Lecture 10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

sinusoidal steady-state
frequency response
Bode plots

101

Response to sinusoidal input

convolution system with impulse response h, transfer function H
PSfrag replacements

y
H

jt

sinusoidal input u(t) = cos(t) = e + e

Z t
h( ) cos((t )) d
output is y(t) =

jt

/2

lets write this as

Z
Z
h( ) cos((t )) d
y(t) =
0

h( ) cos((t )) d

first term is called sinusoidal steady-state response

second term decays with t if system is stable; if it decays it is called the

transient

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

102

if system is stable, sinusoidal steady-state response can be expressed as

ysss(t) =

h( ) cos((t )) d

= (1/2)

= (1/2)e

h( ) ej(t ) + ej(t )
0

jt

h( )e

d + (1/2)e

jt

h( )ej d
0

= (1/2)ejtH(j) + (1/2)ejtH(j)
= (<H(j)) cos(t) (=H(j)) sin(t)
= a cos(t + )
where a = |H(j)|, = 6 H(j)
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

103

conclusion
if the convolution system is stable, the response to a sinusoidal input is
asymptotically sinusoidal, with the same frequency as the input, and with
magnitude & phase determined by H(j)
|H(j)| gives amplification factor, i.e., RMS(yss)/RMS(u)

H(j) gives phase shift between u and yss

special case: u(t) = 1 (i.e., = 0); output converges to H(0) (DC gain)
frequency response
transfer function evaluated at s = j, i.e.,
Z
h(t)ejtdt
H(j) =
0

is called frequency response of the system

since H(j) = H(j), we usually only consider 0
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

104

Example
transfer function H(s) = 1/(s + 1)
input u(t) = cos t

SSS output has magnitude |H(j)| = 1/ 2, phase 6 H(j) = 45

u(t) (dashed) & y(t) (solid)
1

0.5

0.5

PSfrag replacements
1
0

10

15

20

t
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

105

more generally, if system is stable and the input is asymptotically

sinusoidal, i.e.,
jt
u(t) < Ue

as t , then

as t , where

y(t) yss(t) = < Ysse

jt

Yss = H(j)U

Yss
H(j) =
U
for a stable system, H(j) gives ratio of phasors of asymptotic sinusoidal
output & input

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

106

thus, for example (assuming a stable system),

H(j) large means asymptotic response of system to sinusoid with
frequnecy is large
H(0) = 2 means asymptotic response to a constant signal is twice the
input value
H(j) small for large means the asymptotic output for high
frequency sinusoids is small

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

107

Measuring frequency response

for = 1, . . . , N ,
apply sinusoid at frequency , with phasor U
wait for output to converge to SSS
measure Yss
(i.e., magnitude and phase shift of yss)
N can be a few tens (for hand measurements) to several thousand

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

108

Frequency response plots

frequency response can be plotted in several ways, e.g.,
<H(j) & =H(j) versus
H(j) = <H(j) + j=H(j) as a curve in the complex plane (called
Nyquist plot)
|H(j)| & 6 H(j) versus (called Bode plot)
the most common format is a Bode plot

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

109

example: RC circuit
1

1
Y (s) =
U (s)
1+s

rag replacements

u(t)

y(t)

1F

H(j) =

15
20

H(j)

10
30

20 log10 |H(j)|

replacements

1
1 + j

60

25
30

PSfrag replacements

35
40 2
10

10

10

10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

10

90 2
10

10

10

10

10

1010

example: suspension system of page 8-6 with m = 1, b = 0.5, k = 1,

0.5s + 1
,
H(s) = 2
s + 0.5s + 1

(0.75 2 + 1) j0.5 3
H(j) =
4 1.75 2 + 1

replacements

H(j)(degrees)

0
10
20
30

PSfrag replacements

40
50 2
10

20 log10 |H(j)|

10

10

10

10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

10

20
40
60
80
100
120
2
10

10

10

10

10

1011

Bode plots
frequency axis
logarithmic scale for
horizontal distance represents a fixed frequency ratio or factor:
ratio 2 : 1 is called an octave; ratio 10 : 1 is called a decade
magnitude |H(j)|

expressed in dB, i.e., 20 log10 |H(j)|

vertical distance represents dB, i.e., a fixed ratio of magnitudes
ratio 2 : 1 is +6dB, ratio 10 : 1 is +20dB
slopes are given in units such as dB/octave or dB/decade

phase 6 H(j)
multiples of 360 dont matter
phase plot is called wrapped when phases are between 180 (or
0, 360); it is called unwrapped if multiple of 360 is chosen to make
phase plot continuous
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1012

Bode plots of products

consider product of transfer functions H = F G:

PSfrag replacements

frequency response magnitude and phase are

20 log10 |H(j)| = 20 log10 |F (j)| + 20 log10 |G(j)|
6

H(j) =
6

F (j) + 6 G(j)

here we use the fact that for a, b C, 6 (ab) = 6 a + 6 b

so, Bode plot of a product is the sum of the Bode plots of each term
(extends to many terms)
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1013

example. F (s) = 1/(s + 10), G(s) = 1 + 1/s

0

ag replacements

F (j)

25
30
35

PSfrag replacements

40
45 2
10

10

10

10

90
2
10

10

10

10

10

10

35

G(j)

30
25
20
15

45

20 log10 |G(j)|

40

ag replacements

45

20 log10 |F (j)|

20

10

PSfrag replacements

5
0
2

10

10

10

10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

10

90
2
10

10

10

10

10

1014

Bode plot of
s+1
1 + 1/s
=
H(s) = F (s)G(s) =
s + 10
s(s + 10)

30
40

H(j)

replacements

10

50

20 log10 |H(j)|

20

70

PSfrag replacements

80

10
20
30
40
2

10

10

10

10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

10

60

90 2
10

10

10

10

10

1015

Bode plots from factored form

rational transfer function H in factored form:
(s z1) (s zm)
H(s) = k
(s p1) (s pn)

20 log10 |H(j)| = 20 log10 |k| +

H(j) =
6

n
X
i=1

k+

m
X
i=1

20 log10 |j zi|

20 log10 |j pi|

m
X
i=1

(j zi)

n
X
i=1

(j pi)

(of course 6 k = 0 if k > 0, and 6 k = 180 if k < 0)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1016

Graphical interpretation: |H(j)|

s = j

Qm
dist(j, zi)
|H(j)| = |k| Qni=1
i=1 dist(j, pi )
since for u, v C, dist(u, v) = |u v|

placements

therefore, e.g.:
|H(j)| gets big when j is near a pole

|H(j)| gets small when j is near a zero

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1017

Graphical interpretation:
6

H(j)

s = j

H(j) = 6 k+

m
X
i=1

(jzi)

n
X
6

(jpi)

i=1

placements

therefore, 6 H(j) changes rapidly when a pole or zero is near j

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1018

Example with lightly damped poles

poles at s = 0.01 j0.2, s = 0.01 j0.7,

s = 0.01 j1.3,

H(j)

50

20 log10 |H(j)|

50

180

360

100

replacements

PSfrag replacements
150 1
10

10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

10

540
1
10

10

10

1019

All-pass filter

(s 1)(s 3)
(s + 1)(s + 3)

0.5

90

H(j)

180

20 log10 |H(j)|

H(s) =

0.5

270

replacements

PSfrag replacements
1 3
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

360 3
10

10

10

10

10

10

10

called all-pass filter since gain magnitude is one for all frequencies
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1020

Analog lowpass filters

analog lowpass filters: approximate ideal lowpass frequency response
|H(j)| = 1 for 0 1,

|H(j)| = 0 for > 1

by a rational transfer function (which can be synthesized using R, L, C)

example nth-order Butterworth filter
PSfrag replacements

/(2n)
/n

H(s) =

1
(s p1)(s p2) (s pn)

n stable poles, equally spaced

on the unit circle

p1

p2
/n

/n

pn1
pn

/n
/(2n)
Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1021

magnitude plot for n = 2, n = 5, n = 10

PSfrag replacements

20 log |H(j)|

0
20
40

n=2

60

n=5

80
100 2
10

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

n = 10
1

10

10

10

10

1022

Sketching approximate Bode plots

sum property allows us to find Bode plots of terms in TF, then add
simple terms:
constant
factor of sk (pole or zero at s = 0)
real pole, real zero
complex pole or zero pair
from these we can construct Bode plot of any rational transfer function

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1023

Poles and zeros at s = 0

the term sk has simple Bode plot:
phase is constant,
6

= 90k

magnitude has constant slope 20kdB/decade

magnitude plot intersects 0dB axis at = 1
examples:
integrator (k = 1):
6

= 90, slope is 20dB/decade

differentiator (k = +1):

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

= 90, slope is +20dB/decade

1024

Real poles and zeros

H(s) = 1/(s p) (p < 0 is stable pole; p > 0 is unstable pole)
p
magnitude: |H(j)| = 1/ 2 + p2
for p < 0, 6 H(j) = arctan(/|p|)

for p > 0, 6 H(j) = 180 + arctan(/p)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1025

Bode plot for H(s) = 1/(s + 1) (stable pole):

Bode Diagrams

0
10
20

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

30
40
50
60
0
20
40
60
80
0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (rad/sec)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1026

Bode plot for H(s) = 1/(s 1) (unstable pole):

Bode Diagrams

0
10
20

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

30
40
50
60

100
120
140
160
180
0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (rad/sec)

magnitude same as stable pole; phase starts at 180, increases

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1027

straight-line approximation (for p < 0):

for < |p|, |H(j)| 1/|p|
for > |p|, |H(j)| decreases (falls off) 20dB per decade
for < 0.1|p|, 6 H(j) 0

for > 10|p|, 6 H(j) 90

in between, phase is approximately linear (on log-log plot)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1028

Bode plots for real zeros same as poles but upside down
example: H(s) = s + 1
Bode Diagrams

60
50
40

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

30
20
10
0

80
60
40
20
0
0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (rad/sec)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1029

example:

104
H(s) =
(1 + s/10)(1 + s/300)(1 + s/3000)
(typical op-amp transfer function)
DC gain 80dB; poles at 10, 300, 3000

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1030

Bode plot:
Bode Diagrams

50

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

50

0
50
100
150
200
250
0

10

10

10

10

10

10

Frequency (rad/sec)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1031

example:

(s 1)(s 3) s2 4s + 3
=
H(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 3) s2 + 4s + 3

|H(j)| = 1 (obvious from graphical interpretation)

(called all-pass filter or phase filter since gain magnitude is one for all
frequencies)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1032

Bode plot:
Bode Diagrams

1
0.5

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

0
0.5
1
0

100

200

300

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

Frequency (rad/sec)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1033

High frequency slope

b0 + b m s m
H(s) =
a0 + + a n sn
bm, an 6= 0
for large, H(j) (bm/an)(j)mn, i.e.,
20 log10 |H(j)| 20 log10 |bm/an| (n m)20 log10
high frequency magnitude slope is approximately 20(n m)dB/decade
high frequency phase is approximately 6 (bm/an) 90(n m)

Sinusoidal steady-state and frequency response

1034