40

3
VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES
Unit Structure
3.0
Objectives
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Meaning of variables
3.3 Types of variables (independent, dependent, Extraneous,
Intervening and Moderator)
3.4
Concept of hypothesis
3.5
Sources of hypothesis
3.6 Types of hypothesis (Research, Directional, Non Directional,
Null, Statistical and question form
3.7
Formulating hypothesis
3.8
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
3.9 Hypothesis testing and theory
3.10 Errors in testing of hypothesis
3.11 Summary

3.0

OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Define variables
Identify the different types of variables
Show the relationship between the variables
Explain the concept of hypotheses
State the sources of hypotheses
Explain different types of hypothesis
Identify types of hypothesis
Frame hypotheses skillfully
Describe the characteristics of a good hypothesis
Explain the significance level in hypothesis testing

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Identify the errors in testing of hypothesis

3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Each person/thing we collect data on is called an observation
(in our research work these are usually people/subjects). Observation
(participants) possess a variety of characteristics. If a characteristic
of an observation (participant) is the same for every member of the
group i.e. it does not vary, it is called a constant. If a characteristic
of an observation (participant) differs for group members it is called
a variable. In research we do not get excited about constants (since
everyone is the same on that characteristic); we are more interested
in variables.

3.2 MEANING OF VARIABLES

A variable is any entity that can take on different values. So
what does that mean? Anything that can vary can be considered a
variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age
can take different values for different people or for the same person
at different times. Similarly, country can be considered a variable
because a person's country can be assigned a value.
A variable is a concept or abstract idea that can be
described in measurable terms. In research, this term refers to the
measurable characteristics, qualities, traits, or attributes of a
particular individual, object, or situation being studied.
Variables are properties or characteristics of some event,
object, or person that can take on different values or amounts.
Variables are things that we measure, control, or
manipulate in research. They differ in many respects, most notably
in the role they are given in our research and in the type of
measures that can be applied to them.
By itself, the statement of the problem usually provides only
general direction for the research study; it does not include all the
specific information. There is some basic terminology that is
extremely important in how we communicate specific information
about research problems and about research in general.
Let us analyse an example; if a researcher is interested in the

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effects of two different teaching methods on the science achievement

of fifth-grade students, the grade level is constant, because all
individuals involved are fifth-graders. This characteristic is the same
for everyone; it is a constant condition of the study. After the
different teaching methods have been implemented, the fifth-graders
involved would be measured with a science achievement test. It is
very unlikely that all of the fifth-graders would receive the same
score on this test, hence the score on the science achievement test
becomes a variable, because different individuals will have different
scores; at least, not all individuals will have the same scores. We
would say that science achievement is a variable, but we would
mean, specifically, that the score on the science achievement test is a
variable.
There is another variable in the preceding example the
teaching method. In contrast to the science achievement test score,
which undoubtedly would be measured on a scale with many
possible values, teaching method is a categorical variable consisting
of only two categories, the two methods. Thus, we have different
kinds of variables and different names or classifications for them.
A concept which can take on different quantitative values is
called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income
are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the
attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence
of the concerning attributes(s). Age is an example of continuous
variable, but the number of male and female respondents is an
example of discrete variable.

3.3 TYPES OF VARIABLES:

There are many classification systems given in the literature
the names we use are descriptive; they describe the roles that
variables play in a research study. The variables described below by
no means exhaust the different systems and names that exist, but
they are the most useful for communicating about educational
research.

3.3.1 Independent variables:

Independent variables are variables which are manipulated or
controlled or changed. In the example a study of the effect of
teacher praise on the reading achievement of second-graders, the
effect of praise, the researcher is trying to determine whether there is

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a cause-and-effect relationship, so the kind of praise is varied to see

whether it produces different scores on the reading achievement test.
We call this a manipulated independent variable (treatment
variable). The amount and kind of praise is manipulated by the
researcher. The researcher could analyze the scores for boys and
girls separately to see whether the results are the same for both
genders. In this case gender is a classifying or attributes
independent variable. The researcher cannot manipulate gender,
but can classify the children according to gender.

3.3.2 Dependent variables:

Dependent variables are the outcome variables and are the
variables for which we calculate statistics. The variable which
changes on account of independent variable is known as
dependent variable.
Let us take the example, a study of the effect of teacher praise
on the reading achievement of second-graders; the dependent
variable is reading achievement. We might compare the average
reading achievement scores of second-graders in different praise
conditions such as no praise, oral praise, written praise, and
combined oral and written praise.
The following example further illustrates the use of variables
and constants. In a study conducted to determine the effect of three
different teaching methods on achievement in elementary algebra,
each of three ninth-grade algebra sections in the same school, taught
by the same teacher, is taught using one of the methods. Both boys
and girls are included in the study. The constants in the study are
grade level, school, and teacher. (This assumes that, except for
method, the teacher can hold teaching effectiveness constant.) The
independent variables in the study are teaching method and gender
of the student. Teaching method has three levels that arbitrarily can
be designated methods A, B, and C; gender of the student, of course,
has two levels. Achievement in algebra, as measured at the end of
the instructional period, is the dependent variable.
The terms dependent and independent variable apply mostly
to experimental research where some variables are manipulated, and
in this sense they are "independent" from the initial reaction patterns,
features, intentions, etc. of the subjects. Some other variables are
expected to be "dependent" on the manipulation or experimental
conditions. That is to say, they depend on "what the subject will do"

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in response. Somewhat contrary to the nature of this distinction,

these terms are also used in studies where we do not literally
manipulate independent variables, but only assign subjects to
"experimental groups" based on some pre-existing properties of the
subjects. . Independent variables are those that are manipulated
whereas dependent variables are only measured or registered.
Consider other examples of independent and dependent
variables:
Example 1: A study of teacher-student classroom interaction at
different levels of schooling.
Independent variable: Level of schooling, four categories
primary, upper primary, secondary and junior college.
Dependent variable: Score on a classroom observation inventory,
which measures teacher student interaction
Example 2: A comparative study of the professional attitudes of
secondary school teachers by gender.
Independent variable: Gender of the teacher male, female.
Dependent variable: Score on a professional attitude inventory.

3.3.3 Extraneous variable:

Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of
the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as
extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the
hypothesis that there is a relationship between childrens gains in
social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case selfconcept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is
a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the
study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an
extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent
variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described
as an experimental error. A study must always be so designed that
the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the
independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or
variables.

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E.g. Effectiveness of different methods of teaching Social Science.

Here variables such as teachers competence, Teachers
enthusiasm, age, socio economic status also contribute substantially
to the teaching learning process. It cannot be controlled by the
researcher. The conclusions lack incredibility because of extraneous
variables.

3.3.4 Intervening variables:

They intervene between cause and effect. It is difficult to
observe, as they are related with individuals feelings such as
boredom, fatigue excitement At times some of these variables cannot
be controlled or measured but have an important effect upon the
result of the study as it intervenes between cause and effect. Though
difficult, it has to be controlled through appropriate design.
Eg. Effect of immediate reinforcement on learning the parts of
speech.
Factors other than reinforcement such as anxiety, fatigue, and
motivation may be intervening variables. They are difficult to define
in operational, observable terms however they cannot be ignored and
must be controlled using appropriate research design.

3.3.5 Moderator:
A third variable that when introduced into an analysis alters
or has a contingent effect on the relationship between an independent
and a dependent variable. A moderator variable is an independent
variable that is not of primary interest that has levels, which when
combined with the levels of the independent variable of interest
produces different effects.
For example, suppose that the researcher designs a study to
determine the impact of the lengths of reading passages on the
comprehension of the reading passage. The design has three levels
of passage length: 100 words, 200 words, and 300 words. The
participants in the study are fourth-fifth- and sixth-graders. Suppose
that the three grade levels all did very well on the 100-word passage,
but only the sixth-graders did very well on the 300-word passage.
This would mean that successfully comprehending reading passages
of different lengths was moderated by grade level.

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Check your progress:

1. What is a Variable?

2. Identify the variables in this example Teaching effectiveness of

secondary school teachers in relation to their presage
characteristics.

3.4 CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument
in research. The derivation of a suitable hypothesis goes hand in
hand with the selection of a research problem. A hypothesis, as a
tentative hunch, explains the situation under observation so as to
design the study to prove or disprove it. What a researcher is looking
for is a working or positive hypothesis. It is very difficult, laborious
and time consuming to make adequate discriminations in the
complex interplay of facts without hypothesis. It gives definite point
and direction to the study, prevents blind search and indiscriminate
gathering of data and helps to delimit the field of inquiry.

3.4.1 Meaning:
The word hypothesis (plural is hypotheses) is derived from
the Greek word hypotithenai meaning to put under or to
suppose for a hypothesis to be put forward as a scientific
hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it.
Etymologically hypothesis is made up of two words, hypo (less
than) and thesis, which mean less than or less certain than a thesis.
It is the presumptive statement of a proposition or a reasonable

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guess, based upon the available evidence, which the researcher seeks
to prove through his study.
According to Lundberg, A hypothesis is a tentative
generalisation, the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most
elementary stage, the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,
imaginative idea, which becomes the basis for action or
investigation.
Goode and Hatt have defined it as a proposition which can
be put to test to determine its validity. A hypothesis is a statement
temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the time,
known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action
in the search of new truth.
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge
and theory which is used as a guide in the investigation of other facts
and theories that are yet unknown.
It is a guess, supposition or tentative inference as to the
existence of some fact, condition or relationship relative to some
phenomenon which serves to explain such facts as already are
known to exist in a given area of research and to guide the search for
new truth.
Hypotheses reflect the research workers guess as to the
probable outcome of the experiments.
A hypothesis is therefore a shrewd and intelligent guess, a
supposition, inference, hunch, provisional statement or tentative
generalization as to the existence of some fact, condition or
relationship relative to some phenomenon which serves to explain
already known facts in a given area of research and to guide the
search for new truth on the basis of empirical evidence. The
hypothesis is put to test for its tenability and for determining its
validity.
In this connection Lundberg observes: Quite often a research
hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by
scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to some
dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the
following ones: Students who receive counselling will show a
greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counseling
or There is a positive relationship between academic aptitude scores
and scores on a social adjustment inventory for high school
students

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These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified

and tested. Thus, we may conclude that a hypothesis states what we
are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to
determine its validity.

3.4.2 Importance of the Hypotheses:

The importance of hypotheses is generally recognized more
in the studies which aim to make predictions about some outcome.
In experimental research, the researchers is interested in making
predictions about the outcome of the experiment or what the results
are expected to show and therefore the role of hypotheses is
considered to be of utmost importance. In the historical or
descriptive research, on the other hand, the researcher is
investigating the history of a city or a nation, the life of a man, the
happening of an event, or is seeking facts to determine the status quo
of some situation and thus may not have a basis for making a
prediction of results. A hypothesis, therefore, may not be required in
such fact-finding studies. Hillway (1964) too is of the view that
when fact-finding alone is the aim of the study, a hypothesis may
not be required.
Most historical or descriptive studies, however, involve not
only fact-finding but interpretation of facts to draw generalizations.
If a researcher is tracing the history of an educational institution or
making a study about the results of a coming assembly poll, the facts
or data he gathers will prove useful only if he is able to draw
generalizations from them. Whenever possible, a hypothesis is
recommended for all major studies to explain observed facts,
conditions or behaviour and to serve as a guide in the research
process. The importance of hypotheses may be summarized as under.
1.

Hypotheses facilitate the extension of knowledge in an area.

They provide tentative explanations of facts and phenomena,
and can be tested and validated. It sensitizes the investigator to
certain aspects of situations which are relevant from the
standpoint of the problem in hand.

2.

Hypotheses provide the researcher with rational statements,

consisting of elements expressed in a logical order of
relationships which seek to describe or to explain conditions or
events, that have not yet been confirmed by facts. The

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hypotheses enable the researcher to relate logically known facts

to intelligent guesses about unknown conditions. It is a guide to
the thinking process and the process of discovery. It is the
investigators eye a sort of guiding light in the work of
darkness.
3.

Hypotheses provide direction to the research. It defines what is

relevant and what is irrelevant. The hypotheses tell the
researcher specifically what he needs to do and find out in his
study. Thus it prevents the review of irrelevant literature and
the collection of useless or excess data. Hypotheses provide a
basis for selecting the sample and the research procedures to be
used in the study. The statistical techniques needed in the
analysis of data, and the relationships between the variables to
be tested, are also implied by the hypotheses. Furthermore, the
hypotheses help the researcher to delimit his study in scope so
that it does not become broad or unwieldy.

4.

Hypotheses provide the basis for reporting the conclusions of

the study. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.
The researcher will find it very convenient to test each
hypothesis separately and state the conclusions that are relevant
to each. On the basis of these conclusions, he can make the
research report interesting and meaningful to the reader. It
provides the outline for setting conclusions in a meaningful
way.

Hypothesis has a very important place in research although it

occupies a very small pace in the body of a thesis. It is almost
impossible for a research worker not to have one or more hypotheses
before proceeding with his work.

3.5 SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS:

The derivation of a good hypothesis demands characteristic of
experience and creativity. Though hypothesis should precede the
gathering of data, a good hypothesis can come only from experience.
Some degree of data gathering, the review of related literature, or a
pilot study must precede the development and gradual refinement of
the hypothesis. A good investigator must have not only an alert mind
capable of deriving relevant hypothesis, but also a critical mind
capable of rejecting faulty hypothesis.

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What is the source of hypotheses? They may be derived

directly from the statement of the problem; they may be based on the
research literature, or in some cases, such as in ethnographic
research, they may (at least in part) be generated from data
collection and analysis. The various sources of hypotheses may be:
Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems;
Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its
origin and the objectives in seeking a solution.
Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and
individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
Intuition is often considered a reasonable source of research
hypotheses -- especially when it is the intuition of a well-known
researcher or theoretician who knows what is known
Rational Induction is often used to form new hypotheses by
logically combining the empirical findings from separate areas of
research
Prior empirical research findings are perhaps the most common
source of new research hypotheses, especially when carefully
combined using rational induction
Thus hypothesis are formulated as a result of prior thinking about
the subject, examination of the available data and material
including related studies and the council of experts.
Check your progress:
1. Define hypothesis.

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2. Hypothesis is stated in researches concerned with

3. What are the sources of hypotheses?

3.6 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS :

3.6.1 Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed
as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must
contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.
A research hypothesis must be stated in a testable form for its
proper evaluation. As already stressed, this form should
indicate a relationship between the variables in clear, concise,
and understandable language. Research hypotheses are
classified as being directional or non-directional.
3.6.2 Directional hypothesis: The hypotheses which stipulate the
direction of the expected differences or relationships are
terms as directional hypotheses. For example, the research
hypothesis: There will be a positive relationship between
individuals attitude towards high caste Hindus and his socioeconomic status, is a directional research hypothesis. This
hypothesis stipulates that individuals with favourable attitude
towards high cast Hindus will generally come from higher
socio-economic Hindu families and therefore it does stipulate
the direction of the relationship. Similarly, the hypothesis:
Adolescent boys with high IQ will exhibit low anxiety than
adolescent boys with low IQ is a directional research
hypothesis because it stipulates the direction of the difference

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between groups.
3.6.3 Non-directional hypothesis: A research hypothesis which
does not specify the direction of expected differences or
relationships is a non-directional research hypothesis. For
example, the hypotheses: There will be difference in the
adaptability of fathers and mothers towards rearing of their
children or There is a difference in the anxiety level of
adolescent girls of high IQ and low IQ are non-directional
research hypotheses. Although these hypotheses stipulate
there will be a difference, the direction of the difference is not
specified. A research hypothesis can take either statistical
form, declarative form, the null form, or the question form.
3.6.4 Statistical hypothesis: When it is time to test whether the
data support or refute the research hypothesis, it needs to be
translated into a statistical hypothesis. A statistical hypothesis
is given in statistical terms. Technically, in the context of
inferential statistics, it is a statement about one or more
parameters that are measures of the populations under study.
Statistical hypotheses often are given in quantitative terms,
for example: The mean reading achievement of the
population of third-grade students taught by Method A equals
the mean reading achievement of the population taught by
Method B. Therefore we can say that statistical hypotheses
are, concerned with populations under study. We use
inferential statistics, to draw conclusions about population
values even though we have access to only a sample of
participants. In order to use inferential statistics, we need to
translate the research hypothesis into a testable form, which is
called the null hypothesis. An alternative or declarative
hypothesis indicates the situation corresponding to when the
null hypothesis is not true. The stated hypothesis will differ
depending on whether or not it is a directional research
hypothesis.
3.6.5 Declarative hypothesis: When the researcher makes a positive
statement about the outcome of the study, the hypothesis takes
the declarative form. For example, the hypothesis: The
academic achievement of extroverts is significantly higher
than that of the introverts, is stated in the declarative form.
In such a statement of hypothesis, the researcher makes a
prediction based on his theoretical formulations of what
should happen if the explanations of the behaviour he has
given in his theory are correct.

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3.6.6 Null hypothesis: In the null form, the researcher makes a

statement that no relationship exists. The hypothesis, There
is no significant difference between the academic
achievement of high school athletes and that of non athletes,
is an example of null hypothesis. Since null hypotheses can
be tested statistically, they are often termed as statistical
hypotheses. They are also called the testing hypotheses when
declarative hypotheses are tested statistically by converting
them into null form. It states that even where it seems to hold
good it is due to mere chance. It is for the researcher to reject
the null hypothesis by showing that the outcome mentioned in
the declarative hypothesis does occur and the quantum of it is
such that it cannot be easily dismissed as having occurred by
chance.
3.6.7 Question form hypothesis: In the question form hypothesis,
a question is asked as to what the outcome will be instead of
stating what outcome is expected. Suppose a researcher is
interested in knowing whether programmed instruction has
any relationship to test anxiety of children.
The declarative form of the hypothesis might be:
Teaching children through the programmed instruction
material will decrease their test anxiety.
The null form would be: teaching children through
programmed instruction material will have no effect on
their test anxiety. This statement shows that no
relationship exists between programmed instruction and
test anxiety.
The question form puts the statement in the form: Will
teaching children through programmed instruction
decrease their test anxiety?
3.7

FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS:

Hypotheses are guesses or tentative generalizations, but these

guesses are not merely accidents. Collection of factual information
alone does not lead to successful formulation of hypotheses.
Hypotheses are the products of considerable speculation and
imaginative guess work. They are based partly on known facts and

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explanations, and partly conceptual. There are no precise rules for

formulating hypotheses and deducing consequences from them that
can be empirically verified. However, there are certain necessary
conditions that are conducive to their formulation. Some of them
are:
Richness of background knowledge. A researcher may deduce
hypotheses inductively after making observations of behaviour,
noticing trends or probable relationships. For example, a
classroom teacher daily observes student behaviour. On the basis
of his experience and his knowledge of behaviour in a school
situation, the teacher may attempt to relate the behaviour of
students to his own, to his teaching methods, to changes in the
school environment, and so on.
From these observed
relationships, the teacher may inductively formulate a hypothesis
that attempts to explain such relationships.
Background knowledge, however, is essential for
perceiving relationships among the variables and to determine
what findings other researchers have reported on the problem
under study. New knowledge, new discoveries, and new
inventions should always form continuity with the already
existing corpus of knowledge and, therefore, it becomes all the
more essential to be well versed with the already existing
knowledge.
Hypotheses may be formulated correctly by persons who
have rich experiences and academic background, but they can
never be formulated by those who have poor background
knowledge.
Versatility of intellect: Hypotheses are also derived through
deductive reasoning from a theory. Such hypotheses are called
deductive hypotheses. A researcher may begin a study by
selecting one of the theories in his own area of interest. After
selecting the particular theory, the researcher proceeds to deduce
a hypothesis from this theory through symbolic logic or
mathematics. This is possible only when the researcher has a
versatile intellect and can make use of it for restructuring his
experiences. Creative imagination is the product of an adventure,
sound attitude and agile intellect. In the hypotheses formulation,
the researcher works on numerous paths. He has to take a
consistent effort and develop certain habits and attitudes.
Moreover, the researcher has to saturate himself with all possible

55

information about the problem and then think liberally at it and

proceed further in the conduct of the study.
Analogy and other practices. Analogies also lead the researcher
to clues that he might find useful in the formulation of
hypotheses and for finding solutions to problems. For example,
suppose a new situation resembles an old situation in regard to a
factor X. If the researcher knows from previous experience that
the old situation is related to other factors Y and Z as well as to
X, he reasons that perhaps a new situation is also related to Y and
Z. The researcher, however, should use analogies with caution as
they are not fool proof tools for finding solutions to problems. At
times, conversations and consultations with colleagues and
expert from different fields are also helpful in formulating
important and useful hypotheses.
3.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:
i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is
not clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot
be taken as reliable.
ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. Some prior
study may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis
a testable one. A hypothesis is testable if other deductions
can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or
disproved by observation.
iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it
happens to be a relational hypothesis.
iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.
A researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are
generally more testable and he should develop such
hypotheses.
v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple
terms so that the same is easily understandable by all
concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of
hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e. it
must be consistent with a substantial body of established
facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as
being the most likely.
vii) The hypotheses selected should be amenable to testing within

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a reasonable time. The researcher should not select a

problem which involves hypotheses that are not agreeable to
testing within a reasonable and specified time. He must know
that there are problems that cannot be solved for a long time
to come. These are problems of immense difficulty that
cannot be profitably studied because of the lack of essential
techniques or measures.
viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need
for explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus
other known and accepted generalizations, one should be able
to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis
must actually explain what it claims to explain, it should have
empirical reference.
Check your progress:
1. What are the different types of hypothesis?

2. List the characteristics of hypothesis.

3.9 HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND THEORY

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis,
it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the
experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in
which the independent variable is manipulated is termed
experimental hypothesis-testing research and a research in which
an independent variable is not manipulated is called nonexperimental hypothesis-testing research.

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Let us get acquainted with relevant terminologies used in

hypothesis testing.
Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis:
In the context of statistical analysis, we often talk about null
hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method
A with method B about its superiority and if we proceed on the
assumption that both methods are equally good, then this assumption
is termed as the null hypothesis. As against this, we may think that
the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, we are then
stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis
is generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative hypothesis as H a.
The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are chosen before
the sample is drawn. Generally, in hypothesis testing we proceed on
the basis of null hypothesis, keeping the alternative hypothesis in
view. Why so? The answer is that on the assumption that null
hypothesis is true, one can assign the probabilities to different
possible sample results, but this cannot be done if we proceed with
the alternative hypothesis. Hence the use of null hypothesis (at
times also known as statistical hypothesis) is quite frequent.
a) The level of significance: This is very important concept in the
context of hypothesis testing. It is always some percentage
(usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care, thought
and reason. In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent,
then this implies that H0 will be rejected when the sampling result
(i.e. observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of
occurring if H0 is true. In other words, the 5 percent level of
significance means that researcher is willing to take as much as a
5 percent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H 0)
happens to be true. Thus the significance level is the maximum
value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true and is
usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.
b) The criteria for rejecting the null hypothesis may differ.
Sometimes the null hypothesis is rejected only when the quantity
of the outcome is so large that the probability of its having
occurred by mere chance is 1 time out of 100. We consider the
probability of its having occurred by chance to be too little and
we reject the chance theory of the null hypothesis and take the
occurrence to be due to a genuine tendency. On other occasions,
we may be bolder and reject the null hypothesis even when the
quantity of the reported outcome is likely to occur by chance 5
times out of 100.Statistically the former is known as the rejection

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of the null hypothesis at 0.1 level of significance and the latter as

the rejection at 0.5 level. It may be pointed out that if the
researcher is able to reject the null hypothesis, he cannot directly
uphold the declarative hypothesis. If an outcome is not held to
be due to chance, it does not mean that it is due to the very cause
and effect relationship asserted in the particular declarative
statement. It may be due to something else which the researcher
may have failed to control.
c) Decision rule or test of hypothesis: Given a hypothesis H0 and
an alternative hypothesis Ha we make a rule which is known as
decision rule according to which we accept H 0 (i.e. reject Ha) or
reject H0 (ie. accept Ha). For instance, if H0 is that a certain lot is
good (there are very few defective items in it) against H a that the
lot is not good (there are too many defective items in it), then we
must decide the number of items to be tested and the criterion for
accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. We might test 10 times in
the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none or only
1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H 0 otherwise we
will reject H0 (or accept Ha). This sort of basis is known as
decision rule.
d) Two-tailed and One-tailed tests: In the context of hypothesis
testing, these two terms are quite important and must be clearly
understood. A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say,
the sample mean is significantly higher or lower than the
hypothesized value of the mean of the population. Such a test is
appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value and
the alternative hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified
value of the null hypothesis. In a two-tailed test, there are two
rejection regions, one on each tail of the curve which can be
illustrated as under:
If the significance level is 5 per cent and the two-tailed test is
to be applied, the probability of the rejection area will be 0.05
(equally divided on both tails of the curve as 0.025) and that of the
acceptance region will be 0.95
But there are situations when only one-tailed test is
considered appropriate. A one-tailed test would be used when we
are to test, say, whether the population mean is either lower than or
higher than some hypothesized value. We should always remember
that accepting H0, on the basis of sample information does not
constitute the proof that H0, is true. We only mean that there is no

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statistical evidence to reject it.

3.10 ERRORS IN TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Type I and Type II errors: in the context of testing of
hypotheses, there are basically two types of errors we can make. We
may reject H0 when H0 is true and we may accept H0 when in fact H0
is not true. The former is known as Type I error and the latter as
Type II error. In other words, Type I error means rejection of
hypothesis which should have been accepted and Type II error
means accepting the hypothesis which should have been rejected.
Type I error is denoted by (alpha) known as (alpha) error, also
called the level of significance of test; and Type II error is denoted
by (beta) known as error. In a tabular form the said two errors
can be presented as follows:
Table 3.1

Decision
Accept H0

H0 (true)

Correct decision

H0 (false)

Type II error ( error)

Reject H0
Type I error (alpha error)
Correct decision

The probability of Type I error is usually determined in

advance and is understood as the level of significance of testing the
hypothesis. If type I error is fixed at 5 per cent, it means that there
are about 5 chances in 100 that we will reject H 0 when H0 is true. We
can control Type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For
instance, if we fix it at 1 per cent, we will say that the maximum
probability of committing Type I error would only be 0.01.
But with a fixed sample size, n, when we try to reduce Type I
error, the probability of committing Type II error increases. Both
types of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously. There is a tradeoff between two types of errors which means that the probability of
making one type of error can only be reduced if we are willing to
increase the probability of making the other type of error. To deal
with this trade-off in business situations, decision-makers decide the
appropriate level of Type I error by examining the costs or penalties
attached to both types of errors. If Type I error involves the time and
trouble of reworking a batch of chemicals that should have been
accepted, whereas Type II error means taking a chance that an entire
group of users of this chemical compound will be poisoned, then in

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such a situation one should prefer a Type I error to a Type II error.

As a result one must set very high level for Type I error in ones
testing technique of a given hypothesis. Hence, in the testing of
hypothesis, one must make all possible effort to strike an adequate
balance between Type I and Type II errors.
Check your progress:
1. Explain the term level of significance?

2. What are the two types of error in the testing of the hypothesis?

3.11 SUMMARY
It is important for the researcher to formulate hypotheses
before data are gathered.
This is necessary for an objective and
unbiased study. It should be evident from what you have read so far
that in order to carry out research; you need to start by identifying a
question which demands an answer, or a need which requires a
solution. The problem can be generated either by an initiating idea,
or by a perceived problem area. We also studied that there are
important qualities of hypotheses which distinguish them from other
forms of statement. A good hypothesis is a very useful aid to
organizing the research effort. It specifically limits the enquiry to the
interaction of certain variables; it suggests the methods appropriated
for collecting, analyzing and interpreting the data; and the resultant
confirmation or rejection of the hypothesis through empirical or
experimental testing gives a clear indication of the extent of
knowledge gained. The hypothesis must be conceptually clear. The
concepts utilized in the hypothesis should be clearly defined not
only formally but also if possible, operationally. Hypothesis testing
is the often used strategy for deciding whether a sample data offer
such support for a hypothesis that generalization can be made. Thus

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hypothesis testing enables us to make probability statements about

population parameter(s).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Best J.W, Kahn J.V ;( 2009); Research in education, tenth
edition, Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
2. Wiersma W , Jurs S G;(2009); research methods in education an
introduction, ninth edition, Pearson education, Dorling
Kindersley (India) Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
3. Kothari C.R; (2009) Research methodology methods and
techniques, second edition, New Delhi, New age international (P)
Ltd publishers.
4. Gupta S; (2007); Research methodology and statistical
techniques; New Delhi, Deep and Deep publication Pvt Ltd.
5. McBurney, D.H; White T,L; (2007); Research methods, seventh
edition; Delhi, Akash press.
6. Kaul, L; (2004); Methodology of educational research, third
edition, New Delhi, UBS Publishers Distributors Pvt Ltd.