o r p l a c e d a t t h e
b l u f f w e s t o f N o r t h Creek.
B.8
~ a i n t e n a n c eand M o n i t o r i n g
B.8.1
Maintenance
O c c a s i o n a l c l e a n i n g and r i p p i n g o f t h e b a s i n s w i l l b e required
to
maintain
design
infiltration
rates
A l s o , p e r i o d i c maintenance of t h e ponds,
( S e c t i o n 5.8.2).
pumping
station,
screens,
and
grit
chamber w i l l
be
A s t a f f o f two f u l l - t i m e e m p l o y e e s s h o u l d be
necessary.
a b l e t o h a n d l e a l l t h e o p e r a t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e n e e d s o f
Community B ' s s y s t e m ( S e c t i o n 2 . 3 . 3 . 1 ) .
30
SCALE
OUTFALL
-+-
LATERALS
COLLECTOR DRAIN
FIGURE B - 6
UNDERDRA l N LOCAT l ONS
60
90
B.8.2
Monitoring
The r e n o v a t e d w a t e r , w i l l b e m o n i t o r e d a t t h e o u t f a l l f o r t h e
p a r a m e t e r s l i s t e d , i n T a b l e B-2.
Three monitoring w e l l s t o
m o n i t o r g r o u n d water c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f ammonia n i t r o g e n and
t o t a l d i s s o l v e d s o l i d s w i l l b e i n s t a l l e d as shown i n
F i g u r e B-5.
An o b s e r v a t i o n w e l l w i l l b e i n s t a l l e d b e t w e e n
t h e b l u f f a n d B a s i n 4 t o m o n i t o r g r o u n d water l e v e l s and
e v a l u a t e underdrain performance.
B.9
System C o s t s
T o t a l c o s t s o f Community B ' s R I s y s t e m a r e p r e s e n t e d i n
T a b l e B-7.
C a p i t a l costs were e s t i m a t e d u s i n g t h e EPA
r e p o r t o n C o s t o f Land T r e a t m e n t S y s t e m s [ I ] . C o s t s were
u p d a t e d t o O c t o b e r 1 9 8 0 u s i n g t h e EPA Sewage T r e a t m e n t P l a n t
C o n s t r u c t i o n C o s t I n d e x v a l u e o f 397.2.
C o n t r a c t o r qs o v e r The
head and p r o f i t are i n c l u d e d i n t h e cost estimates.
Operation
l a n d was assumed t o c o s t $4,90O/ha ( $ 2 , 0 0 O / a c r e )
and m a i n t e n a n c e costs w e r e e s t i m a t e d u s i n g t h e c o s t . c u r v e s
a n d c u r r e n t l o c a l p r i c e s f o r power and l a b o r .
P r e s e n t worth
was d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g a n i n t e r e s t r a t e o f 7-118% f o r
20 y e a r s .
B.10
Energy Budget
I n Community B, e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t w i l l b e
u s e d p r i m a r i l y t o c o n v e y s c r e e n e d wastewater t o t h e l a n d
The amount o f e n e r g y n e e d e d f o r t h i s p u r t r e a t m e n t site.
pose can be e s t i m a t e d
using t h e format presented
in
S e c t i o n 8.6.2, as f o l l o w s :
Elevation a t treatment site
44 m ( 1 4 5 f t )
E l e v a t i o n a t pump s t a t i o n
32 m ( 1 0 5 f t )
1 2 m (40 f t )
Average f l o w
Assumed pumping s y s t e m
efficiency
40%
Pipeline diameter
30 c m ( 1 2 i n . )
Pipeline length
2,680 m ( 8 , 0 0 0 f t . )
Pipeline headloss
12 m (40 f t )
T o t a l dynamic h e a d
24 m ( 8 0 f t )
TABLE B-7
COST O F COMMUNITY B R I SYSTEM
T h o u s a n d s of D o l l a r s , O c t o b e r 1 9 8 0
Capital costs
Transmission pumping
Transmission main
Aerated lagoons
Field preparation
Infiltration basins
Underdrains
Cascade aerator
Outfall pipe
Monitoring wells
Service roads and fencing
Standby power
Laboratory equipment
Sewer rehabilitation
Land acquisition
Legal, administrative, engineering,
interest, contingencies
Total capital costs
operation and maintenance cost's
Annual labor
Annual materials
Annual power
Total operation and maintenance costs
Total project costs
Total capital costs
Present worth of operation and
maintenance
Total present worth of costs
Salvage value of land
Net present worth
17
39
409
2,340
Energy r e q u i r e m e n t ( u s i n g
E q u a t i o n 8-2)
361,000 kWh/yr
The e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r s c a r i f i c a t i o n i s w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f
e r r o r o f t h e e s t i m a t e d e n e r g y r e q u i r e d t o c o n v e y wastewater
t o t h e t r e a t m e n t s i t e . For t h i s r e a s o n , e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t s
Thb e n e r g y r e q u i r e d by t h e
f o r s c a r i f i c a t i o n are n e g l e c t e d .
The
t h r e e c e l l pond would b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 395,000 kWh/yr.
t o t a l e n e r g y r e q u i r e m e n t of t h e s y s t e m i s 7 5 6 , 0 0 0 kWh/yr.
B.11
1.
References
Reed,
U. S.
003.
S.C.,
e t al.
C o s t o f Land T r e a t m e n t Systems.
EPA-430/9-75S e p t e m b e r 1979.
Appendix C
OVERLAND FLOW DESIGN EXAMPLE
---
C.l
Introduction
The purpose of this design example is to demonstrate the

design procedures described in Section 6.4. This example
represents a preliminary design suitable for Step 1 facility
planning.
It does not go into the details of system components such as specific equipment and hardware.
C.2
Statement of the Problem
Community C, a small rural community in the mid-Atlantic

United States, has a 30 year old wastewater treatment system
that is not meeting its discharge permit. The community is
totally reside'ntial with no industry discharging into-the
sewer system and has 3a 20 year design wastewater flow
projection of 1,890 m /d
(0.5 Mgal/d).
The objective of
this project is to provide the community with a wastewater
treatment
system
capable
of
meeting
the discharge
requirements.
C.3
C.3.1
Wastewater Characteristics and Discharge

Requirements
The raw wastewater characteristics are presented in Table

C-1.
Although not listed in Table C-1, the concentrations
of trace elements are within the typical range for municipal
wastewater, and are therefore amenable to land treatment.
The state regulatory agency has imposed the following limitations for any point source discharge;
BOD , 20 mg/L;
suspended solids, 20 mg/L; fecal coliforms, 200 ~ P N / ~ OmL.
O
TABLE C-1
RAW WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Parameter
BOD5,
mg/L
Suspended s o l i d s , mg/L
T o t a l n i t r o g e n , a s N , mg/L
Value
200
200
40
Ammonia as N
25
Organic a s N
15
T o t a l p h o s p h o r u s , a s P I mg/L
10
C.3.2
Climate
Average monthly temperature and precipitation data for

Community C were obtained from the U.S. Department of
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), Asheville, North Carolina, and are shown in Table C2. A 25 year, 1 hour storm for the community was determined
using the Rainfall Frequency Atlas of the United States,
U.S.
Department of Commerce, Technical Paper 40, and was
found to yield 8.1 cm (3.2 in.).
TABLE C-2
AVERAGE METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Month
Temperature,
C
Precipitation
( P r ) I cm
P o t e n t i a l evapotranspiration,
(ET), cm
Net
precipitation
(Pr-ET), cm
Jan
5.2
6.2
10.0
8.7
9.3
10.2
0.3
0.2
1.9
8.4
9.1
8.3
14.7
19.6
24.3
25.8
8.8
,9.2
9.1
11.2
4.3
9.3
13.1
15.6
4.5
-0.1
-4.0
-4.4
11.3
8.2
8.5
7.0
9.3
13.8
9.7
5.2
2.0
0.2
-2.5
-1.5
3.3
5.0
Dec
25.1
22.1
16.2
10.2
5.8
Year
14.2
110.8
75.6
35.2
Feb
Mar
APr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Se p
Oct
Nov
C.4
9.1
Site Evaluation and Process Selection

C.4.1
General Site Characteristics
A preliminary site investigation determined that approximately 35 ha (86 acres) of land near the. existing wastewater
treatment system is available (Figure - 1 . A USGSomap
showed the site to have a moderate to gentle slope that
drains naturally into Crooked Creek, the small stream that
receives the treated effluent from the existing treatment
system.
A large portion of the site is wooded with pines,
hardwoods, and thick undergrowth.
FIGURE C -1
PROPOSED OVERLAND FLOW TREATMENT S l TE
C.4.2
As shown in Figure C-1, the proposed site is dominated by

soil of the Enon series. These soils have a fine sandy loam
top soil underlain with clays having a slow permeability.
Also present is Colfax sandy loam, which is underlain with
clay loam and mixed alluvial land along the stream. Both of
these soils have permeabilities ranging from slow to very
slow.
C.4.3
Process Selection
The slow permeability of the Enon soils will prohibit the

use of RI and will severely limit the use of this site for
SR treatment.
Preliminary estimates indicated that OF
treatment was more cost effective than an SR system on this
site and was lower in total present worth than the best
conventional secondary treament and discharge alternative.
Therefore, OF treatment was the alternative selected by
Community C.
C.5
Distribution Method
High pressure sprinklers are used in this example to illustrate the procedure.
Gravity distribution is usual.1y more
cost effective and energy efficient. For high so1i.d~content wastewaters,
such
as
food
processing effluent,
sprinklers can offer the advantage of greater solids dispersion over the application area.
C.6
Continued operation of the existing treatment facilities

would not be cost effective because of the need for. sludge
A new system consisting of the
treatment and disposal.
minimum recommended treatment, that is, two-stage screening,
was selected.
An economic analysis indicated the cost
savings from using less land (higher hydraulic loading
rates) did not offset the cost of preapplication treatment
(Section 6.3) beyond screening.
The two-stage screening system includes a coarse screen (bar
rack) and a fine screen. Since sprinkler application was
selected as the distribution method, the fine screen must be
capable of removing particles that could clog the sprinkler
nozzles.
The screen mesh will be 1.5 mrn (0.06 in.), as
The new two-stage' screening
recommended in Section 6.3.
system will be located at the headworks of the abandoned
existing plant.
C.7
Wastewater S t o r a g e
C.7.1
Storage ~equirement
The r e q u i r e d s t o r a g e f o r t h i s p r o j , e c t w a s c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g
h i s t o r i c a l a i r t e m p e r a t u r e d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e NOAA i n
A s h e v i l l e , N o r t h C a r o l i n a , and t h e d e s i g n method d e s c r i b e d
i n ' S e c t i o n 6.4 f o r m o d e r a t e c l i m a t e z o n e s .
Twenty y e a r s o f
d a t a were r e v i e w e d
f o r t h e a i r temperature l i m i t a t i o n s
s p e c i f i e d by t h e d e s i g n method t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c r i t i c a l
y e a r , o r t h e y e a r t h a t would h a v e r e q u i r e d t h e m o s t s t o r a g e .
The r e q u i r e d s t o r a g e d a y s f o r t h e c r i t i c a l y e a r a r e g i v e n on
a m o n t h l y b a s i s i n T a b l e 5-3.
The t o t a l s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t
i s 44 d a y s , or 8 3 , 1 6 0 3 m
( 2 2 . 0 Mgal) o f wastewater a t t h e
' d e s i g n f l o w o f 1 , 8 9 0 m /d ( 0 . 5 M g a l / d ) .
TABLE C-3
STORAGE REQUIREMENTS
Month
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Total
Storage,
days
0
15.5
14.5
14.0
0
-
Potential
application,
days
30
15.5
16.5
14.0
31
44.0
The s t o r a g e pond w i l l b e f i l l e d o n l y d u r i n g c o l d w e a t h e r
when t e m p e r a t u r e s f a l l below -4 O C ( 2 5 OF). The p r o c e d u r e
f o r a p p l y i n g t h e s t o r e d wastewater o n t h e OF s i t e i s
d e s c r i b e d i n S e c t i o n 6.5.
C.7.2
Storage F a c i l i t y Description
S t o r a g e c o n s i s t s o f a f a c u l t a t i v e pond.
The d e s i g n d e p t h is
2 m
(6.6
f t ) and t h e s u r f a c e area i s 4 . 2 h a ( 1 0 . 4 a c r e s ) .
Wastewater w i l l b e d i v e r t e d t o s t o r a g e i n December, J a n u a r y ,
a n d F e b r u a r y and w i l l b e drawn o u t o f , s t o r a g e o v e r t h e
p e r i o d f r o m March t h r o u g h May.
The d a i l y BOD l o a d i n g o n t h e
s t o r a g e pond d u r i n g t h e d a y s o f s t o r a g e w i l l b e 89 kg/ha ( 8 0
lb/acre)
and o d o r s s h o u l d n o t be a problem.
The n e t
p 5 e c i p i t a t i o n f a l l i n g o n t h e s t o r a g e pqnd w i l l add 1 8 , 6 0 0
m ( 5 Mgal) so t h a t a t o t a l o f 1 0 1 , 7 6 0 m
( 2 6 . 9 Mgal) w i l l
h a v e t o b e removed f r o m t h e s t o r a g e pond e a c h s p r i n g .
S e e p a g e f r o m t h e pond i s n e g l e c t e d f o r t h e s t o r a g e p e r i o d .
The pond berm has interior and exterior side slopes of 3:l
(horizontal:vertical), a height above grade of 2.6 m (8.5
ft), and a crest width of 3.7 m (12 ft) which will serve as
a service road.
The interior berm has a 30 cm (12 in.)
layer of riprap for embankment protection. The pond is
lined with compacted local clay to meet applicable state
requirements.
The exterior berm slopes .are planted to
grass.
The total area required for the storage pond is 5.4
ha (13.3 acres).
C.8
Selection of Design Parameters

C.8.1
From Table 6-5, the range of hydraulic loading rates for

screened wastewater application is 0.9 to 3 cm/d (0.35 to
1.2 in./d).
The selected hydraulic loading rate is 1.4 cm/d
(0.57 in./d).
This rate has been used successfully with
screened raw wastewater in a similar climate (Sections 6.4
and 6.2).
A more conservative loading rate is unnecessary
because prolonged subfreezing temperatures are not common.
A higher loading rate during periods of near freez,ing
temperatures would be inappropriate.
C.8.2
Application Period and Frequency
his period can

The application period selected is 8 h/d.
be increased to 12 h/d during drawdown from storage and
during harvest periods (Table 6-5). The application frequency is 7 d/wk.
C. 8.3
Slope Length and Grade
As recommended in Section 6.4.6, the minimum slope length

for OF using full circle sprinklers is 30 m (100 ft) plus
one sprinkler radius.
The sprinklers chosen for this
project (Section C.9) have a spray radius of 21.4 m (70 ft).
Thus, the minimum slope length is 51.4 m (168 ft). To be
more conservative, the design slope length is 61 m (200 ft).
The grade will range from 2 to 4% depending on existing
grades that are within this range.
C.8.4
Application Rate
ing the selected hydraulic loading rate, application

riod and frequency, and slope length, the application rate
calculated:
where
Ra =
Lw =
S =
P =
application rate, m3/m*h

hydraulic loading rate, 1.4 cm/d
slope length, 61 m
application period, 8 h
= 0.071 m3/m-h
This is within the acceptable range from Table 6-5.

C.8.5
Land Requirements
The slope area can be calculated from Equation 6-2.
where As = slope area, ha
Q = average daily flow, m3/d
hVs = net change in storage = 18,600 m3/yr (C.7.2)

D, = number of operating days per year
L, = hydraulic loading rate, cm/d
= [1,890(365)
18,600]/[(365
= 15.8 ha (39 acres)
C.9
44)(1.4)(100)
Distribution System
Impact sprinklers with 27.1 mm (9/32 3n.) diameter nozzles

'operating at 41.4 N/cm
(60 lb/in. ) are selected to
apply the wastewater.
The OF slope and the sprinkler
the sprinkler spacing of
positions are shown in Figure C-2.
24 m (80 ft) provides adequate overlap of the spray diameter
which is 42.7 m (140 ft).
IMPACT SPRINKLER
' PVC LATERAL L l N E
RUNOFF COLLECT ION CHANNEL
FIGURE C-2
TYPICAL OVERLAND FLOW SLOPE
C.10 Preliminary System Layout

The field area and slope lengths have now been determined,
Given these, a preliminary layout of the treatment system
was made on a USGS map using the guidelines from Section
6.6.
The dimensions for storage have also been determined
and were added to the overall layout.
Using this and
remembering that area is required for collection waterways,
service roads, buffer zones, etc., the size of the survey
area was determined.
It can not be overemphasized that a
sufficient amount of land greater than the apparent needs
must be surveyed so that changes in the system layout that
may occur do not require that additional land be suraeyed.
This not only adds a greater cost to the project, but also
takes additional time that delays the design.
For this project, the entire site was
future expansions to the system could
another survey.
From this survey,
contour intervals of 0.3 m (1.0 ft) was
3); however, due to the scale of Figure
(10.0 ft) contours are used.
surveyed so that any

be performed without
a contour map with
developed (Figure CC-3, only the 3.05 m
C.ll System Design

C.ll.l
Treatment Slopes
Given the slope area requirements and the slope length, the
contour
map developed from the survey, and the site
development guidelines in Section 6.6, the treatment slopes
were laid out (see Figure C-4). This layout has the slopes
all graded in the same direction (southeast) while the
runoff collection channels convey the effluent northeast to
a collection waterway.
With this layout, all effluent is
discharged from the site at a single point as indicated on
the figure.
C.11.2
Runoff Channel Design
The
runoff
collection
channels
are
formed by the
intersection of the foot of one treatment slope with the
backslope of the next treatment slope (Figure C-2). These
channels will be graded to no greater than 25% of the slope
grade of the treatment slope to prevent cross-flow on the
treatment slope.
This slight grade will be sufficient to
cause flow to the collection waterways and will preclude the
need for any type of erosion protection other than planting
the channels with the same grasses as are used on the
treatment slopes.
SLOPE L I M I T S
COLLECT ION WATERWAY
STORABE BASIN
E X I S T I N G WASTEWATER TREATMENT
PLANT, NEW PUMP STATION, AND
PREAPPLICATION TREATMENT SYSTEM
MONITORING WELLS
FIGURE C - 4
OVERLAND FLOW SYSTEM LAYOUT
SCALE
1,000
2,000
3,000
METERS
C.11.3
Collection Waterways
The collection waterways transport the effluent from the

runoff collection channels to the receiving stream (Figure
C-4).
These waterways were designed to handle both the
design runoff from the system plus precipitation that falls
on the site during a 25 year storm.
The Rational Method, which can be found in any soil and
water engineering text, was used to determine the storm
runoff from the treatment slopes. The 25 year storm runoff
for each slope was determined and the flows accumulated as
each runoff* collection channel contributed flow to the
collection waterway.
The flow increases in quantity as it
comes downgrade until all runoff collection channels have
fed it.
Therefore, the collectipn waterway must also
increase in size as it comes downgrade to prevent high flow
velocities that cause erosion.
Working from the treatment slope with the highest elevation
down (northeast corner of spray field to southeast corner),
the waterway was designed for the expected effluent runoff
and the 25 year stormwater flow for each section between
runoff collection channels.
The procedure for designing
grassed waterways, which can be obtained from the SCS, was
used to size each section. Since the topography of the site
is such that the collection waterway will have a slope of 4%
or less, there was no need for embankment protection at
bends; the grass is sufficient to prevent erosion.
C.11.4
Pumping System
The pumping system includes three pumps, each with a

capacity of 1,325 L/min (350 gal/min) at a total head of
72.5 m (238 ft). The headloss was determined by summing all
the headlosses, from the farthermost sprinkler back to the
pump, of the critical piping path or that path that produces
the greatest headloss.
The pumps work in parallel and feed a 20.3 cm (8 in.) force
main that runs to the spray field. The combined capacity of
the three pumps is three times the average design.flowrate
so there is an adequate safety factor for peak flows and
diurnal fluctuations.
The pumping station is located immediately after the two
stage screening unit on the existing treatment plant site.
As shown in Figure C-4, the storage basin is at a higher
elevation, which means wastewater must be pumped to storage
and then flow back to the pumping station through a separate
pipeline by gravity. Sufficient land was not available to
locate the storage basin between the screening unit and the
pumping station to allow gravity flow intq storage and out
to the pumping station.
~uring favorable days in the
spring, a valve is opened on the return pipeline from the
storage pond to the pumping station and wastewater is
applied to the slopes at 1.5 times the average daily
flowrate.
C.11.5
Monitoring and Collection Systems
A monitoring station is located on the site, as shown in

Figure C-4. This station consists of a Parshall flume with
a continuous flow metering device and a composite sampler.
The Parshall flume was designed to handle the 25 year storm
flow without sustaining significant damage.
A standby
chlorination system was installed at this l~cationand three
ground water monitoring wells were installed as shown in
Figure C-4 to satisfy state regulatory requirements.
(2.12
Land Requirements
The final land area requirement was determined after all the
components of the OF system had been sized and located on
the site plan.
A 15 m (50 ft) buffer zone around the
application site was recommended by the state agency since
residential developments are close to the site. The buffer
zone will remain wooded and will reguire 2.3 ha (5.7 acres)
of land.
All of the land requirements of the system are
listed in Table C-4. Although the total land requirement is
29.3 ha (72.3 acres), the entire 35 ha (85 acre) site was
purchased since the owner refused to sell only a portion of
the property.
TABLE C-4
LAND REQUIREMENTS
Area
Item
F i e l d area with c o l l e c t i o n channpls
ha
acres
15.8
39.0
Storage pond
5.4
13.3
Buffer zone
2.3
5.7
Miscellaneous
Roads, c o l l e c t i o n waterways,
monitoring s t a t i o n
1.1
2.7
surplus landa
Total
a.
4.7 11.6
29.3
72.3
Surplus land i s t h a t land which does n o t f i t

economically i n t o the grading plan,.
C.13
Cover Crop Selection
Based on experiences with varieties of grasses at otl~erOF

systems, it was decided to use the mixture given in Section
6.7 which includes Reed canarygrass, tall fescue, redtop,
dallisgrass, and ryegrass.
The local agricultural agent
concurred and also suqgested orchardgrass be added 420 the
mix since this grass flourished in the area.
C.14
System Costs
Total costs for the OF system for Community C are presented

in Table C-5.
Capital costs were estimated using the EPA
technical report on Cost of Land Treatment Systems [I].
Costs were updated to September 1980 using the EPA Sewage
Treatment Plant Construction Cost Index value of 362 and the
EPA Sewer Construction Cost Index of 387. Contractor's
overhead and profit are included in the cost estimates, The
land was assumed to cost $4,90O/ha ($2,00O/acre). Operation
and maintenance costs were estimated using the cost curves
and current local prices for power and labor. Present worth
was determined using an interest rate of 7-1/83 for 20
years.
TABLE C-5
COST OF COMMUNITY C OF SYSTEM
Thousands of Dollars, September 1980
Capital costs
Preapplication treatment
Pumping
F o r c e main
P i p i n g t o and from s t o r a g e
S t o r a g e pond
Site' clearing
Slope construction
Runoff c o l l e c t i o n
Distribution (sprinklers, l a t e r a l s , controls)
A g r i c u l t u r e ( p r e p a r a t i o n and s e e d i n g )
Service roads
C h l o r i n a t i o n and flow m o n i t o r i n g
Monitoring w e l l s
Contingencies (30%)
Land
Total capital costs
O p e r a t i o n and maintenance c o s t s
Annual l a b o r
Annual m a t e r i a l s
Annual power
T o t a l o p e r a t i o n and maintenance c o s t s
Total -project costs
Total capital costs
P r e s e n t worth o f o p e r a t i o n and maintenance
T o t a l p r e s e n t worth o f c o s t s
P r e s e n t worth o f s a l v a g e v a l u e o f l a n d
N e t p r e s e n t worth
42
271
29
20
316
70
60
14
72
20
24
56
5
300
172
1,471
42
1,471
441
1,912
(78)
1,834
C.15
Energy Budget
Pumping, crop production, and chlorination require quantifiable primary energy.

For pumping raw wastewater, stored
wastewater, and accumulated precipitation at a head of 72.5
m (238 it), 222,000 kWh/yr is required. Crop harvest will
require 20,000 kWh/yr and disinfection, if used, will
required 5,000 kWh/yr. The total primary energy budget is
247,000 kWh/yr.
If a gravity distribution system had been
possible, the pumping requirements would have been reduced
to about 58,000 kWh/yr due to the lower pumping head
requirement of approximately 20 m (66 it).
C.16
Alternative Design Methods
Design Example
The data used to design the OF system in the previous

example will be used with the alternative CRREL and UCD
design methods.
These two methods determine the land area
and loading requirements for a system and thus would not
alter the other parts of the design procedure just used.
These methods represent a rational OF design procedure, but
have been' used to a limited extent for design as of
September 1981.
C.16.1
CRREL Method
Given:
Daily flowrate = 1,890 m3/d
Influent BOD = 200 mg/L
Effluent BOD = 20 mg/L
Storage requirement = 44 days
Volume of precipitation in storage = 18,600 m3/yr
Runoff fraction, r = 60%
Constants for the design equation are (see Section 6.11.1):
A = 0.52
K = 0.03 min-1
The necessary calculations are:
1.
Calculate detention time on the slope:

(1.0)(200)
0.6(20)
% BOD removal =
(1.0)(200)
Using Equation 6-8 (Section 6.11.1.2)
72 min
Calculate average overland flowrate.

The site
investigation revealed the site had a gentle slope
of 4 to 6%.
For design purposes, the natural
slope of 5% will be used and a section size of 40
m long and 30 m wide (131 by 98 ft) will be used,
based
on site
characteristics.
The average
overland flowrate is calculated using Equation 6-9
from Section 6.11.1.2.
Calculate application rate. Using Equation 6-10

from
Section
6.11.1.2,
the
application is
calculated.
4.
4.5 m 3/h per section
Calculate annual loading rate.

An applicigtion
period of 8 h/d and an application frequency of 7
d/wk will be used in this example. Since the
storage requirement is 44 days and the application
frequency is 7 d/wk, the number of days of
application is 321 d/yr. The annual loading rate
per section is therefore:
Annual loading
Rate per section
5.
(321 d/yr)(8 h/d)

x (4.5 m 3/h per section)
3
= 11,556 m /yr
=
Calculate total annual watqr volume.

Given a
daily flowrate of 1,890 m
and a volume of
precipita5 ion that ends up in the storage as
18,600 m3/yrr the total annual water volume is
708,450 m /yr.
6.
Calculate land area requirements.

sections required is :
The number of
'
No. sections = (708,450 m5/yr)

(11,556 m 3/yr per section)
= 62 sections
The total area requirement is

Area = [(62 sections)(30 m x 40 m/section)
I 10,000 m2/ha
= 7.4 ha (18.3 acres)
For comparison to the previous example, the weekly
hydraulic loading rate can be calculated as:
C.16.2
University of California, Davis, Method
Given:
Daily flowrate = 1,890 m 3 /d
Influent BOD =, 200 mg/L
Effluent BOD = 20 mg/L
Storage requirement = 44 days
Volume of precipitation in storage = 18,600 m3/yr
Constants for the design equation are (see Section 6.11.2):
The necessary design calculations are:

1.
Compute the required removal ratio Cs/C,.
2.
The
length
of
slope is not restricted by
topography, so select a value for the application
rate (q) in the valid range of the model (see
Section 6.11.2)
Select q = 0.16 m 3/m-h
3.
Compute the required value of slope length (S)

using Equation 6-11 from Section 6.11.2.
4.
Select an application period (P)
5.
Compute the average daily flow to the OF system

using 44 days of storgge, a 7 d/wk application
frequency, and 18,600 m /yr additional water in
storage from precipitation.
Q = [(365 d) (1,890 m3/d)
+ 18,600 m3)1/(365
44)
= 2,207 m3/d
6.
Compute the required wetted area using Equation

6-5 from Section 6.11.2.
Area = QS/qP
= 6.9 ha (17.0 acres)
For comparison to the other examples, the weekly

hydraulic loading rate can be calculated as:
C.16.3
Comparison of Methods
Although the CRREL and UCD equations appear different,, the

basic approach and calculation method are quite similar.
Combining and rearranging Equations 6-8 and 6-9 from the
CRREL method produce :
where
Ms = mass of BOD at point S, kg

M = mass of BOD at top of slope, kg
g = slope length, rn
q = average overland flowrate, m 3 /m-h
G = slope grade, m/m
This is quite similar to the UCD Equation 6-11:
All terms as defined previously.

The major difference in these two rational approaches are
the use of slope as a variable in the CRREL equation and the
value of the coefficients and exponents. Comparison of the
results from all three methods are tabulated below:
Method
Land
area, ha
Slope
length, m
Hydraulic
loading, cm/wk
Traditional
CRREL
UCD
15.8
7.4
6.9
60
40
40
10
21
22.6
The major difference between the three methods is the slope

length required.
The hydraulic loadings are similar since
the traditional method would permit at least 15 cm/wk during
the warm months.
The CRREL and UCD methods are based on
assumed gravity distribution, so a shorter slope can be used
since
there
is no need to provide space above the
application point for full circle sprinkler impact. If
gravity application had been used in the traditional design,
the gated pipe could have been placed at the sprinkler
nozzle location shown in Figure C-2. This would result in a
40 m (130 ft) slope length which is identical to that
determined by the rational methods.
C.17
1.
References
Reed, S.C.
et al.
Cost of Land Treatment Systems.
U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA-430/9-75003. September 1979.
APPENDIX D
LOCATION OF LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

T h i s a p p e n d i x c o n t a i n s l i s t s o f p u b l i c l y owned t r e a t m e n t
f a c i 1 i t i . e ~a n d s e l e c t e d i n d u s t r i a l f a c i l i t i e s t h a t employ
land treatment.
The l i s t s were d e r i v e d f r o m a v a r i e t y o f
s o u r c e s i n c l u d i n g t h e EPA Needs S u r v e y s , t h e l i t e r a t u r e , a n d
i n d i v i d u a l s t a t e s t l i s t s and t h e C o r p s o f E n g i n e e r s .
The number o f l a n d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s i n c r e a s e d s t e a d i l y f r o m
It is probable t h a t
a b o u t 300 i n 1 9 4 0 t o a b o u t 700 i n 1 9 7 6 .
t h e r e a r e more i n d u s t r i a l and more p r i v a t e l a n d t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m s t h a n t h e r e a r e p u b l i c l y owned l a n d t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m s . The p r e s e n t c o u n t o f p u b l i c l y owned l a n d t r e a t m e n t
s y s t e m s is 839 SR, 323 R I , and 1 8 OF s y s t e m s t h a t a r e o p e r a t i n g o r a r e under c o n s t r u c t i o n i n 1981.
D.l
Slow
Rate
Systems
Village Center
V i l l a g e I n n a t Wisp
White
Mississippi
A r k a b u t l a Lake
North C a r o l i n a
Pine Hurst
Seaboard
Woodland
REGION I
%%%r
Maine
Greenville
Pennsylvania
B e n n e r Twp ( B u r e a u o f C o r r . )
Gettysburg
H a m i l t o n Twps
Kennett Square
S t a t e College
South Carolina
H i l t o n Head Isl. ( B r e a d C r k )
H i l t o n Head Isl. ( F o r e s t B e a c h )
H i l t o n Head Isl. ( P l a n t a t i o n )
Sea P i n e s
REGION IV
REGION V
Florida
Apopka
~ a y County
'
B r e v a r d County
Coco Beach
East Point
E l g i n AFB
F o r t Walton Beach
Hilliard
Jennings
Largo
L. Buena V i s t a ( D i s n e y w o r l d )
Lynn Haven
MacDill AFB
Marco I s l a n d
Newsberry
O k a l o o s a County
Pensacola (Scenic H i l l s )
St. P e t e r s b u r g
T.allahassee
T y n d a l l AFB
Venice
W i n t e r Haven
Zephyr H i l l s
Illinois
Camp P o i n t
Rend L a k e , B i g Muddy R i v e r
Massachusetts
Franklin
New Hampshire
M t . Sunappee
Wolfeboro
Vermont
West Dover
REGION 11
ESZ%or
Neptune
REGION 111
Mar l a n d
&
Acres
Deep C r e e k Lake
Highlands
ROS smoor
St. Charles
Snowden's M i l l
Swanton
Tuckahoe
Lake
-on
Camp O l i v e r ( F t . S t e w a r t )
Clay'ton Co. (R.L J a c k s o n )
~ b l i d aTrav-L-Park
~
(Lowndes Co.)
J o n e s b o r o ( C l a y t o n Co.)
K i n g s Bay (Navy)
Skidaway I s l a n d
S t o n e w a l l C o u r t h o u s e ( F u l t o n Co.)
Indiana
Kewanna
Belding
Bellaire
Beulah
Bloomingdale
Bowne Township
Caledonia
Cassopolis
Chatham
C l a r e n c e Township
C l a r k Township
Colon
Columbiavil le
C r y s t a l Township
Denton Township
East Jordan
Farwell
F r emon t
Gray l i n g
Barbor Springs
Harrison
Hart
Honor
Houghton Co. BPW
Kalkaska
Kingsley
Lake Odessa
Lawton
L e o n i Township
L i v i n g s t o n Co.
Mackinaw
Uanton
Marion
Harkey-Houghton
McBain
Hiddleville
Muskegon
Paw Paw
Pinckney
Quincy
Ravenna
Rorcommon
Springport
Sunf i e l d
Onion C i t y
Vermontville
Wayland
Wixon
Whitehall
Webberville
Beardsley
Belgrade
Belle Plainc
Blackduck
Breezy P o i n t
C a s s Lake
D e t r o i t Lakes
Eden V a l l e y
Elysian
Frazee
Hayward
Henning
Kensington
Kimball
L a k e Henry
New Auburn
New York Mills
Ortonville
Paynesville
Pequot Lakes
Walker
Watki n s
Wyoming
Wisconsin
Arena
Avoca
Sauk C i t y
S t o n e Lake
REGION VI
Arkansas
Araity L a n d i n g , DeGray I
Caddo R i v e r
Deming
Dexter
Eunice
Gallup
Jal
Lordsburg
Loo A l a m s
Loving
Lovington
New Mexico Dept of C o r r .
( S a n t a F e Co. )
Portales
Raton
Roswell
San J o n
Silver City
Tularosa
Oklahoma
Amber
Apache
Bixby
Boise City
Byng
Calumet
Carter
Clinton
Cordell
Crescent
Davidson
Devol
Dill City
Duncan
Edmond
E l Reno
Erick
Fairview
Frederick
Gage
Garber
Geary
Granite
Helena
Hobart
Hydro
Kingfisher
Lahoma
Laverne
Lone Wolf
Moore
Noble
Ochelata
Oklahoma C i t y ( w i l l.ow Ck)
Pauls Valley
Pond C r e e k
Sentinel
Shattack
Spencer
Sportsmans Acres
Stillwater
Terra1
Tupelo
Velma
Albany
Amarillo
Amherst
Andrews
Anson
Anton
Aspermont
Austin (Williamson)
Benjamin
B e x a r County
B i g Lake
Blanco
Bonham
Booker
Bovina
Brady
Brownf i e l d
Burnett
Castroville
Chillicothe
Claude
Clyde
Coahoma
Coleman
Colorado C i t y
Comfort
Crane
C r o c k e t t County
Crosbyton
Cross P l a i n s
Crystal City
Dalhart
Darrouzett
Del R i o
Denver C i t y
Devine
~immitt
Dublin
Dumas
Earth
Eldorado
E l Paso ( A s c a r t e )
E l Paso (Fabens)
E l Paso (Socorro)
Estelline
Fabens
Falf u r i a s
F a l l s City
Farwell
Florence
Floydada
Ft. Stockton
Fredericksburg
Freer
Friona
Fritch
Georgetown
Goldsmith
Goldthwaite
Gorman
Graford
Grandfalls
G r a n g e r Lake
Greenfield
Groom
Gustine
Hale Center
Happy
Hart
Hedley
Hereford
Holliday
Hondo ( E a s t )
Hondo
Houston (CIWA)
Idalou
Ingleside
Johnson C i t y
Karnes C i t y
Kermit
Kerrville
Kilgore
Kingsville
Kress
Lamesa
Levelland
Littlefield
Llano
Lockney
Loraine
Lorenzo
Lubbock
Lubbock ( N W )
Lubbock ( Y e l l o w h o u s e )
McCamey
McLean
Mason
Matador
Mathis
Meadow
Memphis
Midland
Miles
Monahans
Morton
Muleshoe
Munday
New Home
Nordheim
N o r t h F o r k Lake
Odonnell
Olton
Orange Grove
Ozona
Paducah
Pearsall
Pecos
Perryton
Pete'rsburg
Plains
Poteet
P0th
Premont
Quitaque
Ralls
Rankin
Richland Springs
R i o Grande C i t y
Roaring Springs
Robinson ( N o r t h )
Robinson ( S o u t h )
RO by
Ropesville
Roscoe
Rotan
Runge
Sabinal
San Angelo
San Angelo ( A i r p o r t )
San A n t o n i o ( p a r t i a l )
San Suba
S a n t a Anna
Seagraves
Seminole
Shallowater
Shamrock
Silverton
Slaton
Snyder
S o m e r v i l l e Lake
Sonora
Stanton
Stinnett
Stockdale
Stratford
Sudan
Sundown
Sunray
Swee t w a t e r
Tahoka
Texline
Tolar
Troy
Tulia
Turkey
Uvalde
Van Horn
Vega
Weinert
Wellington
Wheeler
W h i t e Deer
Wilson
Winters
wolf f o r d
youth Center
REGION VI I
Iowa
New Hampton
s t o r m Lake
Kansas
~elleville
Bucklin
Chanute
Cheney
Colby
Elkhart
Elsmore
~nterprise
F ormos a
Glen E l d e r
~oodland
G r e a t Bend
Hays
HugotOn
Iuka
Kinsley
Leot i
Mad i s o n
Minneola
Montez.uma
P a r k Meadows
Parker
Plains
plainville
Quinter
Ransom
Rolla
uss sell
st. F r a n c i s
st.
John
Scott c i t y
stockton
Sublette
Sylvia
Syracuse
Treece
Udall
ulysses
West P l a i n s
Missouri
Bennet Spring
Brunswick
C l a r e n c e Cannon Dam, S a l t R i v e r
Clearmont
Crowder S t . P a r k
Lockwood
Mark Twain N a t i o n a l F o r e s t
Montauk
Vandalia
Wright C i t y
Nebraska
Clay Center
Davenport
David C i t y
Gordon
Humphrey
Morrill
Oak
Phillips
schuyler
Spalding
Upland
REGION V I I I
Colorado
A i r F o r c e Academy
Aurora
Burlington
Colo. S p r i n g s
Donala Development
F i t z s i m m o n s AMC
F t . Carson
Greeley
Holyoke
I n v e r n e s s Development
Lake o f t h e P i n e s
N-orthglenn
Snowmass
Steamboat Springs
Tammeron Development
Taylor Park
Wray
Montana
A e r i a l F i r e Depot
B i g Sky Development
Eureka
Rexford
Richey
Roberts
Rocky Boy
ROY
N o r t h Dakota
Alexander
Bowman
Dickinson
Sheyenne
Valley City
Watford
s o u t h Dakota
Eagle Butte
Gettysburg
Huron
Lake Andes
Mitchell
Utah
Bear River
Central Disposal
Heber
Provo River C e n t a l Disposal
Roosevelt
Spanish Fork
Tooele
Vernal
-
Snowy Range C e n t r a l D i s p o s a l
REGION I X
Arizona
Alpine
Arizona City
Benson
C a s a Grande
Catalina
Coolidge
~ t Huachuca
.
Gilbert
Joseph C i t y
Lake Havasu ( S o u t h WWTF)

Lake Havasu ( I s l a n d WWTF)
Mesa
Page
Prescott
Saf f o r d
St. Johns
Taylor.
Tucson
Tucson ( A i r p o r t )
Williams AFB
Winslow
California
Apple V a l l e y
Angels
Antelope Valley
A r m n a CSD
Arvin
Atascadero
Avennl
B a k e r s f i e l d (No. 1 a n d 2 )
D a k e r s f i e l d (No. 3 )
Bass Lake
B e a l e AFB
Dear Creek E s t a t e s
Bear Valley
Bodega Bay
Bolinas
Brentwood
Buena V i s t a
B u t t e Community C o l l e g e
Buttonwillow
Boulder Creek
C a l i f . 1 n s t . f o r Men ( C h i n o )
C a l i f . Med. F a c i l i t y
(Vacaville)
C a l i f . Mens Colony (SLO)
Calipatria
Calistoga
Cawarillo
Cawarillo St. Hospital
Cambria
Camp P e n d l a t o n
S X e mB
Chico
C h i n a Camp ( H a r i n )
C h i n a Lake
Chowchilla
C l e a r l a k e Oaks
Coachella
Coachella Valley
Coalinga
C o i f Ranches ( H e n d o t a )
ColEnx
Corning
County E s t a t e s (Ramona)
Cutler-Orosi
D~lftn0
Df nuba
Douglas F l a t
Earlimart
Edgemont
E l Dorado H i l l s
E l Toro
Exeter
Fairfiald
Fnllbrook
Fed. C o r r . I n o t .
(Santa Barbara)
Fernbridge
Forndale
Fontana
Forestville
F t . Hunter-Liggett
Furnace Creek
George AFB
Golden G a t e P a r k ( S F )
Goldside E s t a t e s
Gonzales
Graton
Groveland
Guadalupe
Gustine
H a l f Moon Bay
Hanford
Healdsburg
Hemet
Houston C r e e k ( C r e s t l i n e )
Indian M i l l s
Indio
Ione
Ivanhoe
Kerman
K e r n Co. Ind. Farm
King C i t y
L a Canada
La C r e s c e n t a
Laguna
Laguna H i l l s
L a Honda
Lake Arrowhead
Lake B e r r y e s s a
Lake B e r r y e s s a (Napa Co.)
Lake Cachuma
Lake Co. ( C l e a r l a k e Mighlands )
Lake E l s i n o r e
Lake E l s i n o r e (Canyon Lake )
Lake Hughes
Lakeport
La Mont
Las Virgines
L e Grande
Lemon Cove
Lemoore
L i m o n e i r a Ranch
Lincoln
Lindsay
Livermore
Lodi
Los A l i s o s
Los A n g e l e s Co.
( A c t o n Rehab. C e n t e r )
(Lancaster)
(Palmdale )
(Warm S p r i n g s )
LOB Banos
Loyalton
McF a r l a n d
Madera Co. ( N o r t h F o r k )
Malibu ( P r o b a t i o n Camp)
Manteca
March AFB
Meadowood
Mendocino C i t y
Merced
Michelson ( I r v i n e Ranch)
Moccasin
Modesto
Mokelumne H i l l
Moulton-Niguel No. 1A
Moulton-Niguel No. 3
M t . Vernon
Murphys
Newcastle
North Fork
North Lakeport
N o r t h R i v e r No. 1
North Shore
Nova t o
Oakshores
Occidental
Ocotillo
Orange Cove
P a c i f i c Union C o l l e g e (Angwin)
Palmdale
Palm S p r i n g s
Parlier
Perris
Petaluma
Pixley
Plymouth
Pomona
Prado Regional Park
Quincy
Ramona
Rancho C a l i f o r n i a
R i c h a r d s o n Bay
Richardson Springs
R i d g e c r e st
Riverdale
Rohnert Park
Ros emond
Sacramento (Metro A i r p o r t )
San B e r n a r d i n o
San B e r n a r d i n o Co. No. 70
San B u e n a v e n t u r a
San Clemente
San J o a q u i n Co. Gen. H o s p i t a l
San J u a n B a u t i s t a
San L u i s O b i s p o
San L u i s Rey ( O c e a n s i d e )
San P a s q u a l Acad.
(Escondido )
S a n t a Maria .
Santa Nella
Santa Paula
S a n t a Rosa (Laguna)
S a n t a Rosa ( O a k m n t )
S a n t a Rosa (West C o l l e g e )
S c o t t s Valley
Seeley Creek ( C r e s t l i n e )
S e a Ranch
Shady G l e n
Shaf ter
S h a s t a Dam
Shastina
Sheridan
Smith R i v e r
Snelling
Sonome V a l l e y
S o u t h Tahoe
Spanish F l a t
Strathmore
Sun C i t y
Sunnymead
Sun01 V a l l e y
Suaanvill a
(Dept o f ' Corrctctions )
G u t t e r Creek
Taf t
Tehachapi
Terra Bella
Thousand Oaks
Tomales
Tulare
Tulare Correction Center
T w e n t y n i n e Palm13
U.S. Vet. Admin. Hosp.
(Livermore )
V e t e r a n Home (Ycnuntville )
Wasco
Weed
Western H i l l s (Chino)
Westport
Willits
Wilseyville
Windsor
Windsor (Sonoma Co. A i r p o r t )
Winton
Woodlake
Woodland
Woodville
Woodward B l u f f
Yountville
Hawaii
Hanalei
K a i l u a Kona
Kaunakakai
Keauhou
Lahaina
Schofield Barracks
Waimea
Nevada
Carson C i t v
Dayton
D o u g l a s Co.
Elk0
Gerlach
G l e n Meadows
Incline Village
L a s Vegas ( p a r t i a l )
L a s Vegas ( C l a r k Co.)
(partial)
Lemon Valley
Owyhee
Winnemucca
REGION X
Idaho
Albion
Ashton
B o i s e (Gowen F i e l d )
B o t t l e Bay
Bruneau
Donnelly
Emmett
G a r f i e l d Bay
Hazelton
Melba
Menan
M t . Home
New Plymouth
Plummer
Rupert
Santa
S t . Anthony
Wendell
Oregon
Adrian
Arch CaDe
Bly
Boardman
Brownsville (North)
Brownsville (South)
Burns
Butte F a l l s
Corvallis (Airport)
C o t t a g e Grove Lake
Cove
Creswell
Culver
D e x t e r Lake
Eagle Point
Echo
Eugene ( A i r p o r t )
F o r e s t Grove
Freeman C r e e k , Dworshak Dam

Gastop
G r o u s e C r e e k , A p p l e g a t e Lake
Haines
H i l l s b o r o , West S i d e
Hines
Jordan Valley
Junction City
Lakeside
Lakeview
Long C r e e k
Lowell
Madras
Metolius
Milton Freewater
Moro
Paisley
Prairie City
Richardson P o i n t Park
Fernridge Reservoir
Richland
St. Paul
Seneca
Sherwood
Siletz
S o m e r s e t West
S t e w a r t Lake, L o s t C r e e k
Sutherlin
Ukiah
Unity
Wasco
Yamhill
Washington
Camp B o o n e v i l l e
Cusick
Ephrata
Grandview
Naches
Prosser
Quincy
S o a p Lake
Walla Walla ( I n d u s t r i a l )
Warden
Waterville
Yakima ( i n d u s t r i a l )
D.2
Rapid
Infiltration
Systems
REGION I
Massachusetts
Barnstable
Chatham
Concord
Edgartown
F o r t Devens
N a n t u c k e t (2 )
Wareham
REGION I11
Maryland
Calhoun Marine
Engineering School
F o r t Smallwood
Hyde P a r k
J e n s e n ' s Inc.
Q u a l i t y I n n o f Pecomore, I n c .
S o u t h D o r c h e s t e r K-8 C e n t e r
REGION IV
Florida
Avon P a r k
Lehigh Acres
Sandlake (Orlando)
Tavares
Williston
Kentucky
H o r s e Cave
REGION V
Illinois
Meredosia
Sangaman V a l l e y
Michigan
Alpha
Bangor
Baraga
B a t e s Township
Calumet
Chatham
Crystal Falls
Decatur
Dimondale
Edmore
F o r s y t h e Township
~aastra
C e d a r S p r i n g s (Grand R a p i d s )
ray ling
REGION 11
E
iEy
S e a b r o o k Farms
County Sewer D i s t r i c t
(Holbrook)
(Holtsville)
County Sewer D i s t r i c t #5
(Huntington)
County Sewer D i s t r i c t # l l
(Ronkonkoma )
County Sewer D i s t r i c t #12
(Holtsville)
Heatherwood ( C a l v e r t o n )
H u n t i n g t o n Sewer D i s t r i c t
Lake George
Riverhead
S t r a t h m o r e Ridge ( B r o o k h a v e n )
(industrial)
Vineland
New York
~irchwood-North Shore
(Holbrook)
C e d a r C r e e k (Wantagh )
college Park (~armingdale)
(Central I s l i p )
Hopkins
Howard
Marcellus
Olivet
Onekama
O t t a w a County Road Commission
Pentwa ter
Shelby
Stockbridge
Tekonsha
Minnesota
Medina
Wisconsin
Almond
Baldwin
Balsam Lake
Barron
Birchwood
Boyceville
Coloma
Doer P a r k
Fenwood
Fifield
Fontana
N o r t h Moraine ( G l e n b e u l a h )
Glenwood C i t y
Grantsburg
Hammond
Haugen
Iron River
Kellnersville
K i n g V e t e r a n s Home
Lone Rock
Lyndon S t a t i o n
Mari b e 1
Mattoon
Merrimac
Milton
Minong
Mount C a l v a r y
Nes h k o r o
Plainfield
Roberts
Rosholt
Sand C r e e k
Scandinavia
Sextonville
Spooner
Spring Green
Stetsonville
Stone Lake
Rozellville (Stratford)
K e l l y Lake ( S u r i n g )
Unity
Warrens
Wautoma
Wheeler
W h i t e Lake
Wild Rose
W i l l i a m s Bay
Winter
Wittenberg
Wyocena
REGION VI
Louisiana
Polk
Pt.
New Mexico
Hobbs
Springer
Vaughn
REGION V I I
Nebraska
Chapman
Elwood
REGION V I I I
Colorado
Sterling
Montana
Uazin
Bozaman
Corvnllis
Plains
Stevensville
Victor
N o r t h Dakota
Parshall
Reeder
S o u t h Dakota
Madison
Wyominq
Jackson
Laramie
REGION I X
Arizona
A r c o s a n t i (Cordes J u n c t i o n )
Lo Lo Mai S p r i n g s
Mammoth
P h o e n i x ( 2 3 r d Avenue)
Papago T r i b a l W a s t e w a t e r
T r e a t m e n t System ( S e l l s )
S t . David
Thatcher
Marana (Tucson )
Green V a l l e y ( T u c s o n )
Arizona Correctional Training
F a c i l i t y (Tucson)
Corona d e Tucson ( T u c s o n )
S u n r i s e R e s o r t (White R i v e r )
Wickenburg
Willcox
California
Applega t e
Arbuckle
Baker
Banning
B a r s tow
Bieber
P f e i f f e r Big Sur S t a t e Park
B i o l a C o l l e g e (Los A n g e l e s )
Bishop
P l a c e r County ( B l u e Canyon)
B l u e Lake
Blythe
Bombay Beach
D e s e r t Lake ( B o r o n )
Bridgeport
Buellton
Burney
Byron
California City
Calpella
Camino H e i g h t s
Caruthers
Cascade S h o r e s
Warm S p r i n g s R e h a b i l i t a t i o n
Facility (Castaic)
Ceres
Chester
Chualar
Coalinga
Corcoran
Corona
Courtland
Glen Helen R e h a b i l i t a t i o n
Center ( C r e s t l i n e )
Del Rey
Delhi
Desert Crest
D e s e r t Hot S p r i n g s
Desert Shores
D i s c o v e r y Bay
W h i t t i e r Narrows ( L o s
A n g e l e s Courrty, E l Monte)
Escalon
Etna
Farmersville
Fillmore
Firebaugh
F ol on tr ai ns at o n
Franklin
Fresno
Galt
Garberville
Gilroy
Gorman
Grass Valley
Grayson
Greenfield
Gridley
Hamilton C i t y
S i l v e r Lake ( H e l e n d a l e )
P l e a s a n t Ridge S c h o o l
(Higgins Corner)
Hilmar
Hollister
Hopland .
Huron
Idyllwild
Inyokern
Isleton
Julian
J u n e Lake
Selma Community ( K i n g s b u r g )
K n i g h t s Landing
La S e l v a Beach
Laguna N i g u e l
Lake o f t h e P i n e s
Copper Cove (Lalce T u l l o c h )
Laton
Lechuza
Linda
Linden
L-innell
Livingston
Lompoc
Lone P i n e
Lopez Lake
Madera
Madison
Malaga
Mammoth Lakes
Maricopa
Mariposa
McCloud
McKittrick
Mineral
Mo j a v e
Montague
Montalvo
Moorpark
M t . Shasta
Newel1
Gakdale
Orland
V i c t o r V a l l e y (Oro G r a n d e )
Palm D e s e r t
C a l i f o r n i a Youth A u t h o r i t y
(Paso Roblesl
Pauma V a l l e y
Pine Valley
Pinecrest
Poplar (Woodville Farm)

Porterville
Portola
Rancho Ponderosa
Rancho Santa Fe
Redlands
Reedley
Rialto
Richvale
Ripon
Riverbank
Running Springs
Salida
Salton City
San Ardo
Hemet San Jacinto
San Miguel
San Onofre State Beach
Sanger
Santee
Seeley
Shelter Cove
Smith Flat
Donner Summit (Soda Springs)
Soledad
Springville
St. Helena
Stirling City
Stratford
Tipton
Tranquillity
Tres Pinos
Tahoe-Truckee
Valley Center
Weaverville
Westley
Westwood
Wheatland
Whispering Palms
Whitter (Los Angeles County,
San Jose Creek)
Willow Creek
Woodbridge
;;;;;yzn
D.3
Overland
Flow Systems
REGION I
REGION I1
New York
Harriman (pilot scale)
REGION I11
Maryland
Beltsville
Chestertown (industrial)
Virginia
Gretna
REGION IV
Georgia
Woodburry
Mississippi
Cleveland
Falkner
South Carolina
Easley (RLD)
REGION V
Illinois
Carbondale
Fillmore
Indiana
~iddleburry (industrial)
Yreka
Yuba City
Yucaipa
Hawaii
Kihei
Nevada
Alamo
Beatty
Blue Diamond
Boulder City
Empire
Eureka
Gabbs
Goldfield
Hawthorne
Henderson
Jackpot
McDermitt
McGill
Monte110
Overton
Panaca
Paradise Spa
Paradise Valley
Pioche
Stead
Tonopah
Wendover
Yerington
REGION X
Idaho
Dent Acres
Ohio
Alum Creek Lake
Napoleon (industrial)
REGION VI
Louisiana
Vinton
Oklahoma
Ada (R6D)
Heavener
Texas
TT%o
(industrial)
Paris (industrial)
~ocky'
Point, Sulphur River
Sherman
REGION VII
REG ION VIII
REGION IX
California
Davis
Davis (industrial)
Newman
Sebastopol (industrial)
Nevada
--Gardnerville
APPENDIX E
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN FOR SLOW RATE
E.l
Introduction
Details of distribution system design for the SR process are

presented in this appendix for both surface and sprinkler
distribution methods.
Some aspects covered here are also
applicable to RI or OF distribution techniques. The level
of detail presented in this appendix is sufficient to
develop preliminary layouts and sizing of distribution
system components. References are cited that provide more
complete design information.
E.2
General Design Considerations
Several design parameters are common to all distribution

systems and are defined in the following.
Depth of Water Applied
E.2.1
The depth of water applied is the hydraulic loading per

application expressed in cm (in.) and can be determined
using the relationship:
where
D =
Lw F =
depth of water applied, cm (in.)

monthly hydraulic loading, cm (in.)
application frequency, number of applications
per month
The monthly hydraulic loadings will have been established as

a result of the water balance calculations developed in
Section 4.5.
E .2 .2
The application frequency is defined as the number of

applications per month or per week.
The application
frequency to use for design is a judgment decision to be
made by the designer considering: (1) the objectives of the
system, ( 2 ) the water needs or tolerance of the crop,
( 3 , ) the moisture retention properties of the soil, (4) the
labor requirements of the distribution system, and (5) the
capital cost of the distribution system.
Some general
guidelines for determining an appropriate application

frequency are presented here, but consultation witlh a local
farm adviser is recommended.
Except for the water tolerant forage grasses,' most crops,
including forest crops, require a drying period1 between
applications to allow aeration of the root zone to achieve
optimum growth and nutrient uptake.
Thus, more frequent
applications are appropriate as the ET rate and the soil
permeability increase. In practice, application frequencies
range from once every 3 or 4 days for sandy soils to about
once every 2 weeks for heavy clay soils.
An application
frequency of once per week is commonly used.
The operating and capital costs of distribution systems can
With
affect the selection of application frequency.
distribution systems that must be moved between applications
(move-stop systems), it is usually desirable to minimize
labor and operating costs by minimizing the number of moves
and therefore the frequency of application. On t.he other
hand, capital costs of the distribution system are directly
related to the flow capacity of the system.
Thus, the
capital cost may be reduced by increasing the application
frequency to reduce system capacity.
E.2.3
Application Rate
Application. rate is the rate at which water is applied to

the field by the distribution system.
In general, the
application rate should be matched to the infiltration rate
of the soil or vegetated surface to prevent excessive eunoff
and tailwater return requirements.
Specific guidelines
relating application rates to infiltration properties are
discussed under the different types of distribution systems.
E.2.4
Application Period
The application period is the time necessary to apply the

desired depth of water (D).
Application periods vary
according to the type of distribution system, but, in
general are selected to be convenient to the operator and
P ( D ~ most
compatible with
regular working
hours.
distribution systems, application periods are less than
24 hours.
E.2.5
Application Zone
In most systems, wastewater is not applied to this entire

field area during the application period. Rather, the field
area is divided into application plots or zones and
wastewater is applied to only one zone at a time.
A p p l i c a t i o n is r o t a t e d among t h e z o n e s s u c h t h a t t h e e n t i r e
f i e l d a r e a r e c e i v e s wastewater w i t h i n t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l
s p e c i f i e d by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y .
A p p l i c a t i o n zone
a r e a c a n be computed w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g :
Aa = Aw/Na
where A,
*a
(E-2
a p p l i c a t i o n zone a r e a , h a ( a c r e s )
---
f i e l d a r e a , ha ( a c r e s ) (see S e c t i o n 4.5.4.1)
No. of a p p l i c a t i o n z o n e s
The number of a p p l i c a t i o n z o n e s i s e q u a l t o t h e number o f

a p p l i c a t i o n s t h a t c a n be made d u r i n g t h e t i m e i n t e r v a l
between
successive
applications
on t h e same zqne a s
s p e c i f i e d by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y .
6
For example,
if
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d i s 11 h o u r s ,
e f f e c t i v e l y 2 a p p l i c a t i o n s c a n be made e a c h o p e f a t i n g d a y .
I f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y i s o n c e p e r week and t h e s y s t e m
i s o p e r a t e d 7 d a y s p e r week, t h e n t h e r e a r e 7 o p e r a t i n g d a y s
b e t w e e n s u c c e s s i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s o n t h e same zone and t h e
number o f a p p l i c a t i o n z o n e s is:
Na
= ( 2 applications/day) ( 7 opera'ting days)

=
14
I f t h e f i e l d a r e a i s 100 ha ( 4 0 a c r e s ) , then t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
zone is:
E.2.6
System C a p a c i t y
Whatever t y p e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m i s s e l e c t e d , t h e
maximum f l o w c a p a c i t y o f t h e s y s t e m m u s t be d e t e r m i n e d s o
t h a t components, s u c h a s p i p e l i n e s and pumping s t a t i o n s , c a n
For systems with a c o n s t a n t a p p l i c a t i o n
be p r o p e r l y s i z e d .
r a t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d , t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y of
t h e s y s t e m c a n be computed u s i n g the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a :
where
Q =
discharge capacity, L/s
C =
c o n s t a n t , 28.1 ( 4 5 3 )
D =
ta =
(gal/min)
a p p l i c a t i o n a r e a , ha ( a c r e s )
d e p t h of water a p p l i e d , cm ( i n . )
application period, h
O t h e r methods of
computing s y s t e m f l o w c a p a c i t y
i l l u s t r a t e d f o r e a c h of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s .
E.3
are
S u r f a c e D i s t r i b u t i o n Systems
E.3.1
Ridge and Furrow ~ i s t r i b u t i o n
The d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e f o r r i d g e and f u r r o w s y s t e m s i s
e m p i r i c a l and i s based on p a s t e x p e r i e n c e w i t h good
i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s and
field
e v a l u a t i o n of
operating
systems.
F o r more d e t a i l e d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s , t h e d e s i g n e r
i s r e f e r r e d t o r e f e r e n c e s [ l ] and [ 2 ] .
The d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s f o r f u r r o w s y s t e m s i n c l u d ' e f u r r o w
grade,
spacing,
length,
and
stream
size
( :Elowrate)
( F i g u r e E-la).
The f u r r o w g r a d e w i l l depend o n t h e s i t e
topography.
A g r a d e o f 2 % i s t h e recommended maximum f o r
s t r a i g h t furrows.
Furrows c a n be o r i e n t e d d i a g o n a l l y a c r o s s
f i e l d s t o reduce grades.
Contour furrows o r c o r ~ c u g a t i o n s
c a n be used w i t h g r a d e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 2 t o 1 0 % .
The
furrow
spacing
depends
on
the
water
intake
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s o i l .
The p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t i v e i n
s e l e c t i n g f u r r o w s p a c i n g i s t o make s u r e t h a t t h e l a t e r a l
movement of t h e w a t e r between a d j a c e n t f u r r o w s w i l l w e t t h e
e n t i r e r o o t zone b e f o r e i t p e r c o l a t e s beyond t h e r o o t
zone.
S u g g e s t e d f u r r o w s p a c i n g s b a s e d o n d i f f e r e n t s o i l and
s u b s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e E-1.
The l e n g t h o f t h e f u r r o w s h o u l d be a s l o n g a s w i l . 1 p Q r m i t
reasonable
uniformity
of
application,
because
labor
r e q u i r e m e n t s and c a p i t a l c o s t s i n c r e a s e a s f u r r o w s become
shorter.
S u g g e s t e d maximum f u r r o w l e n g t h s f o r c l i f f e r e n t
g r a d e s , s o i l s , and d e p t h s of w a t e r a p p l i e d a r e g i v e n i n
T a b l e E-2.
FURROW S P A C I N G
IZE
(a)
R I D G E AND FURROW
BORDER
Wl DTH
(b)
GRADED BORDER
FIGURE E-1
SURFACE DISTRIBUTION METHODS
OPTIMUM FURROW S P A C I N G [ 3 ]
Optimum
s p a c i n g , cm
S o i l condition
uniform p r o f i l e
Coarse sands
Coarse sands
o v e r compact s u b s o i l s
uniform
F i n e sands t o sandy loams
over
F i n e sands t o sandy loams
more compact s u b s o i l s
uniform
Medium s a n d y - s i l t loam
Medium s a n d y - s i l t loam
over
mre compact s u b s o i l s
uniform
S i l t y c l a y loam
Very heavy c l a y s o i l s
uniform
30
46
61
76
91
102
122
91
TABLE E-2
SUGGESTED MAXIMUM LENGTHS OF C U L T I V A T E D
FURROWS F O R D I F F E R E N T S O I L S , GRADES, AND
D E P T H S OF WATER TO BE A P P L I E D [ I ]
m
Avg d e p t h o f w a t e r a p p l i e d a , e m
-,
Clays
Furrow
grade, %
a.
7.5
15
22.5
Loams
30
10
15
Sands
20
7.5
10
12.5
From Equation E-1.
The f u r r o w s t r
flowrate per
d e t e r m i n e d by
system h a s
distribution
e a m s i z e o r a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e is expressed a s a
furrow.
The o p t i m u m s t r e a m s i z e is u s u a l l y
t r i a l and a d j u s t m e n t i n t h e f i e l d a f t e r t h e
been
installed
[2 I .
The
most
uniform
( h i g h e s t a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y ) g e n e r a l l y can
be a c h i e v e d b y s t a r t i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n w i t h t h e l a r g e s t
s t r e a m s i z e t h a t can be s a f e l y c a r r i e d i n t h e furrow.
Once
t h e end o f
t h e furrow,
the
t h e stream h a s r e a c h e d
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e c a n be r e d u c e d o r c u t b a c k t o r e d u c e t h e
A s a general rule,
q u a n t i t y of r u n o f f t h a t must be handled.
i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o h a v e t h e s t r e a m s i z e l a r g e enough t o
r e a c h t h e end o f t h e f u r r o w w i t h i n o n e - f i f t h o f t h e t o t a l
application period.
This p r a c t i c e w i l l r e s u l t i n an
a p p l i c a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y o f g r e a t e r t h a n 90% f o r m o s t s o i l s i f
tailwater is r e t u r n e d (see S e c t i o n 4.8.2.1).
The a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d is t h e t i m e n e e d e d t o i n f i l t r a t e t h e
d e s i r e d d e p t h o f w a t e r p l u s t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e stream
t o a d v a n c e t o t h e end o f t h e f u r r o w .
The t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r
i n i l t r a t i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e water i n t a k e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
t h e furrow.
T h e r e i s n o s t a n d a r d method f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e
furrow i n t a k e rate.
The recommended a p p r o a c h i s t o
d e t e r m i n e f u r r o w i n t a k e r a t e s and i n i l t r a t i o n t i m e s by
f i e l d t r i a l s as d e s c r i b e d i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 ] .
D e s i g n o f s u p p l y pumps and t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s s h o u l d be
b a s e d o n p r o v i d i n g t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e s t r e a m s i z e , w h i c h
i s g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d by e r o s i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s when g r a d e s
are g r e a t e r t h a n 0.3%.
The maximum n o n e r o s i v e stream s i z e
c a n be e s t i m a t e d from t h e e q u a t i o n :
( E-4 )
qe = C/G
where
qe = maximum u n i t s t r e a m s i z e , L / s
C = c o n s t a n t , 0.6
G = grade,
(gal/min)
(10)
F o r g r a d e s l e s s t h a n 0 . 3 % , t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e stream s i z e
i s g o v e r n e d by t h e f l o w c a p a c i t y o f t h e f u r r o w , e s t i m a t e d a s
follows:
qc = CFa
where
qc = furrow flow c a p a c i t y , L/s

C = constant,
(E-5)
(gal/min)
50 ( 7 4 ) .
Fa = c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f f u r r o w , m2 ( f t 2 )
Various
c o n v e y a n c e s y s t e m s and d e v i c e s a r e used t o a p p l y
t o t h e head o f t h e f u r r o w s .
The most common
conveyance s y s t e m s a r e open d i t c h e s or c a n a l s ( l i n e d and
unlined),
surface
pipelines,
and
buried
low-pressure
pipelines.
For wastewater d i s t r i b u t i o n , p i p e l i n e s a r e
g e n e r a l l y used.
I f b u r i e d p i p e l i n e s a r e used t o convey
w a t e r , v e r t i c a l riser p i p e s w i t h v a l v e s a r e u s u a l l y spaced
a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s t o r e l e a s e water i n t o temporary
d i t c h e s equipped w i t h
siphon tubes o r i n t o hydrants
c o n n e c t e d t o p o r t a b l e g a t e d s u r f a c e p i p e ( F i g u r e E-2).
water
FIGURE E - 2
ALUMINUM HYDRANT AND GATED P I P E
AT SWEETWATER, TEXAS
The s p a c i n g of t h e risers i s g o v e r n e d e i t h e r ' b y t h e h e a d l o s s

i n t h e g a t e d p i p e o r by w i d t h s of b o r d e r s t r i p s when g r a d e d
b o r d e r and f u r r o w methods a r e a l t e r n a t e d o n t h e same f i e l d .
The v a l v e s used i n risers u s u a l l y a r e a l f a l f a v a l v e s
(mounted o n t o p of t h e r i s e r ) o r o r c h a r d v a l v e s (m,ounted
i n s i d e t h e riser).
V a l v e s must be s i z e d t o d e l i v e r t h e
design f lowrate.
G a t e d s u r f a c e p i p e may be aluminum, p l a s t i c , o r r u b b e r .
Outlets
along
the
pipe
are
spaced
t o match
furrow
spacings.
The p i p e a n d h y d r a n t s a r e p o r t a b l e so t h a t t h e y
may b e moved f o r e a c h i r r i g a t i o n .
The h y d r a n t s a r e mounted
o n v a l v e d risers, w h i c h a r e s p a c e d a l o n g t h e b u r i e d p i p e l i n e
Operating handles extend
t h a t s u p p l i e s t h e wastewater.
t h r o u g h t h e h y d r a n t s t o c o n t r o l t h e a l f a l f a or o r c h a r d
v a l v e s l o c a t e d i n t h e risers.
Control of flow i n t o each
f u r r o w i s a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h s l i d e g a t e s o r screw a d j u s t a b l e
o r i f i c e s a t each o u t l e t .
S l i d e g a t e s a r e recommended f o r
Gated o u t l e t c a p a c i t i e s v a r y w i t h t h e
u s e w i t h wastewater.
a v a i l a b l e head a t t h e g a t e , t h e v e l o c i t y of flow p a s s i n g t h e
G a t e openings are u s u a l l y
g a t e , and t h e g a t e opening.
a d j u s t e d i n t h e f i e l d t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d stream s i z e .
EXAMPLE E-1 :
DETERMINATION OF PREL IMINARY DESIGN CRITERIA

FOR A RIDGE AND FURROW DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
Design Conditions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Soil conditions: sandy loam over clay

Final grade: 0.5%
Maximum monthly hydraulic loading (b):
40 cm
Application frequency (F) : 4 times per month (l/wk)
Total field area (A"): 100 ha
Crop: corn
Design Calculations
1.
2.
3.
4.
Determine depth of water to be applied during application.

D = Lw/F
= 40/4
*
= 10 cm
Determine the application zone area with Equation E-2.
Assume four applications per day will be performed,
7 d/wk.
A,
Application zone area (Aa) =
28 application zones
= 3.6 ha
Select furrow spacing from Table E-1.
Sf = 76 cm
Select furrow length from Table E-2.
Lf = 370 m
5.
6.
Estimate maximum furrow stream size (application rate) &om
Equation E-4.
= 1.2 L/s
This flow is used until the stream reaches the end of the furrow', at which
time the flow is reduced.
Calculate the number of furrows used per application zone.
(Aa)(104 m2/ha)
No. of furrows = (Lf)(Sf)(0.01 m/cm)
7.
(3.6 ha) (104 m2/ha)

(370 m) (76 cm/furrow) (0.01 m/cm)
= 127 furrows
Calculate the maximum flow that must be delivered to each appliaation area
(distribution system capacity).
Q = (No. of furrows) (qe)
= (127) (1.2 L/s)
= 152 L/s (2,417 gal/min)
Graded B o r d e r D i s t r i b u t i o n
E.3.2
Preliminary design considerations f o r s t r a i g h t ,

graded
border d i s t r i b u t i o n systems a r e discussed here.
Quasir a t i o n a l d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s h a v e been d e v e l o p e d by t h e SCS
f o r a l l v a r i a t i o n s o f b o r d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s and a r e
g i v e n i n Chapter 4 , S e c t i o n 1 5 , of t h e SCS Engineering
Handbook [5]
The d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s f o r g r a d e d b o r d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e :
1.
Grade o f t h e b o r d e r s t r i p
2.
Width o f t h e b o r d e r s t r i p
3.
L e n g t h of t h e b o r d e r s t r i p
4.
U n i t stream s i z e
Graded b o r d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n be used on g r a d e s up t o a b o u t
7%. T e r r a c i n g of g r a d e d b o r d e r s c a n be u s e d f o r g r a d e s . u p
t o 20%.
The w i d t h s o f
border s t r i p s a r e often selected
for
c o m p a t i b i l i t y w i t h f a r m i m p l e m e n t s , b u t t h e y a l s o depend t o
a c e r t a i n e x t e n t upon g r a d e and s o i l t y p e , which a f f e c t t h e
A guide f o r
u n i f o r m i t y of d i s t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s t h e s t r i p .
e s t i m a t i n g s t r i p w i d t h s is p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s E-3 and E-4.
TABLE E-3
D E S I G N G U I D E L I N E S F O R GRADED BORDER
D I S T R I B U T I O N , DEEP ROOTED C R O P S [ l ]
, S o i l type
and
infiltration
rate
Grade, %
U n i t flow
per 1 m of
s t r i p width,
L/s
Avg d e p t h a
Border s t r i p , m
of w a t e r
a p p l i e d , cm
Width
Length
Sandy,
22.5 cm/h
Loamy s a n d ,
1.8-2.5 cm/h
Sandy loam
1.2-1.8 cm/h
Clay loam,
0.6-0.8 cm/h
Clay,
0.3-0.6
a.
cm/h
From Equation E-1.
TABLE E-4
D E S I G N G U I D E L I N E S FOR GRADED BORDER
D I S T R I B U T I O N , SHALLOW ROOTED C R O P S [ I ]
Soil profile
Grade, 8
Unit flow
per 1 m of
s t r i p width,
L/s
Avg d e p t h a
of water
a p p l i e d , cm
Border s t r i p , m
Width
Length
Clay loam, 60 cm
deep o v e r permeable s u b s o i l
Clay, 60 cm deep
o v e r permeable
subsoil
Loam, 15-45 cm
deep o v e r hardpan
a.
From Equation E-1.
l e n g t h of b o r d e r s t r i p s s h o u l d be as l o n g a s p r a c t i c a l
t o m i n i m i z e c a p i t a l and o p e r a t i n g costs. H o w e v e r , e x t r e m e l y
long r u n s are not practical due to t i m e r e q u i r e m e n t s for
p a t r o l l i n g and d i f f i c u l t i e s i n d e t e r m i n i n g s t r e a m s i z e
adjustments.
L e n g t h s i n excess of 4 0 0 m ( 1 , 3 0 0 f t ) are n o t
recommended.
I n g e n e r a l , b o r d e r strips s h o . u l d n o t be l a i d
The
o u t a c r o s s two o r more s o i l t y p e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t i n t a k e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r w a t e r h o l d i n g c a p a c i t i e s , and b o r d e r
s t r i p s should n o t extend a c r o s s slope grades t h a t d i f f e r
substantially.
The a p p r o p r i a t e l e n g t h f o r a g i v e n s i t e
d e p e n d s o n t h e g r a d e , t h e a l l o w a b l e s t r e a m s i z e , t.he d e p t h
o f water a p p l i e d , t h e i n t a k e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o i l ,
and
the
c o n f i g u r a t i o n of
the
s i t e boundaries.
For
preliminary design,
t h e l e n g t h of
t h e b o r d e r may be
e s t i m a t e d u s i n g T a b l e s E-3 and E-4.
The a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e o r u n i t stream s i z e f o r g r a d e d b o r d e r
i r r i g a t i o n is e x p r e s s e d a s a f l o w r a t e p e r u n i t w i d t h o f
border s t r i p , L/s-m ( f t 3 / s = f t ) .
The stream s i z e m u s t b e
s u c h t h a t t h e d e s i r e d volume o f w a t e r i s a p p l i e c ! t o t h e
s t r i p i n a t i m e e q u a l t o , o r s l i g h t l y less t h a n , t h e t i m e
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e water t o i n f i l t r a t e t h e s o i l s u r f a c e .
When t h e d e s i r e d volume o f w a t e r h a s b e e n d e l i v e r e d o n t o t h e
s t r i p , t h e stream i s t u r n e d o f f .
Shutoff normally occurs
when t h e s t r e a m h a s advanced a b o u t 7 5 % o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
strip.
The o b j e c t i v e is t o h a v e s u f f i c i e n t water r e m a i n i n g
o n t h e b o r d e r a f t e r s h u t o f f t o a p p l y t h e d e s i r e d water d e p t h
t o t h e remaining l e n g t h of b o r d e r w i t h v e r y l i t t l e r u n o f f .
U s e o f a p r o p e r stream s i z e is n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e u n i f o r m
and e f f i c i e n t a p p l i c a t i o n .
Too r a p i d a stream r e s u l t s i n
i n a d e q u a t e a p p l i c a t i o n a t t h e upper end of t h e s t r i p o r i n
I f t h e stream is
e x c e s s i v e s u r f a c e r u n o f f a t t h e lower end.
t o o s m a l l , t h e l o w e r end o f t h e s t r i p r e c e i v e s i n a d e q u a t e
water o r t h e u p p e r end h a s e x c e s s i v e d e e p p e r c o l a t i o n .
A c t u a l l y a c h i e v i n g u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h minima.1 r u n o f f
r e q u i r e s a good d e a l o f s k i l l and e x p e r i e n c e on t h e p a r t o f
the operator.
The optimum s t r e a m s i z e i s b e s t d e t e r m i n e d by
The r a n g e o f
f i e l d t r i a l s as d e s c r i b e d i n r e f e r e n c e [ 2 ] .
stream s i z e s g i v e n i n T a b l e s E-3 and E-4 f o r v a r i o u s s o i l
a n d c r o p c o n d i t i o n s may be u s e d f o r p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n .
P r o c e d u r e s g i v e n i n r e f e r e n c e [ 5 ] may be u s e d t o o b t a i n a
more a c c u r a t e estimate o f s t r e a m s i z e .
The a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d n e c e s s a r y t o a p p l y t h e d e s i r e d d e p t h
o f water may be d e t e r m i n e d from t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :
where
ta =
application period, h
border s t r i p length, m ( f t )
d e p t h of a p p l i e d w a t e r , cm ( i n . )
c o n s t a n t , 360 ( 9 6 . 3 )
u n i t s t r e a m s i z e , L/s-m o f w i d t h ( g a l / m i n f t of width
The c o n v e y a n c e and a p p l i c a t i o n d e v i c e s used f o r b o r d e r

d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e b a s i c a l l y t h e same a s d e s c r i b e d f o r r i d g e
Open d i t c h e s w i t h
and f u r r o w d i s t r i b u t i o n ( S e c t i o n E. 3 . 1 ) .
s e v e r a l e v e n l y s p a c e d s i p h o n t u b e s a r e o f t e n used t o s u p p l y
the required stream s i z e t o a border s t r i p .
When b u r i e d
p i p e i s used f o r c o n v e y a n c e , v e r t i c a l risers w i t h v a l v e s a r e
u s u a l l y spaced a t i n t e r v a l s e q u a l t o t h e width of t h e border
s t r i p and a r e l o c a t e d midway i n t h e b o r d e r s t r i p .
With t h i s
arrangement, one v a l v e s u p p l i e s each s t r i p .
Water is
d i s c h a r g e d from t h e v a l v e d i r e c t l y t o t h e ground s u r f a c e , a s
i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e E-3 , and i s d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s t h e w i d t h
o f t h e s t r i p by g r a v i t y f l o w .
For border s t r i p widths
g r e a t e r t h a n 9 m ( 3 0 f t ) , a t l e a s t two o u t l e t s p e r s t r i p a r e
n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e good d i s t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s t h e s t r i p .
H y d r a n t s and g a t e d p i p e c a n be used w i t h b o r d e r s y s t e m s .
U s e of g a t e d p i p e p r o v i d e s much more u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n a t
t h e head o f b o r d e r s t r i p s and a l l o w s t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f
e a s i l y c h a n g i n g t o r i d g e and f u r r o w d i s t r i b u t i o n i f c r o p
c h a n g e s are d e s i r e d .
FIGURE E-3
OUTLET VA LVE FOR BORDER STR l P APPL l CAT l ON
EXAMPLE E-2 :
DETERMINATION OF P R E L IMINARY DESIGN C R I T E R I A

F O R GRADED BORDER D I S T R I B U T I O N SYSTEM
Design Conditions
1. Soil conditions: deep clay

2. Final grade: 0.5%
3. Maximum monthly hydraulic loading (h):
40 cm
4. Application frequency (F): 4 times/month
5. Total field area (Aw) : 100 ha
6. Crop: pasture
Design Calculations
1. Determine depth of water to be applied (Dl.

D = 10 cm (see Example E-1)
2. Select strip width and length from Table E-4 based on design conditions.
W=12m
L = 180 m
3. Select unit stream size (q) from Table E-4.
q = 4 L/s-m
4.
Estimate period of application (ta) using Equation E-6.
5.
1.25 h
Determine number of applications per day. Assume a 12 h/d operating period.
NO. of applications = (12 h/d)(1.25 h/application) .
15
6.
Determine application zone area (A,).
Assume application 7 d/wk.
= 0.95 ha
7.
Determine number of border strips per application zone.

a
No. of strips = A
LW
- (0.95 ha) (lo4 rn2/ha)
(180 m) (12 m/strip)
= 4.4
= 5
Determine system flow capacity ( Q )
Q = (5 strips) (W) (q)
= (5) (12 m) (4 L/s-m)
= 240 L/s (3,803 gal/min)
8.
E.4
S p r i n k l e r D i s t r i b u t i o n Systems
E.4.1
Application Rates
The p r i n c i p a l d e s i g n v a r i a b l e f o r a l l s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s is
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , cm/h ( i n . / h ) .
The d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e s h o u l d be l e s s t h a n t h e s a t u r a t e d p e r m e a b i l i t y o r
i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e o f t h e s u r f a c e s o i l (see C h a p t e r 3 ) t o
p r e v e n t r u n o f f and uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n .
Application r a t e s
c a n be i n c r e a s e d when a f u l l c o v e r c r o p i s p r e s e n t (see
S e c t i o n 4.3.2.4).
The i n c r e a s e s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 1 0 0 % o f
the bare s o i l application rate.
Recommended r e d u c t i o n s i n
application
rate
for
sloping
terrain
are
given
in
T a b l e E-5.
A p r a c t i c a l minimum d e s i g n a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e i s
0.5 cm/h ( 0 . 2 i n . / h ) .
For f i n a l d e s i g n , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e s h o u l d be b a s e d on f i e l d i n f i l t r a t i o n r a t e s d e t e r m i n e d
o n t h e b a s i s o f p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h s i m i l a r s o i l s and
c r o p s o r from d i r e c t f i e l d measurements.
TABLE E-5
RECOMMENDED REDU'CTIONS I N APPLICATION
RATES DUE TO GRADE [ 6 ]
-Percent
--
Application
r a t e reductiona
Grade
0-5
6-8
20
9-12
40
13-20
60
over 20
a.
E.4.2
75
P e r c e n t of l e v e l ground
application rate.
S o l i d S e t S p r i n k l e r Systems
S o l i d s e t s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s r e m a i n i n one p o s i t i o n d u r i n g
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n season.
The s y s t e m c o n s i s t s o f a g r i d o f
mainline
and l a t e r a l p i p e s c o v e r i n g t h e f i e l d t o be
irrigated.
I m p a c t s p r i n k l e r s a r e mounted on riser p i p e s
R i s e r heights are
e x t e n d i n g v e r t i c a l l y frofi t h e l a t e r a l s .
d e t e r m i n e d by c r o p h e i g h t s and s p r a y a n g l e .
Sprinklers are
spaced a t p r e s c r i b e d e q u a l i n t e r v a l s along each l a t e r a l
p i p e , u s u a l l y 1 2 t o 27 m ( 4 0 t o 90 f t ) .
A schematic layout
A
o f a s o l i d s e t s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m i s shown i n F i g u r e E-4.
s y s t e m is c a l l e d f u l l y p e r m a n e n t o r s t a t i o n a r y when a l l
l i n e s and s p r i n k l e r s are p e r m a n e n t l y l o c a t e d .
Plermanent
s y s t e m s u s u a l l y h a v e b u r i e d main and l a t e r a l l i n e s t o
minimize i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h farming o p e r a t i o n s .
Solid set
s y s t e m s are c a l l e d f u l l y p o r t a b l e when p o r t a b l e s u r f a c e p i p e
i s u s e d f o r main and l a t e r a l l i n e s ,
P o r t a b l e s o l i d set
s y s t e m s c a n be used i n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e s u r f a c e p i p e
w i l l n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h f a r m i n g o p e r a t i o n s and when i t i s
d e s i r a b l e t o remove t h e p i p e from t h e f i e l d d u r i n g p e r i o d s
o f w i n t e r s t o r a g e . When t h e m a i n l i n e i s permanenltly * l o c a t e d
and t h e l a t e r a l l i n e s are p o r t a b l e s u r f a c e p i p e , t h e s y s t e m
i s c a l l e d s e m i p e r m a n e n t o r a l t e r n a t i v e l y s e m i p o r t a b l e-.
SURFACE OR
BUR1 ED L A T E R A L S
Wl TH Y U L T l P L E
SPRINKLER
\
\
I I I 1'1
K:::::::
I
1'1 I I I I
I 1
/OF
WETTED DPAYETER
S?RlWliLER
P R E V l OUSLY l R R l GATED
AREA
\ SPRINKLER
SPACING
FIGURE E - 4
S O L I D SET SPRINKLER SYSTEM
The p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e s o f s o l i d s e t s y s t e m s a r e l e w l a b o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s and m a i n t e n a n c e costs, and a d a p t a b i l i t y t o a l l
They ar& a l s o
t y p e s of t e r r a i n , f i e l d s h a p e s , and c r o p s .
the
most
adaptable
systems
for
climate
control
requirements.
The m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e s a r e h i g h i n s t o a l l a t i o n
c o s t s and o b s t r u c t i o n of f a r m i n g e q u i p m e n t by f i x e d r i s e r s .
E.4.2.1
Application R a t e
F o r s o l i d s e t s y s t e m s , t h e a p p l i f a t i o n r a t e is e x p r e s s e d ' a s
a f u n c t i o n of t h e s p r i n k l e r d i s c h a r g e c a p a c i t y , t h e spacing
of the sprinklers along the lateral, and the spacing of the

laterals along the main according to the following equation:
where
qs =
=
application rate, cm/h (in./h)

sprinkler discharge rate, L/s, (gal/min)
constant = 3 6 0 (96.3)
Ss =
sprinkler spacing along lateral, m (ft)
SL =
lateral spacing along main, m (ft)

,
Detailed procedures for sprinkler selectioh and spacing

determination to achieve the desired application rate are
given in references [6, 7, 81.
E .4.2.2
Sprinkler Selection and Spacing

Determination
Sprinkler selection and spacing determination involves an

iterative process.
The usual procedure is to select a
sprinkler and lateral spacing, then determine the sprinkler
capacity
required
to ' provide
the
design
discharge
'
application
rate
at the
sprinkler discharge
Equation E-7.
selected
capacity
may
spacing.
be
The
required
calculated
using
Manufacturers ' sprinkler performance data are then reviewed

to determine the nozzle sizes, operating pressures., and
wetted diameters of sprinklers operating at the desired
discharge rate. The wetted diameters are then checked with
the
assumed
spacings
for
conformance with
spacing
criteria. Recommended spacings are based on a percentage of
the wetted diameter and vary with the .wind conditions.
Recommended spacing criteria are given in TabJe E-6.
The sprinkler and nozzle size should be selected to operate
within the pressure range recommended by the manufacturer.
Operating pressures that are too low cause large drops which
are concentrated in a ring a certain distance away from the
sprinkler, whereas high pressures.result in fine drops which
fall near the sprinkler.
Sprinklers with low design
operating
pressures
are
desirable
from
an
energy
conservation standpoint.
TABLE E-6
RECOMMENDED SPACING OF SPRINKLERS [6 ]
Average wind speed
km/h
0-11
11-16
>16
E.4.2.3
(mi/h)
Spacing,
(0-7)
40 (between sprinklers)
65 (between laterals)
(7-10)
(>lo)
of wetted diameter
L a t e r a l Design
L a t e r a l design c o n s i s t s of s e l e c t i n g l a t e r a l s i z e s t o
d e l i v e r t h e t o t a l f l o w r e q u i r e m e n t of t h e l a t e r a l w i t h
A
f r i c t i o n losses l i m i t e d t o a p r e d e t e r m i n e d amount.
g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e i s t o l i m i t a l l h y d r a u l i c l o s s e s static
and dynamic) i n a l a t e r a l t o 20% of t h e o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e
of t h e sprinklers.
This w i l l r e s u l t i n sprinkler discharge
v a r i a t i o n s of about 10% along t h e l a t e r a l .
S i n c e f l o w is
b e i n g d i s c h a r g e d from a number of s p r i n k l e r s , t h e e f f e c t o f
m u l t i p l e o u t l e t s o n f r i c t i o n l o s s i n t h e l a t e r a l must be
A simplified
approach is t o m u l t i p l y the
considered
f r i c t i o n loss i n t h e e n t i r e l a t e r a l a t f u l l flow (discharge
a t t h e d i s t a l e n d ) by a f a c t o r b a s e d on t h e number o f
outlets.
The f a c t o r s f o r s e l e c t e d numbers o f o u t l e t s a r e
p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e E-7.
F o r long l a t e r a l l i n e s , c a p i t a l
costs may be r e d u c e d by u s i n g two o r m o r e l a t e r a l s i z e s t h a t
w i l l s a t i s f y t h e headloss requirements.
The
following
lateral lines:
guidelines
should
be
used
when
laying
out
1.
Where p o s s i b l e , r u n t h e l a t e r a l l i n e s a c r o s s t h e
p r e d o m i n a n t l a n d s l o p e and p r o v i d e e q u a l l a t e r a l
l e n g t h s on both s i d e s of t h e mainline.
2.
Avoid r u n n i n g l a t e r a l s u p h i l l where p o s s i b l e .
If
t h i s c a n n o t be a v o i d e d , t h e l a t e r a l l e n g t h must be
s h o r t e n e d t o a l l o w f o r t h e loss i n s t a t i c h e a d .
3.
L a t e r a l l i n e s may be r u n down s l o p e s f r o m a
mainline on a
ridge,
provided
t h e slo,pe is
r e l a t i v e l y u n i f o r m and n o t too s t e e p .
With t h i s
a r r a n g e m e n t , s t a t i c head i s g a i n e d w i t h d i s t a n c e
downhill, allowing longer o r smaller l a t e r a l l i n e s

t o b e u s e d compared t o l e v e l ground s y s t e m s .
4.
L a t e r a l l i n e s should run a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e a t
r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e p r e v a i l i n g wind d i r e c t i o n .
This arrangement allows t h e s p r i n k l e r s r a t h e r t h a n
l a t e r a l s t o be s p a c e d m o r e c l o s e l y t o g e t h e r t o
a c c o u n t f o r wind d i s t o r t i o n a n d r e d u c e s t h e amount
of pipe required.
TABLE E-7
FACTOR ( F ) BY WHICH P I P E F R I C T I O N L O S S
I S M U L T I P L I E D TO OBTAIN ACTUAL L O S S I N
A L I N E WITH MULTIPLE OUTLETS [3 1
No. of outlets
EXAMPLE E-3 :
Value of F
DETERMINATION OF PREL IMINARY DESIGN C R I T E R I A

FOR S O L I D S E T S P R I N K L E R SYSTEM
Design Conditions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Soil conditions: loam, permeability

Crop: forage grass
Depth of water applied (D): 7.5 cm
Application zone area (A,):
10 ha
5.
Average wind speed:
8 km/h
0.75 cm/h
Design Calculations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Determine design application rate (I). Assume 50% greater than bare soil
permeability rate due to cover crop.
Use I = 1.13 cm/h (0.45 in./h)
select sprinkler and lateral spacings.
Use Ss = 12.2 m (40 ft)
SL = 18.3 m (60 ft)
Calculate required sprinkler discharge using Equation E-7.
Select sprinkler pressure and nozzle size from manufacturer's

performance data to provide qs.
Use 0.56 cm (7/32 in.) nozzle at 48 ~ / c r n ~
(70 ~ b / i n . ~ ) .
Wetted diameter = 38.1 m (125 ft)
Check selected spacing against spacing criteria in Table E-6.
12.2 (100%)
Sprinkler spacing = 38.1
= 32% 240%
18.3 (100%)
- Lateral spacing
38.1
= 48% <65%
Determine system flow capacity (Q)
Q = (Aa) (1)
(10 ha) (1.13 cm/h) (lo4 m2/ha) (10-2 m/cm) (0.28
7.
a)
m3/h
= 314 L/s (4,975 gal/min)

Determine application period.
ta = D/I
E.4.3
Move-Stop S p r i n k l e r S y s t e m s
W i t h move-stop s y s t e m s , s p r i n k l e r s ( o r a s i n g l e s p r i n k l e r )
are o p e r a t e d a t a f i x e d p o s i t i o n i n t h e f i e l d d u r i n g
application.
A f t e r t h e d e s i r e d amount o f water has' b e e n
a p p l i e d , t h e s y s t e m is t u r n e d o f f and t h e s p r i n k l e r s ( o r
s p r i n k l e r ) are moved t o a n o t h e r p o s i t i o n i n t h e f i e l d f o r
the next application.
M u l t i p l e s p r i n k l e r move-stop s y s t e m s
i n c l u d e p o r t a b l e hand-move s y s t e m s , end t o w s y s t e m s , and
side-wheel r o l l systems.
S i n g l e s p r i n k l e r move-stop s y s t e m s
include
stationary
gun
systems.
The
operational
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e s y s t e m s and a d i s c u s s i o n o f d e s i g n
p r o c e d u r e s are d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s .
E.4.3.1
P o r t a b l e Hand-Moved
Systems
P o r t a b l e hand-moved s y s t e m s c o n s i s t o f a n e t w o r k o f s u r f a c e
aluminum l a t e r a l p i p e s c o n n e c t e d t o a m a i n l i n e w h i c h may be
p o r t a b l e or p e r m a n e n t .
Lateral l i n e s are c o n s t r u c t e d o f
aluminum p i p e i n 9 o r 1 2 m ( 3 0 o r 40 f t ) l e n g t h s w i t h
s p r i n k l e r s mounted o n v e r t i c a l risers e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e
lateral a t equal intervals.
T h e r e a r e n o t enough l a t e r a l
l i n e s t o c o v e r t h e e n t i r e f i e l d ; t h u s , l a t e r a l l i n e s must be
hand-moved b e t w e e n a p p l i c a t i o n s t o d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s a l o n g
t h e main t o a p p l y water t o t h e e n t i r e f i e l d . A s c h e m a t i c o f
a p o r t a b l e hand moved s y s t e m i s shown i n F i g u r e E-5a.
The
m a j o r a d v a n t a g e s o f p o r t a b l e s y s t e m s i n c l u d e low c a p i t a l
c o s t s and
a d a p t a b i l i t y t o most
f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s and
climates.
They may a l s o be removed f r o m t h e f i e l d s t o a v o i d
interference
with
farm
machinery.
The
principal
d i s a d v a n t a g e is t h e h i g h l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t t o o p e r a t e t h e
s y s tem.
E.4.3.2
End Tow S y s t e m s
End tow s y s t e m s are m u l t i p l e - s p r i n k l e r l a t e r a l s mounted o n

s k i d s o r wheel a s s e m b l i e s t o a l l o w a t r a c t o r t o p u l l t h e
l a t e r a l i n t a c t from o n e p o s i t i o n a l o n g t h e main t o t h e
next.
A s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e E-Sb, t h e l a t e r a l i s g u i d e d by
The p i p e and s p r i n k l e r
c a p s t a n s to c o n t r o l its alignment.
d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are i d e n t i c a l to t h o s e f o r p o r t a b l e
p i p e systems with t h e exception t h a t pipe j o i n t s a r e
s t r o n g e r t h a n hand moved s y s t e m s t o accommodate t h e p u l l i n g
requirements.
The p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e s o f a n end t o w s y s t e m a r e l o w e r l a b o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a n hand moved s y s t e m s , r e l a t i v e l y low s y s t e m
c o s t s , and t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o be r e a d i l y removed from t h e
Disadvantages
f i e l d t o a l l o w farm i m p l e m e n t s t o o p e r a t e .
i n c l u d e c r o p r e s t r i c t i o n s t o movement o f l a t e r a l s and
c a u t i o u s o p e r a t i o n t o a v o i d c r o p and e q u i p m e n t damage.
E.4.3.3
S i d e Wheel R o l l
S i d e w h e e l r o l l o r wheel move s y s t e m s a r e b a s i c a l l y l a t e r a l
The
l i n e s of s p r i n k l e r s suspended on a series of wheels.
l a t e r a l l i n e i s aluminum p i p e , t y p i c a l l y 1 0 . 2 t o 1 2 . 7 c m ( 4
t o 5 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r and u p t o 403 m ( 1 , 3 2 0 f t ) l o n g .
The
w h e e l s a r e aluminum and a r e 1 . 5 t o 2 . 1 m ( 5 t o 7 f t ) i n
d i a m e t e r (see F i g u r e E-6).
The end o f t h e l a t e r a l i s
c o n n e c t e d by f l e x i b l e h o s e t o h y d r a n t s l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e
main l i n e .
The u n i t is s t a t i o n a r y d u r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n and i s
moved be tween a p p l i c a t i o n s by a n i n t e g r a l e n g i n e powered
d r i v e u n i t l o c a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e l a t e r a l (see
F i g u r e E-5c).
The d r i v e u n i t is c o n t r o l l e d b y a n o p e r a t o r .
PREVIOUSLY
APPLIED
LATERAL W I T H M U L T I P L E
/ SaRINKLERs
LATERAL W I T H M U L T I P L E
SPRINKLERS
( a ) -PORTABLE HAND MOVED
WHEEL-SU??ORTED
( c ) S l l E !HEEL
ROLL
LATERAL
(b)
EN0 TOW
REVlOUSLY
APPL I ED
(d)
LATERAL Wl1l'H S P R I I K L E R
STATIONARY 6 U I
FIGURE E - 5
MOVE-STOP SPRl NKLER SYSTEMS
F l GURE E-6
SIDE WHEEL ~ O L LSPRINKLER SYSTEM
The s p r i n k l e r s a r e mounted o n s w i v e l c o n n e c t i o n s t o e n s u r e
S p r i n k l e r s p a c i n g s are
upright positions at a l l t i m e s .
t y p i c a l l y 9.2 t o 12 .5 m ( 3 0 o r 4 0 f t ) a n d w h e e l s p a c i n g s may
t o 30.5 m ( 3 0 t o 1 0 0 f t ) .
S i d e wheel
r a n g e f r o m 9.2
l a t e r a l s may b e e q u i p p e d w i t h t r a i l l i n e s up t o 2 7 m ( 9 0 f t )
i n l e n g t h l o c a t e d a t e a c h s p r i n k l e r c o n n e c t i o n on t h e a x l e
lateral.
Each t r a i l l i n e h a s s p r i n k l e r s mounted o n risers
s p a c e d t y p i c a l l y a t 9 t o 12 m ( 3 0 t o 40 f t ) .
U s e of t r a i l
l i n e s a l l o w s a l a r g e r area t o be c o v e r e d by a s i n g l e u n i t ,
w h i c h r e d u c e s e i t h e r t h e number o f moves o r t h e number o f
a n i t s required to cover a given f i e l d .
,
The p r i n c i p a l a d v a n t a g e s o f s i d e w h e e l r o l l s y s t e m s a r e
r e l a t i v e l y l o w l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s and o v e r a l l costs, a n d
freedom
from
interference
with
farm
implements.
D i s a d v a n t a g e s i n c l u d e r e s t r i c t i o n s t o c r o p ' h e i g h t and f i e l d
s h a p e , and m i s a l i g n m e n t o f t h e l a t e r a l c a u s e d by uneven
terrain.
E.4.3.4
S t a t i o n a r y Gun Systems
S t a t i o n a r y gun s y s t e m s a r e ,wheel-mounted o r skid-.mounted

s i n g l e s p r i n k l e r u n i t s , which a r e moved m a n u a l l y between
h y d r a n t s l o c a t e d a l o n g t h e l a t e r a l s (see F i g u r e E-5d).
S i n c e t h e s p r i n k l e r o p e r a t e s a t g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e s and
Elowrates than m u l t i p l e s p r i n k l e r systems, t h e i r r i g a t i o n
t i m e is u s u a l l y s h o r t e r .
A f t e r a n a p p l i c a t i o n h a s been
c o m p l e t e d f o r t h e l a t e r a l , t h e e n t i r e l a t e r a l is moved t o
t h e n e x t p o i n t a l o n g t h e main.
I n some c a s e s , a number of
l a t e r a l ~a n d s p r i n k l e r s may be p r o v i d e d t o minimize movement
o f laterals.
The a d v a n t a g e s of a s t a t i o n a r y gun a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f
p o r t a b l e p i p e s y s t e m s w i t h r e s p e c t t o c a p i t a l costs and
versatility.
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e l a r g e r n o z z l e of t h e gun-type
T h e drawbacks
s p r i n k l e r i s r e l a t i v e l y f r e e from c l o g g i n g .
t o t h i s system a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e f o r portablle p i p e
s y s t e m s i n t h a t l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e h i g h due t o f r e q u e n t
s p r i n k l e r moves. Power r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h due
t o h i g h p r e s s u r e s a t t h e n o z z l e , and windy c o n d i t i o n s
a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e f i n e d r o p l e t s c r e a t e d
by t h e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s .
E.4 - 3 . 5
Design Procedures
The d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s r e g a r d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e , s p r i n k l e r
s e l e c t i o n , ' s p r i n k l e r and l a t e r a l s p a c i n g , and l a t e r a l d e s i g n
for move-stop s y s t e m s a r e b a s i c a l l y t h e same a s t h o s e
d e s c r i b e d f o r s o l i d set s p r i n k l e r systems.
An a d d i . t i o n a 1
d e s i g n v a r i a b l e f o r move-stop s y s t e m s i s t h e number of u n i t s
required to cover a given area.
The minimum r e q u i r e d number
o f u n i t s i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e a r e a c o v e r e d by e a c h u n i t , t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n f r e q u e n c y , and t h e p e r i o d o f a p p l i c a t i o n .
More
t h a n t h e minimum number of u n i t s c a n be p r o v i d e d t o r e d u c e
t h e number o f moves r e q u i r e d t o c o v e r a g i v e n a r e a . ,
The
d e c i s i o n t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l u n i t s must be b a s e d o n t h e
r e l a t i v e costs o f e q u i p m e n t and l a b o r .
E.4.4
C o n t i n u o u s Move Systems
C o n t i n u o u s move s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m s a r e s e l f - p r o p e l l e ! d and
Th? t h r e e
move c o n t i n u o u s l y d u r i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p e r i o d .
t y p e s o f c o n t i n u o u s move s y s t e m s a r e (1) t r a v e l i n g gun,
(21 c e n t e r p i v o t , and ( 3 ) l i n e a r move.
S c h e m a t i c s of t h e
s y s t e m s are shown i n F i g u r e E-7.
FLEX I BLE SU PPLY

HOSE
'.
FLEX l BLE HOSE
LATERAL
WITH
YULT l PLE
SPRINKLER
PREV l OUSLY
APPLIED
AREA
SUPPORTS
(c)
CENTER P I V O T
(d)
L I N E A R MOVE
F l GURE E-7
CONT l NUOUS MOVE SPRl NKLER SYSTEMS
E.4.4.1
T r a v e l i n g Gun Systems
T r a v e l i n g gun s y s t e m s a r e s e l f - p r o p e l l e d , s i n g l e l a r g e gun
s p r i n k l e r u n i t s t h a t a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e s u p p l y s o u r c e by a
Two t y p e s
h o s e 6.4 t o 1 2 . 7 c m ( 2 . 5 t o 5 i n . ) i n d i a m e t e r .
o f t r a v e l e r s a r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e h o s e d r a g - t y p e and t h e r e e l type.
The h o s e d r a g t r a v e l e r i s d r i v e n by a hydra1.1lic o r
g a s - d r i v e n winch l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e u n i t , o r a g a s - d r i v e n
In
winch l o c a t e d a t t h e end of t h e r u n ( s e e F i g u r e E - 8 ) .
b o t h cases, a c a b l e a n c h o r e d a t t h e end o f t h e r u n g u i d e s
The
t h e u n i t i n a s t r a i g h t path during t h e application..
f l e x i b l e rubber hose is dragged behind t h e u n i t .
The reelt y p e t r a v e l e r c o n s i s t s o f a s p r i n k l e r gun c a r t a t t a c h e d t o a
t a k e - u p r e e l by a s e m i r i g i d p o l y e t h y l e n e h o s e .
The gun is
p u l l e d t o w a r d t h e t a k e - u p r e e l a s t h e h o s e i s s l o w l y wound
a r o u n d t h e h y d r a u l i c powered r e e l .
Variable speed d r i v e s
are used t o c o n t r o l t r a v e l speeds.
T y p i c a l l e n g t h s of r u n
r a n g e b e t w e e n 2 0 1 a n d 4 0 3 m (660 and 1 , 3 2 0 f t ) , and s p a c i n g s
b e t w e e n t r a v e l l a n e s r a n g e b e t w e e n 50 a n d 1 0 0 m (1.65 and
330 f t ) .
A f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n on a l a n e i s c o m p l e t e , tlne u n i t
s h u t s o f f automatically.
Some u n i t s a l s o s h u t o f f t h e w a t e r
supply automatically.
The u n i t must be moved by t r a c t o r t o
t h e beginning of t h e next lane.
FIGURE E-8
HOSE-DRAG TRAVE L l NG GUN SPR l NKLER
The more i m p o r t a n t a d v a n t a g e s o f a t r a v e l i n g gun s y s t e m are

low l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s and r e l a t i v e l y c l o g - f r e e n o z z l e s .
They may a l s o be a d a p t e d t o f i e l d s o f somewhat i r r e g u l a r
shape
and
topography.
Disadvantages
a r e h i g h power
requirements, hose t r a v e l l a n e s r e q u i r e d f o r hose d r a g u n i t s
f o r most c r o p s , and d r i f t i n g of s p r a y s i n windy c o n d i t i o n s .
In
addition
to
the
application
rate
and
depth
of
application, the principal design parameters f o r traveling
guns a r e t h e s p r i n k l e r c a p a c i t y , s p a c i n g between t r a v e l
l a n e s , and t h e t r a v e l s p e e d .
The
minimum
application
rate
of
most
traveling
gun
s p r i n k l e r s i s a b o u t 0.6 cm/h ( 0 . 2 3 i n . / h ) , which i s h i g h e r
t h a n t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n rate of t h e less permeable s o i l s .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e u s e of t r a v e l i n g g u n s o n s o i l s o f low
a
mature
cover
crop
is
not
permeability
without
recommended.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s p r i n k l e r c a p a c i t y ,
l a n e s p a c i n g , t r a v e l s p e e d , and d e p t h of a p p l i c a t i o n i s
g i v e n by t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :
where
= d e p t h o f water a p p l i e d ,
cm ( i n , )
qs
= s p r i n k l e r c a p a c i t y , L/s
(gal/min)
St
= space between t r a v e l l a n e s , m ( f t )
S~
C
t r a v e l s p e e d , m/min
(ft/min)
c o n v e r s i o n c o n s t a n t , 6.01 ( 1 . 6 0 )
The u s u a l d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s :
1.
S e l e c t a convenient application period (usually

a b o u t 11 o r 23 h o u r s ) t o allow t i m e ( a b o u t 1 h o u r )
f o r moves b e t w e e n a p p l i c a t i o n s .
2.
Measure t h e l o n g e s t t r a v e l l a n e l e n g t h ( 4 0 3 m o r
1 , 3 2 0 f t maximum f o r h o s e d r a g ; 360 m o r 1 , 1 8 0 f t
maximum f o r r e e l - t y p e ) b a s e d o n s i t e b o u n d a r i e s .
3.
C a l c u l a t e t h e t r a v e l speed n e c e s s a r y to t r a v e l t h e
longest travel lane i n the desired application
period.
4.
S e l e c t a s p r i n k l e r and s p r i n k l e r o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e
from m a n u f a c t u r e r s ' performance t a b l e s w i t h w e t t e d
d i a m e t e r s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h s i t e b o u n d a r i e s and w i t h
a p p l i c a t i o n rates s u i t a b l e f o r s o i l c o n d i t i o n s .
p r e s s u r e s s h o u l d be a b o v e
Sprinkl r operatin
5 5 N/cmq ( 8 0 l b / i n . q ) .
5.
Compute t h e r e q u i r e d
desired
depth
of
E q u a t i o n E-8.
6.
Check l a n e
T a b l e E-8.
spacing
lane spacing to provide t h e

water
application
using
against
spacing
criteria
in
TABLE E-8
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM LANE SPACING
FOR TRAVELING GUN SPRINKLERS
Wind speed
km/h
Lane spacing, % of wetted diameter
(mi/h)
7.
A d j u s t s p r i n k l e r s e l e c t i o n and l a n e
necessary to m e e t spacing criteria.
8.
Select a h o s e s i z e f o r t h e u n i t s u c h t h a t f r i c t i o n
loss of t h e de ign s p r i n k l r flow c a p a c i t y does n o t
e x c e e d 28 N/cmq
9.
(40 lb/in.q).
D e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l a r e a c o v e r e d by a s i n g l e u n i t
U n i t area, m2
10.
= (St)(avg t r a v e l distance per day)

x ( d a y s between a p p l i c a t i o n )
D e t e r m i n e t o t a l number of u n i t s r e q u i r e d
U n i t s r e q u i r e d = ( f i e l d area,
x ( u n i t area,
11.
spacing
Determine t h e system s u p p l y c a p a c i t y ( Q )
Q = (qs)(No.
of u n i t s )
as
E.4.4.2
C e n t e r P i v o t Systems
Center p i v o t systems c o n s i s t of a l a t e r a l w i t h m u l t i p l e
s p r i n k l e r s o r s p r a y n o z z l e s t h a t i s mounted o n s e l f p r o p e l l e d , c o n t i n u o u s l y moving tower u n i t s (see F i g u r e E-9 )
r o t a t i n g a b o u t a f i x e d p i v o t i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e f i e l d .
S p r i n k l e r s o n t h e l a t e r a l may be h i g h p r e s s u r e i m p a c t
s p r i n k l e r s ; however, t h e t r e n d i s t o w a r d u s e of low p r e s s u r e
Water i s
s p r a y n o z z l e s to reduce energy requirements.
s u p p l i e d by a w e l l o r a b u r i e d main t o t h e p i v o t , where
power i s a l s o f u r n i s h e d .
The l a t e r a l is u s u a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d
o f 1 5 t o 2 0 c m ( 6 t o 8 i n . ) s t e e l p i p e 61 t o 793 m ( 2 0 0 t o
2,600 f t ) i n length.
A t y p i c a l s y s t e m w i t h a 393 m ( 1 , 2 8 8
f t ) l a t e r a l c o v e r s a 64 h a
(160 acre) p a r c e l
(see
F i g u r e E-10).
The c i r c u l a r p a t t e r n r e d u c e s c o v e r a g e t o
a b o u t 52 h a ( 1 3 0 a c r e s ) , a l t h o u g h s y s t e m s w i t h t r a v e l i n g e n d
sprinklers a r e available to i r r i g a t e the corners.
The tower u n i t s a r e d r i v e n e l e c t r i c a l l y o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y a n d
The
may be s p a c e d from 2 4 t o 76 m ( 8 0 t o 250 f t ) a p a r t .
l a t e r a l i s s u p p o r t e d b e t w e e n t h e t o w e r s by c a b l e s o r
trusses.
C o n t r o l of t h e t r a v e l s p e e d is a c h i e v e d by v a r y i n g
t h e r u n n i n g t i m e o f t h e tower motors.
An i m p o r t a n t l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r p i v o t s y s t e m i s t h e
r e q u i r e d v a r i a t i o n i n s p r i n k l e r a p p l i c a t i o n rates along t h e
l e n g t h of t h e p i v o t l a t e r a l .
Because t h e a r e a circumscribed
by a g i v e n l e n g t h o f p i v o t l a t e r a l i n c r e a s e s w i t h d i s t a n c e
from t h e p i v o t p o i n t ( a s does t h e g r o u n d ' s p e e d of t h e u n i t ) ,
the application
rate provided
by
the sprinklers along
the
l a t e r a l must i n c r e a s e w i t h d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t e r t o
p r o v i d e a u n i f o r m d e p t h of a p p l i c a t i o n .
Increasing t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d by d e c r e a s i n g t h e
s p a c i n g of t h e s p r i n k l e r s a l o n g t h e l a t e r a l and i n c r e a s i n g
t h e sprinkler discharge capacity.
The r e s u l t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e s a t t h e o u t e r e n d of t h e p i v o t l a t e r a l c a n b e
u n a c c e p t a b l e f o r many s o i l s .
A p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s a p p r o a c h i n g 2 . 5 cm/h ( 1 . 0 i n . / h ) may be
The d e s i g n e r
n e c e s s a r y a t a d i s t a n c e o f 400 m ( 1 , 3 0 0 f t ) .
s h o u l d be p a r t i c u l a r l y a w a r e o f t h i s l i m i t a t i o n a t s i t e s
where s o i l p e r m e a b i l i t i e s v a r y w i t h i n . t h e p i v o t c i r c l e .
A r e a s o f slower p e r m e a b i l i t y c a n be f l o o d e d , c a u s i n g c r o p
damage and t r a c t i o n p r o b l e m s f o r t h e d r i v e w h e e l s .
This
p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m h a s b e e n e n c o u n t e r e d a t t h e Muskegon
project.
E e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e p r o p e r s p r i n k l e r s p a c i n g s and
c a p a c i t i e s f o r a c e n t e r p i v o t r i g is beyond t h e s c o p e o f
t h i s manual.
The d e s i g n e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r
f o r design d e t a i l s .
FIGURE E-9
CENTER PIVOT R I G
F I GURE E-10
CENTER PIVOT IRRIGATION SYSTEM
A n o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n o f c e n t e r p i v o t s is m o b i l i t y u n d e r
c e r t a i n soil conditions.
Some c l a y s o i l s c a n b u i l d up o n
wheels and e v e n t u a l l y c a u s e t h e u n i t t o s t o p .
Drive wheels
can l o s e t r a c t i o n on s l i c k ( s i l t y ) s o i l s and can s i n k i n t o
s o f t s o i l s and become s t u c k .
E .4.4 . 3
L i n e a r Move S y s t e m s
L i n e a r move s y s t e m s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d a n d d r i v e n i n a s i m i l a r
manner t o c e n t e r p i v o t s y s t e m s , e x c e p t t h a t t h e u n i t moves
continuously i n a l i n e a r path r a t h e r than, a c i r c u l a r path.
C o m p l e t e c o v e r a g e o f r e c t a n g u l a r f i e l d s c a n t h u s be a c h i e v e d
w h i l e r e t a i n i n g a l l t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f a c o n t i n u o u s move
system.
Water c a n b e s u p p l i e d t o t h e u n i t t h r o u g h a
f l e x i b l e h o s e t h a t i s p u l l e d a l o n g w i t h t h e u n i t or it c a n
b e pumped f r o m a n o p e n c e n t e r d i t c h c o n s , t r u c t e d down t h e
length of t h e l i n e a r path.
S l o p e s g r e a t e r t h a n 5% r e s t r i c t
t h e u s e of
center ditches.
Manufacturers should b e
consulted for design d e t a i l s .
E. 5
References
1. B o o h e r , L . J .
Surface Irrigation.
FA0 Agricultural
Development P a p e r No.
94.
Food a n d A g r i c u l t u r a l
Rome.
1974.
O r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e United Nations.
2.
Merriam,
J.L.
and
J.
Keller.
Irrigation
System
A
G u i d e for Management.
Utah S t a t e
Evaluation:
U n i v e r s i t y , Logan, Utah.
1978.
3.
A.W.
et
al.
Lockwood-Ames
Irrigation
McCulloch,
1973.
Handbook. W.R. A m e s Company, G e r i n g , N e b r a s k a .
I r r i g a t i o n System Design.
Colorado S t a t e
4. Hart, W.E.
University,
Department
of A g r i c u l t u r a l
Engineering.
F o r t C o l l i n s , C o l o r a d o . November 1 0 , 1 9 7 5 .
5. B o r d e r I r r i g a t i o n .
I r r i g a t i o n , Chapter 4.
SCS N a t i o n a l
E n g i n e e r i n g Handbook, S e c t i o n 1 5 .
U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f
A g r i c u l t u r e , S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e . August 1974.
6.
and
A.S.
Gray.
Sprinkler
Irrigation
Fry,
A.W.
Rain
Bird
Sprinkler
Manufacturing
Handbook.
1 0 t h e d i t i o n . 1971.
Corporation, Glendora, C a l i f o r n i a .
7. S p r i n k l e r I r r i g a t i o n .
I r r i g a t i o n , C h a p t e r 11.
SC S
National
E n g i n e e r i n g Handbook,
Section 15.
U. S.
Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e .
J u l y 1968.
8. Pair, C.H.
et al., eds.
Sprinkler ~rrigation, Fourth
Edition.
Sprinkler Irrigation Association.
Silver
Spring, Maryland. 1975.
APPENDIX F
ESTIMATED STORAGE DAYS FOR LAND TREATMENT
USING EPA COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Computer p r o g r a m s h a v e been d e v e l o p e d t o estimate s t o r a g e
d a y s f o r l a n d t r e a t m e n t systems based on c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s
( S e c t i o n 4.6.2).
S e l e c t e d l o c a t i o n s f o r which t h e EPA-1
program h a v e been used a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e F-1 f o r
r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l s o f 1 0 and 20 y e a r s . The EPA-2 program
( f o r SR s y s t e m s ) u s e s s o i l i n f o r m a t i o n a s w e l l a s r a i n f a l l
(see r e f e r e n c e 35 i n C h a p t e r 4 f o r d e t a i l s ) . The EPA-3
program ( f o r SR o r OF s y s t e m s ) u s e s t e m p e r a t u r e , r a i n f a l l ,
and snow d e p t h .
S t o r a g e d a y s f o r communities f o r which EPA2 h a s b e e n r u n a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e F-2 f o r r e c u r r e n c e
i n t e r v a l s o f 10 and 20 y e a r s .
S t o r a g e d a y s f o r communities
f o r which EPA-3 h a s been r u n are l i s t e d i n T a b l e F-3 f o r
r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l s o f 10 and 20 y e a r s .
TABLE F-1
STORAGE DAYS USING EPA-1 FOR 20 YEAR ( 5 % )
AND 1 0 YEAR ( 1 0 % ) RETURN INTERVALS
Percentiles
Percentiles
Station Name
Bridgeport
Boise
Pocatello
Des Moines
Hampton
Logan
Shenandoah
Greenville
Muskegon
International Falls
Minneapolis
Park Rapids
Billings
Bozeman
Great Falls
Missoula
-.
-- - - - Buffa10
Rochester
Watertown
-
State
MI
MN
MN
MN
MT
MT
MT
MT
NY'
NY
NY
0.05
119
172
143
159
102
152
102
128
0.10
116
168
143
155
100
144
91
121
StationName
Bismarck
Devils Lake
Burns
Aberdeen
Brookings
Pierre
Rapid City
Burlington
Spokane
Ashland
Eau Claire
Green Bay
Lacrosse
Madison
Rhinelander
Weyerhauser
Afton
Casper
Gillette
Ruck Springs
State
ND
ND
OR
SD
SD
SD
SD
VT
WA
WI
WI
WI
WI
WI
WI
WI
0.05
0.10
144
168
119
142
136
136
100
136
106
149
147
139
134
125
156
148
140
156
102
138
131
126
99
,134
100
148
141
135
127
119
149
145
TABLE F-2
STORAGE DAYS USING EPA-2 F O R . 2 0 YEAR 6 5 % )
Percentiles
Station name
Bay Minette
Brewton
Clanton
Mobile
Selma
Thomasville
Dumas
Little Rock
Avon Park
Belle Glade
Bradenton
Clermont
Daytona Beach
Orlando
Punta Gorda
Tampa
Augusta
Mncon
Newnan
Savannah
Alexandria
Franklinton
Houma
Lafayette
Lake Providence
Loesville
Monroe
New Orleans
Schriever
Shraveport
St Joseph
Winnf ield
Aberdeen
Biloxi
Canton
Clarksdale
Columbia
Greenwood
Jackson
Meridian
Pontotoc
Poplarville
Stoneville
Vicksburg
Charlotte
Pinehurst
Raleigh
Weldon
State
AL
AL
AL
AL
AL
AL
AR
AR
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
FL
GA
GA
GA
GA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
LA
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
NC
NC
NC
NC
,Percentiles
0.05
0.10
Station name
13
16
20
14
18
23
19
12
12
10
13
11
8
11
16
30
10
11
15
16
19
16
16
12
18
31
12
16
15
10
11
15
23
13
15
16
27
15
12
13
19
22
17
27
12
12
13
11
13
11
l1
Wilmington
Wilson
Eugene
Forest Grove
Headworks
Hillsboro
Medford
Portland
Salem
Arecibo
Coloso
Guayama
Humacao
San Juan
Columbia
Conway
Darlington
Hampton
Summerville
Bristol
Crossville
13
14
12
8
12
7
8
9
11
17
9
9
10
l1
14
if:
i16f
29'
8311
'
14
if
:if
if:
if
15
23
l2
10
State
0.05
0.10
NC
NC
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
OR
PR
PR
PR
PR
PR
10
12
34
134
150
119
19
126
34
11
17
24
25
7
9
11
31
129
144
111
11
110
25
10
13
16
19
6
SC
SC
SC
SC
SC
TN
TN
13
9
11
10
16
23
24
8
9
9
8
8
19
22
Brownsville
Corpus Christi
Dallas
Houston
Luling
Mexia
Paris
Port Isabel
Scaly
Sugar Land
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
TX
11
11
15
36
40
42
16
10
32
77
6
5
L2
.2 6
36
.3 5
:I. 1
9
26
!j1
Blackstone
Buchanan
Chatham
Columbia
Diamond Springs
~eesville
Lynchburg
Norfolk
Richmond
Washington DC
Aberdeen
Longview
Olympia
Seattle
Vancouver
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
VA
WA
WA
WA
WA
WA
21
31
21
23
15
31
23
17
15
22
213
53
58
40
28
:L 6
:L9
L: 9
21
91
1L 6
1.8
I. 4
I. 4
1.9
181
35
L: 8
;! 4
1.9
-,
a.
~vailablewater capacity range from 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in.) in top 1.5 m

( 5 ft) of soil profile. Depletion rate usually set at 1.9 cm/d (0.75 in./d)
TABLE F - 3
STORAGE DAYS U S I N G EPA-3 FOR 20 YEAR a s % ) ,
Percentiles
Percentiles
Station Name
State
0.05
0.01
Station Name
Sterling
Belle Plaine
Des Moines
Grinnell
Indianola
Keosauqua
Logan
Newton
Osceola
Oskaloosa
Shenandoah
Winterset
CO
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
IA
118
133
135
139
122
111
126
134
122
130
114
134
110
128
128
133
113
91
114
126
118
121
101
127
Ottawa
Plymouth
Baltimore
~eltsville~
Blackwater Refuge
IL
MA
MD
MD
MD
115
95
77
76
35
89
91
57
58
29
Chestertown
Westminster
Freehold
Pemberton
Santa Fe
MindenC
Reno
Rochester
Coatesville
George School
Lancaster
Philadel~hia
York
corsicanad
Alta
Diversion Dam
Lander
Pavillion
Riverton
a.
b.
c.
d.
IA
State
MD
MD
NJ
NJ
NM
NV
NV
NY
PA
PA
PA
PA
PA
TX
WY
WY
WY
WY
WY
'
0.05
0.10
73
86
88
80
98
69
61
123
89
87
86
80
85
8
172
140
146
140
150
46
82
77
72
88
63
57
122
85
83
84
66
80
6
160
137
139
137
144
Temperature thresholds: mean 0 OC (32 OF); minimum -4 OC (25 OF); maximum

4.4 OC (40 OF)
Precipitation thresholds: snow 2.54 cm (1 in.); Precipitation 1.27 cm
(0.5 in. 1.
Drawdown rate: ratio of flow output from storage on favorable days to
average daily wastewater flow = 0.5.
Temperature thresholds: minimum -5.5 OC (22 OF); maximum"l.7 OC (35 OF).
Temperature thresholds: minimum -6.7 OC (20 OF); maximum 1.7 OC (35 OF).
Temperature thresholds: minimum -12.2 OC (28 OF); maximum 2.2 OC (36 OF).
APPENDIX G
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
CONVERSION FACTORS
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
acre-foot--A liquid measure of a volume equal to covering a
1 acre area to 1 foot of depth.
aerosol--A suspension of colloidal solid or liquid particles
in air or gas, having small diameters ranging from 0.01 to
50 microns.
aquiclude--A geologic formation which, although porous and
capable of absorbing water slowly, will not transmit it
rapidly enough to furnish an appreciable supply for a well
or spring.
available moisture--The part of the water in the soil that
can be taken up by plants at rates significant to their
growth; the moisture content of the soil in excess of the
ultimate wilting point.
coppice--sprouting from tree stumps.
culti'var--A cultural variety of a plant species.
evapotranspiration- he combined loss of water from a given
area and during a specified period of time, by evaporation
from the soil surface, snow, or intercepted precipitation,
and by the transpiration and building of tissue by plants.
field area--The "wetted

land application system.
area" where treatment occurs in a
field capacity--(field
moisture capacity)--The moisture
content of soil in the field 2 or 3 days after having been
saturated and after free drainage has-practically ceased;
the quantity of water held in a soil by capillary action
after the gravitational or free water has been allowed to
drain; expressed as moisture percentage, dry weight basis.
fragipan0-A loamy, dense, brittle subsurface horizon that is
very low in organic matter and clay but is rich in silt or
very fine sand. The layer is seemingly cemented and slowly
or very slowly permeable.
horizon (soil)--A layer of soil, approximately parallel to
the soil surface, with distinct characterist,ics produced by
soil-forming processes.
infiltrometer--A device by which the rate and amount of

water infiltration into the soil is determined (cylinder,
sprinkler, or basin flooding).
matric potential--Attractive forces of soil partic::lesfor
water and water molecules for each other.
micronutrient--A chemical element necessary in only small
trace amounts (less than 1 mg/L) for microorgan:i:ismsand
plant growth. Essential micronutrients are boron, chloride,
copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, and zinc.
mineralization--The conversion of a compound from an organic
form
to an inorganic form as a result of m:'is:robial
decomposition.
sodic soil--A soil that contains sufficient sodium to
xnterfere with the growth of most crop plants, and in which
the exchangeable sodium.percentage is 15 or more.
soil water--That water present in the soil pores in an
unsaturated (aeration) zone above the ground water table.
Such water may either be lost by evapotranspiration or
percolation to the ground water table.
tensiometer--A device used to measure the negative pressure
(or tension) with which water is held in the soil; a porous,
permeable
ceramic cup connected through a tube to a
manometer or vacuum gage.
till--Deposits of glacial drift laid down in place as the
glacier melts, consisting of a heterogeneous mass of rock
flour,
clay,
sand,
pebbles,
cobbles,
and boulders
intermingled in any proportion; the agricultural cultivation
of fields.
tilth--The physical condition of a soil as related to its
ease of cultivation.
Good tilth is associated witrh high
noncapillary porosity and stable, granular structur:e, and
low impedance to seedling emergence and root penetration.
transpiration--The net quantity of water absorbed trhrough
plant roots that is used directly in building plant tissue,
or given off to the atmosphere as a vapor from the leaves
and stems of living plants.
volatilization--The evaporation or changing of a sut~stance
from liquid to vapor.
wilting point--The minimum quantity of water in a giv_e!nsoil,.
necessary to maintain plant growth. When the quant.ity of
moisture falls below this, the leaves begin to drop and
shrivel up.
6-2
..
, .
L
'
II
CONVERSION FACTORS
Metric to U.S. Customary
\:'.
#
.--
,'
U.S.
customary unit
Metric
Name
Symbol
Multiplier
Abbreviation
Name
in.
in./'h
acre-ft
ft3
Mga 1
Mgal/d
Mgal/acre
inches
inches per hour
acre-foot
cubic foot
million gallons
million gallons
per day
mtllign gallons
per acre
million gallons
per day
degrees Fahrenheit
pound ts)
acre
square miles
British thermal unit
pound (sf
tons per acre
pounds per acre per day
qentimeter (s)
centimeter(s) per hour
i
cubic meter
cm
cm/h
m3
cubic meters per day
m3/d
0.3937
0.3937
8.1071 x 10-4
35.3147
264.25
2.6417 x lo-4
dubic meters per hectare
m3/hh
1.069 x 10'~
cubic meters per second
m3/s
22.82
dGgrees Celsius
1.8(OC)
gram(s)
hectare
4
ha
0.0022
2.4711
0.004
32
*F
lb
acre
mi2
Joule
kilograms per hectare

kilograms per hectare
per day
kilograms per square
centimeter..
kilometer ,
kilowatt
liter
pounds per square inch
PPb
PPm
PPt
lb/in.
mile
horsepower .
cubic foot
gallon (s)
gallons per acre per day
cubic feet per qecond
gallons per day
gallons per minute
million gallons per day
ton (short)
tons per acre
kilowatt hour
million gallons
foot (feet)
miles per hour
parts per billion
parts per million
parts per trillion
pounds per square inch
in.2
mi
ft2
square inch
square ,mile
square foot
mi
liters per hectare per day

liters per second
L/ha-d
L/s
megagram (metric tonne)

megagrams per hectare
megajoule
megaiiters (liters x lo6)
meters (s)
meters per second
micrograms per liter
milligrams per liter
nanograms per liter
Newtons per square
centimeter
square centimeter
square kilometer
square meter
Mgtor t)
mg/ha
MJ
ML
m
m/s
u~/L
mg/L
ng/L
~/cm'
0.035
22.826
15.85
0.023
1.10
0.446
0.278
0.264
3.2808
2.237
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.45
cm2
km2
m2
0.155
0.386
10.76
0.11
hp
.
ft3
gal
gal/acre-d
ft3/s
gal/d
gal/min
Mgal/d
ton (short)
tons/acre
kwh
Mga 1
ft
mi/h
"

Process Design Manual For Land Treatment of Municipal Wastewater

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PA 625/1-81-013

PROCESS DESIGN MANUAL

U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

This manual presents the state-of-the-art on process design

Eddy! Inc., Sacramento, California.

Supervision and Principal ~uthors:

Editing and Review:

A technical workgroup composed of members from the sponsoring agencies,

Sherwood C. Reed, USA CRREL

R.E. Thomas, Dr. J.E. Smith Jr.,

Institutions and State Agencies:

Invited Technical Reviewers:

This manual presents a rattonal procedure for the design of

INTRODUCTION AND PROCESS CAPABILITIES

PLANNING AND TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT

4.4.3 Industrial Pretreatment

4*.8.1 Subsurface Drainage Systems

RAPID INFILTRATION PROCESS DESIGN

OVERLAND FLOW PROCESS DESIGN

Vegetative Cover Selection

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND CONSERVATION

HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

SLOW RATE DESIGN EXAMPLE

OVERLAND FLOW DESIGN EXAMPLE

LOCATION OF LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Rapid Infiltration Systems

Overland Flow Systems

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN FOR SLOW RATE

ESTIMATED STORAGE DAYS FOR LAND TREATMENT

Typical Annual Hydraulic Loading Rate of

Rapid infiltration Overland flow

Grit removal and

Surface runoff and

Includes ridge-and-furrow and border strip.

See Appendix G for metric conversions.

Less than 20% on

0.6-1 m (minimum) ' l m during flood cycleb;

Slow (clays, silts,

Steeper grades might be feasible at reduced hydraulic loadings.

Rapid infiltrationC Overland flowd

a vegetated land s u r f a c e with t h e applied wastewater being

Slow r a t e p r o c e s s e s c a n bei o p e r a t e d t o a c h i e v e a number of

Economic r e t u r n frlom u s e o f w a t e r and n u t r i e n t s t o

(b) RECOVERY PATHWAYS

Forest soils o f t e n e x h i b i t higher

Fixed s p r i n k l e r s , hhich a r e expensive, a r e u s u a l l y

I n R I land t r e a t m e n t , m o s t , of t h e a p p l i e d wastewater perc o l a t e s t h r o u g h t h e s o i l , and t h e t r e a t e d e f f l u e n t d r a i n s

through t h e soil matrix.

( c ) NATURAL DRAIWAGE I N T O SURFACE WATERS

Overland Flow Process

sites within t h e soil.

needs ( C h a p t e r 8 ) . Thus, Phase 2 p l a n n i n g r e q u i r e s t h e u s e

Small communities ( u p to 3,500 p o p u l a t i o n ) do n o t u s u a l l y

L e a c h , L.E., C.G. E n f i b l d , a n d C . C . H a r l i n , J r . Summary

P R E L I M INA'RY DES IGN

LAN0 APPLl CATION

Total organic carbon

The concentrations presented encompass the range of values