DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

AGRO.301(N/S)

CROP PRODUCTION II

Lecture No. 1:Importance of oilseed crops - edible and non edible oils nutritional value
importance in Indian economy constraints in oilseed production need for
improvement of productivity and production.
The crops that are cultivated for the production of oils are known as OILSEED CROPS.
Oilseeds are the raw materials for vegetable oils and they are energy rich crops. Oilseed crops are
the most important commercial crops in India. Edible oils are next to food grains in Indian diet.
The Rapeseed and Mustard, Sesamum, Sunflower, Safflower, Linseed, Soybean, Niger, Groundnut and Castor are the most important oil seed crops of India.
Classification:The oilseed crops are classified according to the nature of oil produced as follows:
1) EDIBLE OILSEED CROPS:The most important source of supply of edible oils are the seeds known as edible oil
seeds and the crops belong to this category are known as edible oil seed crops.
E.g., Rapeseed & mustard, sesamum, groundnut, niger, sunflower, safflower, soybean etc.
2) NON-EDIBLE OIL SEED CROPS:The most important source of supply of non-edible oils are the seeds known as non-edible
oil seeds and the crops belong to this category are known as non-edible oil seed crops.
E.g., Castor, Linseed etc.

Nutritional Value o f Oilseeds :The bio-chemical composition and quality of the oilseeds and their products are important
for the food and feed purposes.
Edible oils are the concentrated sources of energy. The energy content of oil is much higher
(39.80 MJ/kg) than protein (23.88 MJ/kg) or carbohydrate (16.76 MJ/kg).
They contain useful carbohydrates, essential fatty acids and vitamins A,D,E and K.
and provide essential fatty acids.
Oil cakes/ oil meals are rich sources of protein (40-60%) to human and animals. They can
also be used as organic manures.
Oil quality for food purpose can be described in terms of Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA), Monounsaturated Fatty Acid ( MUFA) and Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid ( PUFA) .
Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA) - Palmitic and Stearic acid
They have direct relation with blood cholesterol and coronary
heart diseases as it increases low density lipoprotein that is harmful .
Unsaturated Fatty Acid (SFA) - Oleic, Linoleic , Linolenic and Erucic acids.
Linoleic & Linolenic acids (Poly Unsatutated Fatty Acids PUFA) are Essential
fatty acids (not synthesized by human body and are to supplied from outside) and if they
are absent, it leads to physiological disorders.They increase high density lipoprotein, which
is beneficial.

Groundnut, coconut, sesame and sunflower oils have moderate amounts of saturated
fatty acid but lack in one essentia l fatty acid i.e. linolenic acid.
Soybean, safflower and mustard oils have both essential fatty acids as Linoleic and
Linolenic acids.
Rapeseed and mustard oil have high amount of erucic acid, an anti nutritional factor
and leads to coronary diseases.

Keeping Quality of Oils :

The ratio of oleic to linoleic acid affects the storage ability of edible oil and
hence affects the nutritional quality. It shuld be greater than 1.6 for longer shelf life.
Sunflower and safflower oils cannot be stored for longer periods.
Soybean oil looses its original flavour after once deep frying.
Groundnut oil has very good stability due to the presence of tocopherols (vit E)
and can be stored at room temperature even upto 18 months without any quality
deterioration.
Sesamum oil highly stable due to the presence of Sesimol, anti- oxidant
Mustard oil is also rich in vit.E and has good stability at high temperature also.
IMPORTANCE OF OIL SEED IN INDIAN ECONOMY :
1)
In terms of vegetable oils , India is the fourth largest oil economy in the World after
USA, China and Brazil.
2) India is one of the major oilseed producing countries in the world accounting for about
16% of the area and 10% of world oilseed production.
3) In India oil seeds occupy nearly 14% of countrys gross cropped area and contributes to
5% of the GNP and 10% of the value of the agricultural products.
4) The oil seeds contain 20 60 % oil, which is chiefly consumed as food and energy
source. They are energy rich and cash value crops.
5) The edible oils are used as cooking oil, vanaspati and proteins.
6) The oil seed crop earn lot of foreign exchange of 1,300 crores of rupees is saved during
2008-09 by exporting oil seed.
7) The oil seed cultivation also provides employment to rural people. It is estimated that in
India 35 million people are engaged in oilseed production and one million in their
processing.
8) The oldest non-food use in lamp oil and as a lubricant which are used in textile and
leather industries.
9) Vegetable oils and its derivatives are biodegradable and eco-friendly thus they can be
used as diesel substitutes.
10) Vegetable oils have a number of industrial uses such as plastic films, metallic foils,
Soaps, Detergents, Condiments, Cosmetics, Plastic, Polymers, Organic coatings, Printing
ink, Oiled cloth, linoleum, rubber additive as substitutes to hydraulic & brake oil &
chemical intermediates.
11) Oil seeds contain useful carbohydrates, essential fatty acids, vitamins like A, D, E and K
and also contain 18 essential aminoacids & trace elements.
12) Oil seed crops can serve as pasture, cover and green manure crops. They are also used as
fodder and for silage.
13) The oil seed cake which has 40-60% protein is worth while as animal feed and organic
manure.
14) In India, direct export of cakes has earned foreign exchange of INR 2,200 crores but can
be upgrade as valued human food.
15) Vegetable oils have medicinal and therapeutic value and also used as laxatives.
E.g., Castor, Safflower & Sunflower oil.
2

Safflower tea prevents cardiovascular diseases and gynecological disorders

- if consumed daily, it reduces blood pressure
16) Oil seeds are energy rich crops and in terms of energy equation.
1Kg of oil = 1.66 g of proteins =2.37g of CHO
17) Certain oil seed cakes have vermicidal action & it is used for pest cont rol purposes.
E.g., Mustard, Castor
18) Lecithin is a co-product in oil industry which is used as emulsifier in pharmaceutical
products, bakery products & other food stuffs.
Thus, oilseed crops can be viewed as producers of high quality edible oils and at
the same time they are efficient low polluting chemical factors that can be metamorphosed to
produce value added products, including the substitute for fossil fuel.
CONSTRAINTS IN OIL SEED PRODUCTION:There is an imbalance between demand and supply in edible oils due to low
productivity of oil seeds. The constraints in oil seed production are:1. Oil seeds are energy rich crops, but are grown in energy starved conditions. More than
85% of the area under oilseeds is rainfed, often cultivated with low input and poor
management practices.
2. Most of the oil seed crops are raised in marginal and sub marginal lands which are
having poor fertility status.
3. Oil seeds are subjected to the vagaries of the monsoon resulting in lower yields as
compared to irrigated crops.
4. Lack of suitable HYV or hybrids which are having higher levels of oil content.
5. Most of the cultivars of oil seed crops are drought susceptible and HYV are generally
long duration (> 100 days).
6. Small and margina l farmers generally cultivate the oil seed crops which are still not well
adapted to new farm technologies.
7. In India, most of the soil seed crops are grown as monocropping in traditional areas
without crop rotation which results in perpetuation & development of inoculum of pests
and diseases, without crop rotations. Yield losses due to diseases and pests accounts for
40%. The attack of insect pest mainly aphid is one of main causes of low yield of oil
seed crops, particularly rapeseed & mustard.
8. Inadequate supply of best quality seeds to the farmers when compared to cereal crops.
9. Failure of hybridization and seed multiplication programmes in oil seed crops compared
to cereals.
10. Seed multiplication ratio is very very low in case of oil seed crops.
11. The progress in respect of oil seeds has not been substantial, mainly because food grains
were given first priority in research & development.
12. Supply of desired inputs and transfer of technology from farm institutions to the farmer
is very very poor.
13. Lack of farm implements and machinery for sowing and post harvest processing
14. Lack of suitable post harvest technology to prevent post harvest losses & also to avoid
the deterioration of quality of oil seed.
15. Lack of storage, grading and marketing facilities in rural areas mainly due to future
trading.
16. The efficiency of oil extraction units or expellers is very poor.
17. Scarcity of short, high yielding input responsive drought/insect/pest resistant crop
varieties.

NEED FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY AND PRODUCTION :

In India edible oil consumption is growing at the rate of 6-8% annually due to the
rapid economic growth and increasing consumption.
The country,s demand for vegetable oils is expected to increase to 18.3 M.t and 21.8 M.t by
2015 and 2020 respectively. This is roughly equivalent to about 55 and 66 M.t of oilseeds
The Indian Central Oilseed Committee (ICOC) was established in 1947 to increase
the oilseed production through co-ordiated research effort.
All India co-ordinated Research Project on Oilseeds (AICRPO) was set up in 1967
to carry out location specific research o different oil seed crops.
Directorate of Oilseed Research (DOR) was established in Hyderabad on
1st August,1977 to guide the research & development in nine mandate crops.
The oilseed scenario in India had undergone dramatic change with the initiation of
TMO (Technology Mission on Oilseeds) in 1986. The highest oilseed production was
achieved by 24.75 M.t during 1994-95 against 11.0 M. t during 1986-87. This dramatic
change of Indian oilseed production from a net importer to a status of self sufficiency and
net imported during early nineties has been popularly known as Yellow Revolution.
In post WTO regime, there is a great need to adopt multifaceted strategy for
improving oilseed production through increase in area (38%) and productivity improvement
(62%) including processing facility. There is a great scope for increasing the yields of oil
seed crops.
A no. of oil seed de velopment projects such as NODP (National Oilseed Development
Project) (1984-85) , Oilseed Technology Mission etc., have been in operation & they are
essentially an extension of intensive oil seed development programme. The GOI launched
ISOPOM (Integrated Scheme for Oilseeds, Oilpalm, Pulses and Maize Development
Programme) to provide flexibility to the states in implementation based on regionally
differentiated approach to promote crop diversification.

STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING THE OIL SEED PRODUCTION IN INDIA:Following measures/strategies should be taken for increasing the yield of
oil seed crops:
1. Bringing more area under irrigation. (as drip & sprinkler irrigation)
2. The good quality seed of recommended varieties for the specific area & situations should
be chosen and cultivated.
3. The seed should be treated with fungicide, bactericide etc. as recommended before sowing
of seed in the field.
4. It is most important to select a levelled field as far as possible and good drainage should
be provided for the oil seed crops, especially for the kharif crop. Water logging condition
is harmful for these crops.
5. A fine seed bed free from weeds and clods should be prepared to facilitate good
germination & stand.
6. The sowing of the seed should be done at appropriate time with proper row spacing in
case of line sowing crop and the optimum plant population should be maintained by
4

thinning at 15-20 days after sowing. Early sowing escapes the attack of many diseases and
pests. Under Paira cropping, sowing should be done at the dough stage of paddy.
7. The suitable variety for each crop must be chosen for the tract and season.
8. Adoption of improved crop production technologies.
9. The recommended doses of fertilizer for the specific crop should be applied at appropriate
time.
10. The field should be kept free from weeds particularly during first 20 30 DAS.
11. The protective irrigation should be provided wherever possible during kharif season and
irrigation should be applied at critical stages for rabi / summer crop.
12. The plant protection measures should be under taken, if needed.
13. Harvesting should be done at right time to avoid capsule shattering and reduction in oil
content of seed.
14. The seed should be cleaned and dried well before storage.
15. Oil extraction from sources such as rice bran, cotton seed and corn apart from flora under
utilized plants of forest.
16. Introduction of oil seed crop as intercrops along with cereals in non-traditional areas and
also in double/multiple cropping sequences.
17. Extending oilseed cultivation i.e safflower, sunflower, seasame etc to under utilized
situations like rice fallows.
18. Strengthening of research and extension system.
19. Strengthening of processing facilities as crushing, solvent extraction, oil refining and
hydrogenation for value addition to products in the context of WTO.
20. Provision of favourable Govt. policies such as price and credit policies etc. strenghthening
of farmers support system through supply of all inputs.
India (2009 -10) - Total oilseeds
Area 26.11 M .ha
Production 24.93 M .t

Productivity -- 955 kg/ha

On Global basis, India ranks first in the production of castor, safflower, sesame and
niger, second in groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, third in linseed, fifth in soybean and
sunflower.
* The major oilseed growing states in India are :
Madhya Pradesh (20.3%)
Rajasthan (18.9%)
Maharashtra (13.3%)
Gujarat (12.6%)
Andhra Pradesh (10.5%)
Karnataka (10.3%)
Uttar Pradesh (3.9%)
Tamil Nadu (2.5%)
Others (9.7%) of the total oilseed area of the country.

Rajasthan produces 21.3% of total annual oil seed crops followed by Madhya Pradesh
(20.5%) , Gujarat (16.7%) and Andhra Pradesh(7.3%).
India per capita consumption of oil is 11.6 kg/head/year considerably lower than in
developed countries as 17.8 kg/head/year. ICMR recommendation is 14 kg/head/year or
35 - 40 g/head/day.
Indian edible oil market is the largest after China & European Union. Each year India
consumes around 10 mt of edible oils.
Consumer oil preferences in India
5

North India -- Mustard, Rapeseed

East India -- Mustard, Rapeseed
West India -- Groundnut
South India -- Groundnut & Coconut
The expected demand of oilseeds production is 44, 55 and 65 mt by 2010,2015 and 2020
respectively.
Supplementary sources of vegetable oils Rice bran is highly nutritive value & cotton
seed oil having 18% oil .
Tree Based Oils are Jatropha, Karanj, Pongamia, Neem,Mahua, Sal etc.
Among the major tree crops, Oil palm forms another high potential, prospective and
cheaper source of edible oil in International market.

Lecture No.2 :

GROUNDNUT

Botanical name
Family
Common name

: Arachis hypogaea
: Leguminosae
: Groundnut, Peanut, Monkey nut, Earth nut,
Manila nut,moong fali (Hindi).
In Greek language Arachis means legume and hypogaea means below ground,
referring to formation of pods in the soil.
Groundnut is an important oil and protein source to a large portion of the population in
Asia, Africa and the America. It is a self -pollinated, annual, herbaceous legume. Groundnut, KING
OF VEGETABLE OIL SEEDS in India, occupies pre-eminent position in national edible oil
economy.
Economic uses :
1. Groundnut oil is the cooking media for preparing different food items. It is the primary
source of vegetable oil requirement to the Asian people.
2. The groundnut seed contain 47-53% oil and 26% protein and 11.5% starch.
3. The groundnut kernels are good source of all B -vitamins except B12 and vitamin E.
4. Groundnut kernels are rich in P, Ca & Mg including micronutrients like Fe, Zn.
5. Nearly 81% of the kernels are used for oil extraction
12% used for seed purpose
6% - raw materials
1% - exported in terms of Hand picked selections (HPS).
6. Groundnut kernels are also used for the preparation of food products like chikkis, G.nut
milk, G.nut butter, curd including diff. bakery products
7. G.nut oil is a major source of edible oil in India. The inferior quality oil is used for
making soaps, detergents, Cosmetics, paints, candles, Lubricants and some of the
medicines.
8. G.nut oil is used for medicinal purposes especially for massaging polio patients & it is
also used as a substitute for olive oil and also for preparation of glycerin.
9. The oil cakes are used as valuable organic manures & feeding material for live stock. It
consists of 7.3% N; 1.5% P 2O5 & 1.3% K2O.
10. The peanut haulms contain crude protein 85% lipids 13% and minerals 9 10%. These
are used as cattle feed either in fresh or in dried stage or preparing hay or silage.
11. The peanut shells or pod walls which constitute nearly about 25% of total pod weight
are used as bedding material for poultry or as mulching material during summer season
to reduce the evaporative losses.
12. Shell material is also used as filler material for making mixed fertilizers and as
insulation material for buildings or as fuel in boilers.
13. G.nut crop add sufficient quantity of organic matter to the soil as most of the leaves are
shed just before harvesting. In some areas, G.nut is used as a green manure crop.
14. G.nut is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen @ 60 100 kg N /ha within 1 season.

ORIGIN:
Center of origin of G.nut is South America i.e., Matograsso a place in Brazil. It
appears that Portuguese introduced the groundnut plant from Brazil into Africa. At the
beginning of 16th century, groundnut was introduced into India by Jesuit fathers who
followed Vasco De Gama shortly after his first landing in India.

AREA AND PRODUCTION:Major groundnut producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, USA, Indonesia,
Argentina, Sudan, Senegal and Myanmar. India ranks first in area and production
contributing to 40% of the area 36% of the world production.
Area
6.0 M .ha
13.01L.ha

India(2008-09)
A.P.(2008 -09)

Production
5.5 M.t
10.07 L.t

Productivity
920 kg/ha
774 kg/ha

G.nut accounts for 28% of the total area & 36% of total oilseed production
in the country.
The major G.nut producing states are Gujarat, A.P., T.N., Karnataka & Maharashtra.
as per 2008 2009 statistics
Area
Production Mt
Productivity (t/ha)
1st
nd

Gujarat

Gujarat

T.N

A.P

A.P.

Gujarat

CLASSIFICATION:Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea ) consists of two sub species each containing two botanical
varieties
Subspecies hypogaea
Variety hypogaea (Virginia type)
Variety hirsuta
Subspecies fastigiata
Variety fastigata (Valencia type)
Variety vulgaris (Spanish type).
COMPARATIVE CHARACTERS OF VIRGINIA & SPANISH/VALENCIA :CHARACTER
Virginia
Valencia/Spanish
Seed size
Medium to very large
Small to medium
Seed per pod
Usually 2, occasionally 3
Usually 2-4, rarely 3
Seed dormancy
Moderatly present
Little to none
Branching
Moderate to profuse
Sparse to moderate
Flower bud on main axis
Present
Absent
Flowering pattern
Alternate
Sequential
10 lateral branches
Longer than main stem
Shorter than main stem
Growth habit
Spreading to semi-spreading
Bunch
Growth period
Long ( 130-175 days)
Short (90 105 days)
Peak flowering
8-12 weeks
6 10 weeks
Leaf color
Dark green
Pale green
Leaflet size
Small
Large
Leaflet apex
Pointed
Rounded
Pod distribution
Scattered
Close to the base
Ability to growth after seed Retains growing point if pods Usually dies
setting
are detached
Linoleic acid
Low
High
8

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERS OF VALENCIA AND SPANISH TYPES:Characters

20 lateral branches
Stem and petiole color
Hairiness
Leaflet color
Inflorescence
Seeds per pod
Constriction, reticulation
beak on the pod
Shell thickness
Testa color
Maturity

Valencia
Absent
Purple
Less
Dark green
Single
Usually 3 -4
& Less prominent
Thick
Red to purple
90 95 days

Spanish
Present irregularly to
10 branches
Green
More
Light green
Compound
Usually 2
More prominent
Thin
Rose
100 -105days

VARIETIES:Groundnut var. now under cultivation fall under

Three botanical groups: Spanish, Valencia, Virginia.
Three habitat groups: bunch (Spanish/ Valencia)
Semi spreading (Virginia bunch)
& spreading (Virginia runner)
The recommended var. of groundnut are JL 24 (Phule pragathi), TAG -24, Greeshma, Prasuna,
Abhaya,Apoorva,ICGV-86590,K 134, TPT-2, TPT -3, ICGV 86325, DRG 12, Kadiri 4,5,6, Jcc-88,
ICGS 11,ICGS - 44 ICGS 76, Kalahasti, Narayani, TG 26, TMV 2, J-11, Gaug 1 etc.

Lecture No. 3

CLIMATE AND SOILS

Climate:
Groundnut is predominantly a crop of the tropics. The approximate limits of present
commercial production are between latitudes 40 0N and 40 0S and up to an attitude of 1065 m, where
rainfall during the growing se ason exceeds 500 mm.
Rainfall:
The crop can be grown successfully in places receiving a minimum of 500 mm and a
maximum of 1250 mm. From the productivity of groundnut in several countries, it is evident that
semi arid and arid regions with 500 700 mm rainfall during crop period are ideal for groundnut
production.
Rainfall should be adequate during flowering and pegging stages.
Ideal RF for successful groundnut crop would be
80 120 mm ? during summer to facilitate preparatory cultivation
100 120 mm ? at sowing
200 mm ? from flowering to peg penetration
200 mm ? early pod development to pod maturity
Rainfall is the most important factor limiting the productivity of rainfed groundnut due to
variability in amount and distribution of RF.
Continuous rains leads to excessive vegetative growth resulting in poor pod yield.
Rains at harvest cause germination of kernels in non-dormant Spanish and Valencia cultivars
besides problem in pod drying.
Temperature:
Soil temperature <180c delays emergence of seedlings. The embryo is killed above 540c.
G.nut performs well in dry temperature range b/n 240c & 330c. but it can s urvive up to 450c.
Ideal temperature for reproductive stage is b/n 24 270c
Rate of pod growth will be maximum b/n 30 0c & 34 0c.
Light :
Groundnut is day length insensitive plant.
About 60% solar radiation for 60 days after emergence appears to be critical.
Low light intensity
Prior to flowering ? slow down the vegetative growth and increases the plant height.
At early flowering ? leads to flower abortion.
At pegging ? reduces peg and pod number & pod weight.
Flowering phase is more sensitive to reduced light intensities.
In the absence of soil moisture stress, clear days have greatest potential for opt. growth and
development leading to high pod yield.
SOILS :
Groundnut can be grown on all types of soils such as sandy, sandy loam & heavy black soils. It
thrives best on sandy loams.

10

v Most suitable soils for groundnut production are well-drained light sandy loams with an
ample supply of calcium and moderate organic matter.
v Heavy and stiff clay soils are not desirable as they tend to become hard during dry weather
thereby interfering with peg penetration into the soil and also makes the harvest extremely
difficult.
v Groundnut is one of the most acid tolerant crops with a critical P H range of 5 5.5.
v It is moderately sensitive to soil salinity & highly susceptible to waterlogging.
Gujarat, Southern Rajasthan (Chitorgarh, Udaipur & Jhawar)
TILLAGE:Land preparation for groundnut depends on the soil type and onset of monsoon for rainfed crop
and on the previous crop grown for irrigated crop.
v Light red soils are usually ploughed twice with the summer rains followed by 2 3
harrowings.
v In general, deep ploughing of light soil once or twice results in higher pod yield than repeated
shallow ploughings for rainy season crop as deep ploughing aids in higher rainwater storage
in root zone to minimize the adverse effect of drought during the crop season.
v In A.P. , black soils are only harrowed (4 5 times) several times without any ploughing.
v For irrigated crop, one light ploughing (even at high soil moisture content to hasten soil
drying) followed by harrowing for 3 4 times at 2 3 days interval.
v Optimum depth of ploughing is 15-20 cm. If too deep ploughing is done, it leads to
development of pods in deeper layers which makes the harvesting difficult.
SEASONS:The crop growing season should be ideal for growth and development of crop for opt. yield.
Kharif :- 90% area is under groundnut is during kharif under rainfed conditions.
Average yields are comparatively low due to erratic behaviour of monsoon i.e late onset of monsoon,
dryspell during critical crop growth stages, heavy rains at later stages or early withdrawl of monsoon.
Pest & disease incidence is also high in kharif. The climate will be cloudy with lesser sunshine.
- season extend from April to August.
- In black soils, sowings may be delayed even upto
August/September to avoid heavy rains effect on germination.
Rabi :- G.nut cropping during rabi is limited to areas where winter is not severe & temp. do not
grow below 150c. It is confined to states of T.N, A.P, Karnataka, Orissa, Maharashtra and Gujarat.
It is grown under irrigated on uplands or with supplemental irrigation in rice fallows.
- Sowing period extend from October to December.
- Second half of November is the ideal sowing time.
Summer :G.nut yields are three times higher during summer than kharif due to ideal climate as clear
sky, good light intensity and less incidence of pest and diseases. It is also grow completely under
irrigation althrough the crop period.
Drymatter production is nearly 25.7 g/day as against 14.8 g/day in kharif.
- sowing period: mid Dec. to mid-Jan is ideal for higher yield.

11

Optimum time of seeding:In A.P.

North coastal
Telangana
Rayalaseema

Kharif
I F.N. of June
I F.N. of June
15 June to 7 July

Rabi
II F.N. of November
II F.N. of November
II F.N. of November

Summer
15 Dec. to 15 Jan.
15 Dec to 15 Jan.
!5 Dec to 15 Jan.

SEEDS AND SOWING

Seed selection: Germination < 85% is not considered satisfactory.
Selected pods are thoroughly cleaned, dried, packed preferably in gunny bags & stored
in a well ventilated place.
G. nut pods for seed purpose are usually hand shelled about a week in advance of
sowing. The viability of seed will be lost if shelled long before seeding .
Shellers are also used for shelling the pods to minimize the cost of groundnut
production.
After shelling, shrivelled and damaged seeds are rejected by hand picking.
Seeds retained on 5mm sieve (100 Kernel wt. above 27g) germinates early and produce
vigorous plants for high pod yield.

Seed treatment:Seed treatment against seed and soil born diseases is essential for stand establishment by
preventing damage to seeds and seedlings emerging from soil.
Seed treatment with Thiram @ 3g/kg,
Bavistin (2g/kg) or DM 45 (3g/kg)is effective for about 20days from sowing.
Most of the chemicals used for seed treatment against fungal & bacterial diseases also
affect Rhizobium, thus rendering the inoculation in effective for a short time.
o When both seed treatment & inoculation are essential, seeds may be treated with fungicides
& rhizobium culture is sprayed into seed rows & covered with soil.
o Rhizobium strains for kharif - NC 92 Tal -1000& THA -205
Rabi IGR 6
Summer IGR 40
o Granulated Rhizobium strain can also be sown with seed in the furrows.

12

SEED RATE AND SPACING:Cost of seed constitutes 37-50% of total cost of cultivation. Hence, it is essential to follow good
seeding practices.
Seed rate (kg/ha)
Spacing
Bunch type Semi-spreading & Bunch type
Semi spreading
spreading
& spreading
120
150
30 x 10 cm
30 x 15 cm
Kharif (rainfed)
150
180
22.5 x 10 cm
30 x 10 cm
Rabi (irrigated)
150
180
22.5
x
10cm
30 x10 cm
Summer
(irrigated)
n Gap filling, if necessary, should be completed within a week taking advantage of moisture at
the time of sowing the seed.
Method and depth of sowing:
Groundnut seed can sown either by using mechanical or bullock drawn seed drill or by
dropping the seed in plough furrow behind the country plough. Hand dibbling is also adapted to a
limited extent.
Kharif:- drilling or dropping seed in plough furrows at 5 -7 cm soil depth.
Rabi & summer: - Dropping seed in plough furrow at 4 5 cm soil depth.
Depth:- In light, soils, the seeds are sown to a depth of 5 -7 cm and in heavier soils to a depth of 4 -5 cm

13

Lecture.No. 4

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

For every tonne of pods & 2t of haulms about 63 N, 11 P2O5, 46 K2O, 27 cao & 14 Mgo kg/ha
are removed by the groundnut crop. A balanced fertilizer programme with particular emphasis on p,
k, ca & mg is essential for opt. yield.
Apply 10t well decomposed FYM and incorporate it into soil just before the onset of monsoon.

Nitrogen:The necessity for fertilizer nitrogen to groundnut is reduced because of being a leguminous crop, it
fixes atmospheric N into the soil with root nodules. Around 200 kg N/ha can be fixed under ideal
conditions. Number of cowpea cross inoculation group strains are available as NC-92 & TAL
1000,THA 205.
In general, 20 kg N /ha entire dose as basal is recommended for rainfed G.nut
30 Kg N/ha in 2 equal splits at seeding & 30 DAS irrigated crop.
However the nitrogen fixation process of plant starts working at about 20-30 days after sowing, when
the nodule apparatus is fully formed. Till that time to meet the requirement for plant growth, an
initial boost as starter dose of 10 kg/ha is necessary for rainfed groundnut. D epending on the number
of nodules, another 10 kg/ha at 30 DAS can be top dressed depending on the rainfall.
Nitrogen should be preferably applied in the form of Ammonium Sulphate as it also
supplies the sulphur.

Phosphorus:The total amount of P uptake by groundnut plant is relatively small compared to N & K. It
promotes root growth and multiplication of Rhizobium. phosphurus is applied when the available
phosphorus is < 35 kg/ha
Opt. doses are
Rainfed 40 kg P2O 5 /ha irrigated 50 kg P 2O5/ha
Entire dose should be applied at sowing along with N by placement preferably using ferti seed drill.
Single super phosphate is the best source as it contains 16% P2O5, 19.5% Ca & 12.5% Sulphur
along with some traces of Zn & other micronutrients traces. Therefore response to SSP is higher than
with DAP at equal nutrient basis.
Phosphobacteria as Pseudomonas striata and Bacillus polymixa solubilises the native phosphorus
and recorded 13-20% increase in groundnut yield.
Mychorhizal fungi inoculations have been beneficial in field tests in India and quantification of yield
benefits are yet to be made in terms of phosphorus fertilizer economy and production.
Potassium:As most of the Indian soils are rich in K, groundnut in general will not show any significant
response to applied potassium.
There is no necessity for potassium application to rainfed gr oundnut yielding around 1 t/ ha.
Response is observed only when the available potassium in soil is < 150 kg/ha.
For rainfed groundnut - 40 kg/ha
For irrigated crop
- 50 kg K2O/ha provided N is applied at recommended rate.
14

Calcium & sulphur: These two nutrients are absorbed by pegs & developing pods and the common source of supply is
gypsum.
Adequate calcium is essential in root and pod zones for yield and quality of kernels.
Calcium deficiency lea ds to unfilled pods called pops and darkening of plumules of
embryo.
Sulphur is highly essential as it is directly involved in the biosynthesis of oil. It improves
nodulation of Rhizobium and prevents the premature leaf fall & increase the pod & oil
yield.
Ca & S are supplied to crop through cao or gypsum & it has been observed to increase
the yield by more than twice depending on its availability in the soil.
About 1 meq / 100 g soil in the root zone depth and 3.0 meq/100g soil in pod zone are threshold
values for calcium sufficiency.About 100 ppm of heat soluble sulphur is the critical limit of available
sulphur for groundnut.
Gypsum application @ 500 kg/ha near pegging zone as top dressing at flowering (30 DAS)
appears to be ideal .
If heavy rains occur within 2weeks after application then a second lighter application of
gypsum is necessary around 3weeks after first applicatio n.
K: Ca: Mg ratio :G. nut is sensitive to imbalanced nutrient supply. The K:C:Mg ratio is more important than the
total amount.
Increase in conc. of Mg in nutrient solution decrease K uptake by G. nut & also decreases Ca
uptake.
There is a mutual antagonistic effect on the uptake of K, Ca & Mg.
The ideal ratio is 4 : 4 : 2.
Zinc, Boron & Iron:ZINC: Zn def. is common on sandy & sandy loam soils. The critical limit of available Zn in soil is
<0.6 ppm.
Application of Znso4 @ 2 kg /ha once in 2 years corrects the def iciency. If it is observed in
standing crop, foliar application of 0.2% ZnSO 4 along with 0.2% lime can correct the deficiency.
BORON: B def. leads to HOLLOW HEART. Deficiency has been reported in light soils of
Punjab & T.N.
The threshold level of boron is 0.25 ppm.
Deficiency can be corrected by soil application of 510 kg/ha of boron. In standing crop, corrected
by 0.1% borax spray.
IRON: Iron chlorosis is largely due to its reduced availability in the soil. Immobilization of iron in
the soil may be due to high levels of lime, high PH (>7.6) or high levels of bicarbonates in soil or
irrigation.
spraying of ferrous sulphate mixed with 1% of ammonium citrate around 50 DAS corrects iron
deficiency.
In Andhra Pradesh
Kharif 20 -40 50 kg N, P2O5, K 2O/ha
Rabi & summer Irrigated -- 30 40 50 Kg N, P2O5, K 2O /ha

15

Lectur No.5

WEED MANAGEMENT

Weed competition is critical upto 35 DAS.

Yield losses may be to the extent of 70%. , especially under rainfed conditions.
When once pegging begins (40 DAS ), there should not be any disturbance to pegs through
manual or mechanical weeding.
Important weed flora in the groundnut crop are
Cyperus rotundus ; chloris barbata, celosia argentena, commelina benghalensis;
Boerhaavia diffusa etc.
Cultural management:
Hand weeding is done twice, first around 20 DAS & 2nd at about 35 DAS.
Inter cultivation usually starts around 10 days after emergence & continues upto 35 DAS at 7
10 days interval till pegging begins.
Cost effective weed management under rainfed conditions is , repeated intercultivation
(harrowing) upto 35 DAS followed by hand weeding.
Use of herbicide:o A mixture of oxadia zon & Dinoseb each @ 1.7 kg /ha gives excellent control of
weeds besides reducing stem rot in G.nut.
o Fluazifop (150 250 g) is a promising post herbicide for controlling grasses,
particularly cynodon dactylon, 35 40 DAS
o IWM involving the above two appears most effective & economical, provided the
crop is not subjected to prolonged drought or soil moisture stress during the crop
period.
Pre-plant incorporation of Fluchloralin @ 1.25 1.5 kg/ha
Pre-emergence application of Pendimethalnin @0.6-1.5 kg/ha or Alachlor @ 1.5-2.0 kg/ha.
Water management:Groundnut crop is mostly cultivated during kharif under rainfed conditions. Irrigated
groundnut accounts for over 20% of the total area under the crop in the country & it yields around
4.2 t/ha.
Critical stages:v The period from peak flowering to early pod development (45 75 DAS) is the most
sensitive to soil moisture stress. In other words, flowering, peg penetration and pod
development stages are the 3 moisture sensitive stages for pod yield.
v Very early growth phase (upto 20 DAS) is least sensitive.
Scheduling of irrigation:v On sandy loam soils, scheduling irrigations at 25% DASM throughout the growth period
results in high pod yield.
v Irrigating the crop at
25% DASM from pegging to early pod development
50% DASM at other stages appear to be ideal for high WUE without significant reduction
in pod yield.
v An IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 at moisture sensitive stages and
0.6 during other stages leads to high WUE.
v The water requirement of groundnut, on an average., ranges b/n 450 & 650 mm & WUE is
0.6 to 0.8 kg /m3 (pod yield per unit of water evapotranspired ).
v If irrigation water is not limiting , then a total of 8 irrigations are adequate for optimal yield.
pre sowing irrigation followed by an irrigation at 25 DAS, 4 irrigations at 10 days interval &
final two irrigations at 15 days interval.
16

v At times of deficit supplies, an irrigation at 25 DAS followed by 2 at 15 days interval b/n 45

& 75 DAS appears to be minimum requirement & it can minimise yield losses due to soil
moisture stress.
The first irrigation is given at 25 DAS to create moisture stress in the soil which is
desirable.
to get the good root system.
to reduce excessive vegetative growth.
Encourage the better nodulation
Induce
heavy flowering in a single flush (synchronous flowering)
METHOD:
The crop is usually irrigated by check basin method. Border strip is more suitable than
other methods
Sprinkler irrigation is ideal for g. nut crop on sandy soils.
CROPPING SYSTEMS:At national level, a major cropping systems have been identified. The groundnut crop is
predominantly raised as intercropping or sequence cropping depending upon on the type of
component crop & R.F, distribution.
SEQUENCE CROPPING:In general, g. nut crop is rotated with cereals commercial crops & oilseed crops. Yield of
cereals following g. nut is usually increased by 25%.
Promising crop sequences for A.p., are:Rainfed
Stored soil moisture
Irrigated
2 years
2 crops/year
2 3 crops/year
G .nut sorghum
G. nut Chick pea
G. nut Maize
- Pearlmillet
- Safflower
- onion
- Sesame
- Sesame
- Tobacco

INTERCROPPING:Imp. Cereal crops grown with g. nut are pearlmillet, sorghum & maize. Other long duration
crops grown with g. nut as intercrops are pigeonpea, cotton and castor.short duration intercrop with
g. nut are sesame, sunflower, cowpea, green gram, black gram. Suggested intercropping systems in
A.P. G. nut + pigeon pea 7:1 to 15:1
+ Cowpea 6:1
+ Castor
5:1, 7:1
+
Pearlm illet 3:1.
HARVESTING:Generally bunch and semi- spreading type comes to maturity by 100 105 days where
as spreading type it is 125 -135 days.
The prominent symptoms of maturity: Yellowing of leaves .
Necrotic spotting on the leaves
Dropping of older leaves / leaf fall.
17

 The pods become very hard & tough, they give cracking sound when split open with
fingers.
The inside of the shell turning dark, with netted venation
Seed coat develops pink or red colour (normal colour of the varities)
Raising of the soil to the base of the stem is observed .
Generally harvesting is done by pull ing or lifting the plants from the soil with pods
intact.If soil moisture is adequate, then hand pulling. If soil is dry, tractor or bullock drawn
blades are used for lifting the vines with pods.
Harvesting before maturity reduces yield & oil % & seeds are highly susceptible to
afflotoxins. If delayed, results in increased incidence of stem rot, weakening of
gynophore/peduncle & some of the pods may remain in soil itself at the time of harvesting.
Stripping: - The process of separating pods from haulms in bunch type, if vines are still green,
plants is knocked against a cross bar to dislodge the pods.
n The most common method is stripping pods with hand.
At the time of harvest, pods usually have moisture content around 40 50% & hence need
to be dried to 10% moisture content for safe storage.
Drying should be done rapidly to prevent fungal moulding
Sun drying is the usual method of drying.
Summer g. nut should be dried in shade to prevent loss of viability, if it is for seed purpose.
Storage:Storage at farmer level is invariably in the form of pods. Farmers usually dispose of groundnut
pods within a month from drying yard itself. A few store it for 6 months (till kharif seeding) in
anticipation of high price.
Pods for seed purpose are stored for 7 8 months.
Pods for seed purpose are stored in earthern pots, mud bins or bamboo baskets or Gunny bags
having polythene lining.
If the seed moisture content is above the critical level of 9% then Aflatoxin production due
to Aspergillus flavus just before the post harvest drying & mould growth at later stage takes
place.
Yield Attributes:Groundnut kernel yield is the product of pod number, number of kernels per pod and
weight of kernels. Kernels per pod vary from 1-5, pods per plant from 5-105 and 100 kernel
weight from 28 62 g (ICRISAT 1987). There is a high positive correlation between the number
of mature pods and pod yield.
Yield:Rainfed: - 10 15 q/ha
Irrigated: - 20 25 q/ha.

18

Harvest Index : The harvest index in groundnut varies between 0.35 and 0.50 in groundnut.
QUALITY CONSIDERATIONS:Quality of groundnut is largely determined by volume weight of pods, shelling %, 100 kerenel
weight, oil content, free fatty acid content, colour of pods & testa colour.
1) Volume weight of pods:v It is the wt. per unit vol. of pods, which indicates maturity & development of kernels
when the pods are disposed by volume.
v Small pods have high volume weight than those of bigger pods .
v The avg. 100 pod weight varies from 73g (7 MV 2 , Spanish bunch) to 107 g (M -13Virginia runner)
v Volume weight is influenced by RF distribution at pod development & Ca & S in pod
zone.
2) Shelling percentage:- Shelling separation of kernels from pods.
v It is the % of kernels to pods by weight.
v It ranges from 68% in M13 to 76% in TMV-2.
v Irrigated crop has lower shelling % than that of rainfed crop.
v It depends on thickness of the shell, development of kernel & following pattern during the
crop period.
v It is influenced by genotype, Rainfall distribution & Ca in pod zone.
3)100 Kernel weight:v It is an indication of proper kernel development.
v Average 100 kernel weight ranges from 30 g (TMV 2) to 78 g (in M13).
v It is a varietal character with marginal influence of RF distribution, nutrient management &
ability of translocation of photosynthates from source to sink.
4) Oil content :v It generally ranges from 48 51 %
v It depends on temperature during first 3 weeks of pod development, maturity of kernels
which is influenced by RF during development stage & S content in soil root zone.
v Virgina runners have higher oil content than Spanish bunch types.
5) Oil quality :- The free fatty acid content in oil will decide the shelf life of oil. Higher the free FA
content lesser is the quality & faster is the deterioration of oil quality.
v Oil etracted from runner type have best quality due to higher concentration of
TOCOPHEROL.
v The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acid also decide oil quality. The ratio of oleic acid
to linoleic acid should be > 1.6 to have long shelf life.
Colour of pods and testa of kernel :Attractive colour of the pod & testa gets higher price in the markets especially for direct
consumption. In general, light golden yellow colour of pods are preferred & fetch more price in
market.
Kernels with pink , rose or light brown testa are preferred.
Grading :For easy marketing of pods & kernels the grading is done. Pods are graded into 3 categories &
kernels into 4 categories based on size.

19

PODS

KERNELS

1) Large/bold

1) Extra large

2) Medium size

2) Large

3) small size

3) Jumbo(shrivelled)
4) Splits(ill filled)

EXPORT POTENTIAL:v HPSK & G.nut oil cake are exported to other countries. But in recent years export of
these products are drastically reduced due to increase afflatoxin load in the products
& increasing demestic demand.
v China is the largest exporter of HPS kernels followed by USA & india.
v The Indian share for the export of Hps is only 2%
v G. nut cake is a good veg. protein & poultry feed. India is exporting large quantity of
GN cake in western countries till 1980. Later on the export of G.nut cake was
significantly reduce d due to higher levels of Aflatoxins.

20

Lecture No. 6

CROP PRODUCTION II

Course No.Agro 301

SESAME
ORIGIN : Ethiopia Sesamum indicum
DISTRIBUTION:- Major sesame producing countries are India, China, Myanmar,
Sudan, Pakisthan, Mexico, Ethiopia, Srilanka and Burma.
In India, major sesame cultivating states are Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Maharashtra
Major exporting countries are Sudan, Nigeria.
India stands first in both area and production.
AREA PRODUCTION & PRODUCTIVITY:World
Area (M.ha)
8.80
Production(M.t)
2.80
Productivity(Kg ha -1)
3.82

India
1.74
0.60
3.40

Andhra Pradesh
0.132
0.018
140

VARIETIES:- Popular varieties in Andhra Pradesh Gauri, Madhavi,YLM-11, YLM-17,

Latest Variety in Andhra Pradesh Chandana (ICS-94)
Brown seeded varieties Grown in Coastal areas.

Gauri, Madhavi, YLM-11, YLM-17, Varada,

Usha, TMV-6 etc.
White seeded varieties

Grown in Telangana area

Rajeswari, Swetha, Pratap, RT-125, Mrug-1, TG-22,
T-12, T-78 etc.,

Black seeded varieties Krishna, Soma, etc.,

Reddish brown variety Rama.
CROP ROTATION:Andhra Pradesh R ice / Groundnut Sesame
Sesame Horse gram Chickpea.
Rice / Potato Sesame.
Cotton Sesame Wheat.
Sesame Groundnut / Cotton / Maize
CROPPING SYSTEMS:- INTER CROPPING:Sesame + Greengram (1:1)
Sesame + Pigeonpea (2:1)
Sesame + Soybean

(2:1)

Sesame + Cowpea

(8:1)

Sesame + Groundnut (1:1)

21

SOILS:Sesame comes up well on soils with slightly acidic (or) neutral reaction. It can be grown on
well drained soils and performs well in light loamy soils.
It is highly sensitive to water logging.
Very sandy, saline and alkaline soils are not suitable.
CLIMATE :Sesame is essentially a tropical crop grown in arid and semi-arid areas.
It is generally cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries.
Its main distribution is between 250 s and 250 N Latitudes
Its altitude range is normally below 1250 m although some varieties locally adopted up to
1500 m.
Generally, it requires fairly hot conditions during growth for optimum yield.
Ideal optimum temperature for growth is 25-27 0 C
.Extremely low temperatures of 100 C, there is a complete ceasing of growth.
Temperatures >40 C seriously affect the pollination when there is less number of capsules.
Sesame is a short day plant.
High light intensity increase number of Capsules / plant.
INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL: Sesame is capable of with standing a higher degree of water stress.
The crop can be grown entirely on stored soil moisture.
A rainfall of 600-1000mm results in optimum yield.
SEEDS AND SEEDING:SEED RATE:Rainfed

Irrigated

Under broadcasting (Kg/Ha)

Row seeding (Kg/Ha)

Mixed (or) Intercropping 1 Kg/Ha

SPACING:30 X 10 Cm in Andhra Pradesh (all seasons)
45 X 15 Cm is also recommended.

22

SEED TREATMENT:Seed treatment with Thiram (3g/kg) is effective against seed borne diseases. Seeds may be
soaked in 0.025% solution of Agrimycin-100 for 30min. prior to seeding will minimize bacterial leaf
spot.
SEASON TIME OF SOWING:Season
Coastal A.P.
Kharif
Summer
Telangana
Rayalaseema

Kharif

Kharif

Time
First fortnight of May.
Second fortnight of
January.

Second fortnight of July.

May to June

Middle of January.

Rabi
METHODS OF SOWING:-

1. Broad casting is usually most widely used in all situations. Seed is mixed with sand in equal
quantities (or) 3 times to facilitate uniform distribution of yield.
After sowing, seed is covered by shallow ploughing and planting by cultivators
and harrowers
2. Line sowing (or) Row seeding is done with seed drills to promote higher yields.
Optimum depth of sowing is 2-3 cm.
MANURES $ FERTILIZERS:N-P -K REQUIREMENT:Rainfed

Irrigated

40

60

60

60

40

40

basal
(30-35 DAS)

Application of sulphur @ 50 Kg/ha increases the yield if soils are deficient in

sulphur.
METHOD OF APPLICATION:Placement of fertilizer at seeding using seed drills is more effective than broadcast
application.
INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT:Integrated nutrient management consisting of 5 t ha -1 of FYM, 40 Kg nitrogen, 20 Kg
Phosphorous and seed treatment with Azospirillum has given encouraging results at several
situations.

23

INTERCULTIVATION:Sesame is sensitive to weed competition during the first 15-25 DAS. A minimum of two
weedings, one after 15 DAS and another 35 DAS are required to keep the field relatively weed free.
Row seeded crop facilitates use of blade harrows for intercultivation. Two intercultivations, 15 DAS
and 35 DAS followed by one hand weeding keeps the field free of weeds.
WEED MANAGEMENT:Use of Herbicides:Herbicides use, especially under rainfed conditions, is very limited due to low yield, which
may not compensate for the cost of herbicides. If necessary, Alachlor (1.0kg/ha) or
Thiobencarb(2.0kg/ha) can be used as pre emergence spray for effective control of weeds. Use of pre
emergence herbicides followed by one hand weeding around 30 DAS is the most appropriate way of
weed management in sesame.
IRRIGATION:Water requirement is 300-350mm. For rabi crop 5-6 irrigations are required.
1st irrigation at sowing
2nd irrigation 3 WAS
3rd irrigation

6 WAS

4th irrigation

8 WAS

5th irrigation

9 WAS

CRITICAL STAGES FOR IRRIGATION:For rabi / summer sesame, a presowing irrigation is necessary for optimum seed germination
and adequate stand establishment. Flower initiation and capsule filling stages are most sensitive to
water deficits.
SCHEDULING IRRIGATION:Scheduling irrigations at 50% DASM is adequate. If irrigations are scheduled based on
IW/CPE ratio, a ratio of 0.6 is optimum under most situations. Depending on soil type, weather
conditions and crop duration, irrigations may be given once in 12 to 15 days. If irrigation water is not
a limiting factor, flower initiation, maximum flowering and capsule filling results in optimum seed
yield. Depending on the duration, sesame water requirement ranges between 350 and 450mm. The
crop is usually irrigated by check basin method of irrigation.
HARVESTING:Depending on the variety, sesame crop takes 80-150 days for maturity. The crop is harvested
when the leaves, stems and capsules begin to turn yellow and the lower leaves start shedding. To
prevent shedding of seed, the crop should not become dead ripe in the field. The ripe plants are cut at
the ground level carried to threshing yard, stacked for a week in the sun with the cut ends upwards.
24

QUALITY CHARACTERS:Sesame is the oldest oil seed crop of the world. The seed has high food value because of the
higher contents of good quality edible oil and nutritious protein
SEED COMPOSITION:Sesame seed protein content varies from 20-28% with an oil content ranging between 4855%. Its mineral content is around 6%..
Among oilseed proteins, sesame seed proteins are more nutritious It is rich in methionine and
tryptophane. Like other oil seeds, it is also deficient in lysine. The other limiting amino acids are
thionine, isoleucin and valine. Sesame seed contains 21-25% carbohydrates, 1% calcium and 0.7%
Phosphorous
Sesame oil has two constituents namely sesamin and sesamol. They are responsible for very
high stability of oil at room temperature, and frying temperatures. The sesamin content ranges from
0.07 to 0.6%.

25

Lecture No. 7

SUNFLOWER
Scientific Name : Helianthus annus

Family: Asteraceae

It is an important oilseed crop contributes 14% of the total oilseed production from nine major
oil seed crops. The genus Helianthus (Helio=Sun, anthus= flower). Sunflower is known as a
suryajmuki as it is grown for ornamental purpose. It is the third most important oilseed crop of
world after soybean, Rape seed& Mustard in India . The helio tropic movement is of great
importance.
The area and production of sunflower crop significantly increased due to following
merits of the crops.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Short duration (90-100 days) as it is fit well in multiple and intercropping systems.
Photo insensitivity of crop enables its cultivation in all seasons i.e kharif, rabi and summer
Wide adaptability: it comes well up in any type of soils.
Drought and saline tolerant: suitable for the best component crop in dry land farming.
High productivity per unit area per unit time with respect to yield of oil.
High seed multiplication ratio (1:80) with low seed rate requirement.
It is the best substitute for groundnut crop in contingency crop planning.
Due to cross pollination nature, there is a great scope for evolution of high yielding
composites and hybrids.
Good quality oil with high level of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content i.e linoleic
and oleic acids. Llinolenic acid is absent.
Availability of good quality of hybrid seeds and varieties.
It is the best catch crop when the land is left otherwise fallow between two seasons.

USES/ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

The oil content varies from 48-53% and it is premium oil with pale yellow in colour used for
cooking and margarine.
Sunflower is a rich source of linoliec acid (64%) which helps in reducing the cholesterol
deposition in the coronary arteries of the heart. All most of 90% fat is good for human.
Sunflower oil has high oxidative stability and it is more useful as frying oil.
Sunflower oil is used as industrial feed stock for manufacturing cosmetics, soaps and
pharmaceuticals.
Oil contains high level of alpha tocopherol, a form of vit. E.
Oil cake contains 40-50% high quality protein and it is ideally suited for poultry and
livestock.
The roasted kernels are used as food for human beings.
Sunflower is grown as green manure, fodder crop.
The bast fibre of the stem is source for making rough quality paper.
Recently sunflower oil is recognised as an alternative source for diesel engines with octane
rating of 37 and it is rated as number 2 diesel oil.

ORIGIN: Southern USA (Peru) & Mexico

In 1972, commercial cultivation of sunflower was started in our country with the introduction
of Russian cultivars namely; EC 68413, E C 68414, EC 68415 and Sunrise.

26

AREA AND DISTRIBUTION:

It is mainly grown in USSR, USA, Argentina, France, Italy and China. V. S. Pustovit of USSR
is responsible for increasing oil content of sunflower from 30% to 50% by breeding methods.

India
AP

Area

Production

1.80 M.ha
3.51 lakh.ha

1.04 M.t
2.69 lakh tonnes

Productivity
( kg/ha)
580
771

Karnataka ranks first with respect to area (1015 th.ha) and production (549 th.t)
followed by AP. The highest productivity was recorded by UP (1650 kg/ha) followed by T.N during
2008-09.
In AP, Kurnool, Ananthapur, Mahaboobnagar, Medak, Nalgonda and Karimnagar are the major
sunflower growing districts.

AICRP on sunflower - Bangalore.

ARS on sunflower Rajendranagar

RARS on sunflower - Nandyal.

CLIMATE :
Basically sunflower is a temperate oil seed crop but it is adapted to tropical and subtropical
climate.

The crop requires a cool climate during germination seedling growth and warm weather from
seedling to flowering. Warm and sunny days during flowering to maturity are most
favourable.

Minimum temperature for germination is 8-10o c but it can germinate even up to 400c.

Night temperature of 18-200 and day temp. of 24-260c are ideal for growth, yield and higher
oil content.

The growing degree days for sunflower have ranged from 1042 to 1300 with base
temperature of 100c. Lenoleic levels decreases at higher temperature.

The crop is photo insensitive as it flowers at wide range of photoperiods. Optimum day
length for better yield should be >12 to 14 hours.

High humidity accompanied with cloudy weather and ra infall at the time of flowering results
in poor seed set.

Fairly drought tolerant with deep root system and comes up ni areas receiving minimum
rainfall of 500-700mm upto an altitude of 2500 MSL.

Latitudinal effect was more significant. Generally it is grown between 400 S to 550 N
latitudes but most of the production is concentrated between 200S to 500N latitude.

Sunflower grown in Northern USA/Canada has higher linoleic acid (poly unsaturated) due
low temperature. On contrary, sunflower grown in southern USA had high percentage of
oleic acid due to higher temperature.
27

SOILS:Sunflower can be grown on wide range of soils but it does best in medium black to black soils
with high moisture retention capacity. Sunflower does not with stand waterlogging. Good drainage is
preferable for cultivation of crop. Yield and quality is drastically reduced when soil salinity reaches
10 to 12 ds/m. Optimum soil pH for sunflower in 6.5 to 8.5.
Varieties: Maruti, KBSH 44, Pro Sun 09, NDSH 1, DRSH 1, MSFH 8, APSH 11,
Jwalamukhi, Sungene 85
Hybrids : TNAUSUF 7, DRSF 108, EC 69874, EC 68413, EC 68414 (Russian)
Sunrise selection (Canadian )
Cropping systems:
Development of early and medium duration varieties with thermo and photo sensitive cultivars
is useful in multiple cropping systems.
Intercropping systems :
Sunflower + groundnut (2:6) or (2:4)
Sunflower + fingermillet (3:6)
Sunflower + soybean (3:3)
Sunflower + green gram/Bengal gram (1:1)
Sequence cropping under rainfed conditions is possible when rabi crop can be grown on stored
soil moisture. Under irrigated conditions, it can be grown in kharif and rabi.
Rainfed
Sunflower - mustard (2 Y)
Sunflower groundnut (2 Y)
Sunflower Maize (2 Y)
Sunflower wheat ( 1 Y)
Sunflower Sorghum (1 Y)
Irrigated conditions :
Rice-groundnut-sunflower
Rice Rice - Sunflower
Rice Sunflower pulses
Rice fingermillet sunflower
Rice sunflower
Cotton sunflower
Mustard - sunflower
Sunflower residues in soil have inhibitory effect because of certain allelochemicals which cause
inhibition of growth of succeeding crops.
Field preparation:
Sunflower requires a well pulverised seed bed for better germination and growth. One/two
ploughings with soil turning plough (or) M B plough followed by 2-3 harrowings and planking are
sufficient to bring desired soil tilth.
Seeds and sowing:
For quick germination, under rainfed condition the seed should be soaked in fresh water for
about 14 hours followed by shade drying as sunflower seeds have thic k hulls and imbibes water at
slow rate. This process is called seed hardening.
Sunflower seeds cannot be used as seed, immediately after harvest of crop since seeds will
have dormancy period ranging from 40-50 days. To overcome the dormancy, treat the seed with
ethereal solution for 6 hours.

28

Time of sowing:
Sunflower being a photo insensitive can be grown irrespective of the season.

Kharif: Telangana and Rayalaseema: First week of August.

Coastal: last week of August.

Rabi (rainfed): First F N of step. - First F N of Oct.

(Irrigated): November December.

Summer: second FN of January - First week of February

The sowing date of Sunflower can be adjusted in such a way that flowering period does not
coincide with heavy rains because it affects pollination and seed set.
Seed rate:
Rain fed (kgha -1)
Irrigated (kgha -1)
Varieties:
8-10
6-7
Hybrids:
5-6
4-5
Spacing: varieties: 45 30 cm
Hybrids: 60 30 cm
METHOD OF SOWING:
Line sowing by seed drill is recommended (or) behind the plough. Direction of rows preferably
North South as the sunflower head in phototropic from emergence to flowering. The head and
leaves face east in morning and west in evening. Phototropic nature ceases one day before the ray
florets open.
Depth of sowing: optimum depth of sowing is 4-5 cm.
Seed treatment: Captan/ Dithane M- 45 @ 3g/kg seed.
Thinning: Done at 15 DAS to avoid competition and to maintain single plant/ hill.
Manures and fertilizers:
Sunflower crop producing 2.0 t/ha seed and 3.2 t/ha stover removes 82 kg N, 30 kg P 2O 5 and 72 kg
K2O, 9.4 kg Sulphur and 37 kg Ca. It deprives soil fertility besides producing allelochemicals.
Nitrogen is essential for vegetative growth and Phosphorus to improve seed size with proper filling.
Sunflower crop is supposed to deplete the soil fertility besides producing allelochemicals.
Nitrogen is most limiting element in sunflower production. The response to N, P and K is higher than
other crops.
FYM @ 5-10 t ha -1 2-3 weeks before sowing.
Rainfed crop: 60: 40: 30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O / ha
N as basal and N at 30 DAS
Irrigated crop: 80: 60: 40 kg N, P 2O5 and K 2O / ha
Hybrids responds upto 120 kg N ha-1
1/3rd N, 1 P 2O 5 &1 K2O as basal
1/3rd N at 30 DAS (Button stage)
1/3rd N at 55 DAS (flowering stage)
Sulphur is essential for increasing oil yield; addition of elemental sulphur at 25 @ kg ha -1 is
recommended to soil at last ploughing. The response of sulphur is 13 kg seed/ kg sulphur
applied. Synergistic interaction was observed between sulphur and nitrogen. SSP is the best
source for phosphorus as also supplies required sulphur.

In Zinc deficit soils, foliar spraying of ZnSO 4 @ 1% is beneficial.

Borax @ 0.2 % to Capitulum at ray floweret opening improves the seed filling and oil
content.

29

Irrigation:
1.
Sunflower is highly responsive to irrigation. The total water requirement of sunflower is 500600 mm.
2.

It has the ability to withstand short periods of drought as the crop root system extending up to
2 m depth. One of the reason for preferring sunflower than other crops like groundnut,
sorghum and cotton by the farmers was mainly due to stable yields even under low rainfall
situations and its physiological plasticity i.e. it completes life cycling tailoring the growth
and development to available moisture.
3.
Under moisture stress conditions, centre portion of head is not filled properly and reduce
the yield significantly.
4.
The critical stages for moisture in Bud initiation (30 DAS), flower opening (45-50DAS)
(most sensitive to moisture stress) and seed filling (60-75 DAS)
5.
The total number irrigations depend up on seasons i.e. 3-6 for kharif and 4-8 for Rabi.
6.
Irrigation should be stopped at 20 days before harvesting.
7.
Sunflower is an excellent indicator plant for identifying the moisture stress.
8.
Irrigation should be given at 50% DASM at all growth stages except at critical stage where
irrigation is given at 30 DASM.
9.
Irrigation at IW/ CPE of .5-1.0 is ideal.
10.
On an average WUE is 50 -60 kg seed ha -1cm-1.
11.
The crop is irrigated by ridge and furrow method.
Weed control:
Sunflower has slow growth rate during 4-6 WAS hence weed free condition during
the period results in better yields. The crop weed competition in sunflower is 30-45
DAS i.e. 4-6 WAS.
Two inter cultivations or hand weedings at 15 & 30 DAS is recommended.
PPI: Fluchloralin @ 1 kg a.i ha -1
PE: Pendimethalin @ 1 kg a.i. ha-1
Alachlor @1-1.5 kg a.i ha-1
Post Emergence: not recommended since the crop is sensitive to most of the
herbicides and pollinating agents are also damaged, however Nitrofen @ 0.5 kg ha-1 is
recommended.
Earthing up at knee high stage is recommended to avoid lodging the crop before
flower opening.
Harvesting:
1.
The sunflower crop is ready for harvesting when the moisture content of seed is 20%. The
sunflower head is mature physiologically at 35-40 Days after flowering. It ranges from
90-100 DAS.
2.
The heads are ripe when back of the head turns yellowish brown and lower leaves
become brown to dark brown.
3.
The harvesting should be done with the help of sickle by removing the head. The
harvested head should be thoroughly sun dried and threshed by beating the centre of the
head with small stick or threshers are also useful. Then winnowing, drying and storage of
seeds.
4.
Delay in harvesting leads to losses due to birds and shattering in the field itself.
30

Yield:

Rainfed: 10-15 q/ha

Irrigated: 20-25 q/ha
Stalk yield: 10-12 q/ha

Quality : Oil content in kernel is 48-53% and oil content in seed is 28-35%. Protein is 14-19%,
crude fibre 16-27% .
Sunflower oil is of premium quality because of its colour,flavour and good nutritional quality.
It contains high levels of linoleic acid whereas saturated fatty acids as palmitic and steiric acids are
of only 15%. Being free of any toxic constituents, it is an excellent edible oil.
Amino acid composition : Sunflower protein contains higher proportion of essential amino acids. It
contains higher methionine. Sunflower protein is highly digestable and has high biological value.
SEED PRODUCTION IN SUNFLOWER
Production of quality breeder, foundation and certified seed of hybrids and their parental lines
calls for careful planning and management on the part of seed manager. Well drained neutral soils
with good internal drainage are ideal for seed production. The selected field should not have been
under crop in the proceeding 2 to 3 seasons.
Isolation requirements:
Sunflower is a highly cross pollinated crop. Hence, maintenance of prescribed isolation from
other sunflower cultivates is a must for avoiding any possible contamination.
The isolation distance suggested for breeder, foundation and certified seed production under
seed certificates is 600 m. an isolation distance of 1.5 km for breeder and foundation seed and 1.2 km
for certified seed has been suggested by DOR, Hyderabad (AP) as most appropriate for quality seed
production.
TIME OF SOWING, SPACING AND SEED RATE:
The best time for quality seed production is rabi and summer in conventional sunflower belt
and zaid and spring in northern parts of the country. Recommended management practices are
indicated below:
Sowing time
Conventional area: Kharif
: June-July
Rabi/summer: Dec- Jan
Northern India
: Spring
: Second FN of January to end of Feb.
Spacing:
Row to row
: 60 cm
Within the row: 30 cm
Seed rate:
Parental lines:
A line (female) production: Female: 4 kg ha -1
Male: 1.25 kg ha -1
R line (male) production: 5 kg ha -1
Open pollinated varieties: 5 kg ha -1

31

Hybrid seed production:

Female (A line): 4 kg ha-1
Male (R line): 1.25 kg ha-1
For both A line and hybrid seed plots, there should be one row of male to ensure adequate
supply of pollen to female lines. Plant the first and last two rows of seed production plots with male
lines. Alternately, planting female and male lines in separate blocks in 3:1 proportion in the same
seed production plots will help in avoiding mixtures in hybrid seed.
Optimum stand establishment: Seed should be treated with Thiram or Captan at 2.5 g kg -1 when
ever downy mildew is endemic.
Seed is dibbled at stipulated intra and inter row spacing. It is desirable to plant 2-3 seeds per
hill and thin out excess seedlings to maintain one healthy plant per hill positively within 15 DAS.
Seed should be sown around 5 cm depth in the soil.
The nutrient and irrigation management is similar to normal crop.

Weeding, rouging and hand pollination:

Seed production plots should be kept weed free up to 45 DAS. Two intercultivations with
blade harrows at 15 days interval commencing from 20 DAS with a hand weeding in between can
keep the field weed free. If necessary, Alachlor (1.5-2.0) or prometryn (1.5-2.0) may be applied as
PRE spray after sowing the seed.
All offtypes which do not confirm to the specific population/ parental line should be removed
before flowering. Pollen shedders are male fertile plants in the A line which are easily identifiable
and sterile plants in the B line should be removed. The plots should be rouged 2-3 times, preferably
before anthesis.
For obtaining optimum seed set hand pollination is a must. During the flowering period (2
weeks) pollinate the female heads with pollen from B in the case of A lines production R lines in the
case of hybrid seed production plots on every day between 8 and 11 AM. The male line in both A
line and hybrid seed production plots should be removed as soon as pollination is over.

Maturity, harvesting, threshing etc. are same as normal sunflower crop.

32

Lectur No. 8 ;

Rapeseed and Mustard (Brassica sp)

Rapeseed and Mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India. It is next to Groundnut in
area and production, meeting the fat requirement of about 50 per cent population in all the northern
states. It is one of the most edible oilseed crop of Indo-Gangetic plains.
In India rapeseed and mustard account for about 27% of total oilseeds and 31% of total
vegetable oil production. In common Indian language, Raya refers to mustard while sarson, toria
and taamira are rapeseed.
It is grown as oilseed crop as well as condiment and for their medicinal use. The young plants
are used as vegetable as they supply enough sulphur and minerals in the diet. In the tanning industry,
mustard oil is used for softening leather. It is used in the preparation of hair oils, medicines, soap
making, greases etc...
The oil cake is used as a cattle feed and manure. It is a rich source of protein(40%).But its use
is limited due to the anti-nutritional factor Glucosinolate .
Refined oil is called colza is used in Europe.
Origin and distribution
The growing of rapeseed and mustard were known from time immemorial in India and
these were mentioned in all Ayurvedic Samhitas. It seems that Rai (Indian mustard ) (Brassica
juncea ) was introduced into India from China. Its probable origin is Africa. It is extensively grown in
Europe,Africa and Asia.From India it spread to Afghanistan and other countries. China is the largest
producer of these crops. Afghanisthan together with adjoining areas of N-W India is one of the
independent centres of origin of brown sarson.
India accounts second position in area and third position in production. China, India and Pakistan
accounts for 90% of world production. Other major producing countries are Canada, Germany and
France.

India
A.P.

Area
58.00 L. ha
4 thousand. ha

Production
63.5 L.t
2 tthousand .t

Productivity
1142 kg/ha
333 kg/ha

Classification
There is lot of confusion and misunderstanding about the names and kinds of rape and mustard that
are grown in India. The same local vernacular name may be used for forms and different local names
are used for the same form in different areas. Singh (1958) tried to remove this confusion by giving
the following description of Indian rape and mustard.
Rape and mustard belonging to the family Cruciferae
includes the following important oilseed species.

and genus Brassica. Brassica

Rapeseed: (Brassica compestris var. Sarson and toria): It is a herbaceous annual plant. The plant is
shorter than mustard (rai). The height of the plant ranges between 45 and 150 cm. The stems are
generally covered with waxy deposit. Plants of rape are easily distinguished from mustard (rai) by
the character of leaves. In rape leaves are born sessile and are glabrous and hairy. The lower part of
blade (lamina) grasps the stalk partially or completely. Fruits are thicker than those of mustard (rai)
and are laterally compressed, with a beak of one third to half their length. Seeds are either yellow
or brown with a smooth seed coat.

33

Mustard (Brassica juncea ): It is known as rai . The plants are tall (90-200 cm), erect, and branched.
The leaves are not dilated at the base and not clasping as in the case of rape but are stalked, broad
and pinnatified. The fruits (pods) are slender and only 2 to 6.5 cm long, strongly ascending or erect
with short and stount beaks. The colour of the seed is brown or dark brown. Seed coat is rough.
Table: Classification of kinds of rapeseed and mustard grown in India
Indian
group
1.Sarso
n

2. Toria

3. Rai

International
commercial
name
Indiancolza,
colza,
rape

Rape

Mustard

Species

Common
name

a) Brassica compestris
var.Yellow sarson

Turnip rape

Yellow
sarson

20

b)Brassica compestris
var.Brown sarson
a) Brassica compestris
var.Yellow toria
a) Brassica compestris
var.Black toria
a)Brassica juncea

Turnip rape

Brown
sarson
Yellow
toria
Black toria
or Lahi
Rai or Raya
or Laha
Pahari rai

20

Banarsi rai

16

a)Brassica juncea var.

Rugosa
a)Brassica nigra

Indian rape
Indian rape
Indian
mustard
Rugosa
Black
mustard

Local
name

Chromosome
number

20
20
36
36

Crop Rotation and Cropping Systems :

Mixed cropping: It is grown as a mixed crop with wheat, barley during winter season.
Intercropping: Brassicas are generally intercropped with rabi crops. Some Profitable systems are
Wheat + Mustard 4:1
Gram + Mustard 4:2
Barley + Mustard
6:1
Intercropping in autumn planted (adsali) sugarcane has increased the net returns without affecting the
yield of sugarcane.
Rotations: Brown sarson and mustard (rai) are usually cultivated as pure crops in rainfed areas.
During rainy season no other crops should be sown, rather moisture should be conserved as much as
possible by ploughing. In regions where irrigation facilities are available, following crop rotations
may be followed.
Toria being a catch crop, maturing 90-100 days can easily adjusted in the following crop rotations.

34

Irrigated conditions :
Rice Toria
Rice Toria mung
Maize - Toria - Wheat
Maize - Toria - Sugarcane
Maize - Toria - Cotton
Maize - Toria - Sugarcane - Ratoon
Moong Brown or Yellow sarson or Rai
Soybean - Mustard
Guar (green manure) Sarson or Rai
Maize Sarson or Rai
Early paddy Sarson or Rai

Rainfed : Pearlmillet - Mustard

Sesame - Mustard
Jute Toria
Climate requirements:
Rapeseed and mustard are of the tropical as well as the temperate zone crops. Grown as rabi
crop. It requires relatively cool temperature and a dry harvest period. Cool temperature, clear dry
weather with a plentiful of bright sunshine accompanied with adequate soil moisture increases the
yield. These favourable conditions are existing in northern India. It is grown in rabi season from
September-October to February March.
They prefer moderate temperature of 24-28oC with an optimum of 20 oC. Brassicas grow well
in areas receiving 350-550 mm of rainfall.Sarson and Taramira are preferred in low rainfall areas
where as raya and toria are grown in medium to high rainfall areas respectively.
Toria is more liable to suffer from frost and cold is, therefore, usually sown earlier and
harvested before the onset of frost.
Rape seed and mustard are long day plants. These crops neither tolerant to drought nor water
logging.

Varieties:
a) Toria

Agrani, Bhawani, Parbati, Anuradha and T-22( Punjab selection)

b) Mustard

Pusa Agrani, Pusa Jaikisan. Geeta, Kranti, Jagannadh, Jawahar Mustard 2,

Vasundhara,Varuna, Vardhan, M-27

Soil:
Brassicas can be grown on wide range of soils as Alluvial,medium loam, sandy loam or
heavy loam soils .. Heavy clay soils, subjected to water logging are not desirable.

35

Land preparation:
A fine seed bed requires to ensure good germination. In rainfed areas where toria, brown
sarson or raya are taken as a pure crop after kharif fallow seed bed preparation should be started
during mansoon rains. For getting good yields the field should be well prepared first by ploughing
deep with soil turning plough followed by two cross cultivations. Every ploughing should be
followed by a light rolling or planking so that soil is finely pulverised and levelled. Care should be
taken to see that weeds and stubbles etc. are removed from the field and that the soil contains
adequate moisture to ensure good germination.
Seeds and sowing:
Planting time is the single most important variable affecting the seed yie ld of rape and
mustard to a great extent. Since the rate of development of oil in seed is greatly influenced by
variation in atmospheric temperature, humidity and other biotic factors, sowing either too early or
too late have been reported to be not desirable.
In case of mixed cropping they are generally sown in rows 1.8 to 2.4 meters apart in the main
crop. 5 to 6 kg seed should be sown in rows at a depth of 2.5 to 3.0 cm in case of a pure crop. When
sown mixed with some other crop, 1.5 to 2.0 kg seed per hectare is sufficient. Sowing could be done
either behind the local plough or through seed drill. Before sowing seed should be treated with
thiram or captan @ of 2.5 g per kg of seed.
To ensure good seed germination and early seedling vigour, seed must be soaked in water
before sowing. This is best done by covering the seed with moist gunny bag. The seed can be mixed
with equal quantity of sand for uniform seed distribution at sowing.
Depth of sowing : 3 4 cm
Spacing ; 30 x 10 cm or 45 x 15 cm
Time of sowing:
Toria: 1st fortnight of September
If wheat is to follow sow the crop by the end of August
Sarson: 3rd week of September to 2nd week of October
Raya: 2nd week of October to 2nd week of November.
Thinning of the plants at 20-25 days after sowing to maintain a plant to plant distance 10 to
15 centimetres.

36

Lectur No. 9
Manures and fertilizers
12 -15 tons of FYM ha -1
Under irrigated conditions, if the preceding crop is heavily manured, brassicas can be grown on
residual soil fertility.
The nitrogen requirement varies from 20 160 kg/ha depending on the soil type, rainfed or irrigated
and yield potential of that variety.
The recommendation is 30-60 kg/ha under dryland condition and 100-120 kg/ha under irrigated
conditions.
Based on the recommendations of ICAR 40, 60, 80 kg N /ha for toria, sarson and raya respectively.
One tonne of rape/mustard removes 9 to 11.3 kg phosphorus. It seems 20 kg/ha P 2O 5 is sufficient for
rainfed and 50 kg/ha for irrigated crop.
Response to potassium is uncertain. In highly K deficit soils, 20 kg/ha K 2O
Half of N at sowing and the remaining half at first irrigation. Whole P & K to be applied at the time
of sowing.
Rape seed and mustard have higher re quirements for sulphur; therefore, nitrogen should
preferably be applied through ammonium sulphate and phosphorus from single super phosphate.In
coarse textured soils, application of 20-20 kg S/ha is suggested. But higher rates of sulphur
application may increase the antinutritional factor glucosinolates.
Among micro nutrients, Zn and Boran have positive role in increasing the yield of raya. In
rice fallows, 25 kg ZnSO 4 applied to rice is sufficient for the succeeding brassica crop. Application
of 2 kg boran/ha is sufficient to meet the requirement especially on saline soils.
Irrigation:
Due to scanty winter rainfall, brassicas show favourable response to irrigation. About 60% of
the total area under brassicas is under irrigation. Among the brassicas, raya is most responsive to
irrigation.
Rape and mustard have low water requirements.It ranges from 450 600 mm. Generally
they are grown utilising the residual moisture of the monsoon in medium to heavy soils. In toria,
yellow sarson and raya, two irrigations have been found to be beneficial.
With regard to the time of irrigation, it is recommended to dealy the first irrigation as much
as possible. This helps the plants to branch well, which in turn results in profuse flowering and
fruiting. The best time for first irrigation is when the flowering has sufficiently advanced. The
second irrigation should be given at fruiting stage.
Ridge and furrow system results in yield advantage with 20% saving in irrigation water.
Weed control:Brassicas are fast growing crops and rarely infested with second flush of weeds.
In early stages the crop should be kept free of weeds since the weed competition results in
serious yield losses. 2-3 weedings are necessary. First weeding along with thinning, and remaining
weeding at fortnight interval. One Intercultivation at 3 weeks after sowing is beneficial.
PPI of Fluchloralin @ 0.5-0.75 kg/ha is also effective.
Pre emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 1 kg/ha or Oxadiazon 0.5 075 kg/ha. Post
emergence application of herbicides is limited because of smothering effect of brassicas.

37

Harvesting and threshing:

Toria is the earliest brassica oil seed crop to be harvested. It takes about 80-100 days for
maturity and thus this crop is ready for for harvest from middle of December to middle of January
depending upon the time of sowing and variety used. Rai can be harvested in 110-180 days. Yallow
sarson 130-160 days. Brown sarson 105-145 days.
When the crop is ripe, the leaves become yellow, the plants are uprooted or harvested with
the help of sickles. Sarson is less liable to shattering. But in case of mustard care should be taken to
see that it is harvested just before the pods open in order to avoid heavy losses from shattering of
seeds. Threshing can easily be done by beating with sticks. The pods easily shatter and give away
seeds. The seeds should be dried for a couple of days before they are stored.

Yield Attributes:No. of plants/unit area, No. of pods/plant, No. of seeds/pod and test weight
Yield: Average yield of rapeseed and mustard is about 500 kg ha -1. Toria gives an yield of 800-1000
kg ha -1. Rai is the highest yielder of all. Average 12-15 q ha -1 have been reported.

Oil Quality Considerat ion : Seed colour could be yellow, black or white or brown depending upon
the cultivars. Yellow coloured seeds have lesser seed coats, hence higher oil content. The light
coloured oil from yellow seeds of brassicas are the premium oils to enter trade.
The brassica oilseeds have the oil content of 30-48% in air dried seeds. Colour of the oil is
yellow to brown. Rapeseed and mustard oils have anti nutritional factors like erucic acid. However,
varieties are now being developed with reduced erucic acid (<2%). The cultivars with <2% of erucic
acid in oil and < 30 micromoles/gram of glucosinolates in oil meal are called as Conola varieties
suitable for edible purpose. It is also desirable to have less linolenic acid (<3%) and higher linoleic
acid(>30%) for prolonged cooking and higher shelf life. But brassicas destined for industrial purpose
should contain higher erucic acid (>60%) as it has high heat stability and used as lubricating oil,
fossil fuel and additive to diesel.

38

Lecture No: 10

SAFFLOWER
Botanical name - Carthamus tinctorius
Family - Compositae

Safflower is an ancient oilseed crop grown in India for the orange red dye (Carthamin)
extracted from it bright coloured florets as well as seed oil. Due to the availability of synthetic dyes
at present, it is used for extraction of oil only.

The cultivated Carthamus tinctorius in supposed to originated either from

Carthamus lanatus - Saffron thirstle
Carthamus oxycantha- Wild Safflower
Safflower was known to ancient India and the poet laurate kalidas compared safflower to the sakhis
of shakuntala as kusum (or) kusumba in Sanskrit literature. Carthamus is derived from Arabic word
Quartum.
USES :1. Safflower oil is rich in poly unsaturated fatty acids as linoleic acid up to 78% which playan
important role in reducing cholesterol content and it is a drying oil. It contains 24-35% oil.
So, it is also recommended for heart patients.
2. The hot oil poured in cooled water, it become a plastic of thickness and used for adhesive in
glass industry.
3. The oil is used in the preparation of ROGHAN which is used for preservation of leather
and production of water proof cloth. It is also used in manufacturing soaps and varnishes.
4. Safflower oil is the healthiest oil of all vegetable oil and its value is increased when it is
blended with rice bran oil.
5. The Safflower cake is used as cattle feed which contain 20% protein.
6. Safflower was recognized as it remedies Rheumatism.
7. Dry petal is used in the preparation of herbal medicine and drugs. The Safflower also used to
provide resistance to inflammation.
8. In Ethiopia, decorticated seeds are pounded finely and mixed with water to prepare a
beverage FIT -FIT.
9. The yield of floret ranged between 70-100 kg/ha and it contains two colouring materials.
Water soluble yellow pigment carthamidin and orange red dye (2%) which is insoluble in
water but readily soluble in alkaline solution is known as CARTHAMIN .
Carthamin is of commercial importance and is used as additive in food, beverage, cosmetics
39

& paints. Also for dyeing of cotton and fabrics.

Carthamus +H 2S o4+Phosphoric acid - Carthamidin & Isocarthamidin
10. Safflower is grown as border crop to protect the main crop of wheat in North India and is
also green manure crop at young stage.
11. Hull is used is manufacture of cellulose insolations.
12. The safflower cake is used as cattle feed which contains 20% protein but low in lysine. It is
consumed domestically and hardly enters international market.
ORIGIN:
Decondolle Arabia.

Vavilov India

Spiny type of Safflower is having higher oil content than non spiny type. Yellow coloured flowers
yielded higher oil content. It is a xerophytic in nature.

AREA AND DISTRIBUTION:

India, China Mexico, USA, Ethiopia, Argentina and Australia are the major growing countries.
China mostly grown Safflower for medical purpose.
Safflower occupies seventh place in the area among nine oilseed crops.
In India 98% of the area comes from three states viz- Maharashtra, Karnataka and A.P. it is
cultivated with an area of 3.00 L.ha and production of 1.89 L.tons with a productivity of 630 kg/ha.
India is the largest producer of Safflower with 54% area and 40% production.

Area

Production Productivity

India

3.00 L. ha

1.89 L.t

630 kg/ha

A.P.

0.16 L. ha

0.12 L.t

750 kg/ha

Maharashtra and Karnataka are the first and second with reference to area and production where as
productivity is highest in Gujarat (1000 kg/ha) followed by Karnataka ( 2008-09).
In A.P., it is cultivated in Ranga Reddy, Medak, Mahaboobnagar, Adilabad, Kurnool, and Naziabad.
AICRP on safflower Sholapur (Maharashtra).ARS in Andhra Pradesh Thandur.

40

CLIMATE:

Safflower is well adapted to wide range of climatic condition. However, the maximum
production is confined up to 1000 MSL in semi arid tropic s and arid areas with latitude of 14 to
22N. Important production factors are soil temperature and soil moisture. Temperature is the most
important climatic parameter as it is thermo sensitive and it is mainly grown as rabi oil seed crop.
Optimum temperature of soil for seed germination 15-16C. It may tolerate to temperature of 49C, if
sufficient soil moisture is available.
Temperature more than 40C reduced the plant height, dry matter production and seed set and test
weight. Day temperatures in the range of 24-32C at flowering is the optimum. Higher temperature at
flowering is harmful to crop resulting in sterile heads.
Crop is tolerant to frost at seedling stage but sensitive at later stages. It is a day neutral plant, but a
day length of 12-14 hour is essential for flowering and seed set. When compared to day length,
temperature is more important.
It is a drought resistant and susceptible to water logging. It comes up well with a rainfall of 500-600
mm. It cannot withstand excessive soil moist/ humidity at any stage due to damage from fungal
diseases.

SOIL:
Being a drought resistant, it is cultivated in all type of soils, but well drained, fertile and deep
soil with high water holding capacity are the best. Safflower is mostly grown on residual soil
moisture.
South India Deep black soil (A.P, Karnataka, Maharashtra).
North India latosols (Laterite and sandy loam soil).
Commercial cultivation is extended on medium to deep black soils in peninsular India
Higher yield are obtained at neutral soil pH ranged of 5-8.0. It is salt tolerant crop i.e. up to 7ds/m.
However, seedling stage sensitive to salinity.
Varieties Manjira, Sgaramuthyalu (APRR 3), Parbhani Kusum, Phule Kusum,
A-1 (National Check)
Hybrids - DSH 129, NH 1 ( Firdt non-spiny hybrid in the world), NARI 15,
NARI 38, Bhima, Girna, Sharda and Sweta.

41

LAND PREPARATION:

Safflower requires fairly pulverized seed bed free from clods. Being a deep rooted crop it
requires deep ploughing. Crop raised for dye purpose require more and fine tilth than oil crop.
One deep ploughing with M.B. plough is sufficient followed by 2-3 harrowings with planking.
SEED AND SOWING:
Season rabi
Time of Sowing
Telangana:

II. FN September to I. FN of October.

Coastal and Rayalseema October. If the crop is delayed, Aphid damage is more common.
Seed Rate 8-10 kg/ha pure crop.
4-6 kg/ha- Mixed crop/ Border crop.
Spacing - 4520 cm.
Method of sowing Broadcasting, behind the plough (pora method) and seed drill.
Depth of sowing 4-5 cm (Normal).

7.5-10 cm (dry Land).

Thinning 10-15 DAS.

Very high density of plant population significantly reduces the branching ability.

MANURES AND FERTILIZERS:

On an average safflower crop remove 60 - 65kgN, 30 kgP 2O 5 and 40 45 kg K2O ha ?1.
One tonne of seed removes about 45 kg N.
FYM @ 5-10 t/ha
Depending on rainfall, 30-40 kg N.
Band placement at 3-5 cm deeper in moist zone and 2-3 cm away from seeds.
Under irrigated conditions, response is found even upto 120 kg/ha.
Nitrogen is applied in two splits -- as basal and at flowering.
30-40 kg P2O5 /ha, 1/2 as Basal application. Response is 7-7.5 kg seed per kg P 2O 5 applied.
20-30 kg K2O /ha basal recommended in K deficient soil.
Under rainfed conditions, entire fertilizers is applied by drilling at sowing.
Under irrigated conditions, N and whole P & K fertilizers are applied at sowing and another N
is topdressed 5 weeks after sowing.

42

WATER MANAGEMENT:

Water requirement 250-300 mm. Safflower is generally grown as rainfed in residual soil
moisture and it is highly drought tolerant as it is a deep rooted crop. The crops have the ability to
extract moisture from deeper layer of the soil. In light soil, 2-3 irrigations are given where as in
vertisol residual soil moisture is sufficient. One life saving irrigation should be given when drought
condition occur.
Rosette stage (Early vegetative stage) is the most critical stage of safflower i.e. 21DAS or 4-6 leaf
stage and yield can be increased by 40-60%.
Poorly drained soil and water logged condition enhanced the problem of wilt and root rot. The WUE
is 5.64 kg/seed/ha/mm. safflower is cultivated on saline soils by sowing on the slope of the ridge.
Under high salinity, the oil content is reduced by increasing hull percent. Broad bed & furrow at 1.5
2 m is suitable to minimise contact of water with above ground part & minimize root & stem rot in
heavy soils.

WEED MANAGEMENT:

The growth habits of safflower make it extremely susceptible to weed competition. The critical
period of crop growth competition is Rosette stage to flowering stage.
The rosette stage - 25-30 DAS in Rabi and may be prolonged up to 60 DAS in winter situation.
The field should be free from weeds infestation during early growth stage depending on the length of
the rosette stage.
PPI of Fluchoralin @ 1 kg ai /ha.
PE of Oxadiazon @ 1 kg ai /ha.
PE of Alachlor @ 1.5kg ai /ha.
PE of Atrazine @ 1 kg ai /ha.
Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kh/ha + one hand weeding provides weed free environment and cost effective.
Safflower is sown in wide rows. So, intercultivation implements can be used for weed control.
Two harrowings at 25-30 DAS & 45-50 DAS in combination with one hand weeding in between
them can effectively check weed growth.

43

CROPPING SYSTEMS :
In low rainfall areas receiving 400-500 mm, safflower is superior to other winter crops as it
extracts moisture from subsoil.
Intercropping : Although sole crop of safflower is more profitable under conditions of adequate
moisture availability, it is grown as intercrop with traditional crops to overcome the risk of crop
failure under adverse conditions.
In Andhra Pradesh Chickpea + safflower

- 3 : 1 or 2 : 1

Coriander + safflower

- 3 : 1 or 2 : 1

Karnataka

- Linseed + Safflower

- 6:2

Maharashtra

- Wheat + safflower

- 3 : 1 or 2 : 1

Sequence Cropping : It is profitable in Andhra Pradesh where rainfall is 700 800 mm.
In Northern Telangana Zone - Maize Safflower
Sorghum Safflower
Sesame Safflower
Mungbean Safflower
Scarce rainfall Zone Greengram Safflower
Sesame Safflower
Soybean Safflower
HARVESTING:
The crop comes to maturity within 110-120 days. As soon as the leaves and most of the
bracteoles except a few of last formed become brown and seeds are dried and easily separated from
the head. The crop is harvested either by uprooting the plant or cutting at the bottom.
Plants are thorny and harvesting is taken up at the early hours of the day and to be completed before
10.00 am when the spines will be soft. As the day advanced, spine becomes stiff causing
inconvenience to harvesting. The harvested plants are heaped for a day or two in the field and
threshed by beating with stick, cleaned, dried and stored at 8% moisture content.Combined
harvesters used in wheat could also be used for harvesting and threshing.

Oil Quality :
Traditional safflower seed contain 50% hull & 28-32% oil. It is pale yellow. Good drying oil.
Fatty acid composition is - Linoleic acid 70-80%, Oleic acid 6-8%, Stearic acid 2-3% and
Palmitic acid 5-8%. Due to 90% of poly unsaturated fatty acids, safflower oil is considered to be
the best edible oil.

44

Lecture No.11

Soybean (Glycine max)

Introduction
The soybean (U.S.) or soya bean (UK) (Glycine max) is a species of legume native to East Asia
Grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses. The plant is classed as an oilseed rather than a
pulse
The English word "soy" was derived from the Japanese pronunciation of shoyu the Japanese word for
soya sauce ; "soya" comes from the Dutch adaptation
The word glycine is derived from the Greek - glykys (sweet) and likely refers to the sweetness of the
pear-shaped (apios in Greek) edible tubers produced by the native North American twining or
climbing herbaceous legume .
Glycine max from soy-a or soya to soy plus bean or soybean or soyabean
Chinese pea, Japan pea and Japanese fodder plant, known as Bhat Bhatmer rumkut
Soybean accounts for 50% total production of oilseed crops in world.
A very small proportion of the crop is consumed directly by humans. Soybean products
do, however, appear in a large variety of processed foods.
It was during World War II that the soybean was discovered as fertilizer by the United States
Department of Agriculture
Soybeans, like most legumes, perform nitrogen fixation by establishing a symbiotic relationship with
the bacterium Rhizobium japonicum
U.S., Brazil, Argentina, China and India are the world's largest soybean producers and represent more
than 90% of global soybean production
Prior to fermented products such as Soy sauce, tempeh, natto, and miso, soy was considered sacred
for its use in crop rotation as a method of fixing nitrogen
Wild ancestor of soybean is Glycine soja a legume native to central China
Soybeans are one of the "biotech food" crops that have been genetically modified, and genetically
modified soybeans are used in number of products
Uses :
Soybeans are an important global crop, providing oil and protein
It contains about 20 per cent oil and 40 per cent high quality protein
It contains a good amount of minerals, salts and vitamins (thiamine and riboflavin) and its sprouting
grains contain a considerable amount of Vitamin C
A large number of Indian and western dishes such as bread, `chapati, milk, sweets, pastries etc.,
can be prepared with soybean
It can be used as fodder, forage can be made into hay, silage etc. Its forage and cake are excellent
nutritive foods for livestock and poultry. Soybean being the richest, cheapest and easiest source of
best quality proteins and fats and having a vast multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products
is sometimes called a wonder crop.
Origin and distribution:

Soybean is one of the important crops of the world.

Soybean is native of China
Spread to India and Nepal in 16th century
Soybean cultivation in India started during 1970s
Area & Production : Globally, area is 65 m ha, production :130 mt, productivity :2 t ha -1
USA, Brazil, China, Argintina, are the important soybean producing countries.

45

USA has highest productivity of 2.2 t ha -1 followed Argentina

India : Area : 5 m ha, Annual production : 5 mt, productivity : 1000 kg ha -1.
Largely grown in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra and Gujarat.
It is also grown on a small acreage in Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and Delhi .
Madhya Pradesh, ranks first both in area and production
Andhra Pradesh : Area : 1.7 lakh ha, production : 32.3 l tons, productivity 2000 kg/ha.

Climate :

Basically it is a tropical crop but extends to subtropics and temperate climates.

Commercial production is between 25 o and 45o N latitude at 1000 m altitude .
Soybean is short day plant, but response to day length varies with variety and temperature.
A temperature of 26.5 to 30C appears to be optimum for most of the varieties.
Optimum temperature for germination is 30-35oC.
Maximum flowering occurs at 30 oC.
Temperature of 18oC or less ,there is no pod setting.
Temperature below 24oC delays flowering by 2-3 days.
Temperature of 40-46 oC results in pod abscission .
A lower temperature tends to delay the flowering.
Day length is the key factor in most of the soybean varieties as they are short day plant and are
sensitive to photo-periods.

Most of the varieties will flower and mature quickly if grown under condition where the day length is
less than 14 hours provided that temperatures are also favourable

Critical photoperiod for bud initiation is 14 hrs.

Maximum floret blossoming occurs at 10-13 hrs

Moderately salt tolerant (sal. Threshold 5 dsm-1).

Sensitive to water logging especially during early stages

Optimum soil PH range is 6-6.5

Growth and Development : Have two growth habits determinate, indeterminate.

Flowering starts from 20 DAS, or even delays upto 50 DAS and continues for 4-6 weeks.

Pods are visible at 10-15 days after flowering

2-20 pods per inflorescence and upto 400 in single plant is observed.

2-3 seeds per pod at maturity.

Seasons :
In Andhra Pradesh :
Kharif : A rainfed crop is sown from June 15 to July 15th in light soils
Rabi
:
Irrigated crop is sown from November December
Summer : Sown in January, and extends upto February

Seed rate of soybean : It depends upon germination percentage, seed size and sowing
time. If seed is of 80 per cent germination, 70-80 kg seed per hectare is required.
For late planting and for spring crop, seed rate should be 100-120 kg per hectare

Since soybean loose its viability in 2-3 months, hence higher seed rate: 75 kg/ha or 2530 kg/acre is to be given

Spacing : Heavy soils : 45 x 5 cm

: Light soils : 30 x 7.5 - 8 cm.
Depth of sowing should not be more than 3-4 cm under optimum moisture conditions

If seed is placed deeper there is crust formation just after sowing, the seed germination
may be delayed and may result in a poor crop stand.
46

Seed drills are used in large areas , and sowing in ridges are to be followed under irrigated
condition.
Plant population : 40 plants / sq mt or 1,60,000 plants/acre
Thinning should be completed within 3 weeks after germination.
Seed treatment : seed is to be treated with Thiram (2g) + Carbendazim (1 g) or
Thiram (3 g) + Imidachloprid (5 g) or Carbosulfan (30 g / 8-10 kg of seed)

S.No.

Vareity

Varieties
Duration (days)

1.

JS 335

90-95

8-10

2.

PK - 1029

100-110

7-8

3.

MACS - 450

100-110

8-10

4.

LSB 1

65

5.

LSB 3

110-115

6-7

6.

JS- 93 - 05

90

7-8

Yield (q/acre)

Fertilizer and Nutrient Management :For obtaining good yields, should apply 15-20 tones of FYM or Compost per ha.
But soybean being a legume crop has ability to supply their own N needs provided
they have been inoculated .
Application of 20-30 kg N per ha as a starter dose will be sufficient to meet the N
requirement of crop in initial stage in low fertile soils having poor organic matter.
Soybean requires relatively large amounts of phosphorus than other crops.
Phosphorus is taken by soybean plant throughout growing season. Period of
demand starts just before pod formation and continues until about 10 days before seeds
are fully developed.
With the application of phosphorus, the number and density of nodules are stimulated
and the bacteria becomes more mobile.
Soybean also requires a relatively large amount of potassium than other crops.
The rate of potassium uptake reaches to a peak during the period of rapid vegetative
growth then slows down about the time the bean begins to form.
FERTILISER SCHEDULE :

Light soils :- 20 + 40-60 + 20-40 + 20 kg N P K S /ha

Rhizobium culture @ 500 g / 75 kg seed/acre
Andhra Pradesh : Rhizobium + 30 + 60 + 40 + 8 kg N P K S/ha (Irrigated)
The fertilizers should preferably be placed, at sowing time, about 5-7 cm away
from the seed at a depth of 5-7 cm from seed
In Light soils : 50% N and full dose of P & K is applied basally , and remaining
50% N is top dressed at 30 DAS
For Rabi crop : Entire fertilizer is applied basally at seeding.

47

Water Management

The soybean crop generally does not require any irrigation during Kharif season.
However, if there were a long spell of drought at the time of pod filling, one irrigation would be
desirable.
During excessive rains, proper drainage is also equally important.
Basically it is a rainfed crop, in deep black soils for Kharif and rabi, the crop
responds to irrigation in intensive cropping system
Due to deep tap root system with 1.8 m deep withstands moisture stress for short periods
Under soil moist stress, Flower drops, but due to extended period of flowering, late formed
flowers will compensates early flower drop.
Critical stages : flowering and pod development stages are sensitive stages for moisture stress.
Scheduling irrigation : at 50 DASM or at IW/CPE 0.6
Irrigation in Light soils can be given once in 10-12 days, in heavy soil at an interval of 18-20 days
Irrigated by check basin or border method, but furrow method is ideal.
Under Water scarcity conditions, sprinkler irrigation and alternate furrow can be followed.
WUE is 0.4 0.7 kg m-3. and water requirement is 450 -750 mm.

Weed management
First 6-7 weeks after seeding is critical period, hence clean cultivation is essential.
Since crop is sown in lines/rows, intercultivation can be done 2 times ,first at 20-30, followed by
second at 45 DAS along with manual weeding .
For wide range of weeds in soybean, foliage herbicides provide excellent weed control
Pre plant herbicides (PPI) : Fluchloralin 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha.
Pre emergence herbicides : Alachlor (1.5-2.0), Acetachlor (1-1.5) Metachlor (1-1.5) oxyflourfen
(0.5-1.0)
Post emergence herbicides : Quizol fop ethyl (Turgasuper) @400 ml/acre Imzythpyr (250 mg / ac)
(pursuit) for broad leaved weeds.

Harvesting :When plants mature, leaves turn yellow, start dropping , pods dry out quickly.
There is a rapid loss of moisture from the seed. At harvest, the moisture content of the seeds should
be 15 per cent
Harvesting can be done by hand, Plants are uprooted, or cut with sickle above ground level
After cutting , plants are heaped and sun dried for a day or two
Threshing is usually done by beating with sticks or using mechanical threshers.
Threshed produce is winnowed to separate seeds from chaff
cleaned seed is dried for 1- 2 days
Seed is stored in moisture proof bags / seed bins
For seed purpose seed is stored after treating with thiram / captan (3 g/kg).
Quality consideration:It is protein rich oilseed and presently number one edible oil source globally.
Seed composition : Seed consists of Hull (8%) cotytyledons (10% ) hypocotyls (2%), oil content 1423%, protein (32-50%).
Oil content and quality : Oil content influenced by temperature. High temperature increases oil
content.
Oil contains neutral lipids (88%) phospholipids (10%) Glyco lipids (2%) saturated
fatty acids (11-26%)
Commerical oil contains Linolenic (5-9%) linoleic (43-56%)
48

Utilization:

Soybean is used as processed products, soyflour, protein products, fermented food products.
Other products : are Beverage, whole milk, milk extender, Coagulated products like panneer
Fermented products : soy-sauce, yogurt, cheese etc
Sprouted cooked beans fried and roasted nuts
Fortified foods like bread, biscuits, cake etc.
Substitute products like bison, frozen desert
Textured products like nuggets, chunks etc
High protein biscuits + granules
Cropping systems

Mixed cropping of soybean with maize and sesamum has been found feasible and more remunerative
Intercropping

Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

maize
pigeon pea
finger millet
cotton
groundnut
sorghum
pearl millet

(2:1, 2:2)
(2:2, 4:2)
(2:2)
(1:3, 2:1),
(1:4, 1:6)
(1:2, 2:2)
(2:4, 2:6)

Some of the common rotations followed in north India are as given below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Soybean wheat
Soybean potato
Soybean gram
Soybean tobacco
Soybean potato wheat

49

Crop growth stages

Seedling stage

50

Crop under field conditions

Flowering Stage :

Pod Development stage

51

52

Lecture No.12

Linseed ( Linum usitatissimum )

Introduction

Flax, is One of the oldest cultivated crops grown for seed from which oil is extracted
It is world wide cultivated commercially for flax, while in India it is cultivated for oil
Flax also known as common flax or linseed, (binomial name: Linum usitatissimum ) is a member of
the genus Linum in the family Linaceae.
It is known Tisi in Hindi, and Avishallu in Telugu.
Before the spread of the mechanical cotton gin in the early 1800s, most Americans had a choice of two
clothing fibers wool or linen
In addition to being a fiber source, flax was also an important oilseed.
Linseed oil, squeezed out of flax seed, used as a preservative finish on wood.
Linseed oil is a "drying oil", as it can polymerize into a solid form.
It is an edible oil but, because of its strong flavor and odor, is only a minor constituent of human
nutrition.
In parts of Europe, traditionally eaten with potatoes and quark (cheese).
It is rega rded as a delicacy due to its hearty taste, which spices the bland quark
Flax fiber is obtained from the stem of plants, from a blue flowered plant and woven into a fabric
generally known as linen Flax .
Common names of flax are alsi, tisi, kshuma, lin, llion, liner, linum, line, linen, lein
Flax is grown in modern times for two entirely different purposes (i) for fibre and (ii) for seed .The
seed of the flax plant is known as linseed
In India, flax is grown primarily for linseed oil which is not only used for human consumption but also
for commercial use as paint, varnish, finished leather and printing ink.
Flax oil is high in omega-3 fatty acid, which lowers cholesterol, in the diet
Flax seed is fed to chickens, eggs from those chickens, markete d as omega eggs.
India import the flax fibres from European countries and does not utilize the flax produces in India.
The reasons for this are, Indian flax does not match with the quality standards of imported flax.
But now a number of dual purpose varie ties including Gaurav, Shikha, Jeevan and Parwati released
from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology (CSAUAT), Kanpur are suitable
for both oil and fibre purposes.
Among the four varieties, the white flowered variety (Linum usitatisimum album) produces stronger
plants and are resistant to diseases than the blue flowered vrieties (Linum usitatissimum vulgare) which
yields fine fibres of high quality
Origin and Distribution

Linen's history dates back to 7000 BC when Mesopotamians used flax

Romans and ancient greeks cultivated flax for fibre and seed and established Linen industry
As per Vavilov cultivated annual linseed originated from India and Ethiopia
It is native of eastern Mediterranean to India and was probably first domesticated in the Fertile
Crescent.
Later on Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans and other civilized people cultivated flax for fibre .
Major producers are Canada, Argentia, USA, Poland, Uruguay, Romania, USSR, China and India
Reported to have spun in countries like Belgium, Russia, Switzerland, Brazil, England, France and
Argentina etc. and is used in making fine quality fabrics called linen

53

Area and Production

Flax is currently grown on about 12 million acres worldwide, with the majority of the production in
northern Europe and Russia.
India occupies 25 per cent of world acreage and ranks first in area (4.368 Lakh ha), fourth in
production (1.725 Lakh tonnes) and eighth in productivity (395.0 Kg/ha) of the flax crop.
Morphology

Flax is a broadleaf with small, narrow leaves that are less than an inch long.
Stems are slender,flexible, branched, near base of plant, with height 30 -36 inches.,
dividing at
their tips into inflorescences bearing attractive blue flowers.
Flowers are mostly self -pollinated, with some cross pollination by insects.
New flowers will emerge for a few weeks, each developing into a round seed capsule or boll about
one-third inch in diameter.
Each capsule contains 4 -10 seeds, Glossy in appearance, traditionally brown color.
However, a new variety of flax, Omega, is golden-colored to make it more acceptable in the food
market.
If exposed to water, flax seeds will become sticky due to mucilage in the seed coat
Climate

Crop, grown for seed ,performs well in moderately cold climate, but the crops for fibre purpose ,
requires cool and moist climate.
Linseed requires moderate or cool temperature during vegetative stage and dry weather during the
maturity of the crop.
Requires temperature of 25-300C during germination,15-200C during seed formation.
It requires high humidity.
Temperature above 320C along with the drought during flowering reduces yield, oil content and oil
quality of linseed.
Plants are susceptible to frost and causes injury to blossom
It is resistant to drought and grows well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 450-750 mm.
Soils
Crops grows on well drained, moderately deep silt loam, clayloam & silty clays
Light sils area not suitable especially in low rainfall areas
Crop can tolerate soil acidity but ideal pH is 6.0.
Land Preparation

More sensitive to salinity, but fibre and oil content decreases at EC of 6.1dsm-1
Majority of linseed area is rainfed and grown in marginal and submarginal lands,
Hence adoption of soil & moisture conservation practices is important for good yie lds
Ploughing 2-3 times with cultivator, followed by 2-3 harrowings to obtain fine tilth,
Hoeing after each shower conserves the soil moisture

54

Varieties
State

Utera

Rainfed

Irrigated

Himachal Pradesh

Surabhi,
Janki,
Himalini

Surabhi ,
Janki

Janki,
Himalini,
Nagarkol

Maharastra

R-552

Kiran,Sheetal

Jawahar -23

Madhya Pradesh

R-552

Kiran,Sheetal

Jawahar -23

Punjab

LC-54,Himalini

Uttar Pradesh

Swetha,Shubra

LC-54,
Himalini
Garima,
Shubra,
Neelam

Sowing Time
Sowing time varies from October - Nov 15th in different states depending on
availability of soil moisture, irrigation and cropping systems
Early sowing helps to escape attack of powdery mildew, rust, and linseed bud fly
Pure Rabi crop should complete the sowings by Nov 15 th .

Seed rate
The following seed rates are optimum under moist conditions

Under rainfed

Under irrigated

: Broad casting @ 40 kg/ha - 5 lakhs plants/ha

: Drilling
@ 30kg /ha - 5 lakhs pla nts/ha

: Broadcasting @ 35 kg / ha
Drilling
@ 25 kg/ha

- 5 lakhs plants/ha
- 5 lakhs plants/ha

Under all situations : Dual methods @ 25 kg/ha Thinning should be done 15 days after emergence.

4 lakhs plants/ha

Seed Treatment

Seed treatment with thiram @ 3g/kg of seed or bavistin @ 1.5g or topsin M @ 2.5g/kg seed to protect
the linseed from seed borne diseases.

Sowing depth
Shallow sowing @ 2-3 cm with adequate soil moisture helps in early establishment.
Drilling facilitates even distribution, uniform depth of seeding result in better stand and good yields
In drier situations, where surface moisture is not adequate, sowing in deeper layers of 5-8 cm ensures
germination

55

Spacing
Spacing between the rows
Spacing between the plants in a row

: 25 - 30 cm
: 7 - 10 cm

Nutrient Management
Application of FYM or compost @ 5-8 t/ha, final land preparation, improves
water holding capacity of soil , improves soil structure, increases nutrient uptake
there by leading to good yields.

Nitrogen deficiency : is very common in linseed crop.

Which shows small erect, pale green to yellowish green leaves
Early defoliation, crop matures earlier, producing lesser flowers and fruits
leading to poor yields

P deficiency :
Shows dwarfness of plants, dark green color, small leaves and dies prematurely.
Phosphorus increases oil in the seed and yield of flax
Hastens root development, promotes deeper penetration, helping in preventing
lodging and better utilization of soil moisture.

K deficiency
Shows stunting of shoots with shorter internodes.
Brown scorches at the tips and withering.
Use of potassium causes complementary effects to the use of N and P increasing the yield of linseed.

Sulphur deficiency
Sulphur requirement of oil seeds is high
Sulphur deficiency Shows stunted plants, leaves turn yellow and become chloratic.
40 kg S /ha should be applied to linseed crop to improve the oil yield

Zinc deficiency
Shows stunted plants
Grey brown spots appear on the younger leaves on the upper surface and dark green
blotches on lower surface.
Internodes are shortened and forms rosette

Defeciency can be corrected by soil application of zinc sulphate @ 22.5 kg/ha once in 2-3 yrs or
spraying of zinc sulphate @ 0.25% after 2 weeks of emergence is recommended.
Fertilizer Schedule :
Under rainfed conditions :
Under irrigated conditions :

40
90

+ 20 + 20 kg N P K / ha
+ 40 + 30 kg N P K /ha

Weed Management

Weed free conditions upto 30-45 days is critical

Adequate tillage, prior to seeding, minimizes the weed growth.
Two intercultivations at 20 and 30 DAS with the manual weeding is ideal
Fluchloralin @ 1 kg ai /ha as PPI or Pre emergence application of alachlor @ 1kg ai/ha or Post
emergence of dichlofop methyl @ 0.7 kg ai/ha at 30 DAS is effective.
Pronamide @ 1.5 kg ai/ ha is effective in controlling Cuscuta infestation in linseed.

56

Irrigation
More than 90% of area under linseed is rainfed, where bold seeded and deep rooted
varieties are preferred.
Small seed with the shallow rooted varieties are to be preferred under irrigated conditions
Frequent light irrigations are ideal and economical than heavy irrigations at longer
intervals
Linseed responds well to irrigations.
Irrigations at critical stages like flowering and seed development is essentia l under
moisture stress conditions.
Providing irrigations at 35 and 75 DAS has doubled the yields of linseed.
Moisture stress at stem elongation stage benefited the seed yields and adversely
effected the straw yields
Sheduling irrigation at 50% DASM and IW/CPE is 0.6.
Harvesting

The crop should be harvested when the leaves are dry. A rule of thumb is to harvest when 90% of the
seed capsules are brown and shiny.
For fibre purpose, harvesting should be done at physiological maturity when the crop is still green.
Crop is harvested in March to April, cutting the plants close to the ground or pulling the plants.
Harvested crop is left in the field for few days for sundrying.
Threshing is done by beating the dried plants with the sticks or trampling under the cattle feet.
The seed is separated from chaff by winnowing.
Care should be taken in cutting the stalk and facilitate undamaged stalk in retting.
Quality considerations

Linseed contains 20-24 % protein, 37-42% oil, 15-29% CHOs ,5- 9% crude fibre,
2-4% ash.
Linseed oil cake contains 30% protein, 7% fat, carbohydrate -42% which is a valuable protein source
to poultry and ruminants.

Uses
All parts of linseed plant are utilized for various purposes either directly or used for processing
Flax is roughly 40% oil by weight, about 55% of which is alpha linolenic acid (also called omega-3
fatty acid).
On a small scale seed is directly used for edible purpose and 80% of oil goes to industries. Oil is rich
in Linolenic acid (66% and above) and is a perfect drying oil and used in paint and varnishes
Its use is limited to animal feed because of undesirable compounds like phytic acid,
cyanogenic glucoside and goitorogen.
It is used in the manufacture of lit hographic inks and soaps
Oil cake is good feed for milch cattle and also as a manure having microbial activity
Linseed stem yields fibre of good quality having strength and durability. The fibres are lustrous and
blend with the wool and silk
The fibre is used in gloves, foot wear, netting sports, paper and textile industry, cigarette wrapping
paper, strong canvas, suitings and shirtings
Woody matter and short fibres used as raw pulp in paper industries.
One hundred kg retted flax yields the following c o product.

57

Sno.

Products

Quantity (kg)

Utility

1.

Sketched flax

16

Spinning

2.

Tow broken fibre

High grade paper

3.

Woody parts

54

Chip board panels

4.

Seed

10

Oil and meal

5.

Straw

For fodder

6.

Dust

compost

Utera / Pyra cultivation

Pyra or utera cultivation is broadcasting linseed in standing kharif rice, when the crop is at is at
flowering and dough stage or 10-12 days before harvest of the crop.
This practice is followed for utilizing the conserved soil moisture in post rainy season, there by
utilizing the available irrigation sources judiciously in season.
In sufficient water available areas, a new method of utilizing available soil moisture ,Crack system of
sowing linseed is practiced.
This method involves development of deep 5 cms cracks, in the standing rice crop at the end of
dough stage, followed by watering/ irrigating the field.
Then sowing are done in October preferably with short duration varieties .
Varieties like R-7 (Jawar -7) & (R-552) resistant to rust, powdery mildew and wilt are preferred for
utera cultivation.
Fertilizers : Linseed utilizes residual fertility of manures and fertilizers applied to the rice crop.
10 kg of Nitrogen is applied to rice crop itself at flowering or one week before sowing of linseed ,
which is beneficial for establishment and growth.
Weeding : Once manual weeding is done in linseed crop after rice is harvested.
Utera method gives 50% higher linseed yield, without any adeverse effect on rice yields.
Double purpose linseed
Linseed when grown for fibre is known as fibre flax, when cultivated for seed known as seed flax/oil
flax/linseed.
Linseed or seed flax : varieties are dwarf profusely branched & high seed potential.
Fibre flax : varieties are tall, scarcely branched, having low seed yielding, ability with high fibre
yields. Commonly cultivated in temperate regions.
Identification & development of the crop having both the characters of high seed & fibre yield is the
concept of double purpose linseed.
Total monetary returns per unit area or per unit time is an important consideration
Extraction of fibre from well grown linseed crop requires cooler temperature during retting process.
In India after the harvest of crop, temperature rises and alters quality of fibre and thus Indian fla x
does not command good price in international market.
Dry scotching machine was developed for oil and fibre extraction.
DPL 21, LCK 152 & RL 993 (Meera) are the promising double purpose linseed varieties.
Giza 5 and Giza 6 are high yielding double purpose varieties.

58

Yield : of fibre flax is about 10-15 quintal/ha

Retting flax
There are several methods of retting flax.
It can be retted in a pond, stream, field or a tank.
When the retting is complete, the bundles of flax feel soft and slimy, and quite a few fibers are
standing out from the stalks.
When wrapped around a finger the inner woody part springs away from the fibers.
Pond retting is the fastest. It consists of placing the flax in a pool of water which will not evaporate.
It generally takes place in a shallow pool which will warm up dramatically in the sun; the process
may take from only a couple of days to a couple weeks. Pond retted flax is traditionally considered
lower quality, possibly because the product can become dirty, and easily over-retts, damaging the
fiber. This form of retting also produces quite an odor.
Stream retting is similar to pool retting, but the flax is submerged in bundles in a stream or river.
This generally takes longer than pond retting, normally by two or three weeks, but the end product is
less likely to be dirty, does not smell as bad and, because the water is cooler, it is less likely to be
over-retted.
Both Pond and Stream rettings were traditionally used less because they pollute the waters used for
the process.
Field retting is laying the flax out in a large field, and allowing dew to collect on it. This process
normally takes a month or more, but is generally considered to provide the highest quality flax fiber
and produces the least pollution.
Retting can also be done in a plastic trash can or any type of water tight container of wood,
concrete, earthenware or plastic . Metal containers will not work, as an acid is produced when retting,
and it would corrode the metal.
If the water temperature is kept at 80F, the retting process under these conditions takes 4 or 5 days.
If the water is any colder, then it takes longer time.
Scum will collect at the top and an odor is given off the same as in pond retting. Currently
'enzymatic' retting of flax is being researched as a retting technique to engineer fibers with specific
properties Pectinolytic enzymes and retting, "Processing techniques for improving enzyme retting of flax," .

59

The young linseed crop

60

Flowering stage
Linseed flower ( White, Voilet flowers)

Maturity stage

61

Niger (Guizotia abyssinica)

Niger crop is grown for seed used for extracting oil which is about 37 to 43
percent of the seed weight
The crop sheds a large quantity of dry leaves in the field and thereby adds lot of
organic matter to the soil
Named after French historian Guizot
Known as Kalatil Ramtil and surguja in Hindi.
Seed resemble to sunflower seed in shape, but dark and small in size.
Tolerant to drought and less susceptible to attack by animals, birds, insects and diseases.
Niger is a minor oilseed crop in world and meets economy of India; still it is of considerable
importance for rainfed conditions on poor soils of coarse textured especially on hill slopes and
shallow soils of marginal lands.
Gives good yield even with poor management.
Niger oil is similar to safflower oil in edible quality.
Description :
Herbaceous annual, 0.51.5 m tall; stems pubescent leaves opposite, sessile, subcordate to ovatelanceolate, serrate, subscabrous, to 22 cm long; involucre with ovate, biseriate scales;
Flowers yellow, conspicuous, in solitary or clustered heads to 2 cm across, arranged in corymbs;
heads with 4060 tubular hermaphroditic florets, surrounded by a marginal row of ligulate florets,
flowering in each head lasting 78 days, cross-pollinated, probably by bees.
Origin and Distribution

Niger is native of Abyssinia (Ethiopia)

It is originated from G scabre and sub-species G. Schimperi.
Migrated to East Africa and India through Persian Gulf traders along with other crops popularly
known as Savanna complex.
Grown in East Africa, India, Germany, Switzerland, France, USSR, Sudan, Uganda, Tanzania and
Malawi.
India, chief niger producing country in world.
In India : Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu are imporatnt states
cultivating niger crop
Area and Production

World statistics for Niger are scarce and unreliable.

World : Area
:
2 lakh/ha
: Production
:
1 lakh ton
: Productivity
:
500 kg/ha
India : Area
0.6 m ha
: Production : Productivity -

0.2 mt
300 kg/ha

Ethiopia is the the major niger produc ing country in the world
Maharastra ranks first both in area (0.21 m ha) and production (0.035 mt) in the country.
62

Productivity is highest (500 kg/ha) in Orissa.

Climate

It is a temperate region crop and also adapted to semi-tropical environment.

Niger is a short day plant
Requires moderate temperature of 18-23oC for its growth.
Temperature above 30oC growth rate and flowering are adversely affected and hastens maturity.
Frost will kill the young seedlings.
Rainfall of 1000-1300 mm is optimum although 800 mm will produce reasonable yield.
The peak flowering period of crop should not coincide with rainy periods as the honey bees, which
are main pollinators, are disturbed ,resulting in poor seed setting.
High wind or rain at seed maturity will cause severe maturity.
Temperature below 10oC, emergence is restricted leading to in adequate stand establishment.

Soil

Niger is grown on all soils from sandy deep clay loam.

Crop prefers light textured soil, but well drained heavy soils can be used for cultivation.
Niger tolerates water logged soils, it is resistant to poor oxygen supply in soil by developing
Arenchyma cells
Can tolerate salinity to some extent, increased salinity delays flowerings.
Grows well in the soils having pH 5.2 to 7.3.

Tillage / land

Since a small seed, leveled seed bed is essential to ensure uniform planting and subsequent
emergence.
Good tilth is obtained by 1 or 2 ploughings followed by 2 harrowings.
In hilly areas furrows run across the slope to avoid soil erosion.

Season

2 seasons : Kharif : June July

Rabi
: September (under stored soil moisture)

State

Sowing time

Andhra Pradesh

2nd week of August Mid of September

Madhya Pradesh

2nd and 3rd week of July

Maharas htra

June end to early August

Karnataka

June August

Orissa

3rd week of July first week of August

63

Varieties

Recommended improved varieties are Ootacamand, GA 10, Phulbani, GAZ, GA 10, CHH4,
RCR 317, TN 5 and Gujarat Niger, Mature in 75-100 days.

Seed rate and spacing

Seed rate depends on method of sowing

(a) Broadcasting : 8 kg/ha
(b) Line sowing : 5 kg/ha
Spacing : 30 x 10 cm
Optimum plant population varies from 2,50,000 to 3,00,000 plants/ha.
Thinning should be completed within 20 DAS to maintain required plant density.

Nutrient management

Crop is mostly grown on marginal and submarginal lands without manure or fertilizers.
Niger Responds to fertilizers
N recommendation varies from 10-40 kg/ha in different states
In Andhra Pradesh : 20 kg N/ha
Soil P levels are low in many areas where niger is grown.
Application of 40 kg P2O5 / ha is recommended for niger.
Since niger is continuously grown in same land every year in mixed cropping there is
possibly of mycorrihzae root relationship in the soils.
10 kg P2O5 / ha is used when the niger is rotated with well fertilized crops in rotation.
However recommended fertilizer schedule is 20 + 20 kg NP /ha
Recommended fertilizer should be applied by placement using seed drill.
Half of N + entire dose of P should be applied as basal at sowing.
Remaining half dose of N should be top dressed at 30 DAS preferably coinciding with
rainfall.

Water management

Niger is invariably grown in rainy season and it is not irrigated mostly.

It is reported that niger yields can be doubled under irrigation.
Irrigation is to be scheduled according to soil and climate conditions (as there is no much
information available on irrigation . )
Irrigation must be given at seedling stage for proper growth followed by based on the needs
of the crop.
Check basin or border strip system of irrigation is ideal for niger.

Weed management

Niger grows rapidly once the seedlings are established and dense growth competes with
weeds
Two weedings first at 15 DAS and second at 30-35 DAS before top dressing.

64

Dodder (Cuscuta chinensis) is a parasitic weed in Orissa, on niger, which can effectively
controlled by pre-emergence herbicide Pronamide @ 2 kg per ha and as Po-emergence as
soil treatment @ 20 DAS.

Harvesting and threshing

Normally matures in about 80 -145 days after emergence.

Stage of harvest :- when leaves dry up, head turns brown or blackish or 45-50% of moisture
content in buds.
After drying in the sun for about a week by stacking ,then the crop is taken to threshing floor
and crop is manually threshed.
Crop is also threshed by trampling under the feet of bullock.
Threshed produce is winnowed in the wind and clean seeds are obtained.
Yield : Pure crop : 400 500 kg ha -1.
Inter crop : 150 300 kg ha -1
Storage

Seeds are sun dried for 2-3 days.

Stored in gunny bags in houses with good ventilation.
High humid coupled with moisture conditions prevailing inside store houses should be
avoided.
For small farm seed storage 200 litres oil drums fitted i.e., lids have proved effective for
storage

Quality considerations

Niger seed contains 35-40% oil, ash 4 - 5.8%, 20% - protein, crude fibre content is 10%
Niger oil is pale yellow, nutty in taste and sweet odour, and low acidity in raw oil hence used
in cooking.
Linoleic acid is major fatty acid, followed Oleic acid also.
Niger cake contains 24-34% protein, 4-14% oil, 8-24% crude fibre, 20-28% sugar and 8-12%
ash.

Economic importance

75% of niger seed produced is used for extraction of oil in India, and rest is used for food
in confectioneries making, also Exported to western countries as cage bird feed
Consumed by sheep
Niger also used as green manure
Niger seed cake is a valuable cattle feed
Niger seed is used as human food
Oil is subjected to oxidative and rancidation , reducing its keeping quality poor, due to high
Oleic acid (38%) and linoleic acid (51.6%).
Oil is used for culinary purposes
Used for manufacturing paints and soft -soaps and cosmetics
Niger oil is used as a base oil in perfume industry
Niger oil is use for pharmaceutical purpose
Niger based agar medium which is required for brain ailment.

65


Crop in field

66

Lecture No - 13

Castor (Ricinus Communis)

v
v

Castor belongs genus : Ricinus, Family : Euphorbiaceae

Known as Erand in Hindi Amudam in Telugu plays an important role in countrys Vegetable oil
economy.
Castor is one of the ancient important non-edible oil seed crop which has industrial and me dicinal
value.
Ricinus is derived from latin term Dogs Tick because of the resemblance of mottling on the seed
to the common pests of dog.
Cultivated chiefly for trading, since it has no food value
Castor is coined by English Traders, who confused the oil with Vataxagnus castus.
Though generally known as castor bean plant, its seed is the castor bean which, despite its name, is
not a true bean .
To many people the castor plant is just an overgrown, undesirable weed, and yet it produces one of
nature's finest natural oils
It is used as a lubricant in high-speed engines and aeroplanes.

v
v
v
v
v
v
v

Origin & Distribution

Castor is a native of east Africa especially Ethiopia
India, Brazil, China, Argentina, USA, Thailand, Queensland, Egypt and Sudan are the
important countries producing countries.
v
In India, important states producing castor are Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and to some extent T.N,
Karnataka, Orissa Madhya Pradesh and Bihar.

v
v

Area, Production and Productivity

World
Area
Production
Productivity

1.5m/ha
13 mt
900 kg/ha

India

Andhra Pradesh

0.72 ha
0.9 mt
1221 kg/ha

157 l/ha
087 l/tons
511 kg/ha

Globally, India ranks first both in area and production.

Productivity of castor is highest in Gujarat (1650 kg/ha).

Morphology
Castor plants is of 2 types : Tall / Giant types with perennial habit,tap root system
: Short / Dwarf types with shorter duration

Stem : is Round, glabrous, bluish ,waxy gives resistance to jassids, hoppers.

Stem is solid in gaint types and become hallow with age in dwarf types.

Leaves are large, green in color, glossy and sometimes red due to anthocyanin pigmentation.
Usually leaves consist of 5 to 11 lobes.

Inflorescence: Forms a pyramidal raceme, spike / candle born terminally on main lateral
branches

Lower portion of raceme consists of male flowers and upper portion bears female flowers and the
ratio between them is varietal character and influenced by climate.

High temperature leads to maleness, spraying gibberellins tends to increase the female flowers
67

Plant produces the flowers over an extended period through out the year.
Fruit : It is globular capsule, spiny becomes hard and brittle when ripened
Seed : Capsule contains 2-3 seeds, oval shape, shiny, brittle, white/brown /black/red with a mottling
on testa. Seed size varies with variety in diff. racemes on same plants
Seed has dormancy for many months. But dwarf type are non dormant and germinates with in 10-12
days
Climate
Basically a warm season crop grows in temperate and tropical regions throughout the world.
Can be successfully grown from 300 -1800 m above sea level
Castor production lies between 40o N and 40o S
In India successfully grown upto 1500 m
Temperature:- Requires moderately high temp of 200-260 C with low humidity through out
growing season to give high yields.
Low temperature extends emergence, making more liable to attack by fungal diseases & insects.
High temperature 410 C results in blasting of flowers & poor seed set.
A frost free growing period between 130-190 days depending on cultivar is necessary for
satisfactory yields.
Day length : Basically a long day plant, fairly adaptable to day length from 13-18 hrs.
Rainfall :- 600-760 mm rainfall is required.
For optimum growth and development - 100 mm evenly distributed rainfall in first few months
period is desirable.
Soils
Grows on any type of soil, well drained, sandy loams will produce optimum yields.
Crop is sensitive to excessive moisture.
In Andhra Pradesh grown in sandy loams and shallow black soils.
Prefers slightly acidic pH of 5- 6.5, but can also grow upto pH 8.
Tillage / and land preparation

As castor crop is deep rooted plant with the trap root system extending beyond 2-3 meters for
extraction of soil moisture from deep layers, deep plouging (<45cm) and chiseling in shallow soils
with sub surface hard pan is adopted to support deep root system, reducing weeds.
Castor is a hardy crop for better crop insitu moisture conservation, summer tillage or offseason
tillage with pre-monsoon rains helps in removal of weeds for better infiltration and rain water
retention.

Varieties
S.
No.

Variety

Season

Kranti

Kharif /

1.
(P.C.S 4)
2.

Haritha (P.C.S
124)

Duration (in
days)

Yield
q/acre

Characters

90-150

5.6-6.4

Drought tolerant bold seed.

Suitable for late sown
conditions.

90-150

5.6-6.4

Wilt tolerant

Rabi
Kharif /
Rabi

68

Kiran

Kharif /
90-150

5.2-6.0

Drought tolerant escapes

Botrytis to some extent

Kharif /
summer

90-150

4.8-6.0

Wilt tolerant

Kharif

150-180

4-4.8

Tolerant to wilt and Botrytis

disease

3.
(P.C.S 136)
Jyoti
4.
(D.C.S 9)

Rabi

Jwala
5.
(48-1)

6.

P.C.H. 1

Kharif/ Rabi

90-180

Suitable for rainfed conditions.

Tolerant to drought. 1st bunch
5.6-7.2
will come to maturity early.
15days earlier than GCH-4

7.

G.C.H. 4

Kharif

150-210

5.6-7.2

Tolerant to wilt and root rot.

Tolerant to drought.

8.

D.C.H 32

Kharif for
rainfed
conditions

90-180

5.6-7.2

Comes to harvest early

9.

D.C.H 177

Kharif / Rabi
for rainfed
conditions

90-180

6.0-7.6

Drought tolerant

Aruna(220-280 days), and short duration varieties like Bhagya and Sowbhagya are the oldest
varieties of cator.

Seasons and sowing time:

Kharif
Rabi
Summer

:
:
:

with the onset on the monsoon, June 15th is a ideal time of sowing
September to October
January

Seed Rate

Rainfed crop :
Irrigated crop :

12 - 15 kg/ha : w ith plant population of 55,000 plants / ha

5 - 6 kg/ha : with the plant population of 18,500 plants/ha
69

Varieties
Kranthi, Haritha, Kiran etc released by ANGRAU
Jyothi, Jwala, DCH-177, DCH-519 relased by DOR Hyderabad.
Spacing
Regions

All castor areas

(Rainfed)

Andhra Pradesh
& Gujarat

Delayed planting
(in want of rains)

Cultivar
Improved vars / Hybrids

Hybrids

60 x 15

Spacing (cm)
90 x 20 or 60 x 30

90 x 60

60 x 30
(Ideal to curtail veg. growth.)

Seed is sown in furrow behind plough furrow at 10-12 cm below soil surface.
Fertilized drill is preferred in rainfed areas and widely spacing of 90 cm in larger areas.
Dibbing the seed either in flat bed or at the base of ridge is common under
irrigated conditions.
Nutrient Management

Crop yielding 2000 kg seed removes around 80 kg N, 18 P 2 05, 32 kg K2O,

12 kg Ca, 10
kg Mg ha-1
Nitrogen application is related to available soil moisture through rain/ irrigation.
For improved varieties under rainfed conditions, 90-140 kg N/ha is recommended
For hybrids under irrigated conditions, 200 kg N/ha is recommended

Phosphorus :- Under rainfed condition, 30 kg P 2 O 5 / ha is adequate

Improved cultivars responds upto 75 kg P2 O 5 / ha

Potassium : Tropical soils are well supplied with available K

But application of N & P may result in increased potassium uptake

Recommended fertilizer schedule:

Rainfed conditions in Andhra Pradesh : 40-60 + 40 +30 kg N P K/ha.

Irrigated conditions in Andhra Pradesh : 80-100 + 40 + 30 kg/NPK/ha.
Under rainfed conditions nitrogen should be applied in three splits
50% of the dose at sowing time, 25% at 35 40 DAS, 25% at 65- 75 DAS.
Under irrigated conditions nitrogen should be applied in four splits.
30 kg N at sowing , 60 kg N splitted three times with 20 kg each time at 30-35 days,
60-65 days, and 90-95 DAS
70

Entire dose of P & K should be applied basally at sowing time.

Use of Single Super phosphate as a source of P can meet the requirements of S
Calcium, Magnesium.

Integrated nutrient management involving crop rotations with legumes, green

manures, phosphate solubilising bacteria etc will reduce the cost on fertilizers
besides improving the soil fertility.
Alley cropping or Green leaf manuring with subabul, contributed to N pool in soil
Water management

Castor is drought tolerant rainfed crop but responds well to irrigation.

Water requirement of castor crop is 500-700 mm.
Flowering and seed development stages are more sensitive for moisture stress.
Scheduling Irrigation: - Information on scheduling of irrigation is limited but it is desirable to
give heavy irrigations at longer intervals than the frequent irrigations.
In a crop duration of 180 days, require around 6 irrigations to obtain optimum yield
As the crop is sensitive to water logging, furrow method of irrigation is ideal as it drains out the
excess water from the field.
In Rabi, first irrigation should be given at 50 DAS after sowing, followed by irrigations at an
interval of 20 days.
Weed Management

Castor crop is highly susceptible to weed competition in intital stages, has the growth of castor is
slow initially and larger area is exploited by weeds.

Hence, weed control is of paramount importance.

Critical period for weed free competition is 45-50 days.

Clean cultivation in terms of summer ploughing and thorough seed be d preparation eliminates
weeds to a larger extent before sowing of castor.

For rainfed castor : 2-3 intercultivation with blade harrow ,starting from 20 DAS along with
manual weeding is ideal.

For irrigation castor : 2-3 hand weedings at an interval of 15 days starting from 15 DAS is ideal.

Herbicides are economical in irrigated castor.

PPI herbicides : Fluchloralin (0.75-1.0), Trifluralin (0.75-1.0), EPTC (2.0 2.5),

Nepatalam (3.5-4.0)
Pre -emergence herbicides : Alachlor (1.0 -1.5),
Metalachlor (1.0-1.5),
Pendimethalin (1.5- 2.0), Nitrofen (1.5-2.0)

Harvesting

Harvesting castor spikes should be done at right time

15-20% of yield is lost in the field due to dehiscence of capsules under rainfed
conditions of A.P waiting for all the spikes to come to maturity for single harvesting.
On an average, castor plant produces 4-5 sequential order spikes over a span of 180
240 days.
Main spike is ready for harvest within 100 days after seeding, subsequent harvest can be done at 30
days interval in improved cultivars.
Optimum stage for harvest is capsules turning yellow and starts drying.
71

 Pre-mature harvest should be avoided.

Dried capsules on the spike are plucked, /collected and threshed instead of cutting the
entire spike from the plant.
Harvested spikes are usally placed in heaps around one week and than sun dried for a
couple of days.
Threshing is done by beating with the sticks or trampling under the cattle feet or tractor or power
operated threshers.
Castor seed can be stored in gunny bags without loss for three years.
Storage Of Seed

Castor-seed is very hard and does not require much care during storage.
No insect or fungus attacks the seeds.
Under ordinary conditions of storage in jute (gunny)bags, the oil and the free fatty acid content of the
seeds are not affected even after three years of storage.
Usually, castor - seeds are not required to be stored in warehouses over long periods.
Being an important industrial and export commodity, it is immediately crushed locally or exported.
In warehouses, castor seed is stored in gunny bags.
Sometimes, if the bags get wet due to high humidity or leakage of rain-water, the seeds become
slightly mouldy but this does not affect either the oil or the free fatty acid contents.
With sun drying, the source of damage can be eliminated.
It is recommended that castor seeds be dried to 7-8% moisture content before storing.
At domestic or farm level, storage of large quantities of castor seed is not recommended as it
occupies a considerable space
Castor seed is also not recommended to be stored in open as both heat and sunlight damage the
germination and reduce the oil content.
Artificial low temperature storage also affects the viability.
Castor seed stored at 5 to 70C temperature for 6 months reduced the germination percentage.
During bagging the seeds, handling should be minimized.
On large scale handling, wooden scoops, shovels and rubber conveyor belts are recommended.
Seeds should be stored at dry place and cooler part of the house.
Quality considerations:Oil content ranges from 40-45%, 12-16% proteins 27% of carbohydrates 23-27% fibre.
Dehulled types contains 60-70% of oil and 18-26% protein.
Castor oil is unique that it contents 85-90% ricinolic acid which imparts high degree
of viscocity and oxidative stability, four times stable than olive oil.
Castor cake contains 6% nitrogen, 2.5% P2 O 5, 1.5% K20, as it contains toxic
constituents, unfit for edible puropose, except to poultry, cannot be fed to any animals.
Castor seed contains an alkaloid called recinine which is extremely poisonous.
Economic importance:Seed consist of oil ranging from 50-55%, the various uses of castor oil is ascribed because of presence
of fatty acid called as ricinolic acid.
Oil is used as lubricant, because of its quality, can remain as liquid at low temperature 320C and
viscouys at high temperature.
Used in textile soaps, cosmetics, nylon, pharmaceuticals, paints, varnishes, dying, carbon and
papermaking
Used for production of wetting agents, detergents, sebacic acid, secondary octyl alchol, undecylinic,
acid, resins, fibres etc.
72

Associated with medicinal and veterinary use of obstetrics, dermatology etc.

Used as purgative, laxative and a soothing medium for eye diseases.
Used in production of artificial leather, printing inks.
In cytogenetic studies, soaking root tips in oil for 2 hr help in excellent chromosomes spreading
It is a good source for synthetic flower scents and fruit flavours.
Castor cakes is used as a manure and anti termite products
Protein from a castor seed is used to produce distemper; oil bound water paints, adhesives, casein
plastics.
Pulp from the stem mixed with the bamboo pulp produce papers.
Green leaves are used in raising eri silkworms.
Grown as shade crop in turmeric, windbreak in sugarcane, as an attractant to catch pests in tobacco.
Few castor seeds are mixed in safe storage of sesame seeds.
Intercropping combinations
recommended/practised

Proportion

States

Castor + Red gram

1:1

Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Cowpea

1:2

Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Blackgram

1:2

Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Greengram

1:2

Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Cluster bean

1:1

Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Groundnut

1:5 or 1:7

Andhra Pradesh

Castor + Groundnut(Bunch)

1:3

Gujarat

Castor + Soybean

1:1

Bihar

Castor + Sunflower(Hybrid)

1:1

Gujarat(Irrigated)

Castor + Lathyrus

1:5

Bihar

Castor(Local)+turmeric

1:5

Bihar

CASTOR PLANT

Male & Female flowers

Castor with spikes

73

Flowering stage

Capsule formation

74

Castor with dried capsule

Castor seeds

75

Lec No: 14: AGRONOMY

Course No: AGRO-301 (Crop Production-II)

Cotton- Importance-Origin-Distribution-Cotton growing Zones- ClassificationSoil, Climatic requirements-Seasons- Seeds & sowing.
Cotton
Cotton is one of the oldest and the most important commercial crop of the world and forms
the most important fibre crop. Cotton textile industry is the oldest Agricultural industry of India. The
fibre obtained from seed is used for variety of purpose. But major use of fibre is manufacturing of
textiles which provide clothing to the mankind. Ever since the dawn of civilization, cotton served the
purpose of providing this need and even today it dominates despite of the production and marketing
of many synthetic fibres Cotton is referred to as King of Fibres and also known as White Gold
Cotton is also used for several other purposes like making threads, for mixing in other fibres
and extraction of oil from the cotton seed. Oil content ranges from 15-25 percent.
Cotton seed cake after extraction of oil is good organic manure contains 6.4% N, 2.9% P2O5
and 2.2% K2O.
Cotton seed and pulp obtained during oil extraction and cotton meal are good concentrated
feed for cattle.
Origin and History:
Cotton has been used as a fabric in India from time immemorial. It has been cultivated in the
Indus Valley for more than 5000 years before. The excavations of Mohen jo- daro indicates a high
degree of art in spinning and weaving with cotton at that time. It finds mention in the Rigveda, the
oldest scripture of the Hindus. Manu also refers to it in his Dharma Shastra. India appears to have
been the centre of an important cotton industry as early as 1500 B.C. The cultivation of Cotton
spread from India to Egypt and then to Spain and Italy. Every available evidence proves that India is
the original habitat of Cotton.
The cultivated Species are divided into two groups.
They are Old world cotton:
India is the major cotton growing country, growing all four species of cotton commercially.
India is considered as centre of origin of old World cotton and believed that two Species (arboreum
and herbaceum) belonging to old world cotton have spread along the commercial routes to several
countries in the East and also to the Northern countries like Africa to Egypt and other Mediterranean
regions through trade and business.
New World cotton:
Cotton belonging to species barbadense are derived from a perennial cotton, a native of Peru
called Tangins. This variety was introduced into USA and by selection a new type of annual cotton
was developed known as Sea Island Cotton which was the longest and finest fibre of all the
cultivated cotton. Hirsutum species is the native of Central Mexico and spread to other parts of USA,
Asia, Africa etc from native place.
Area and distribution:
Cotton is the most important fibre crop of the world cultivated over an area of 34.5 ha with a
total production of 54.5 mt.
The important cotton growing countries are India, USA, Russia, China, Brazil, Egypt,
Pakistan, Turkey, Mexico and Sudan. These ten countries account for nearly 85% of the total
production.

76

Climate:
It is a tropical crop and thrives well in hot and humid climate. It is heat loving and sun
loving(heliophyte) plant. A daily minimum temperature of 16oC is required for germination and 21
to 27oC for proper vegetative growth. It can tolerate temperature as high as 43 oC, but does not do
well if the temperature falls below 21oC. During fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27
to 30oCand cool nights are needed.
Abundant sunshine during the crop growth period particularly the period of boll maturation
and harvesting is essential to obtain a good quality produce. Successfully grown in areas receiving
an average annual rainfall ranging from 500mm, of which 175-200mm should be received during
crop growth period. If, during the fruiting period heavy showers of rain occur or heavy irrigation is
applied, shedding of the flowers and young bolls results. At harvesting also high rainfall is not
desirable since it not only affects the quality of lint but also delays harvesting and makes the
harvesting difficult.
Cotton is highly sensitive to frost occurrence. Even for short period, frost will result in killing
of plant cells and severe frost situation, death of entire plant occurs. Hence, its cultivation is confined
to plains and extends from MSL occur s to an altitude of 1000 m only. For successful crop, it requires
a frost free period of a minimum of 180-200 days, starting from the emergence of the plant.
Soils:
Cotton is a deep rooted crop. As the tap root extends even up to a depth of 200-250cm deep
soils are ideal for better root penetration and development. Soils should have good water retention
capacity as most of the cotton is confined to rainfed conditions.
Soils must be well drained and well aerated since the crop is sensitive to water logging. Crop can
tolerate P H of 5.5 to 8.5. The Principle soil types for cotton cultivation in the country are
a) Alluvial Soils: Punjab, Rajasthan , Haryana, U.P, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Assam, Godavari,
Krishna region (A.P)
b) Black Cotton Soils: Central and Western M.P, parts of M.S, South Orissa, South and Coastal A.P,
North Karnataka
c) Red Soils: Tamilnadu, Karnataka, N-E parts of AP, Parts of MP, Orissa, Assam, UP, West Bengal,
Rajasthan
d) Laterite Soils: Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, E Parts of A.P, Tamil Nadu, Assam, and
Kerala.
Land Preparation:
he field, after the harvest of the preceding crop, should be ploughed 15-20cm deep with
mould board plough. There after two to four harrowings depending upon the soil type are done. After
each ploughing, planting is essential to make soil pulverized, leveled. No stubbles of the previous
crop should be left in the field. For irrigated crop, particularly in North, the field should be prepared
by applying heavy pre-sowing irrigation.
Seeds and Sowing :
Time of Sowing:

77

Time of sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract and is generally early
April May in N -India and is delayed as one goes down to south.
Cotton is essentially grown as Kharif crop in the major parts of the country - Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, U.P, M.P, Gujarat, MS and parts of A.P and Karnataka. In these areas Irrigated crop
March to May, Rainfed Crop June/July
In parts of Gujarat and M.P, pre-monsoon dry sowings are practiced in the end of May or early June
to give early stand to the crop.
T.N. Irrigated and rain fed Sept/Oct, Summer sowings Feb/March
A.P.
Northern region June/July, Central region Aug/Sept, July/Aug(Hybrids)
Eastern region July/Aug, Rice fallows Dec/Jan
Seed rate is influenced by the variety and method of sowing.
High yielding variety 10 to 15kg/ha, Hybrids 2.5 to 3.0kg/ha
Spacing: Straight varieties 45 to 60X15cm (R)
-90 to 120X45 to 60 cm (I)
Hybrids
-90 to 150X45 to 60 cm
Method of Sowing: Seed drill /behind the plough, dibbling (hybrids)
Depth of Sowing: 4 to 6cm
No. of seedlings/hill: Varieties 2, Hybrids 1
Seed treatment :
The seed of the most of the cotton varieties particularly of American types is covered by short
fibre called Fuzz. The fuzz makes the seeds cling together, thus hampering their free passage through
the seed hopper and tubes of the seed drill or they are not easily separated for sowing by dibbling.
The fuzz also interferes with the absorption of the water by the seed and delays germination. The
H2SO4 poured on seed and simultaneously. Wash the seed with fresh water followed by lime water
again with fresh water to neutralize the acid residues. The fuzz gets burnt and immediately washed 34 times in water and dried under shade. This is called delinting. Delinting can be done mechanically
in the cotton gin or chemically or the seed is rubbed with mud or a mixture of earth and fresh cow
dung. By this treatment, the fuzz on each individual seed becomes pasted on the seed itself and the
seeds no longer cling to each other.
In order to control the seed borne diseases the seed is treated with 0.01% Streptomycin
Oxytetracyclin (Paushamycin or Agrimycin) and with 0.1% Systemic fungicide like carboxin
(vitavax) solutions for 6-8 hours. The treated seed should be dried in shade before sowing.
Gap filling and thinning:
To maintain optimum population, gap filling is done with the same stock of seed which
was used at the time of sowing. This is done on the 10th day. Wherever seed has not germinated to
fill the gaps, the water soaked seeds are dibbled so as to have quick emergence or seedlings are
raised in polythene bags at the time of sowing and these are used for gap filling. So that crop growth
is uniform.
Thinning should be done within 3 WAS, by removing the excess seedlings that are weak,
diseased or damaged and retaining robust and strong plants. The main objective is to maintain
optimum plant population per unit area.

78

Lec No: 15:

Cotton- Zones of India, Classification of Cottons

Cotton growing regions of India:

Cotton is cultivated in Inida from SubHimalayan region of Punjab in the North to Kerala in
south and from dry regions of Kutch to high rainfall areas of Manipur in East. Based on soil, climate
and types of cotton grown, the country is divided into six cotton growing tracts.
1. Northern hirsutum: arboreum region: Comprises of Punjab, Western UP, Delhi, Haryana and
N.W.Rajasthan. This is most important cotton growing and potential region. More than 90%
of the area in this zone is irrigated. Two species of cotton i.e hirsutum and arboreum are
grown in this region. At present 60% of the total cotton acreage consists of hirsutum varieties
and growing of arboreum has assumed secondary importance. The soils are of alluvial origin.
2. Central arboreum region: This region comprises of many districts of M.P, Maharastra,
Gohilwad, Amreli dts of Gujarat and Adilabad dt of A.P. Entire region is characterized by
black cotton soils locally called REGAR soils which are highly suitable for cotton
cultivation.
3. Southern hirsutum arboreum region: Comprise the states of Tamilnadu and Kerala. Major
soil groups are red soils but also grown on sandy and heavy black soils.
4. Central herbaceum arboreum hirsutum: Comprises A.P and Karnataka. The principal soils
on which cotton is gr own are coastal alluvium, deltoic alluvium, red, black cotton soils, lat
erite and loamy soils. The major area of cotton is confined to black cotton soils (80%)
5. Western herbaceum region: Comprises of Gujarat and parts of Bombay and Karnataka.
Improved varieties of cotton are grown in this region. Major soil group is black cotton soil
followed by loamy soil.
6. Eastern region : Comprises the states of Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Manipur and
Tripura. Longest zone with respect to area but the production is negligible from this region.

Cotton growing zones of A.P:

Cotton cultivation is spread over three distinguished areas i.e. Coastal, Rayalaseema and
Telangana regions which vary widely in climate and soil types and also production levels. In A.P
Cotton growing regions are divided into three regions.
I ) Northern region:
It comprises of Adilabad, Warangal and Nizamabad districts. Two distinct cotton grown
zones are there in this zone.
1) High plains locally ca lled as Ghat areas of Adilabad : Soils are black cotton soils which are fairly
deep and highly water retentive .Fairly assumed rainfall of 750mm from June to October. Most of the
area cultivated during Kharif with American cotton.
2) Low altitude plains or Gaorani tract comprising parts of Adilabad, Nizamabad and Medak. Soils
are black cotton soils and are less deeper, rain fall is 550mm and is often ill distributed under rainfed
79

condition desi cotton is grown and under irrigated condition of Sri Ram Sagar command area
American cottons are grown.
II) Central region:
Traditional cotton growing area of Rayalseema. Desi cottons ( G.arboreum and G. herbaceum)
and American cotton (G.hirsutum) are grown purely under rainfed conditions distributed over three
districts of Kurnool, Kadapa and Anantapur. Based on the agro climatic conditions and varieties
grown, this region is sub divided into four tracts.
1.Mungari tract (early kharif planting): G.arboreum cottons are grown in light red and black loam
soils of KNL, KDP and ATP Dts during early Kharif season.
2.White Northern tract: Desi cotton G.arboreum are grown as late Kharif (Hingari) season. The soils
are very deep and highly moisture retentive. However, the mean annual rainfall of 650 mm which is
most unpredictable both in intensity and distribution.
3.Rainfed American Cotton tract: American cottons are grown during late Kharif season as Hingari
cotton. Dominant soils are black cotton soils. Mean annual RF 650mm with normal distribution.
Confined to rainfed conditions but in Tungabhadra command area grown as irrigated crop.
4.Western tract: Desi cottons(G.herbaceum) are grown during late Kharif (Hingari) season under
rainfed conditions. Low rainfall region i.e 450-500mm annually.
III) Western region:
Based on climate and soil it is divided into two cotton growing areas.
1.Kharif cotton areas: It comprises of the Nagarjuna Sagar Project ayacut areas of Guntur, Prakasam,
Krishna, Nalgonda and Khammam Dts. Two types of soils viz black and light red soils are available
in 2:1 proportion. The annual rainfall in the region is 900-1100mm. The American cottons are grown
under irrigated and rainfed conditions.
2.Rabi/Rice follows area: It comprises parts of Krishna and Nellore dt. And confined to rice fallows
with supplemental irrigation. Both desi and American cottons are cultivated in this zone.
India ranks first in the world in respect of acarage with about 9.0 m ha under cotton and
fourth in total seed cotton production (10-14 m bales).
In India, cotton is cultivated on a large scale in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Tamilnadu and Uttar Pradesh. Gujarat is
the largest producer of cotton in India followed by Maharashtra. Maharashtra is first in area with
nearly 3.0 m ha.
Classification:
The predominant species cultivated
Gossypium hirsutum
- >90% of the area

arboretum
- 5%
Gossypium herbaceum
2%
Gossypium barbadense
negligible
Gossypium hirsutum:
(American Cotton) Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (26) plants are either
annual shrubs or large perennial shrubs (1-1.5mt tall), Flowers are creamy white in colour when first
open and turn pink or red later. The capsules are 3-5 locular with 5-11 seeds in each locule. Seed
contain a thick coat of lint hair besides a thick coat of fuzz hair. Fibre is medium coarse and length
varies from to 11/4 (27-30mm)

80

Gossypium barbadense:
(Sea island / Egyptian Cotton): Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (26). Plants
are either anuual shrubs or perennial shrubs. Petals are yellow with purple spot at the base. Capsules
are 3.5 locular w ith 5-8 seeds, in each locule. Seeds bear a thick coat of lint and thick coat of fuzz
and fuzz may be absent in some varieties. Fibre is fine and extra long ranging from 1/2 to 2 length.
Lint is readily detachable from the seed.
Gossypium arboreum:
Species contain haploid number of chromosomes (13). Plant may be annual sub shrub or
perennial. Capsules are tapering with prominent oil glands in the pits and are 3 or 4 locular with 6-17
seed in each locule . Seeds are usually covered with two coats of hair (lint +fuzz). Fibre is coarse and
short and length varies from to 7/8
Gossypium herbaceum:
Haploid number of chromosomes (13). Plants are sub shrubs. Capsules are brown provided
with beak, smooth surface or with shallow pits with oil glands. The capsules are 3-4 locular with 810 seeds in each locule. Seeds are covered with two coats of hair (lint+fuzz). Fibre is coarse and
short with lint length varying from 1 /2 to 7/ 8
Branching in Cotton: There are two types of branches observed in cotton.
Monopodial branches:
They arise from basal region upto 1/3rd height of the plant, few in number, they does not bear
flowers, also termed as vegetative branches. They appear as growing straight. They bare sympodial
branches.
Sympodial branches:
They arise from main stem as well as on monopodial branches. They are many in number,
they bear flowers on it, hence also termed as reproductive branches. The growth pattern of
sympodial branches is stop-grow -stop pattern.

81

Lec No: 16:

Cotton- Manures and Fertilizers- Water Management- Weed ManagenmentTopping- Bud and Boll Shedding- Harvesting.

Manures and Fertilizers:

15 to 20 t Fym/ha should be incorporated into the soil at last ploughing. Recommended dose
of fertilizers depends on the variety grow n, whether rainfed or irrigated and the nutrient supplying
capacity of the soil recommended dose is not uniform in all the cotton growing regions.
N/ha
Desi Cotton
: 20 40 kg
American Cotton Varieties : 90 Kg
Hybrids
: 120 Kg

P 2O5/ha
20Kg
45 Kg
60 Kg

K2O/ha
20 Kg
45 Kg
60 Kg

Entire P205 should be applied as a basal dose at last ploughing and duly incorporated in the
soil. Nitrogen and Potassium is applied in three equal splits each at 30, 60 and 90 DAS.
While top dressing, fertilizer should be applied in pockets 7 -10 cm away form the plant and at a
depth of 7 10 cm for a rainfed crop. Fertilizer application should be done only in presence of
adequate moisture. For the irrigated crop, provide irrigation soon after application of fertilizers.

Rain Fed :
Desi
American
Hybrid
Irrigated:
American
Hybrid
Rain fallsVariety
Hybrid

P 2O5

K2O

40
60
90

20
30
45

20
30
45

120
150
135
150

60
75
45
60

60
75
45
60

Water Management :
Cotton is a drought tolerant crop due to its deep root system. Water requirement of the crop
is 600 to 800 mm. Cotton cannot tolerate excess moisture in the soil and so frequent irrigation is not
necessary. Interval between two irrigations depends on the soil type, rainfall and others related
climatic factors. The crop must not be allowed to suffer from water stress during flowering and
fruiting period, otherwise excessive shedding of flower buds and young bolls may occur resulting in
loss of yield. The crop cannot tolerate water logging conditions at any stage of growth.
Critical Stages : Square formation stage
: Flowering stage
: Boll developing stage
82

Weed Management :
First 50 -60 days after sowing is the critical period of Crop Weed Competition, Initially the
crop growth is very slow, thus more vulnerable to weed compertiaton. During this period, the field
should be free form weeds for better growth and higher yields. 5 6 intercultural operations should
be done depending on the intensity of weeds. Weeds near the plant should be removed by manual
labour. Chemical method of managing weeds helps in maintaining the filed weed free. Following
herbicides can be used in cotton.
Pre eme
Pendimethaline @ 1.5 2.0Kg a .i/ha
PPI fluchloralin
@ 1.5 Kg a.i /ha
Pre eme: Alachlor @ 1.5 kg/a.i/ha
Diuron @ 0.8 - 1.0 kg ai /ha
Pronamide @1.5 2.5kga.i/ha
Cinmethiline @ 0.5 -1.5 Kg /ha
Post eme:
Paraquat @ 0.5 Kg a.i/ha or Glyphosate 3.5 4.5 as directed spray on the foliage of
weeds
Topping:
Cotton is indeterminate plant, to check excessive vegetative growth topping is practiced ,
Toping refers to the removal of the terminal bud. Level of topping or at what node topping is to be
done will differs with cotton plant type.
MCV 5: Topping at 15th node level (70 80) DAS resulted in better yields
MCV 7: 10 12th node (90DAS)
Topping is done manually. In USA machines are used . Excessive vegetation growth can also
be controlled by using chemicals which are growth retardant like cycocel (ccc). It restricts excessive
vegetative growth retards senescence, keeping the leaves green for longer time thus prolonging their
effective period.
American Cotton 40 to 60 PPm
Desi cotton 60 to 80 PPm 50 to 80DAS
Bud and Boll shedding:
It is a natural phenomena in cotton . Heavy shedding of flower buds and young bolls occur
which is aggrevated under adverse conditions of soil, climate and management under such situation
it may be as high as 60% . under natural conditions 10 to 15% loss occurs.
Various reasons for bud and boll shedding in Cotton is
1)Unfavaurable Weather conditions:
- Reduced light conditions
- Excess or lack of moistures in the soils
- Cloudiness
-High relative humidity
2) Imbalanced nutrient supply

83

3)Incidence of pest and disease

4) Weeds alter the microclimate
5) Physical injury - due to use of farm machinery
This problem can be minimized by using certain hormones like NAA, since it increases the
supply of auxin to bolls and buds, thus the senescence of them is reduced. Spraying of NAA
planofix @10 ppm at flower initiation (1 ml in 100 liter) 50 60 DAS & 15 days after 1st applicaton
resulted in retention of more bolls.
Harvesting :
Harvesting usually commences in the month of Nov. and extends to March depending upon
sowing time and duration. Harvesting is done usually by manual labour ie hand picking the cotton
from the open matured bolls. Since cotton is indeterminate type, flowering occurs in no. of flushes
hence all the bolls do not mature at a time and bolls come to maturing stage at intervals of 2-4 weeks
period. Harvesting is done in 4 -5 pickings as and when bolls are fully matured. Precautions must be
taken to maintain the quality of fibre at the time of picking.
1)
Picking needs good experience, care is taken that all the cotton from all segments should be
removed in one stroke. without lea ving any fibre in the boll.
2)
Produce from each picking should be dried separately and stored separately . Cotton from all
pickings should not be mixed since they vary in their quality. Cotton should be dried on clean floor
in shade.
3) Kapas should not be contaminated with foreign materials like leaf bits, trash, soil particles etc, at
the time of picking and shading.
While picking weather conditions must be taken into account. Usually pickings are done in
the early hours of the day, As the day advances the fruit wall becomes brittle due to sun and while
picking they easily collapse and contaminate. Picking must commence after cessation of dew fall
Cotton of early picking are of superior quality and later pickings produce inferior quality fibre due to
inadequate nutrient supply at later stapes, high incidence of pest and inadequate moisture at later
stages.
Boll affected with insect is common feature which not only reduce yield but produce yellow
stained cotton which is considered inferior fibre.
Yields :
Dryland crop
Irrigated Crops
Hybrids
1 Bale = 170 kg.

- 10to 15 q/ha
- 25 to 30q/ha
- 35 to 40 q/ ha.

84

Lec No: 17:

Cotton- Quality parameters - Yield attributes

1.Colour of fibre:
Colour of the fibre of cotton is white with few exceptions like desi cotton which have reddish
or yellowish tinge. White coloured cotton which are shiny are considerd as superior cotton. Cotton
obtained from first picking will be bright white in colour and the later produced will be dull or
yellowish tinge in colour. The fibres may also be discoloured or stained by insect damage, fungal
diseases mechanical harvesting and the sap of green plant parts.
Colour of the cotton is decided by visual observation cotton marketed in India are classified on the
basis of visual observation into white , grey, brownish , greenish and light reddish. In lab colour
grading is done by using NICKERSON HUNTER calorimeter,. Where a light is reflected from
sample of cotton and the extent of yellowish tinge is calculated.
2.Length of fibre:
The length of fibre is mainly predetermined by heredity and is only slightly influenced by
growing conditions. fibre length is the mean length of lint hair expressed in mm. longer the length
superior will be the quality.. Presence of excess moisture and poor nutrition will result in long fibre
with poor strength. length is determined by varies methods (at 65%RH &21oC temp.)
1. Seed is combed making halo and length is measured by a disc, which gives mean length
2. By measuring each fibre with scale and getting average length which is teadious ,
laborious and not practicable on large scale.
3. By using digital fibrograph where in sum amount of light is transmitted through the fibre
beared after combing along the fibre length and calculated. On the basis of fibre length ,
cotton is classified into six groups.

Groups
Short staple
Medium staple
Medium long Staple
Long staple
Superior long staple
Extra long staple

Length (mm)
< 19.5
20.0 21.5
22.0 24.0
24.5- 26.5
27.0 29.5
32 & above

Varieties
Lohit , G - 27
Raichur 51 ,DB-3-12
MCV-7,G cot 12
Krishan, JKHY 1
MCU -5 , H4, Amaravathi
Suvin and sujatha

Holo length : it is overall length of the lint w ithout the fibre taken out of the seed
3.Fibre fineness:
It denotes the diameter of the fibre hair or thickness . Lesser the diameter superior is the
quality . Thickness of the fibre ranges from 15-20 microns. Fineness is measured by taking the
weight per unit length of fibre which gives indirectly the finesses because measuring diameter of the
fibre is very difficult as they are thin and minute. Fibre fineness is generally expressed as microgram/
inch of the fibre which is also called micronaire value. It is measured by the
85

1)
Weight /unit length specified number of fibre are taken with known length and weight is
recorded using a sensitive balance.Lesser the weigth, superior is the quality and finer the lint hair.
2)
By using instrument MICRONAIRE . In this cotton plugs are prepared by using known
weigth of cotton lint, i.e. 3-4 gm by pressing in a specially designed cylinder. Air is passed at high
pressure through cotton plugs and fineness is determined indirectly by the flow of air through the
plug. Finer cotton will allow more air to pass than coarse fibre ,. This is calculated on a scale and
expressed as micronaire value. On basis of fineness, cotton are classified into five groups.
Groups
Very fine
Fine
Average
Coarse
Very coarse

Fineness
< 3.0
3.0 3.9
4.0 4.9
5.0 -5.9
>6.0

variety
MCU -5 , Varalaxmi ,H6
H4
AKH -4 ,maljari

4.Fibre strength:
Fibre strength doesnot refer to a individual fibre but to a tuft of fibres of a given thickness. It
is expressed as maximum load in terms of Kg that a fibre bundle can take when stretched in one
direction before it breaks. Strength is determined by using STELOMETER . Generally the tuft of
finer fibre will have greater strength . Fibre strength is measured in thousands of pounds /sq inch or
kg/sq cm and grade is allotted, based on strength cotton is classified into
Group

Grade

Very strong

>95

Strong

86 95

Average

76 85

Fair

66 -75

Weak

66- below

5.Spinng count:
Spinnabilty of the fibre depends on length and thic kness of the fibre . It is expressed in
counts or hanks. A count is the number of hanks that a pound of cotton gives. One count is equal to
840 yards . Thus finer the thread the greater will be the count. Ordinarily Indian cottons have 22
counts . While the best quality cotton may have count ranging between 80 to 400 . On the basis of
spinnability cottons are divided into five groups.
Group
Course Cotton

Counts
1 - 17

Vareties
Maljari

Medium coarse

17-26

AKH4, Sanjay

Superior medium coarse

26 35

Nerma

Fine

35 -48

Bur 1007

Superior fine

40- 80

MCU5, H4, H6

86

> 80

Varalaxmi, Suvin, DCH 12

6.Fibre maturity :
Fibre is matured when the cavity of the lint is completely filled with the cellulose . Extent of
the filling indicate its maturity . According to cellulose content fibres are classifed into
Mature fibres
- Yellowish white fibre
Half mature fibres - Bluish or bluish green
Imature fibre - Deep blue or purple
Trash content or Foreign Matters:
Foreign matter mainly consists of debris of leaves and broken stems of cotton and weeds that
mix very easily with the lint during harvesting the amount of foreign matter remaining in the lint
after ginning depends mainly on the efficiency of the dr ying and cleaning process in the ginning
plant.
Presence of foreign material will reduce the quality and yarn manufactured from such cotton
will have poor strength and gives bad appearance presence of foreign material can be detected and
measured quantitatively by instrument called SHERLY ANALYSER
7.Hygroscopicity:
The dry cotton absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. Presence of moisture in the lint affects
the colour,elasticity, luster etc, and the fibres having moisture break very frequently. Thus the fibres
which absorbs less moisture are considered to be of superior quality and vice-versa.
Ginning percentage:
Recovey of lint from seed cotton is called Ginning percentage. A variety of cotton with high
percentage of ginning is prefered as more lint per unit weight of seed cotton can be obtained form
such varieties. This value ranges form 24 -43 % in different cottons
Barbadense 28-30%, Hirsutum -34-38% , desi cottons -36-42%
GP = Weigth of lint x 100
Weigth of seed cotton
8.Neppiness:
It refers to formation of small knots or specks in the yarn manufactured form cotton. Knots
generally occur if fiber is not cleaned and ginning not done properly, lesser the nippiness, superior is
the quality of fibre. Neps are tangled knots of fibre, caused by mechanical processing.
9.Lint Index :
It is the weight of lint form 100seeds
Lint Index = Weight of 100 seeds x GP
100 G.P
10.Seed Index:
It is the test weight , which is weight of 100 seeds (g). Seed index of cotton varies from 4.8
to 11g.

87

11.Oil content:
It varies from 14.5 to 22.5% is desi cotton and ranges between 17.5 to 22.5 % in American
cottons.

Yield attributes:

1.

Number of plants per unit area.

2.

Number bolls for plant

3.

Seeds per boll

4.

Boll weight

5.

Lint percentage

Coloured cottons:
Natural coloured cottons are in existence in all shades form white to black. As per historical
documents, blue, purple , pink, green, brown cottons were in cultivation and usage in coastal Peru. In
Mexico wild trees of brown cotton are grown as perennial crops. The brown cotton are called
coyoqui and yellow cotton is coyuchi. These are still spun by tribals in Mexico. In Indian brown
cottons of G.arborium and G.herbaceum are grown in some remote areas of Kakinada in AP and
Tripura. The natural colored cotton are environmental friendly and economically viable as they are
sold at premium price. They do not fade on washing. The disadvantage of coloured cotton is as they
yield less, fibres are shorter, low strength , low micronaire value and low maturity coefficient.

88

Lecture No. 18

JUTE FIBRE CROP

Introduction
v Jute is a natural fibre with golden and silky shine and hence known as Golden Fibre.
v Jute is cheapest vegetable fibre and second most important vegetable fibre after cotton.
Origin
v Jute has two cultivable species
1. Corchorus capsularis originated from Indo-Burma region.
2. Corchorus olitorius Originated from Africa
v Wild species of Jute include Corchorus oestuans, Corchorus tridens, Corchorus trilocularis,
Corchorus urticifolices, Corchorus japanicum.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO CULTITVABLE SPECIES OF JUTE
Corchorus capsularis
v Common names White Jute, Tita Jute,
Bitter Jute
v Originated from Indo Burma region
v Colour of the Fibre is White
v It is herbaceous annual with slender and
straight stem and grow s to a height of 1.5
to 4m with tapering stem
v Leaves are glabrous, ovate & oblong
v Stem is green to red in colour, may/may
not branched
v Pods are round in shape
v
Leaves and flowers are smaller but
seeds are larger in size (1g = 300Nos.)
v Fibre Quality is poor

Corchorus olitorius
v Common names Tossa Jute,
Mitha Jute
v Originated from African region
v Colour of the fibre is Yellowish or
Reddish brown
v It has cylindrical stem and grows up
to a height of 5m
v Leaves are glabrous, coarsely
toothed
v Stem is green and are usually
branched
v Pods are elongated
v Leaves and flowers are larger but
seeds are smaller in size
(1g = 500Nos.)

v Longer duration 180 200 days

v Fibre quality is Finer, Softer,

Stronger and more lustrous than
C..capsularis
v Cannot tolerate water logging
grown only on uplands hence
occupying low area of cultivation
v Seed rate 6 to 7 Kg/ha
v Spacing 20 X 5 cm
v Plant population 4.5 lakh/ha
v Seed yield is less but fibre yield is
more.
v Shorter duration 120 to 150 days

v Grown in loamy soils

v Sowing time is February to March

v Grown in sandy loams

v Sowing time is April to May

v Fertilizer requirement is high

v It withstands water logging

v Fertilizer requirement is low

v It withstands drought

v Tolerates water logging, can be grown on

both uplands and lowlands occupying
more area of cultivation
v Seed rate 10 to 11 Kg/hac
v Spacing 30 X 5 cm
v Plant population 2.5 lak/ha
v Seed yield is more but fibre yield is less

89

Distribution:
v Jute is extensively grown in India, Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Mayanmar, Nepal
v In India, it is extensively cultivated in eastern regions like West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,
Assam, Tripura, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh.
Area, Production and Productivity of Jute in India and Andhra Pradesh
State
Area in 000
Production in 000
Productivity in
hectares
bales of 180 Kg
qt/hectare
Assam
69.00
680.00
17.74
Meghalaya
9.6
61.5
12.03
West Bengal
504.5
7032.4
25.09
Bihar
137.1
1100.0
14.44
Orissa
33.8
164.5
8.76
Andhra Pradesh
54.0
425.0
14.17
Tripura
2.2
18.6
15.22
Others
35.7
73.0
6.78
Total
845.5
9555.0
20.34
India is the largest producer and consumer of raw jute
v Bangladesh is largest exporter of Raw Jute
v India stands 1st in area and production of Raw Jute
v In India West Bengal stands 1st in area, Production and Productivity
v 50% of total raw jute production in India is alone from West Bengal
v In Andhra Pradesh, negligible amount of area is under cultivation of Jute and is mostly
confined to North Coastal Zone.
v 1st Jute mill was started production in Bengal in 1856
v Jute is an important crop providing livelihood to 2,50,000 mill workers and 4 million farmer
families.
v Jute plays an important role in improving Indian economy by adding Rs.6089 millions
annually by export..
Properties of Jute:
v It has high tensile strength, low extensibility and ensures better breath ability of Fabrics
v Jute Fibre is 100% biodegradable, recyclable and this environmentally friendly
v Jute has good insulating and antielastic properties
v Jute has low thermal conductivity and moderate moisture gain
v Jute has properties like more heat and fire resistance
v These fibres are grouped under bast fibres and they are lignified
v A bitter glucoside called Corchorin present in white Jute

90

Uses of Jute:
v Jute fibre is used in manufacturing rugs, carpets, coarse fibres, twines and coarse blankets
v Broken fibres of Jute is called Tow which is used in making low grade paper
v Jute waste is used as fuel in ma king activated charcoal
v In market Jute and Mesta fibres are together known as Raw Jute
v Leaves of Jute have medicinal Properties
Types of Jute:
v Based on general utility purposes, Jute is of 4 types
A] Hessian or Burlap:
v Made of good quality Jute Yar n
v It has wide range of applications as in cloth form or in the form of bags
B] Sacking:
v Also known as heavy goods
v It is made from lower grades of fibre and used for bags of all types
C] Canvas:
v Finest Jute product, closely woven of the best grades of fibre widely used in India for
protection from weather
D] Jute Yarn and Twine:
v Most of the single strand Jute Yarn produced in consumed by the mills themselves in
fabric and twine manufacture.
Varieities:
v Varieities of Corchorus capsularis JRC 212, JRC 321, JRC 7447
v Varieities of Corchorus olitorious JRO 524, JRO 878, JRO 835
Jute based cropping systems:
v Under rainfed conditions
1. Jute Wheat
2 crops per year
2. Jute Mustard
v Under irrigated conditions
1. Jute Rice Wheat
2. Jute Rice Potato followed in West Bengal
3. Jute Rice Cauliflower / Cabbage
4. Jute

Potato Rice

(Kharif)-(Rabi)-(Summer)
Soils:

v Alluvial sandy loams and clay loamy soils are the best suited for Jute cultivation.
v Capsularis Jute can grow even in standing water especially towards the latter part of
growth
91

v Olitorius Jute cannot thrive in standing water and is more drought resistant and hence
grown in light soils.
v New grey alluvial soils of good depth, receiving salts from annual floods is best suited for
Jute cultivation
Climate:
v Jute is a rainfed crop
v Grows well in warm and humid climate with temperature in the range of
240 C 370 C with 65-90% relative humidity.
v Jute is mainly grown in Kharif or monsoon season as vegetative growth is more in kharif
that results in higher yields of fibre.
v Alternate sunshine hours and rainy days are congenial for better growth.
v Temperatures less than 20 0C and more than 400C are harmful because it restricts the plant
growth especially the plant height.
v Annual rainfall is 80 to 100cm.
v Low plant population is not preferred because of branching and reduces quality of fibre.
v Early sowing of Corchorus Olitorius is not preferred because it comes to early flowering,
quality is reduced.
v Constant rain or water logging is harmful.
Tillage :
v Deep ploughing is necessary because root system is extensively developed.
v Seed bed should have fine tilth since seeds are very small.
Cultivated
species of Jute
Corchor us
olitorius
Corchorus
capsularis

Seed rate (Kg/ha

Line Sowing

Broad Casting

Spacing
(cm)

No. of Plants
Per Sq.mt

25 X 5

80

10

30 X 5

67

Time and methods of sowing:

v In midlands and high lands sowing starts with summer showers in March and April and
continues till early June in Western part of Jute belt.
v Method of sowing is generally broadcasting or line sowing.

92

Lecture No: 19
Manures and Fertilizers :
v 5 tons of well decomposed farm yard manure should applied in last ploughing.
v Nitrogen should be applied in 2 splits
1st split as basal and 2nd split at 4-6 weeks after sowing.
v Application of Phosphorous reduces the lodging and improves fibre quality .
v Potassium application prevents disease incidence.

Cultivated Species
Corchorus
capsularis

Nitrogen

Phosphorus

Potassium

60 Kg/ha

40 Kg/ha

60 Kg/ha

Corchorus olitorius

40 Kg /ha

40 Kg /ha

60 Kg /ha

Weed Management
v Critical period of crop weed competition is upto 60days after sowing.
v Hand weeding is done thrice at 20-25DAS and 35-40DAS.
v Basal application of herbicide Fluchloralin @ 1.5 Kg/ha at 3 DAS followed by irrigation.
Irrigation:
v Water requirement is 500mm.
v 1st irrigation is given after sowing.
v Life sowing irrigation is given on 4 DAS.
v Afterwards, irrigation is given once in 15 days.
v Critical stages of irrigation are Germination and Knee high stage.

Crop Rotation:
v In crop rotation system, one legume crop must be included so as to improve soil health.
v In light sowing soils green manure crop is grown prior to sowing of Jute.
Harvesting:
v Duration of Corchorus olitorius 120 to 150 days
Corchorus capsularis 180 to 200 days
v Early harvesting gives lower fibre yield but fibre is of finer quality, whereas, late harvesting
gives higher fibre yield but the fibre is coarse in texture
93

v Ideal stage of harvest in Jute is 50% of tender pod formation.

v Late harvesting leads to poor quality fibre due to lignifications of bast fibres
v Harvesting is done by cutting the plants close to ground with sickles.
v Harvested plants left standing in the field for 2-3 days for shedding of leaves.
v Afterwards plants are ready for retting.
v Fibre yield is 6-8 years on wet weight basis of stalks.
Process of Fibre extraction:
Bundle stalks Retting Stripping Washing

Storage / Transport Kutcha packing Boiling Sundry Squeezing excess water

A] Retting
v Retting is a microbial process in which bast fibre gets loosened for an easy separation from
woody stalks
v During retting, gums, pectins and other mucilaginous substances are removed from the
plants by combined action of water and microbiological ac tion.
v Retting is of 2 types Dry retting and Wet retting
v When water is not available for retting immediately after harvest, plants are allowed to dry,
whenever monsoon occurs, dried plants are retted. This process is called Dry retting..
v Harvested plant s are immediately retted directly in water without drying and this process is
called Wet retting.
v Wet retting is preferable than dry retting because of good quality of fibre.
v After 2-4days of harvesting, plants are shaken for complete leaf shedding then they are tied
into bundles of 25cm diameter.
v Then bundles are steeped in standing water vertically, bundles are submerged in water in a
horizontal position laid side by side and tied together to form a sort of platform called Jak.
v Jaks are covered with plants like water hyacinth or any other material which do not release
tannins as well as iron.
v Float is then kept with weight to make the float completely immersed in water.
v Wood logs and concrete slabs may be used for this purpose
v Freshly cut mango logs or banana stems should not be used weighing material of Jak because
tannins coming out from stems reacts with iron of retting water and gives black color to fibre
called Shyamala.
v This colour can be removed or reduced by adding 2% tamarind solution.

94

v For ideal retting, JAKS should be kept submerged of at least 20cm deep .
v Most of the defects in fibre quality are due to improper or incomplete or faulty retting.
v Incomplete submergence results in under retting produces a fibre called crappy fibre which
is of extremely of low value where as over retting results into dazed fibre which is very
weak fibre.
v So gently flowing fairly deep clean and soft water are congenial for ideal retting.
v Optimum temperature of water should be around 340C .
v Retting period is 8-30 days.
v Incase of stagnating water, addition of Ammonium sulphate will hasten up retting process.
v For finding out exact end point of retting, JAKS must be examined every 10-12days.
v Fibre should be slip from the wood easily when the plants are pressed between thumb and
finger.
v Soon after the end point, JAKS or platforms should be taken out of the water and fibre should
be extracted.
B] Stripping:
v Process of removal of fibres from the stalk after completion of retting is called Stripping.
v Fibre may be extracted in two ways Single Reed method and Break Break Jerk Method
v Fibre is extracted by hands either from individual plants or from bundle of 10-12 plants.
C] Washing:
v After extraction, fibre is washed thoroughly in the running water
D] Fibre is Squeezed for Excess Water
E] Sun Drying:
v After squeezing the fibre for excess water, fibre is dried on bamboo frames in the mild Sun.
F] Boiling and Packing:
v Extracted fibre is weighed in amounts of bales
v 1 Bale of Jute =180Kg
v Jute fibres are pressed base d on different grades
v Jute fibre is graded into
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Tops Very Strong Fibre, Good Luster and Colour

Middles Strong Fibre, Average Luster and Colour
Bottom Sound Fibre, Medium Strength
B Bottom Sound Fibre, Medium Strength, not suitable for high grades
C Bottom Medium Strength Fibre, Any Colour
X Bottom Weak Jute

95

Yield:
v Green Plant yield is 45 50 t / ha
v Fibre yield is 2.0 2.5 t / ha

Factors hastening up Retting Process:

1. Warm water
2. Retting in already used water
3. Harvesting time
4. Climate Conditions like high temperatures
5. Deep water ( Too deep water will delay retting )
6. Addition of Chemicals

Quality Parameters:
1. Length of Fibre:
v If the length of the entire fibre is more, more is the quality
2. Strength of Fibre:
v Fibre should offer less resistance while using for packing material and other low grade
yarn.
3. Colour of the Fibre:
Bright Colour is superior
4. Luster of the Fibre:
v Bright fibre of smooth surface will have superior luster
5. Stiffness and Hardness:
v Properly retted fibre will be soft and fine
6 Fitness of Fibre:
v Coarse fibre always fetches low price than fine fibre
7

Percentage of Cuttings of Stem or Percentage of Cutting of Fibre:

v Less the number of cuttings, More the Superiority of fibre

Proportion of faulty materials:

v Roots, Specks, Knots, Runners should be avoided for good Quality.

96

Factors influencing Quality of Fibre:

1. Retting Water Gentle flowing, clean and soft water give good quality
2. Materials used as weights on JAKS
3. Seed rate should be more
4. Stage of harvesting
5. Method of Retting Complete submergence of jak is prefered
6. Variety of Jute C. Olitorius gives good quality fibre than C. capsularis
7. Method of fibre extraction Single Reed Method is preferred
8. Period of Retting under retted or over retted fibres are of inferior quality
v Fibres should be stripped off immediately after Retting Process.

Different Institutes working on Jute:

1. J A R I

- Jute Agricultural Research Institute West Bengal

2. C R I J A F

- Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres

Burrackpur, West Bengal

3. J T R L

- Jute Technological Research Laboratories Kolkota

West Bengal

4. I J M A

- Indian Jute Mills Association

5. J M D C

- Jute Manufacturers Development Council

6. I J I R A

- Indian Jute Industries Researc h Association

7. I J S G

- International Jute Study Group

8. N C J D

- National Centre for Jute Diversification

97

Lecture No. 20

MESTA
Fibres

Natural fibres

Synthetic fibres
Eg:-Nylon
Polyster

Plant Source

Animal Source
Seed fibres
Eg:- Cotton

Eg:- Wool
hair
Silk

Stem/Bast fibres
Eg:-Jute & Mesta
Leaf fibres
Eg:- Agave

MESTA

S.N.: Hibiscus Cannabinus

Hibiscus sabdariffa
Family: Malvaceae
Origin: Hibiscus cannabinus Africa
H. Sabdariffa India

Introduction:
Kenaf is a bast fibre next to jute fibre.. The main kenaf fibre producing species of economic
importance are Hibiscus Cannabinus and Hibiscus sabdariffa. Kenaf is called as Roselle hemp
(H.Sabdariffa). in India. Other commercial (or) Common Names for Mesta, are Deccanhemp,
BimiliJute, Java Jute and Golden green stick., Kenaf is more adaptive than Jute under diverse
conditions of climate and soil and it is also very resistant to drought.

Distribution:
The Principle producer countries of kenaf fibre of both species are India, China, Brazil, Egypt
and Australia. In India it is mainly cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and Maharastra.
These states contribute about 75% of the area under this crop.
West B engal, Assam,Tripura, Karnataka also cultivated this crop.
Uses:
98

v Both the species are used for fibre and also vegetable purpose.
v The fibre is used Principally for manufacture of textile and Cottage products, twines,
gunny bags, ropes and fishing nets.
v Fibre is also used for manufacture of car interiors, and also used as a natural substitute
for fibre glass.
v Fibre is also used for excellent substitute for Bamboo and wood pulp which is used as
making paper.
v It has been proved at the laboratory level that Mesta is well suited for the production
of news print.
v It has been estimated that about 10 tonnes of Paper pulp can be produced from one
hector of Mesta.
v Mesta seed contain 17-22% oil which is used for the making soaps, culinary purposes
and paints.
v Calyx of the mesta flower are used in Dyeing industries.

Area and Production:

Area Production and Yield of Jute and Mesta during 2008 -09 in major producing states
State

Area (m.ha)

Production

Yield

(M.bales)

kg/ ha

Westbengal

0.59

7.97

2422

Bihar

0.15

1.22

1455

Assam

0.07

0.67

1856

Andhra Pradesh

0.04

0.30

1435

Orissa

0.02

0.11

918

Meghalaya

0.01

0.55

1170

Maharastra

0.02

0.03

260

Others

0.01

0.02

------

In India 90% area under Hibiscus Sabdariffa (Rosellehemp). Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and
Maharastra these states contribute 75% area.

99

v Andhra Pradesh stands First in Both area and Production followed by Madhya
Pradesh and Maharastra.
v In Andhra Pradesh Mesta crop commercially grown in the Vizianagaram, Srikakulam
and Visakhapatnam. These Districts contribute about 90% of area.
Note:- Only one Research Station that is working on Mesta is located at Amadalavalasa
[Srikakulam District] that is Agricultural Research Station (ARS)-Amadalavalasa.

Differences between Hibiscus Cannabinus and Hibiscus sabdariffa:Sl.No.

1.
2
3.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Hibiscus Cannabinus
Short duration have 120-150 days
Flowers are large
Leaves are deeply lobed lobes are
harrow & serrate
It is not tolerant to drought
Fibre quality is good
The Stem has a higher basal
diameter and its wood is soft
Leaves have no bifercations in the
entire plant
Fibre is used for house hold purpose
Fibre yield is less
Seed is irregular, sub-reniform
These are less resistant to Root-knot
nematode and Anthracnose
Less cultivated area occupied by
these species in India Varieties :Bimili 1; AMC-108 HC- 583

Hibiscus Sabdariffa
Long duration have 180-200 days
Flowers are sma ll
Leaves are Polymorphic Pinnate deeply lobed
and alternate on stem.
More tolerant to drought
Fibre quality is poor
It has harder wood
The basal leaves are the lack bifurcations and
are not lobed but the upper leaves are lobed.
Fibre is used for industrial purposes.
Fibre yield is more
Sub-reniform
These are Resistant to Root-knot Nematode and
Amthracnose.
More cultivated area Occupied by these species
in India.
Varieties :HS 4288; HS 7910 AMV 1; AMV 2; AMV 3

NOTE:- In trade market Jute and Mesta are together categorized as Raw Jute.
Varieties:- H. Sabdariffa Varieties.
1. AMV 1
4. AMV 4 (Kalinga)
2. AMV 2
5. AMV 5 (Durga)
3. AMV 3 (Surya)
AMV- 3 and AMV- 4 varieties are more popular in Andhra Pradesh.
AMV 108
Bimili 1
Hibiscus Cannabinus Varieties
HC --583
High yielding varieties of Mesta are HS 4288, HS 7910,
HC 583, AMV 108 and AMV

100

Soils:- Mesta grown under wide range of soils which Include Marginal and Sub marginal lands.
Does not withstand water lagging initially. Good growth and development of the crop. Soil should
be well drained, shallow and of a light sandy loamy texture with good quantity of organic matter. PH
is 6.5-8

Climate:-Mesta is a hardy crop capable of growing under a wide range of climatic conditions. The
crop requires warm and humid climate and hence it is grown in Kharif season only. The crop can
withstand the temperature of 43 0C. The RH is 40-100%. It can grow a elevation of 1000 MSL. The
rainfall requirement of crop varies from 500-900mm. Photoperiodically Mesta is a shortday plant

Land preparation:-

The crop comes up well in all types of soils except stiff clays, Provide d good drainage
facilities are require as the crop cannot with stand water logging initially.
Plough the land to get good tilth it helps quick establishment of crop better stand and Growth
Apply organic manures at 5 T/ha before sowing
Application of Phosphorus reduce lodging and improve the fibre quality
Potassium prevents the disease incidence.

Intercultivation:Ist hand hoeing at 3 weeks after sowing

2nd hand hoeing at 5 weeks after sowing
Thinning is also practiced

in the Mesta crop. It is done at 15-20cm height of the crop.

Intercultivation is helpful to suppress the weed growth.

Weed management:Critical period of crop weed competition is 45 DAS

For broad cast crop 2 hand weedings are done at 21 DAS and 35 DAS.
In line sowing two intercultivations at 20 days intervals
Use of Herbicides Fluchloralion @ 1.5 2.0 Kg ai/ha
Trifluralin @ 0.5 1.0 Kg ai/ha
Metachlor @ 0.75 -1.0 Kg ai/ha

101

Irrigation:-

The Mesta crop exclusively grown as rainfed. It requires 500-900 mm water requirement. Critical
stages for irrigation are germination stage and Knee-height stages.

Crop rotation and cropping systems: Mesta Groundnut/Pulses

Mesta Rice

Seeds and Sowing:-

Time of sowing is April May. Delaying of Kharif sowing results into drastic reduction in
fibre yield.
Pre Rice Mesta crop is sown in March April in low lands with supplemental irrigation.
Optimum sowing period of crop is May June.
Early sowing helps in quick establishment of crop and facilitates vigorous growth with pre monsoon
showers.

Seed treatment:Seeds are treated with Thiram (or)Captan @ 3-5/Kgseed protects the crop from seed born
disease like stem rot and foot rot.

Seed Rate:Drilling (line sowing) 6Kg/ha

Broad casting 12 Kg/ha
Spacing:Spacing can affect the quality of fibre. The recommended spacing is 22.5 X 10cm
The crop is sown in lines at 30 X 8-10cm
Depth of sowing is 3-5cm
Method of Sowing:Broad casting suited for good quality fibre
Drilling suited for seed purpose

102

Lecture No. 21
Manures and Fertilisers in Mesta
Fertilizers are applied as per the

soil test recommendations.

In Andhra Pradesh

recommended dose is 25-20-20 Kg N -P -K /ha

N + Entire P & K apply at basal
Nitrogen apply in 2 splits
Nat 30 DAS
Hibiscus sebdariffa absorbs more N-P -K than H. cannabinus . A well managed crop removes 50
30 40 kg N-P-K per ha. Depending up on the soil type Nitrogen rate vary that is ranging from3580kg/ha.
Higher dose of Nitrogen will affect the fibre quality.

Harvesting:For fibre purpose 50% of population attains at flowering stage. For seed purpose Dead ripe stage

Method of Harvesting:Generally 2 methods are followed

1. Pulling the Whole plant Fibre yield is more but the quality of fibre will be reduced due
to roots and other inert material adherent to the fibre.
2. Cutting the plants close to the ground Fibre yield is less but good quality fibre can
obtained.
Retting:- same as to the Jute (Refer Jute crop)

Extraction of fibre:- It is of two ways

1. Single reed method Gives good quality fibre

2. Break Break Jerk Method Gives good quality fibre
The extracted fibre is cleaned with water and dry for 4-5 days in mild sun over bamboo racks and
grade the fibre before sending market.

103

Quality Parameters in Mesta: 1. Length of the fibre More the length and more the quality.
2. Strength of fibre more strength, more quality
3. Colour Bright colour is superior
4. Lustre Bright colour fibre gives good luster it fetches more price
5. Fineness Coarse fibre fetches low price than smooth fibre
6. % of the cuttings on the fibre more the cuttings on the fibre, quality is less

Factors influencing quality parameters in Mesta:v

Quality of Retted water Gentle flowing, clean, and soft water with 340C temperature
give good quality fibre

Weighing materials which are placed on Jacks Freshly cut mango trunks and banana
stems should not used as a weighing material as it will affect the quality of the fibre

Seed Rate More seed rate for the good quality fibre

Stage of Harvest For Fibre purpose the crop is harvested at 50% flowering stage.

Method of Retting i) Dry Retting Give poor quality fibre

ii) Wet Retting - Give good quality fibre

Variety of Mesta Crop

Method of Fibre extraction i) Single reed method Good Quality fibre

ii) Beat-Break Jerk Method Poor quality fibre

Period of retting Avoid under and over retting.

Fibre should be stripped immediately after retting process

AGAVE / SISAL
S.N. : Agave sisalina
A. Americana
Family: Amaryllidaceae / Agavaceae
Origin: Mexico

104

Introduction:-

Agave (or ) Sisal is a semi perennial hardy plant. It yields creamy white fibre from its
leaves. The leaves are arranged in a rosette, darkgreen in colour, thick and generally spinous.
Flowers are yellow in colour and produced on 4 - 6 m tall panicles. It is also known as Century
Plant .

Distribution:Sisal was introduced from Mexico to India. In the world it is grown in Brazil, East and
Central Africa, and Mexico.

In India, Agave sisalina is grown for the Management of Soil

Conservation in Orissa state.

In India it is cultivated in Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Maharastra, Madhya
Pradesh as a hedge (or) Plantation crop.

Uses:v The fibre is used for manufacture of Marine and Industrial ropes, twines and also used for
manufacture of bags, sacks, carpets, fishing nets, Brushes, Decorative material.
v The sisal wax is prepared from sisal pulp which is used for shoe and car polishes and
manufacture of carbon paper.
v The extract of leaves is a source of Hecogenin which is the base material for the production
of Cortico steriods used as Anti inflammatory drugs.
v Agave is a soil binding crop it can be raised on slopy lands to serve the purpose of checking
soil erosion.
v Agave leaves generally spinous hence these are planted around the boundaries and its serve
as a protection from the trespass. Hence it is called as Hedge crop.

Climatic and Soil requirement:Physiologically Sisal is a hardy plant. They require annual rainfall of 625mm. Sisal does not
tolerate water logging and shady situations. Frost affects the fibre yield and quality.

105

Soils:Sisal can be gr own on a wide range of soils. viz., sandy loam, light calcareous and gravelly
soils, with well drainage facilities. Sisal can give good fibre yield where the soils have high in
Calcium content.

Propagation:Agave can be propagated through 2 ways. 1. Suckers 2. Bulbils

Suckers are the best propagating material than Bulbils.
Suckers are obtained from roots after 3rd year of planting. These suckers are directly sown in the
field in the pit with dimensions of 1m x 1m x 1m.
Bulbils are the small plant lets which are born from the inflorescence of 8-10 years old crop. These
are removed and used as a propagating material.
The bulbils are not suitable for planting directly in the field because they cause Early Polling
(Flowering). Hence the bulbils require Nursery.
Polling :- Flowering in Agave is known as Polling

Raising of Nursery for Bulbils:As soon as plant produces the flower shoots then those are removed and planted at the
distance of 15 X 20 cm in the Nursery. They attain at a height of 20cm in the nursery it will take 810months. Then those are removed and planted in the main field in the pits at 1.5-2m distance .
The best time of planting of Sisal is the monsoon that is July to September
Method of planting is Single row planting 2.4 X1.2 m(or)
- Double row planting 3 X 1 X 1 m
For plantation crop Spacing is 3m
For Hedge Crop
- 3 feet (90cm)

Fertilisers:Recommended dose is 30-10-20 Kgs of N -P -K per hectare

The Nitrogen can be applied at two splits
Ist
split at Kharif (June July)
IInd Split at December January

Weeding :It is a slow growing crop hence weeds should be controlled for the first 2 (or) 3 weeks by
mechanically (or) chemically

106

Reasons for Early Polling :v Plants are raised from Bulbils leads to Early Polling than that of suckers. Hence suckers are
good for propagating material
v Cutting (or) Harvesting of more no. of leaves at younger stage of plant leads to stress that
results into early polling
v Non-removal of suckers for longer time accelerate the polling
v Inadequate nutrient supply
v Abnormal weather conditions

Harvesting:Leaves are ready to harvest when the plant attains at 30-40 months of planting

[ Sometimes

take 4 years ] Each leaf will weight about 5kg

No. of leaves cut per plant is about 20-40 at one spell like wise average production of mature leaves
will be about 180-200 during its lifespan of 10-15years.

107

Lecture No. : 22

SUGARCANE ( Saccharum officinarum )

Genus : Saccharum is derived from the Sanskrit word "sarkara - white sugar
It is an important crop in the Indian sub-continent.
Sugar industry is second largest agro-based industry next only to textiles
Sugarcane crop contributes more than 62% of world sugar production.
S-cane provides cheapest form of energy giving food [sucrose].
In addition to sugar, 38 value added products are obtained.
Juice is used for making of white sugar, brown sugar [khandasari] and jaggery
Is a source as bio-fuel, fibre, fertilizer etc. by products viz, bagasse [power of sugar

mills} and

molasses [main raw material for alcohol].

Area & Production

Brazil has the largest sugarcane area

Cuba, China, Pakistan, Mexico, S. Africa, Australia, Indonesia, are cane growing
countries.
Today, India ranks second in the world, after Brazil, in terms of area (4.1 m.ha) and sugarcane
production (355 million tonnes in the yea r 2007)
A.P.

World

Area (m ha)

4.5 lakh acres

20.42 (m ha)

Production (m t)

136 lakh tons

167

1333 (m t )

Productivity( t / ha)

India

60-70

68

Among the states, Uttar Pradesh occupies half (2.25 m.ha) of the total area followed by Maharashtra
(1.04 m.ha).
108

Though UP dominates in production with 134 MT followed by Maharashtra with 79 MT, in terms of
productivity, Tamil Nadu leads with 105 t/ha followed by Karnataka (88 t/ha) and Andhra Pradesh
(82 t/ha).

U.P has the highest area under s. cane followed by Maharashtra .

Bihar, A.P, TN , Ktaka, Gujarat and Punjab are the other cane growing states

In A.P. crop is cultivated in 4.5 lakh acres with 136 lakh tones production.

In Andhra Pradesh average yield per acre is 68 tones only.

Sugarcane in India is grown in two distinct agro-climatic regions-the Tropical

(largely

comprising Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu) and the Sub-tropical (Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, Haryana and Bihar).
Table 1. Sugarcane in the world: Area, Production And Productivity
Country
Area(m.ha)
Production(m. tons)
Productivity(Tons/ha)

Brazil
India
China
Thailand
Pakistan
Mexico
Colombia
Australia
USA
Philippines

5.343
4.608
1.328
0.970
1.086
0.639
0.435
0.423
0.404
0.385

386.2
289.6
92.3
64.4
52.0
45.1
36.6
36.0
31.3
25.8

72.3
62.8
65.5
66.4
47.9
70.6
84.1
85.1
77.5
67.1

Indonesia
Cuba
S.Africa

0.350
0.654
0.325

25.6
22.9
20.6

73.1
35.0
63.4

Argentina
Myanmar
Bangladesh

0.295
0.165
0.166

19.2
7.5
6.8

65.2
45.4
41.2

WORLD

20.42

1333.2

65.2

There are 3 cultivated species of sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum, S.barberi,

S.Sinense , and two wild species : Saccharum spontaneum , Saccharum robustum

Origin : S. officinarum is Indo Myanmar china border and New Guinea as centre of
Diversity
109

Climate
A growing season which is long and warm with adequate rainfall or irrigation, long
hours of bright sunshine and higher relative humidity which permits rapid growth to build up adequate
yield (more tonnage) and a ripening season of around 2-3 months duration having warm days, clear
skies, cool nights and relatively a dry weather without rainfall and higher difference in day (maximum)
and night (minimum) temperatures for build up of sugar are required
Temperature : Optimum cane growth is achieved in temp. between 24 & 30o C
Rainfall

: In India, grown in areas ranging from 600 to 3000 mm, rains at active growth

period ,encourages rapid cane growth, cane elongation whereas rains at ripening period, leads to poor
juice quality.
Humidity: High humidity coupled with warm weather at vegetative growth is essential, humidity of
45 to 65% + limited water supply is must at ripening phase
Sunshine : Scane is sun loving plant. Higher sunshine hours, favours higher cane
yie ld, sugar recovery
Frost

: In, N.India extreme cold conditions will arrests cane growth

Soils

Crop can be grown on various types of soils varying from sandy to heavy clays.

Moderately heavy and medium deep loams, are better suited than heavier and
shallow soils

Soil must be of good depth and drainage with no compactness.

Tillage

Field is ploughed 2-4 times with iron plough and pulverization to break the clods.
Surface soils are dug to a depth of 20 cm to facilitate drainage and deep root system. Tractor
ploughing is a common practice

Good Land Preparation

Improper Land Preparation

110

Planting Season

Optimum time for Sugarcane planting is December to end of March month ending.

For coastal districts it is January- Middle of March, for Rayalseema it is January to February
middle.

in Telangana for Eksali crop during December to January middle,

For Adsali crop it is August September middle is the optimum time of planting.

Duration of Sugar cane crop varies 10-18 months

Kamsali crop : < 10 months

Eksali crop

10-12 months

Adsali crop

12-18 months

Suitable Varieties for different situations

Late maturing varieties (12 -13 months): Co 7219, Co7706, Co8011, CoR8001.
Mid-late maturing varieties (11-12 months) : CoA7602, CoT8201, Co7805, Co8021, 85R186,
86A146, 87A 397, 83V15, 83V288.
Early maturing varieties (9 -10 months) : Co6907, Co7505, 90A 272, 81A99, 82A123, 83A145,
81V48, 85A261, 86V96, 84A125, 91V83, 93V297, 83R23, 87A298.
Under rain fed conditions for planting in February: Co6907, 81A99, 85A261, 81V48, 83R23,
CoT820, CoA7602, 87A298, Co7210.

111

For Planting in May - June: Co6907, Co8013, 84A125, 85A261, 81A99, 87A298, 81V48, 91V83,
93V297.
For water logged (swamp) conditions: Co697, 84A125, CoR8001, 83V288, 83V15, 81V48,
91V83, 87A298, 85A261, 87A261, 87A397, 89V74.
For Moisture Stress conditions: Co6907, CoT8201, CoA7602, Co7219, 84A125, 85A261, 83V15,
81A99, 83R23, 89V74, 83V288, Co7508.
For redrot affected areas: Co7508, CoA7602, Co8014, CoR8001, 85A261, 87A298, 90A272,
Co6907, 86V96, 83R23, 91V83, 88R58, 92A126, Co7219, 86V96, Co7805, Co7706, 83V15, 89V74,
87A397.
Smut disease tolerant varieties: Co8013, Co8014, 81A261, 84A125, 81A48, 83V15, 83V288,
83V96, 89V74, 93V297, 90A272, C07805, 86A146, 87A397.
For jaggery preparation: Co7706
For Saline / Alkaline Soils : 81V48, 81A99, CoT8201, 93A145

Seed rate

Around 30,000 setts of three budded setts or an opt. seed rate of 70-75 Q/ha

80,000 setts with 2 buds are also adopted

Three Bud Sett

Two Budded Setts

112

Seed treatment

Dipping of setts, which are sufficient for one acre planting, for 15minutes.

In a solution containing 150gms carbendazim and 600ml of malathion mixed in 300 litres of
water before planting will control pineapple disease and scale insect.

To avoid grassy shoot disease hot water treatment of seed material at 520C for 30 minutes or
treatment with aerated steam at 540C for 4 hours to be done.

Spacing

Mostly planted by opening a furrow with ridges .

Row to row spacing varies from 60-90 cms

Adsali Planting

: 120 cm row spacing is followed

Early varieties'

: 80cm

Mid late varieties

: 90 cm

113

Lecture No.23
Planting Material
1)

Sett : Propagated by vegetative methods by planting the stem of immature cane, known as
setts. Buds on sett germinate to give plants. Top setts are taken from a crop ready for harvest
For planting, setts should be free from pests and disease

2) Rayungans : Setts with shoots produced by cutting of the tops of standing

Canes
3) Seblang : Tiller separation is also an ideal method. Clump with its sett intact
is transplanted. Survival is better and growth quicker. If labor is not scarce
this method is appropriate.

4 ) Space transplanting [STP] : Nursery beds of 10x5 m ,30 days old seedling
for transplanting .600-800 single bud setts are planted in bed @ 2 tons /ha
seed material is sufficient against 6-7 tons/ha .Single budded setts from top
half of cane is planted, by Normal watering & other management aspects
are followed .Some of the advantages are :
Uniform crop stand
Low incidence of pests and diseases.
Reduce cane lodging.
Increase in seed multiplication
Around 25% yield increase are the advtg of this method
High stalk pop 1-2 lak canes /ha
5. Tissue culture technique : This technology is mostly used in reviving degenerated varieties.
Meristem tips are grown in artificial laboratory conditions Multiplication is faster. Used to
develop seed material from limited number of buds
Sugarcane Planting Methods
1.

Planting in flat beds

It is very popular method on Northern India and in parts of Maharashtra.

114

Shallow furrows of 8-10 cm deep are made.

Distance between two rows should be kept 75-90 cm.

Generally 3 budded setts are used to plant in the end to end planting system.

The furrow is covered by 5-7 cm of soil and field is leveled by planking.

2.

Ridge and Furrow Method:

The method is adopted in areas with moderate rainfall but have drainage problem.

Deep furrows are opened in 'v' shape,10-15 cm deep in N. India,20 cm in S.I.

It is also practiced in Eastern UP,& in Peninsular India particular in heavy soils.

3.

Trench Method or Java method

In some coastal areas as well as in other areas where the crop grows very tall and the strong
winds during rainy season cause lodging of cane, trench method is adopted to save the crop from
lodging.

Trenches at a distance of 75-90 centimeters are dug with the help of ridger or by manual labour.

Trenches should be about 20-25 centimeters deep.

After this already prepared mixture of fertilizers (NPK) should be spread uniformly in the
trenches and mixed thoroughly in the soil.

The setts are planted end to end in trenches.

Gamma BHC 20 EC at the rate of 5 liters in 800-1000 liters of water per hectare is sprayed over
planted setts in trenches to control termites and shoot and root borers.

4.

The tractor-drawn sugarcane planter is suitable device for planting cane in trenches.
Rayungan method

It is Indonesian term meaning-a developed cane shoot with single sprouted bud.

A portion of field is selected for Rayungan produc tion is left at harvesting time.

The top of the cane is cut off which results auxiliary buds begin to sprout.

For quick and effective sprouting, fertilizer especially nitrogen in heavy dose is applied and field
is irrigated.

After 3-4 weeks sprouted buds are separated in single bud setts &transplanted on ridges.

It is costly hence is not commonly adopted in India however is usually used for filling gap.

5.

Distant Planting Method

115

It was developed at Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR) Lucknow.

Single budded setts are planted in nursery @ 20 q/ha or 18000 setts/ha.

After 45-60 days single budded setts are planted in main field at 90cm50cm.

6. Pit Planting
Method is very popular in Tillah soil in Assam and also in Kerala hilly tracts.

Pits are made at interspacing of 20-30cm in rows along the contours with row to row spacing of
75 cm,

Organic manure is placed at bottom of pits.

Cane setts are placed in the triangle in pits and covered with soil.

System can be used in rain fed agriculture

7.

Skip Furrow Planting

It is common in Orissa.

It is hybrid of flat and trench method.

Trenches are dug 45 cm apart & gap of 90 cm is left after each two rows

8.

Sabling or Sprouting Method:

Plants are sown in fertile soil with wide spacing, shallow planting, frequent irrigations and
adequate fertilization.

Tillers soon after they develop their own roots are separated from the mother plant and planted
separately.

It is very successful in Java and Cuba.

9.

Tjeblock Method
Improved over Rayunga n method because it takes care of proper availability of energy and
nutrient to all the buds.

Here stalks are cut off at its half length and planted vertically with node in the soil for
rooting.

Planted ones and the mother stalks are adequately irrigated and fertilized.

Now the upper buds of both Tjeblocks and mother cane, which sprout in due course of time,
are planted by cutting them into setts, as rayungans.

10. Bud transplanting

Sugarcane buds with half of its stalk can be planted in small polythene ba gs filled with
organic manure and soil

After sprouting they can be transplanted in the main field.

116

The polythene is tore at the bottom for the easy rooting. There is less mortality about 5 %
only.

11. Algin method of sugarcane planting

In this method, Uppe r most nodes are collected while striping the canes for crushing.

Then planted in wheat field in rows after every 4 rows of wheat at 90 50 cm

The method was developed by Allahabad Agriculture Institute, Allahabad.

Recommended planting method

Ridge and furrow method is easy and mostly followed

Areas subjected to water logging immediately after planting : Partha method

Farm with Drip irrigation Facility- Paired row planting

Saline soils - Modified trench method

Ridges are made at a spacing of 60-75 cam with a depth of 25 cm and irrigation and drainage
channels should be opened along the field borders at regular intervals.

Phosphates are applied in the furrows, then treated setts are placed in end to end or in over lapping
fashion.

Setts are covered with soil and irrigated

Dry planting followed in light soils

In heavy soils furrows are irrigated soil is brought to more or less puddle condition
and setts are pressed in the soil ,which is called as wet method

At the time of planting buds should face upwards, buds facing downwards do not
germinate or difficult to emerge facing upwards may be exposed in washing of soil
while irrigating and thus may dry out.

System facilitates easy irrigation, provides good soil aeration, solid support to the
plant when earthed up.

117

Sett showing facing upwards

Wet Method of Planting

Setts covered with soil

118

Lecture No.24
MANURES & FERTILIZERS
Nitrogen

Influences sugar yields and quality

Required for vegetative growth [tillering foliage formation, stalk formation and root growth ]

Deficiency of Nitrogen: shows paleness of foliage, early leaf senescence thinner and shorter stalks
longer but thinner roots.

Excess Nitrogen, prolongs vegetative growth, delays maturity and ripening, increases reducing
sugars, lowers juice quality, susceptible to lodging and pests and diseases incidence.

Phosphorus
P requirement is less than N and K.

Essential for proteins ,Cell division, root growth ,plant metabolism etc

Required for adequate tillering

Interacts with N and thus enhance ripening.

P deficie ncy leads to reduced tillering, delays in canopy development

Affects stalk elongation

Less production of secondary and tillering stalks

Leaf color appear violet green.

Potassium

Essential for carbon assimilation, photosynthesis translocation of carbohydrates

Involved in various enzymatic activities

Important for sugar synthesis, maintains cell turgidity, moist stress

Develop resistance to pests and diseases and lodging

Balances the effect of N & P.

Recommended rate of N P K fertilizers for AP
a) Srikakulum, Vizianagaram, Visakhapatnam, Medak : 112+100+100 kg/ha
b) Nellore, W. godavari, Krishna, Guntur

: 168+100+120 kg/ha

c) Kurnool, Cuddapah, Anantapur, Chittoor

: 224+100+120 kg/ha

d) Nizamabad

: 250+100+120 kg/ha

FYM @ 10 t / ha must be incorporated 4 - 6 weeks before planting .

Green manuring with legumes.

119

Biofertilizers like Azatobacter @5 kg/ha, PSB [Bacillus, Achromobacter, Acrobacter] and fungus
[Aspergillus penicillium] or Press mud @4t/ha are also recommended.

Secondary nutrients like Sulphur @50-100 kg/ha and micronutrients like Zn So4 @25 kg/ha,
FeSo4 25-60 kg/ha are essential for sugarcane.

For standing crop , when deficiency symptoms of Zn and Fe are seen, foliar sprays are
recommended.

Time & Method of application.

Nitrogen requirement is maximum at tillering, early grand growth period from 1-6 months. Late
application of N beyond 120 days, reduces the juice quality, increases soluble N in juice, and
formation of water shoots.

First application should be given at 30 days of crop age, next at 60 and 90 DAP.

Phosphorous applied basally in furrow bottom and mix slightly with soil before planting.

Potassium application normally done along with N application because of better utilization of N,
in the presence of K. therefore K is applied at 45, 90 DAS.

Late application of K, at 6 months under drought situations improve sugar recovery

Nitrogen and potassium fertilizers are given in split doses applied in bands on either side of row

Foliar Nutrition of urea @1- 2.5% & potassium @2.5% under moisture stress is useful to
improve yield and quality

WEED MANAGEMENT

Requires weed free for the first 90-100 days before and, most sensitive to weeds during tillering
stage

Manual weeding at 30, 60 & 90 DAP is effective to control weeds,

Trash mulch at 45 DAP @ 7-10 t/ha,10 cm thick is effective against many weeds.

Application of Atrazine @ 5kg/ha in 1125 litres of water to be sprayed on the third or fourth day
after planting, depending on soil moisture

At 20 and 60 days of planting spraying of 2,4-D (41/ 2 kg) + Gramoxone (2.5 lts) in 125 lts/ha is
recommended

Initial ploughing, off baring, trash mulching, are the weed control methods in ratoon .

WATER MANAGEMENT
120

 Water requirement of cane is high and varies with region

In Tropics, water requirement is 2000-3000 mm, in sub-tropics 1500-2000 mm

Under severe stress the yield loss may go up to 60-70 per cent.

For early planted cane , moisture stress coincides at grand growth phase ,affects
stalk elongation ,in late planted cane, moisture stress affects the formative phase
maturity and ripening phases.

Limited stress during ripening helps improve percent sugar content in cane.
Sugarcane grown in waterlogged areas ,damages crop and leads to 25 per cent reduction in, low
sugar recovery
Irrigate the crop depending upon the need during different phases of the crop.
Number of irrigations required varies with varying rainfall patterns.
Light & frequent irrigations gave higher yield, than heavy irrigations at longer
intervals.
In summer, irrigation interval depends up on soil type and season. Generally shorter interval in
winter and in heavy soils whereas longer intervals in summer and in light soils.
Trash mulching has to be done three days after planting @ 3 t /ha.
Irrigation can be provided : 0.75, and 0.50 IW/CPE ratio at tillering, grand growth ,maturity.
The irrigation intervals in each phase are given below.
Days of irrigation interval Stages :
Sandy soil

Clay soil

Tillering phase ( 36 to 100 days)

10

Grand growth phase (101 - 270 days)

10

Maturity phase ( 271 - harvest)

10

14

Management practices for moisture stress situation

1. Choosing appropriate variety
2. Soaking the setts in saturated lime water
3. Choosing appropriate planting method
4. Close row spacing while planting
5. Basal manure application
6. Pre-stress manuring and irrigation

121

7. Trash mulching
8. Protective irrigation if available
9.

Appropriate post-stress crop management

10. Foliar spray of urea , DAP, potash and trash mulching .

11 Inducing hardness.
12 Use of antitranspirants
13 Use of drought resistant varieties like Co -740, Co- 235, Co -997, Co -6304,

Earthing Up

Earthing-up operation is also known as "hilling-up converts furrows into ridges and ridges into
furrows.

Earthing-up is done at 45 - 120 DAP coincides with peak tiller stage.

Could be done either manually or by using a bullock- drawn/tractor drawn furrower

Earthing-up @ 120 DAP checks tillering, provides sufficient soil volume for root pr oliferation,
promotes better soil aeration and provides a sound anchorage or

support to the crop and thus preventing lodging

One more earthing-up at 180 DAP may be helpful in

preventing lodging.

122

Detrashing
Detrashing refers to removal of unwanted bottom dry and green leaves at 150 DAP.
Sugarcane stalk bears large number of leaves (30-35)
Maintaining clean field
Enhances air movement , an ideal micro-climate for unrestricted growth of cane
More food material is made available for stalk growth
Reduces the problem of infestation of insect- pests like scales, mealy bug, etc
Minimizes rodents, rats, squirrels in the field which cause damage to the crop
Detrashed trash can be used as a mulch for moisture conservation for composting .
Propping

Operation of tying the leaves together using the bottom dry and green leaves is
known as propping.

Check lodging of cane.

Trash without removing from cane is twisted to form sort of rope and cane stalks are tied together.
This is known as trash-twist propping

Propping can be done for each row or two rows can be brought together and tied

RIPENING
Ultimate economic product of sugarcane is not the seed but the sugar stored in stalk.

Accum ulation of sugars in the stalk begins soon after completion of elongation phase, when glucose
produced during photosynthesis is converted to sucrose stored in stalk.
123

Ripening occurs between rapid growth and ultimate death of cane

As the cane is ripened sheath moisture should dropdown from 85 to 72% and
nitrogen index from 2 to 1.25%.

Maturity stage: when sucrose exceeds 16% juice purity increases over 85% - cane is mature

When cane stalk is cut with a knife at above the middle portion, it end looks watery cane is unripe,
if it sparkles slightly it is ripening

Trial boiling of juice: To judge maturity is common among farmer, if the gur is set well in boiling,
gur making continued, if not the cane will be tested after a few days

Top Bottom ration: top portion of cane accumulates sugar rapidly than bottom portion. If the ratio
of sugar content of top1/3 to bottom one third is less than one cane is unripe when ratio is more than
one cane is ripe.

Invert sugars : Content of invert sugar in juice can also assess cane ripening

Hand Refractometer: is to assess the maturity of standing crop by Brix reading

Juice Brix refers to the total solids present in the juice expressed in percentage.

Brix includes sugars as well as non sugars.

Brix is measur ed using Brix Hydrometer & necessary corrections with temperature are made & true
Brix is obtained

Juice sucrose percent is the actual cane sugar percent in the juice

Juice sucrose percent is determined by Polarimeter thats why sucrose percent is referred as Pol%.

Seurolyser is latest instrument used to analyse sucrose percent.

FACTORS AFFECTING RIPENING

1. Location :- cane growing countries in tropics characterized by higher juice quality than others
regions.
2. Low temperature :- Ripening is fast during October - November but when
temperature lowers the ripening rate slows down & maturation comes to stand
still. Colder the spells deeper the fall.
3. Max. temp. between 230 & 320C & minimum temp. between 7-140C are favorable
to steady rise in juice quality
4. When hot weather sets in may-june quality goes down, because of extreme heat,
drought.
5. Varieties :- Early varieties [Co- 8336 Co -8341 Co -T 64] attain sugar levels & purity
at an earlier period than late varieties.Jan- Feb planted crop will have higher juice
quality compared to April-May planted crop
124

6. Fertilizers :- Excessive and late application of N fertilizers, delays ripening Fertilizers should be
applied within 1-3 months only. Phosphorus deficient soils are known to produce cane of low
sucrose content Potash fertilizers increases extraction percent juice from cane.
7. Intercropping :- Intercropping usually practiced in autumn planted crop, as cane growth during
winter is lesser and not affected by competition. Intercropping in Feb planted crop however has an
adverse effect on juice quality
8. Irrigation:- Irrigation favors early growth, leaf development, stalk formation, prolongs growing
period resulting in higher potential of sugar formation & storage. Warm weather irrigations after
rainy season improves sugar formation, irrigation in mid November may not improve juice quality in
cool parts of N. India

9. Lodging : Strong winds accompanied by heavy rainfall during sep-oct causes

lodging of the cane . Even inclination of stalk causes proportionate reduction in
sucrose & purity of its juice. When stalks are laid flat deterioration is more
10. Earthing up and propping ,can minimize lodging by keeping the cane erect.
11. Flowering : Flowering often takes place when crop starts ripening. Flowering is not a sign of
ripening. Prevention of flowering by appropriate techniques combined with artificial ripening may
help to increase the yield and juice quality
Artificial ripening :

N.East and S. East regions of India need artificial ripening. Some promising
repencer are Polaris -1 to 1.5 kg/ ha, ethrel @ 1 to 1.5 kg/ ha or Cycocel @ 4 kg/ha,
Glyphosate compounds like sucrose polado & Round up 0.6 to 1 kg /ha, improve
sucrose content of mature stalks are called as sucrose loaders .
New product like, Fusillade super is more effective than polada, ethrel.

Collecting Juice For testing Brix

Brix Hydro meter

Polarimeter For Testing Pol

125

Harvesting

Harvesting the crop at proper time is very important

Immature crop gives lesser sugar per cent and low yield

Cane should be harvested in proper time of maturity,

Constraints Quality & Sugar recovery,

Harvesting canes 5-10 days before its supply to mills

Limited crushing capacity of mills,

stalking of canes at mill yard

Inordinate delay in transport of harvested cane from field to mills

Week end shut down of the factory and unforeseen circumstances .

Post harvest losses - sucrose conversion process after harvest & delay on delivery of cane to
factory

Weather parameters like high temp & humidity leads to greater deterioration.

Leve ls of maturity, cane harvest, method of harvest also affect cane deterioration

Products from sugarcane juice

1) Jaggery
2) Juice concentrate
3) Powder jaggery
4) RAB
5) Vinegar

126

Harvesting

127

Lecture No.25
Ratoon Management

The number of succeeding cane crops raised from single planting is Ratoon

Ratoon occupies 50-55% of total cane area in India

In India one or 2 ratoons are taken .

The crop raised from planting cane setts is Plant crop

Plant crop is harvested the under ground portion of stem stubble are left in the field.

Harvesting close to the ground level is most important for good rationing

If harvesting is done unevenly stubble shaving should be done.

After harvesting of plant crop, trash left in the field, should be burnt, to clean the field and
destruction of eggs and pupae of pests

Soil compaction affects ratoon growth , to improve soil physical conditions, off barring and ridge
flattening is necessary where ridges are broken by ridger - improves soil organic matter, through
decay of old root mass and promote quick emergence of roots from stubble.

Intensity of gaps in ratoon is 10-30 per cent

Gap filling is done with young sprouts from stubbles or in poly bags or nursery with 30-35 day old.

Trash mulching suppress weed growth and aids in moisture conservation besides increasing fertilizer
use effect.

Varieties Early varieties are poor ratoons than mid late or late varieties
Thin or mid thin varieties are better ratooners than thick varieties .
Plant crop should be harvested in Feb March to ensure favorable re-growth of
ratoon sprout

Fertilizers :- 200 N + 60 P2O5 + 60 K2O are recommended for good ratoon crop

Nitrogen should be applied in 2 splits at ratoon initiation and 60 days after root initiation.Entire dose
of P & K should be applied at ratoon initiation

Irrigation :- Ratoon crop require more frequent irrigations than plant crop, because of shallow root
system. Irrigation at 40% DASM is ideal for ratoon crop

Irrigation at 12-15 days interval in subtropical regions and 8-10 days in tropical ares.

Earthing up : Is done to check excessive tillering to prevent crop lodging & destruction of weeds.
Earthing up is down twice first before onset of monsoon and 2nd at start of monsoon

Propping is done by tying the cane together using dry leaves or green leaves, to prevent the crop
lodging due to heavy winds and keep the field open for better aeration. Usually trash is twisted to
form a rope and cane stalks are tied together trash twist propping.
128

Weeding : Pre-emergence application of Atrazine [1.0-1.5] followed by one hoeing 45 days after
ratoon initiation is effective and economical for weed control. Manual weeding at 0, 45 & 90 days
after ratoon initiation is more effective.

Application of cycocel [CCC] or etherel to foliage before 30 days of cane harvest, can promote bud
sprouting in ratoon crop.

Plant Protection : Ratoon crop needs more plant protection care than plant crop. Grassy shoot
disease, ratoon stunted disease and smut are major diseases associated with ratooning

Advantages:-

Operational cost on seed and preparatory tillage is reduced by 25-30% by ratooning

Ratoons mature earlier than plant cane .

Ratoons can be harvested easily, field will be available for next crop

Ratoons give equal or more yield than plant crop

Ratoons give better quality cane with improved sugar recovery

Cost of production per ton of ratoon crop is less than plant crop.

The deeper root system thus obtained facilitates optimum utilization of the nutrients and moisture
available in the lower soil layers and provides good support for growth of the ratoon crop

129

JAGGERY MAKING
Step 1. Cutting sugar cane from fields
Step 2. Feeding the grinder to extract juice
Step 3. Boiling the juice
Step 4. Adding Ingredients
Step 5. Tray Feeding
Step 6. Jaggery output
Step1: Fresh sugarcanes are cut from the fields, canes are cut in such a way that the head and tail are
chopped off. They are carefully brought in a plastic sack, to the place where they are made juice.
Step2 : To extract juice from the sugarcane, they use a power run machine, where at one side four or five
canes are fed, and at the other end, extracted sugar cane juice is directly feed to the vessel.
Step3 : Next step involved is boiling the extracted juice, juice is feed to a large big iron vessel, which is
usually called as kadai as the below. heating unit of the vessel is set up in such a way that, at a
single stretch two vessels are boiled, heating unit is nothing but a small pit above which this vessel
is placed, there is a man who keeps on adding fuel to the heating unit from a small opening, the
extract which is obtained after juice has been taken from the canes, these extract are dried in
sunlight and used as a fuel for heating. The juice is boiled in the vessel for at least three hours, until
the liquid juice becomes a semisolid paste.
Step4 : When juice becomes a semisolid paste, small quantity of sodium carbonate is added as a reducing
agent, which helps in making Jaggery balls.
Step5 : After stirring well until the juice becomes a semisolid paste, the paste is fed to a iron tray. With the
help of a long wood stick, at one end which contains a flat block they stir well again in the tray, until
more thickening comes.
Step6 : With help of a wet cloth, hot Jaggery paste are made as balls precautions are taken, to prepare the
balls as fast as possible, as the paste gets to the solid state with in a short span of time.
For a single feed of vessel, they get approximately around 100 kg of Jaggery, they get around fifty
Jaggery balls, Jaggery are stored and sold as a complete bulkcart. For a single bulk cart they get a market
price of approximately Rs.20,000/ -.

130

131

Lecture No : 26

SUGARBEET

Origin and history

There is no distinct record regarding the origin and history of surgarbeet but in 1747 it was
found for the first time that beet roots are rich source of sucrose and it took nearly 50 years for
developing a successful method to extract beet root juice and its crystallization in the form of sugar.
F.C. Achard was the first man to set up a sugar factory for processing of beet-roots and making sugar
out of their pulp. From European countries it was introduced in USA as a sugar crop in early 18th
century and first sugar factory was built in Northampton, Massachurits with great problems.
Thereafter another factory was established in California (USA) in 1870 after rectifying the defects
and it started working successfully since then.
Distribution:Sugarbeet is essentially a crop of temperate countries like USA,USSR, Sweden, Denmark, Germany,
Belgium, Netherlands, France etc. Now in countries like Syria, Iraq, Iran, Algeria and Israel sugarbeet is fast assuming its commercial importance. It is now being introduced in Pakistan. Today
sugarbeet is contributing to about 40 percent of the world sugar production.
Until recent past sugarbeet was famous as a Salad crop for table purposes in India but it is
now in the experimental and semi-commercial testing in sub-tropical parts of the country. In
Kashmir Valley sugarbeet is grown as a promising rainfed spring season crop. In Sriganganagar area
of Rajastha n it is grown on commercial scale after producing first beet-sugar in 1968 by Ganganagar
Sugar Mill.
A considerable research work has been done on its varietal performance on yield at G.B.
Plant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar (Nainital) and the National Sugar
Institute, Kanpur, has been actively involved in processing and manufacture of sugar from beet-pulp,
although sugar beet is yet to be accepted as a commercial crop in India because it is at testing stage
in some of the suitable Northern parts of India viz. Jullundhar, Karnal. Muzaffarnagar, Shahjahanpur,
Lucknow, Gorakhpur, Pusa, etc. The crop is being tested for its suitability as a sugar crop and its
performance as compared to sugarcane. In Kashmir Valley and Himanchal Pradesh it holds out a
promise as a rainfed spring sown crop. The crop, in general. May be very successfully grown in
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and U.P.
Area, Production and Productivity :
World : Area = 8.6 m ha. ; Production=261 mt. ; Productivity=30.2 t / ha.
Botanical description of Sugarbeet
Sugarbeet is herbaceous, dicotyledonous biennial plant belonging to family Chenopodiaceae
and as its nature the plant produces large succulent root in the first year and flowers and sets into
seeds in the second year. Sometimes, due to unfavourable climatic conditions, the plants give out
seed-stalks in the first year itself which is technically called as bolting.
A beet plant consists of three parts viz. the crown, the neck and the root. The crown produces
leaves which are arranged in a close spiral below which is the most smooth and broadest part that is
technically called as neck. The roots are cone-shaped which end into a slender tap form.
Sometimes roots are flattened on two sides which are more or less grooved.

132

The seed-stalk bears racemes of imperfect regular flowers which have no petals in them. The
fruits consist of 2 to 5 seeds which are shiny, having lentil like structure and are about three mm
long.
Varieties
Sugarbeet, being a recently introduced crop into India as a commercial sugar crop, has most
of the foreign varieties. Theses varieties are mostly from Germany, U.S.S.R., U.S.A., U.K.,
Denmark, etc. Following are the important varieties which have been observed doing well under
Indian conditions:
Erotype E from West Germany.
Romoskava from U.S.S.R.
U.S. 35 from U.S.A.
U.S. 75 from U.S.A.
Maribo Anglo Poly from Denmark.
Maribo Magna Poly from Denmark.
Maribo Resista Poly from denmark.
Triplex from U.K.
Bush E from U.K.
Now the diploid multigerm variety Romoskava 06 is presently recommended for
commercial cultivation. The variety gives higher yield with superior quality besides a better
resistance to important beet-root diseases. In addition to this two other Danish polyploids multigerm
varieties viz. Meribo Magnapo and Maribo Magapoly have also proved to be the most
promising. The seeds of the varieties are under multiplication by a joint venture of N.S.C. and the
Government Department of Agriculture, Himachal Pradesh.
Climate
The sugarbeet needs high moisture associated with cold climatic conditions throughout its
growing period. The best germination has been observed when the seeds are sown at a soil
temperature of 15.5oC and it is interesting to note that sugar accumulation in beet-roots drops when
atmospheric temperature reaches to 30oC Or above. The commercial cultivation of the roots is
possible on the plains during winter season but the seed formation becomes impossible because of
unfavourbale climatic conditions.
Therefore, seed production is done on the hill of Himachal Pradesh by the Government of
H.P. with an associated efforts of the National Seed Corporation. Sugarbeet prefers loam to clayey
loam soils with good inherent fertility and sufficient organic matter having a near neutral reaction
through it has a high tolerance, to soil alkalinity and salinity. The acidic soils are not at all good for
the crop. The crop cannot withstand waterlogging and hence poorly drained soils are unfit for beetroot production.
Land Preparation
The land is prepared to a good tilth by repeated ploughing and planking operations. After
obtaining a fine tilth, the field is finally divided into ridges and furrows or simple flat beds based on
method of sowing to be adopted. Usually sowing on the ridges is preferred over flat bed planting.
Ridges of 10 to 12 cm height are prepared at a distance of 50 cm between them by the help of ridger
after mixing manures and fertilizers in the field.

133

Lecture No.27
Manures and fertilizers and methods of Application
Organic manures such as compost or F.Y.M. at the rates of 20 to 30 tonnes per hectare should
be applied before the ridging is done. The crop should be supplemented with 100-120 kg. of
nitrogen, 80 kg of P2 O 5 and 100 kg of potassium per hectare. It is advisable to apply nitrogen in
three equal splits, namely first at sowing, second after thinning and third after earthing up operation
but never beyond December as it lowers the quality of beet-roots.
After every top-dressing the crop should be given a light irrigation. Form the experimental
results it is observed that the crop responds equally to all the sources of nutrients but, if possible,
fertilizers containing chloride ions should not be chosen for the application in the crop. Deficiency of
micro-nutrients has not been noticed but the studies are in progress at various sugarcane research
centres in North India.
Seeds and Sowing
Seed rate = 10 kg / ha.
In the North Indian plains sugarbeet is grown as a rabi season crop and the most ideal time
for sowing is October. It is observed that if sowing is delayed beyond October the yield and quality
(sugar content) are found to be affected adversely. There are two commonly adopted methods of
sugarbeet sowing viz. ridge sowing and flat bed sowing. The depth of sowing should be 4-5 cm
with row to row 50 cm and plant 10-15 cm spacings. This requires about 10 kg seed/ha. Generally,
sowing is done by dibbling manually or by drilling with cotton seeds -drills. Indian Institute of
Sugarcane Research, Lucknow, has designed and fabricated a push-type drill for sowing sugarbeet.
Seed treatment: It is noticed that seed soaking for 4 or 5 hours in plain water helps in getting higher
germination of beet seeds. To get still better germination the seeds may be soaked over night in 0.25
per cent solution of a mercurial compound or Aretan or Agallol. This is done by putting the seeds in
a cloth bag and dipping the seed bag in the chemical solution until the seeds soak up the chemical.
The seeds are then spread open for drying after which they may be used for sowing.
Spacing : 50 cm X 20 cm
Sowing method : Drilling or by Dibbling in 2 to 3 cm deep
Sowing time : Mid October to Mid November
Irrigation
The crop cannot tolerate drought and hence it is very sensitive to inadequate water supply but
at the same time excessive irrigation is highly detrimental to the root quality of the crop. The
frequency and the number of irrigation depends on various factors viz. seasonal variation, type of
soil, organic matter content of the soil, etc. but, in general, a 2-2-4 irrigation schedule at the critical
growth stages like formative, leaf growth and root development stage respectively holds a promise in
beet-root production. On an average, 15-20 days interval between two subsequent irrigations is
supposed to be an ideal. This way the crop needs about 8 to 10 irrigations during its growing period.

134

Intercultural Operations
Critical period of weeds is upto 60 days i.e at formative phase.
Requires 2-3
intercultivations , first at 15-20, 2nd at 10-15 days interval. Spraying of pretilachlor 50 EC @ 0.5
Kg ai/ha or Pendimethalin @3.75lit /ha can be dissolved in 300 litres of water and sprayed wit h hand
operated sprayer on 0- 2nd day after sowing, followed by hand weeding on 25th day and 50th day
after sowing. The soil should be little loosened and earthing up of the crop should be done by
December after finishing the last top-dressing of fertilizer.
Thinning
The sugarbeet seed is a multigerm which gives out four seedlings per glomerule (seed
ball). To avoid the competition among them and to maintain a single robust plant per glomerule it is
necessary to pluck off remaining ones. The thinning should be done when the seedlings are ha ving
three to four leaves in them. Thus a uniform spacing of 20 to 25 cm between the plants should be
maintained. For keeping a uniform plant population, sometimes gap filling is needed which should
be done by sowing the fresh seed instead of transplantin g the seedlings because transplanting results
in production of malformed or fongy roots having poor weight though transplanting is common in
some areas. Gap filling should be done soon after germination.
Crop rotation
Sugarbeet is susceptible to various soil borne diseases and their chemical control becomes
very costly and difficult, therefore, a suitable crop rotation of long duration should be adopted. It is
observed that any rotation of three to five years duration is best for production of a healthy
commercial beet-root crop in the country. Some of the best rotations are;
Cowpea (fodder) sugar-beet-cotton-sugarcane (plant)-sugarcane (ratoon);
Maize (early) or early paddy-sugarbeet-Sanai or dhaincha (green manure)-potatosugarcane (plant)-sugarcane (ratoon);
Guar+sugarcane (companion cropping)-sugarcane (ratoon)-sugarbeet-jowar (fodder)maize -sugarbeet.
Inter-cropping of sugarbeet with autumn planted sugarcane is economically feasible and good
for higher yield of both the crops.
Harvesting
Sugarbeet Matures in 5 to 6 months.
An October sown crop becomes ready for harvesting in March to May. Signs of maturity :
yellowing of lower leaves and root bricks values indicate 15 to 18. At the time of harvesting there
must be enough moisture to facilitate the harvesting but the field should not be wet. The harvesting
may be done by running a country plough along the rows on both the sides and lifting of the roots by
a slight pull of Kudali. The adhering soil should be cleaned of the roots by a thorough shaking but
the roots should not be washed in water for cleaning as it causes a rapid deterioration. The roots
should be topped at the leaf -crown because allowing the leaves to remain on the roots affects the
recovery of sugar adversely.

135

Yields :
A good crop of one hectare area yields about 300 to 500 quintals of beet-root having a
sucrose per cent of 15 in March and 17 in May.
Post harvest management

Stop irrigation 15-20 days prior to harvest. This allows sugar accumulation

Just hand pulling and keeping the tops, store in a shaded conditions

Roots of sugarbeet reach the factory within 48 hours for processing

Yield 80 to 100 t/ha, Sugar recovery- 15 -16%

Comparison between sugar beet and sugarcane

Character
Soil Red
Duration
reading
%
recovery
sugar rec
(t/ha)
reqt

Sugar Beet
Sandy loam.
6-7
23-24 %
20-22 %
15-16 %
10-12 %
60-80
1/3rd of S-cane
400-500

Sugarcane
loamy soil
10-12
18-20 %
13-16 %
11-12 %
8-10 %
100
Through outYear

Brix
Pol
Sugar
Avg
Yield
Water

1800-2000

136

Ethanol Prod (Lt)

2800 -3500
Pot.
2800 4100 Lts/ acre

1700 -2700
1700-2400 lt/ac

Alcohol Yield

Seed production in sugaeetrb

The seed production of beet-root is not possible on the plains because of very high
atmospheric temperature. On commercial scale the seed production is undertaken in Kashmir and
Kalpa Valleys by National Seed Corporation and Government of Himanchal Pradesh. For producing
the seed healthy roots are selected, they are cut-off about 1/3 rd of their tapering length and again
planted in nicely prepared and fertilized plots. An efficient plant protection measure and appropriate
isolation from their variety are maintained and the seed is produced. The seed production industry
has a very wide scope in India.

Sugar manufacture from beet-root

Sugarbeet gets spoiled very fast and hence it has to be processed in sugar mills within 48
hour of its harvesting; therefore, a well co-ordinated plan of harvesting and processing has to be
followed. Thus the beet roots must be grown near and around the sugar mills only. The best sugar is
extracted through extraction process by using special diffusers based on the counter current
technique. The beet juice characteristics necessitate the adoption of carbonation process only for
clarification and hence clarification with diffusers and related accessories are essential to process
sugarbeet in the traditional sugarcane based sugar mills in the country. Huge quantity of fuel is
needed for heating the juice.
Sugarbeet by-products and their utilization
One hectare beet crop produces about 5 to 10 metric tones of beet tops which may be used as
cattle feed for the milch cattle to increase the yield of milk. Freshly harvested tops contain Oxalic
acid and hence they are contra-indicated when fed fresh. This bad effect may be counteracted by the
addition of 60.0 g of finely ground lime per 100 kg of tops. Under abundant supply of beet tops they
may be used as green manure and the tops of one hectare usually add 100 kg of nitrogen to the soil.
Beet pulp, after extraction of sugar may be used as cattle feed, either fresh or dried. The beet
pulp may easily replace the grain from the feed concentrates. Mixing of molasses with pulp may
easily replace the grain from the feed concentrates. Mixing of molasses with pulp improves its
palatability and taste. Sugarbeet molasses is extensively used as a raw material for various special
fermentations. Besides, being a rich source of lactic acid and vitamins it is also used in many
pharmaceutical preparations.

137

Lecture No: 28

Tobacco

Origin:
The information available on the origin and history of tobacco suffers generally from
ambiguity and contradictions. According to one source, tobacco was in existence in Asia even during
the 12th century, when it was not known elsewhere. It was not only used as an intoxicant but also as
a cure for all kinds of ills and paying homage to deities. However, it was Christopher Columbus who
discovered the narcotic qualities of tobacco accidentally in the course of his American voyage in
1492. On landing in the Islands of Tobag, Columbus and his men were taken by surprise to find the
natives either sniffing a powdere d dry leaf with evident pleasure or smoking roughly made roll of
dried-up leaves. On trying these themselves, Columbus and his men were satisfied with the
intoxicating effect. They took along with them some quantity of dried leaves and seeds and that was
how tobacco got introduced into Europe.
The Red Indians, according to another version, used tobacco for both medicinal and
ceremonial purposes. They used to inhale its smoke from burning leaf through the nostrils by means
of a hollow forked cane and the name of the instrument was given to the plant which came to be
known as `Tobaco' in Spanish and `Tobacco' in English. The plant was first introduced into Europe
in the year 1560 by a Spanish physician sent to Mexico. About this time, Jean Nicot, the French
Ambassador to Portugal came to know of tobacco in Lisbon and introduced it to the French Court.
The botanical name of the plant, Nicotiana and the word nicotine have been derived from his name.
The habit of smoking spread to several countries during the 17th century.
Tobacco is said to have been introduced into India in the beginning of 17th century. As
elsewhere in the world, it has thrived in spite of considerable neglect and social disapproval.
Distribution:
Leading tobacco growing countries are China, India, Brazil, USA, Zimbabwe and Turkey
Types Of Tobacco
With its rich agro-climatic diversity, India has the unique position of growing different types
of tobacco which are broadly classified as:
1.
2.

FCV tobacco
Bidi tobacco

3.
4.
5.
6.

Cigar & Cheroot tobacco

Hookah tobacco
Chewing & Snuff tobacco
Natu, Burley, Lanka &
HDBRG tobacco
Pikka tobacco

7.

Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka

Gujarat, Nipani area of Karnataka & Nandyal area of Andhra
Pradesh
Tamil Nadu & West Bengal
Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, UP & Gujarat
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam & Uttar Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh & HDBRG
Orissa

138

Botanical Classification Of Tobacco

The genus Nicotiana is one of the five large genera of Solanaceae and is represented by about
68 recognized species.
Description is available for all the 68 species, which are grouped in three sub-groups:

Sub-genus - Rustica

Sub-genus - Tabacum

Sub-genus - Petunioides

The original habitat of the genus is considered to be South America, particularly the regions
surrounding the Andes. There are, however, several species in Australia and South Pacific Islands
that do not occur in the new world. They are considered to be derivatives of the South American
stock. Out of the 68 species, only two species, i.e. Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana rustica are
cultivated extensively. India grows both the species, but by far the largest area is under N. tabacum.
Since N. rustica requires cooler climate, its cultivation is confined mainly to the northern and northeastern areas of the country, i.e. Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam & Gujarat.
The N. tabacum varieties known as desi types have tall plants with broad leaves and have
usually pink flowers. The N. rustica varieties known as `vilayati' and `calcuttia' are characterised by
short plants with round puckered leaf and yellow flowers. Specific varieties in N. tabacum have been
developed for cigarette, cigar and cheroot, bidi, hookah and snuff tobaccos. The varieties developed
in N. rustica are used for only che wing, hookah and snuff tobaccos. In addition to N. tabacum and N.
rustica which are commonly cultivated, many species of Nicotiana, such as N. affinis, are grown for
ornamental purposes.

ANDHRA PRADESH:
Other Tobaccos
Bidi Tobacco
Irrigated Natu
Rainfed Natu
Lanka Tobacco

Area (ha)

Production (M Kg)

Yield (Kg/ha)

5000
10000
10000
4000

5
25
10
10

1000
2500
1000
2500

Area (ha)
141
90
231

Production (M Kg)
204
114
318

Yield (Kg/ha)
1447
1267
1376

Area (ha)
231000
75000
420000

Productionm (M Kg)
318
150
700

Yield (Kg/ha)
1376
2000
1665

FCV Tobacco in INDIA:

A.P.
Karnataka
All INDIA
ALL INDIA:
FCV Tobacco
Bidi Tobacco
All Tobaccos

* Source: CTRI annual report 2009-10

139

Tobacco Varieties Released In India

Variety
Year
Developed at
Cured leaf
of
yield
rele ase
(kg/ha)
FCV tobacco
Chatam
1950 CTRI,
1100
Rajahmundry
Delcrest
1960 CTRI,
1200
Rajahmundry
Kanakaprabh
1971 CTRI,
1500
a
Rajahmundry
Dhanadayi
1972 CTRI,
1520
Rajahmundry
CTRI Special
1976 CTRI,
1365
Rajahmundry
16/103
1976 M/S ILTD Co., Rjy
1717
Special FCV
1976 M/S ILTD Co., Rjy
1118
Jayasri
1979 CTRI,
1990
Rajahmundry
CTRI
1980 CTRI,
1200
Spl.(MR)
Rajahmundry
Godavari
1982 CTRI,
1525
Spl.
Rajahmundry
Swarna
1984 CTRI Res. Stn.,
1450
Hunsur
Mc Nair 12
1986 CTRI,
1880
Rajahmundry
Jayasri (MR)
1986 CTRI,
1503
Rajahmundry
Hema
1987 CTRI Res. Stn.,
1560
Guntur
Bhavya
1988 CTRI Res. Stn.,
2000
Hunsur

Gauthami

1992

CM 12(KA)

1993

VT-1158

1993

K-326
(NLS-4)

1998

Trupthi
(KST-19)
Ratna

1998
2000

CTRI,
Rajahmundry
CTRI,
Rajahmundry
CTRI,
Rajahmundry
CTRI, Res. Stn.,
Jeelugumilli,
CTRI Res. Stn.,
Hunsur
Reg. Res. Stn.,
Navile
CTRI Res. Stn,
Hunsur

2000
2000
2000

Area of adoption and

salient features
For TBS
For TBS
For TBS
For TBS
For TBS
For NLS
For TBS and KLS
For TBS
For
TBS
and
SLS;
Resistant to TMV
For
TBS
and
SLS;
Resistant to TMV
For KLS; Resistant to
powdery mildew
For NLS; Tolerant to black
shank
For
TBS
and
SLS;
Resistant to TMV
For TBS
For endemic black shank
areas of KLS; resistant to
black shank and tolerant to
root-knot nematode
For TBS and SLS
For NLS; Tolerant to black
shank
For TBS; Resistant to TMV

2000

For NLS and KLS;

Tolerant to black shank
and nematodes

1800

For KLS

2000

For KLS

140

Kanti
(CY-79)
Hemadri (II1624)
Bidi tobacco
Keliu 20
Anand 2

2001

1956
1969

BTRS, Anand
BTRS, Anand

1550
2555

Anand 3
Anand 23

1966
1969

BTRS, Anand
BTRS, Anand

2500
2477

Anand 119

1969

BTRS, Anand

2625

GT 4

1976

BTRS, Anand

NPN 190

1979

ARS, Nipani

2605*
2841@
1964

PL 5

1984

ARS, Nipani

2000

GT 5

1986

BTRS, Anand

3301

GT 7

1993

BTRS, Anand

2535

GTH 1

1995

BTRS, Anand

3644

Bhavyasree
2000
(NPN-22)
Chewing tobacco

ARS, Nipani

1420

Chama

1956

Stn,

1800

Podali

1956

Stn,

1600

DP 401

1958

Stn,

2000

For North Bengal (clay

soils)
For North Bengal (sandy
soils)
For Bihar

Gandak
Bahar
Sona

1976

Stn,

2280

For Bihar

Stn,

3178

For Bihar

Vairam

1977

CTRI Res.
Dinhata
CTRI Res.
Dinhata
CTRI Res.
Pusa
CTRI Res.
Pusa
CTRI Res.
Pusa
CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Stn,

2800

Thangam

1980

CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Stn,

3226

Bhagyalaksh
mi

1980

CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Stn,

3532

For
pit-cured
tobacco
growing
areas
of
Tamilnadu
For smoke-cured tobacco
growing
areas
of
Tamilnadu
For sun-cured tobacco
growing
areas
of
Tamilnadu

2002

1977

CTRI Res. Stn,

Kandukur
CTRI Res. Sta.,
Guntur

1600-2000
2500

For the SLS & SBS of

Andhra Pradesh
For Traditional black soils
of AP.
For Gujarat
For Gujarat, Karnataka,
Maharashtra &
Andhra
Pradesh
For Gujarat
For Gujarat ; Tolerant to
leaf-burn disease
For Gujarat, Karnataka,
Maharashtra & Andhra
Pradesh
For Gujarat
Drought tolerant
For
Karnataka
and
Maharashtra
For
Karnataka
and
Maharashtra
For Gujarat; Tolerant to
root-knot and high nicotine
For rainfed
areas in
Gujarat; drought tolerant
For Gujarat; Tolerant to
root-knot and high nicotine
For Karnataka

141

Maragadham

1981

CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Stn,

3013

Prabha

1981

2200

GT 6

1986

CTRI Res. Stn,

Pusa
BTRS, Anand

PT- 76

1990

Stn,

2600

Meenakshi

1992

Stn,

4000

Vaishali
Special
Abirami

1993

CTRI Res.
Pusa
CTRI Res.
Vedasandur
CTRI Res.
Pusa
CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Stn,

2778

Stn.

4000

Dharla

2001

Stn.

2700

Lichchavi
(PS-14)

2001

CTRI Res.
Dinhata
CTRI Res.
Pusa

For southern, central and

western zones of Tamil
Nadu except Coastal belt
North Bengal zone

Stn.

3000

North Bihar

CTRI Res. Stn,

Dinhata
CTRI Res. Stn,
Dinhata
BTRS, Anand
BTRS, Anand

1865

For Motihari areas of West

Bengal
For Motihari areas of West
Bengal
For rustica areas of Gujarat
For rustica areas of middle
Gujarat

2001

2712

For smoke-cured tobacco

growing
areas
of
Tamilnadu
For Bihar
For Lal and Kala Chopadiu
tobacco
For Bihar
For sun-cured
Tamilnadu
For Bihar

areas

of

Rustica tobacco
DD 437

1977

Sonar
Motihari
GC 1
GCT 2

1977
1981
1994

1690
2693
3512

Natu tobacco
Prabhat

1977

CTRI Res.
Guntur

Stn,

1500

Vishwanath

1986

2429

Natu Special

1992

Pyruvithana
m
Bhairavi
(NG73)

2001

CTRI Res. Stn,

Guntur
CTRI Res. Stn,
Guntur
NRPT
Centre,
Berhampur
CTRI Res. Stn.,
Guntur

CTRI,
Rajahmundry

2620

2002

1600
1250
2600

Natu areas of Andhra

Pradesh;
suitable
for
cigarette natu, resistant to
TMV
Suitable for cigarette natu
areas of Andhra Pradesh
Suitable for cigarette natu
areas of Andhra Pradesh
Pikka tobacco growing
areas of Orissa
Suitable for cigarette natu
areas of Andhra Pradesh

Cheroot tobacco
DR 1

1960

For river-side Island of

East Godavari district of
Andhra Pradesh; strong,
142

Stn,,

2837

pungent and aromatic

For Bhavani area of
Coimbatore district of
Tamilnadu
For river side Island of East
Godavari district of Andhra
Pradesh; strong, pungent
and aromatic
For Salem area of Tamil
Nadu

Bhavani
Special

1980

CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Lanka
Special

1981

CTRI,
Rajahmundry

Sendarapatty
Special

1986

CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Stn,,

2100

1986

CTRI Res.
Vedasandur

Stn,,

2250

For cigar-filler
Tamilnadu

Banket A1

1994

BTRC,
Jeddangi

CTRI,

1800

Sweta
(BSRB 2)

2002

BTRC,
Jeddangi

CTRI,

2000

For light soil agency areas

of
East
Godavari,Visakapatnam,
Vijayanagaram districts of
Andhra Pradesh. Resistant
to TMV
For light soil agency areas
of
East
Godavari,Visakapatnam,
Vijayanagaram districts of
Andhra Pradesh. Resistant
to TMV

2780

Cigar-wrapper tobacco
Krishna

area

of

Burley tobacco

TBS: Traditional black soils of Andhra Pradesh; NLS: Northern light soils of Andhra Pradesh; SLS:
Southern light soils of Andhra Pradesh; KLS: Karnataka light soils,
* Rainfed, @ normal conditions; BTRC, Burley Tobacco Research Centre.
CTRI RS: Central Tobacco Research Institute Research Station

Preparatory cultivation
In all the tobacco growing soils, deep summer ploughing is invariably recommended. This
practice is found highly beneficial in minimizing weeds and Orobanche menace, reducing insect pest
and disease problems and improving water and nutrient conserving capacity of the soil.
Pre-planting tillage operation includes one or two ploughings with mould board or disc
plough followed by two cross ploughings with cultivator followed by planking for levelling the field.
Use of single patela helps in collection and removal of weeds and stubbles from the field. The tillage
operation must be completed before planting time.

143

Soils:
Tobacco is very sensitive to the physical and chemical properties of the soil. Soils which are
open, well drained and properly aerated are the best suited for tobacco cultivation. The plant is
highly susceptible to injury from flooding or inundation of the soil. The desirable soil pH is 5.0 to
6.0. But, in many parts cultivation is successful where the pH is 8 or more.
In India, cigar, hookah, chewing, bidi and FCV tobacco in some areas are grown on sandy
loam to clay loam soils. The crop is raised either as irrigated in Tamil Nadu, U.P. and Northern light
soils (NLS) of Andhra Pradesh or as semi-irrigated crop i.e. in Bihar, West Bengal and Karnataka or
as a dry crop in Andhra Pradesh except in NLS.
Flue cured virginia tobacco is grown in India in four agro-climatic zones namely Traditional
black soils (TBS), Northern light soils (NLS) and Southern light soils (SLS) in Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka light soils (KLS) in Karnataka. Soil characteristics, cultivation practices and quality of the
tobacco grown vary from one region to the other. The different styles of tobacco produced in
different zones meet the demands of the customers of different countries.
The Traditional black soils are clay loams, silty clay loams and clays, highly clayey (50-80%
clay) throughout the profile, slightly alkaline in reaction (pH 7.5 to 8.8), calcareous, low in organic
carbon, rich in fertility, high in available soil moisture with very poor drainage. Tobacco is grown on
conserved soil moisture as post monsoon crop during winter.
Northern light soils (East Godavari, West Godavari and Khammam districts of A.P.) are
sandy loams to loamy sands, slightly acidic, very low exchangeable cations, low water holding
capacity, poor fertility status with very good drainage. Tobacco is grown in these soils under
irrigated conditions during winter.
Southern light soils (Prakasam and Nellore districts of A.P.) are red loamy soils, neutral in
reaction, low to medium fertility status, moderately well drained, moderately low permeability, with
moderate water holding capacity and low to medium cation exchange capacity with more than 75%
base saturation. Tobacco is grown during winter on conserved soil moisture from North East
monsoon rains.
Karnataka light soils (Transitional belt of Karnataka) are red soils which are yellow to deep
red in colour, loamy sands and sandy clay in texture (clay content varies from 10 to 25%), low in
inherent fertility, slightly acidic in reaction with fairly good water holding capacity. The soils are
well drained and highly leached. The clay complex of red soils consists of a mixture of Illite and
Kaolinite with traces of Montmorillonite. Tobacco is grown as a monsoon crop during south west
monsoon period.
Burley tobacco:
The burley tobacco is grown during monsoon season in Agency areas in East and West
Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh and the soils are generally sandy loams on the surface and
loams at the sub-soil level and neutral to acidic in reaction (pH 5.5 to 6.5). The soils are very low in
soluble salts, chlorides and light in texture. The organic matter content, available nitrogen and
available phosphorus status are low. This tobacco is used for blending in cigarettes.

144

Natu tobacco :
The crop is raised on medium to heavy black soils of pH ranging from 7.0 to 8.5 in Guntur,
Krishna, Kurnool, Khammam and Warangal districts of Andhra Pradesh on the conserved soil
moisture. These soils are poor in available nitrogen, organic carbon, medium to high in phosphorus
and high in available potash. Some pati soils are also used for growing natu tobacco. The unirrigated
crop grown on black soils is given a moderate manuring.
Lanka tobacco:
Lanka tobacco is exclusively grown on the banks and delta ic islands of Krishna and Godavari
rivers in Andhra Pradesh. The soils which are sandy to loam in textures are derived from the recent
alluvium deposited annually by the rivers Krishna & Godavari during floods. Some of these soils,
which are submerged during floods every year are silty in nature and therefore highly fertile.
Bidi tobacco:
In Gujarat, bidi tobacco is grown in Charotar area comprising of Anand, Petlad and Nadiad
taluks of Kheda District and the soils in this tract are mostly sandy to sandy loam called "Goradu"
and in some parts of Vadodara District which are medium clay soils. Soils are deficient in organic
carbon and medium in available phosphorus and potassium.
In Karnataka, bidi tobacco is mainly grown in Nipani area of Belgaum District on the banks
of river Krishna and its tributaries. Hence, the crop is grown on black silt loams which have good
moisture retentive capacity. Bidi tobacco is also grown to some extent in Koraput District of Orissa
and in Kurnool District of Andhra Pradesh.
Chewing and hookah types of tobacco
Chewing and hookah types of tobacco are grown on different types of soils ranging from
sandy loam upland soils of Vaishali, Samastipur, Muzaffarpur to medium and heavy paddy growing
soils of Purnea, Katihar and Saharso. Most of the tobacco growing soils are low in organic matter,
available N and P, medium in K content and mostly alkaline in reaction (pH 8.2 to 8.4). Illite and
muscovite are the dominant minerals responsible for the enrichment of such soils. Available
phosphorus content in these soils is low. Well drained, neutral to slightly alkaline soil with good
nutrient supplying capacity is considered ideal for chewing and hookah tobacco cultivation.
Chewing tobacco cultivation in Tamil Nadu is concentrated in the districts of Dindigul,
Erode, Coimbatore, Madurai, South Arcot, Nagapatnam, Salem, Thanjavur, Kanyakumari and
Tirunelveli in an area of about 20000 ha. Chewing tobacco is grown in a wide range of soils which
are alkaline in nature and with irrigation waters having high salt content.
Country Cheroot tobacco
Two types of country cheroot tobaccos i.e. the narrow leaf type and broad leaf type are
cultivated, the former confined to Erode district and the later in Salem districts of Tamil Nadu in an
area of about 5000 ha. This tobacco is cultivated in both heavy and light soils as an irrigated crop.
The produce finds its way for the manufacture of hand made country cheroots for consumption in
Tamil Nadu as well as adjoining States of Kerala and Karnataka. Part of the produce is also
consumed locally as well as in Karnataka as chewing tobacco.

145

Wrapper, filler, jati & motihari tobacco of North Bengal

Motihari (N. rustica) and jati, wrapper and filler (N. tabacum) tobacco types are cultivated in
a total area of about 14,000 ha concentrated in Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri, Mushidabad and Malda
districts of North Bengal region. Soils of the area are alluvial flood plains in origin, formed from the
deposits of Ganga and Brahmaputra river waters. These soils are sandy loams and silt loams, light in
texture, whitish grey to greyish in colour, well-drained and well-aerated.
Cigar filler and binder tobaccos are grown on sandy to loamy, well drained, red and brown
soils of Coimbatore and Madurai districts of Tamil Nadu. The crop is heavily irrigated, about 20
times. From well water.
Climate
Besides soil, the other important factor which affects tobacco growth is the climate. Rainfall,
temperature, relative humidity, wind and sunlight have a profound influence on growth, flowering
and metabolism of tobacco plant. To maintain turgidity and expansion of leaf area, tobacco plant
needs considerable amount of water. On the other hand, tobacco plants are very sensitive to
flooded/water-logged condition of soil because of deprivation of oxygen in soil essential for the
development of a fibrous root system.
Tobacco is tropical in origin, but it is grown successfully under tropical, sub-tropical and
temperate climates. Normally it requires about 100 to 120 frost -free days with an average
temperature of 80oF, to mature. Ideal conditions required for successful production of high quality
leaf are 1) a liberal and well-distributed rainfall during active vegetative growth stage 2) long day
lengths and 3) a high relative humidity of 70-80%. In India, tobacco is grown under a very wide
range of conditions from the coast-line to an altitude of 3,000 feet. In the South, the crop is raised in
winter from October to March when the temperatures are moderate. But in Punjab, it is grown as an
early summer crop. In the eastern and western parts of the country, it is grown between September
and January.
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
The annual rainfall through South-West and North East monsoons is around 800- 1000 mm
starting from June to October and Nov. Dec (North East monsoon). The crop is exclusively grown
on conserved soil moisture during rabi season extending from October-November to FebruaryMarch. Occasionally, the North- East monsoon becomes active and unprecedented rain during the
crop season through cyclonic storms boosts the yields. The crop requires good sun light, low
evaporation, high relative humidity, sustained soil moisture and free from wet footing and cyclonic
storms.
Lanka tobacco crop needs 80 to 90% relative humidity during plant growth period that is
from mid October to November ending with a mean day temperature of about 26.7oC and the crop
needs 30 to 32oC so that the leaves on the plant will come to maturity with raising temperatures.
Bidi tobacco
The bidi tobacco in Charotar area of Gujarat is grown with few irrigations while in Nipani
area of Karnataka it is not irrigated. A less irrigated bidi tobacco is more prized than a more irrigated
crop. In Gujarat the crop comes to maturity during winter due to which the leaf thickens and
becomes rugged. This is desirable feature for bidi tobacco.
146

LECTURE NO : 29

C.No: AGRO -301 CROP PRODUCTION -II

NURSERY MANAGEMENT

Tobacco seeds are very small and egg-shaped with thick seed- coat. They are about 0.75 mm
long, 0.53 mm broad and 0.47 mm thick. Depending on the variety and the conditions under which
the seed is produced, the size and the weight of the seed vary considerably. In N. tabacum the
average weight of the seed is 0.08 to 0.09 mg and there are 11,000 - 12,000 seeds per gram. In N.
rustica , the seed is larger and about three times heavier. The emerging seedlings are tiny and delicate
and therefore, the seeds are unsuitable for sowing directly in the field. Hence, they are sown in
nurseries initially and tended carefully till the seedlings attain a particular size before transplanting in
the main field. For successful raising of nurseries, proper location, good preparation and manuring,
adequate facilities for watering and timely controlling of pests and diseases are essential.
Site Selection:
Generally tobacco nurseries are grown on sandy or sandy loam soils. The cigarette-tobacco
growing areas of Andhra Pradesh are an exception in that the crop is grown on a heavy black soil and
the nurseries are generally raised on sandy to gravely loams. Raising of nurseries on heavy black
soils is hazardous due to poor internal drainage due to clay content, heavy rainfall, high temperatures
and pre-disposing the crop for disease like damping off.
Sterilisation / Rabbing :
The nursery site should have a good internal as well as surface drainage and should be
situated at an elevated place. It is desirable to change the nursery site every year as it would
minimise incidence of pests and diseases and also eliminate contamination by other varieties. If it is
not possible to change the site, old site can be used after sterilizing by rabbing, i.e. by burning any of
the slow burning waste materials like, tobacco stalks, paddy husk, sugarcane-trash, etc. For the best
results this operation should be done at the right moisture content, after the final preparation of the
seed bed and a few days before sowing.
Seed bed preparation:
Systematic layout of nursery on raised beds with intervening channels helps in quick drainage
of rain water. The beds of 1.0 m to 1. 22 m width facilitate hand weeding and watering with rose
cans. The beds can be of any convenient length along the slope but generally not more than 10 m.
Channels should be 50 cm wide and 10 cm deep. Mixing of sand at 100 to 200 tonnes/ha in the
preparation of the beds, helps in improving the drainage in heavy soils.
Manures and fertilizers:
Application of FYM or filter press cake @ 25 tonnes/ha by mixing well in the top layers
atleast 20 days before sowing is beneficial in obtaining more number of transplantable seedlings.
Growing of a green manure crop like dhaincha or sunnhemp for 6 to 7 weeks and ploughing it is also
practiced in places like Dinhata (West Bengal). Basal application of 50 g of ammonium sulphate, 50
g of potassium sulphate and 300 g of super phosphate and 100 g of dolomite per 10 sq.m. bed is
recommended. After germination of seed, top dressing of ammonium sulphate @ 25 g/10 sq.m. twice
at 4 days interval and thereafter @ 50 g/10 sq.m. thrice at 4 days interval and potassium sulphate @
25 g/10 sq.m. twice is recommended. After each pulling top dressing with ammonium sulphate @
100 g/10 sq.m. is to be applied to boost the growth of remaining seedlings.
147

Seed rate:
Seed rate is actually dictated by climatic conditions and the optimum seed rate is 3-5 kg/ha
(0.4 g/sq.m). A seed-rate of 3 kg/ha for N. tabacum and 6 kg/ha for N. rustica was found to be
optimum under Dinhata (West Bengal) conditions.
Seed Treatment:
Seeds must be treated with dithane M-45 or Z-78 before sowing in the nursery agains t the
seed borne dideases.
Time of Sowing:
Sowing time
Aug-Sep
April- May
May-June
June -July
Aug-sep
Dec.

State
A.P.
Karnataka
Gujarat
U.P.
Bihar
UP

Type of Tobacco
Cigarete, Cheerot and Bidi
FCV and Natu
Bidi
Cheewing
Hookah and Chewing
Chewing

The sowing time of FCV tobacco of Karnataka is March-April and FCV and other tobacco
types in different areas are 1st to 2nd fortnight of August. The first ten days of nursery period is most
critical and if the afternoons are hot, missing even one watering inhibit germination of seed. Almost
all the sowings are done when the day temperatures are high. Provision of covers and mulches over
seed beds is found beneficial as they help in conserving moisture during germination and la ter
protect the tender seedlings from scorching sunlight and beating rains.
In order to prevent desiccation of seedlings due to intense heat and beating rains, under
Dinhata (West Bengal) conditions, bamboo mats or jute-stick covers are placed directly on the beds.
In Pusa (North Bihar), the seed beds are covered with grass thaties or dry grass. At Hunsur, paddystraw cover gave adequate protection to seed beds. Covering nursery beds with coir mat pandal gave
21.9% increase in transplantable seedlings over geotextile or paddy straw and also saved two
waterings per day.
Covers are gradually thinned or removed when seedlings appear on the surface, otherwise
they become etiolated and lanky for want of sunlight. It is also advantageous to transplant 3 to 4
weeks old seedlings on another bed i.e., resetting, to ensure sturdy growth of seedlings by the time of
planting. A week to ten days before planting, seedlings are hardened by withholding water. Such
seedlings withstand the shock of transplanting better than normal seedlings.
Seedlings of pencil thickness and of 10 to 15 cm length are normally preferred. Shorter
seedlings may establish well under optimum conditions in heavy soils. In light soils longer seedlings
are preferred for planting. Normally, the seedlings are ready for planting by the end of 7th week and
in the first picking 30 to 40% of the total seedlings are available. The seed bed is top-dressed after
each pulling to make the remaining seedlings grow to transplantable size.
When planting is delayed due to unfavourable field conditions, the overgrown seedlings in
beds are clipped without damaging the growing point in order to retard the growth.

148

Transplanting In The Mainfield

The optimum time for planting is primarily determined by the weather conditions prevailing
during certain stages of the crop.
In Andhra Pradesh, the normal period of planting is from mid-October till mid-November.
Earlyr plantings are damaged by heavy rains and late plantings suffer from deficiency of soil
moisture.
In Tamil Nadu, plantings are done after sufficient rains augment the water supply in the
wells. Planting of cigar or chewing tobacco up to 1st week of November is better than later plantings.
In Karnataka, time of planting ranges from April to May-June depending on the rainfall.
In the northern parts of the country, planting is mostly governed by the time when cool
weather prevails as well as duration of winter. In West Bengal, Jati tobacco is planted earlier than
Motihari, both after the rains, as the former is of a longer duration. In Punjab and parts of U.P. the
planting is done in February-March as a summer crop.
For bidi-tobacco, last week of August to first week of September is the optimum planting
time in the Charotar area of Gujarat and the middle of August in the Nipani area of Karnataka.
Method of planting
Dry Planting:
Planting of 8 to 9 week old seedlings done by pot watering at the intersections of marking in
Andhra Pradesh and Nipani tract. Planting of bidi-tobacco in Charotar area of Gujarat and hookahtobacco in Bihar is generally arranged on a cloudy day.
Wet Planting: Followed in Tamilnadu. The field is irrigated prior to planting and seedlings are
planted in the saturated soil.
Spacing:
Soil properties and tobacco type influence the selection of spacing between plant in the field.
Generally, spacing is wider in soils of low fertility than in soils of high fertility. Broad-leaf type
varieties are spaced wider than narrow-leaf types. Due to different spacings adopted for various
tobacco types grown in India, the plant densities vary from 12,345 to 37,037 plants/ha. Wide-spacing
allows the maximum expansion and thickness of the leaf; narrow -spacing tends to produce small and
thin leaves, generally lacking in body.
Spacings recommended for various tobaccos in India
FCV
NLS & KLS- 100cm X60cm
SLS & TBS- 70 cmX50cm
Bidi Tobacco- 90cm X 60cm to 100cm X75 cm
Natu Tobacco- Irrigated- 90cm X90 cm
Rainfed- 60cm X60 cm
Burley Tobacco- 80cm X40 cm
Lanka Tobacco- 60cm X60 cm

149

Lecture No: 30

Manures And Fertilizers

Application of organic manures is essential for maintenance of soil health. Organic manures
improve the soil health, increase yields by 10-15% and also enhance the flavour and taste of tobacco.
The requirement of organic manures in addition to inorganic fertilizers has been worked out for each
type of tobacco by Central Tobacco Research Institute, its Research Stations and AINRP(T) Centres
and recommended to the farmers.
Nutrient content and Removal:
Nutrient
Leaf (%)
N content2.0 -5.0
P content
0.5-0.7
K content
2.5-7.0

stalk (%)
2.5-4.0
0.5-0.9
2.5-5.0

Ingeneral a normal tobacco crop removes 225 kg N, 17 kg P2O5 , 365 kg K2O, 135 kg CaO and 17
kg MgO from 1 Ha.
Fertiliser doses for different types of Tobaccos and soils
For FCV Tobacco :
NLS - 115-60-120 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
SLS - 60-60-60 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
KLS - 50-40-80 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
TBS - 45-0-0 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Bidi Tobacco

: 160-0-0 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.

125-60-40 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Burley
: 125- 5-50 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Irrigated natu : 300-50-100 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Rainfed natu
: 60-50-50 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Lanka
: 300-50-50 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Cigar
: 100-50-100 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Chewing
: 120-50-75 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
Hookah
: 112-50-75 kg N, P2 O5 and K2 O / ha.
METHOD OF APPLICATION:
Depending on the type of tobacco and soil type, the dose, time and method of application of
fertilisers are recommended for better fertiliser use efficiency. In heavy soils like vertisols and red
clay loams, fertilisers are applied before planting in plant row plough furrow (PRPF) method. In this
method, furrows are opened with a plough in the planting row and fertilisers are applied in the
furrow and land is levelled with a plank. Later the planting is done on the same line which helps in
better utilization of fertilisers. In light soils(sands to loamy sands), fertilisers are applied in two or
three splits by dollop method or double band placement. Fertilisers like ammonium sulphate,
diammonium phosphate, urea, calcium ammonium nitrate as sources of nitrogen, super phosphate
and diammonium phosphate as sources of phosphorus and potassium sulphate as source of potassium
are used for tobacco. As the chloride ion affects burning fertilizers like muriate of potash are not
applied to smoking types.

150

Interculture and weed Management

Intercultivation is done with a three-tyned hoe two or three times at fortnightly intervals by
working the hoe in cross directions. The first cultivation usually commences about 10 to 15 days
after planting by which time the plants are well established. In vertisols, the final cultivation is done
deep with country plough to prevent cracking of the soil. For each interculture, the soil around the
plants is loosened with a hand-weeding tool. These operations help in eradication of weeds,
mulching the surface soil and promoting rooting at deeper layers by driving out the moisture at the
top. In the case of irrigated crop, soil in the furrow which has the tendency to form a hard crust is
broken by harrow and ridges are reformed to increase the height with each progressive irrigation.
These regular intercultural operations will keep the field weed free and conserve the
moisture. Orabanche is found to be attached with the roots. For managing them, coleection and
destroying as soon as they are seen in the field. Deep summer ploughing buries seeds in deeper
layers. Preplanting application of EPTC @ 6.0 kg/ha is recommended. Growing trap crops like
Jowar, Gingelly, Sesame, Blackgram etc. should be gropwn in Kharif, which will reduce the seed
bank.

151

Lecture No:31
Irrigation
Tobacco cannot tolerate wit h water logging under any circumstance. FCV tobacco grown in
Blackcotton soils rarely requires irrigation. However, grown in light soils requires regular
irrigations.Irrigation through all furrow system is a general practice, but it consumes more water and
requires more labour; and leaching losses of nitrogen and potassium are also more. The alternate skip
furrow method of irrigation is more economical and checks the wastage of irrigation water,
electricity and time. It improves the leaf quality and gives 10-20% higher yield than all furrow
irrigation.
Irrigation schedule for Northern light soils FCV Tobacco
At the time of planting in plough furrow
1st irrigation 15-20th day after planting by surface irrigation, if needed
2nd irrigation 30-35th day after planting as surface irrigation
3rd irrigation 40-45th day after planting all furrow irrigation immediately after
ridge formation
4th irrigation 50-55th day after planting all furrow irrigation
5th irrigation 65-70th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method
6th irrigation 80-85th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method
7th irrigation 95-100th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method
8th irrigation 115-120th day after planting by alternate skip furrow method

15 mm
24 mm
24 mm
48 mm
48 mm
24 mm
24 mm
24 mm
24 mm

In alternate skip furrow method, in the subsequent irrigations, first irrigated furrows are
avoided and the unirrigated furrows are irrigated. The same order is followed in consecutive
irrigations.

Critical stages:
Critical stages for irrigation is knee height to bloom. Schdulling at 50 % DASM is ideal for Tobacco.
Quality of water for irrigation to tobacco in respect of chlorine content is paramount important.
Limit of is up to 30 ppm and should not exceed 50ppm.
Crop rotation
Monocropping of tobacco is always discouraged as it leads to development of pest and
disease complex in addition to decreasing soil fertility. Crop rotation not only gives additional
returns to farmers but also improves soil fertility and maintains soil health. Suitable crop rotations
have been worked out for different types of tobacco without jeopardising the tobacco quality (Table
6). One year rotation, two year rotation, long term cropping sequences, mixed cropping wherever
feasible and cropping systems suitable to the region were developed.

152

Table - 6: Cropping sequences recommended for different types of tobacco

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Type of tobacco
Crop rotation recommended
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. FCV tobacco:
a) Northern Black Soils
b) Central Black Soils
c) Southern Black Soils
d) Northern Light Soils
e) Southern Light Soils
f) Karnataka Light Soils
2. Irrigated Natu tobacco

Kharif Blackgram or Dry paddy followed by Rabi tobacco.

Kharif gingelly followed by Rabi tobacco, sorghum alone
once in 4 years
Kharif gingelly or groundnut followed by Rabi tobacco.
Groundnut- redgram (1st year), Gingelly-tobacco (2nd year)
Gingelly or groundnut in Kharif and tobacco in Rabi
Ragi or Gingelly in Rabi followed by FCV Tobacco in Kharif

3. Rainfed Natu tobacco

Redgram or sunnhemp green manuring followed by tobacco in

Rabi
Kharif gingelly followed by tobacco in Rabi

4. Lanka tobacco

Tobacco - Ma ize - Paddy - Tobacco - Maize

5. Cigar and Cheroot tobacco

Pearl millet-Ragi-Tobacco

6. Bidi tobacco

Tobacco - Bajra (1st year) followed by Hybrid cotton tobacco (2nd year).
Cropping sequences, Maize-tobacco-greengram, Sesametobacco-sunflower/onion, Maize-tobacco-sesame and
Intercropping of Chewing Tobacco+potato, Tobacco+ papaya,
Tobacco + sugarcane, Tobacco + garlic and Tobacco + rajmash
in Bihar; Onion as intercrop and Ragi-chewing tobacco
rotation in Tamil Nadu.
Cropping sequences, Aus paddy- Aman paddy Motihari
tobacco, Jute-Aman paddy- Motihari tobacco and
intercropping of Tobacco+potato, Tobacco+garlic or onion

7. Chewing tobacco

8. Hookah tobacco

9. HDBRG

Blackgram or gingelly followed by tobacco.

Topping & sucker control

Toping is the process of removal of flower head alone or with few top leaves. Removal of the
flower bud (topping) arrests the apical dominance and buds in the top 3 to 4 axils grow rapidly to
replace the plants reproductive capabilities. The primary buds get stimulated initially and removal of
these primary buds, in turn, stimulates secondary buds. Topping is associated with improvement of
root system, leaf thickness and leaf weight. Topping increases the nicotine and nitrogen contents of
the leaf.
Topping and removal of subsequent suckers form a composite operation. If suckers are not
removed there is no use of topping. The management aspects of topping and desuckering are spe cific
to tobacco types.

153

Sucker control can be done either manually or by applying chemicals. Application of neem
oil emulsion 15-20% in the top 5-6 axils controls the suckers considerably.

Harvesting
Priming:
Harvesting two to three well-matured and rip e leaves is is termed as Priming as followed in
FCV tobacco. Ripe leaves have greenish-yellow colour, with a velvety feel, losing much of the
stickiness. They have a tendency to lie horizontally or bend slightly down the plant and the leaf-tips
are slightly dry. As a general rule, leaves are harvested from bottom lower leaves on slightly greener
side, middle leaves when they are ripe and top leaves when they are fully ripe. Harvesting must be
done on a clear weather day and on an average, not more than three leaves are harvested at a time.
Immediately after rains or irrigation, harvest is to be delayed by 2 - 3 days.
Stalk cut method:
Cigar, cheerot, chewing and hookah types are harvested by stalk cut method. In this method
plants are cut close to ground with the sickle and generally left in the field over night for wilting.
Bidi Tobacco:
Harvesting of bidi tobacco normally commences in the months of January-February in
Gujarat and December-January in Karnataka and Maharashtra. Harvesting of bidi tobacco is done at
an advanced stage of maturity. The maturity is judged by pronounced development of brown spots
called spangles.
i) Whole plant harvest: The mature plants are cut at the base, inverted and left in the field for about
three days. The drying is considered to be complete when the lamina close to the lower half of the
midrib becomes brittle.
ii) Leaf-wise harvest: Mature leaves exhibiting full spangle development are plucked and left in the
field with the upper surface facing the ground for drying. Dried leaves are collected in a tarpaulin
and the lamina (bhuka) are stripped off from the midribs. After about 4 days, pieces of lamina and
veins adhering to midribs are separated and kept in a separate heap. Midribs are exposed to the sun
further for about a fortnight for drying.
iii) Gugro method: This method is practiced in seasons of deficient rainfall when leaves do not
mature well and there is drying of leaf along with midrib. Green lamina of the mature leaf of the
standing crop is stripped from the midrib by passing the thumb and the index finger from the base to
the top of the midrib.
In Karnataka and Maharashtra, harvesting of bidi tobacco is done by stalk cut method. Whole
plants are cut and kept inverted in the field for 6-7 days for sun curing and the lamina is separated
out from the main stem after drying. Midribs are further dried to remove the remaining portion of the
lamina. This is Angad tobacco sold in the market.
CURING:
Curing is essentially a drying process whereby most of the moisture in the green leaf is
removed. However, this process of drying is conducted in such a way as to produce certain welldefined and desirable qualities in different types of tobacco. A bad leaf produced on field cannot be
154

improved by curing; but a good leaf ca n be spoiled by bad and defective curing. The process of
curing has an intimate bearing on the quality of the final produce. During the progress of curing,
some important biochemical changes take place. The curing operations followed in India are
dependent on several factors, such as tradition, convenience, market value of the crop, consideration
of economic production, etc. Depending on the type of tobacco, four principal methods of curing can
be distinguished, namely, i) flue -curing, ii) air-curing, iii) fire-curing and iv) sun-curing.
Quality Characters:
The concept of quality in flue -cured tobacco has attained a new dimension in the present day
context because of higher mobility in international market, ever -growing sophistication among
smokers taste and increasing automation in cigarette industry. While overall monetary return is a
good enough criterion of quality to a farmer, visible quality like colour, is very important for
marketing purposes; but to an industrialist, those manufacturing qualities which maximise profit are
most desirable features provided tobacco possesses satisfactory smoking quality which in turn
depends upon chemical composition of the leaf material. Flue-cured tobacco quality thus is made up
of many complex components, viz. physic al, chemical, organoleptic and also economic attributes.
Smoking quality plus manufacturing capacity equals the suitability of tobacco. So the quality
characters of FCV tobacco are divided into visual characters, manufacturing characters and chemical
characters.
The visual characters are colour, body, texture, maturity/ ripeness, graininess, hygroscopicity,
shatterability, blemish, elasticity, fluffiness, aroma, leaf size, vein colour etc. These characters are
subjective based on which the tobacco leaf is graded and purchased by the trader. Objective quality
criteria have been developed for manufacturing characters and chemical characters. The
manufacturing characters are filling value, equilibrium moisture content, pore volume, elasticity,
shatterability, combustibility, lamina-midrib ratio (strip yield), number of leaves per kg, lamina
weight per unit area etc. Though, tobacco leaf contains hundreds of chemical constituents, only few
have a dominating influence on quality. Nitrogenous and carbohydrate fractions are the two groups
of chemical constituents having profound effect on the smoking quality. Chloride in leaf is also very
important as it influences the combustibility and keeping quality of leaf.
Physical Properties:
Tobacco buyers evaluate tobacco by its visual characteristics. Such a system of subjective
quality evaluation varies with personal fancies and hence cannot be considered as precise. The
necessity of objective laboratory tests to evaluate physical qualities has become essential.
Filling value
Filling value is the volume occupied by unit weight of cut tobacco at predetermined moisture
level under a specific stress. Filling value may be taken to be a measure of the relative number of
cigarettes of a given firmness that could be manufactured from a unit weight of tobacco.
Shatterability
Another important economic factor in tobacco quality is its resistance to breakage during
handling. Tobacco is a fragile material that tends to shatter to a greater or lesser degree with
handling. Breakage becom es accentuated under the stress of mechanical processes in the factory.
Tobaccos do differ in their relative brittleness due to various factors. Strength in tobacco leaf is
dependent on calcium pectate, the cementing material in the cell wall.
155

Strip yield
Strip yield in flue-cured tobacco is important to manufacturers since it is the lamina portion
of leaf that is normally used in cigarette making. Because of the low utility of midrib, a large bulk of
exportable flue-cured leaf is despatched only in the form of strips. This makes strip yield an
important criterion in developing varieties, as higher the strip yield, greater is the economic return.
Strips constitute, on an average, about 75% of leaf by weight, ranging from 70-80%. Within this
range, higher the strip yield, better is the usability of tobacco.
Elasticity
Elasticity is the ability of the leaf, when moist, to undergo stretching without breaking. Such
tobaccos after being compressed, as practiced during cutting in the manufacture of cigarettes, will
spring back immediately.
Texture or porosity
Leaf structure or texture is an important physical property of flue-cured tobacco. Texture and
grain are synonymous for cigarette tobacco. Graininess in flue cured tobacco is a measure of porosity
of leaf which regulates its capacity to absorb and retain additives in the intercellular air chamber.
Hygroscopicity
Hygroscopic properties of cured leaf as judged by equilibrium moisture content is an
important technological criterion for judging quality. It is the moisture absorbing capacity of leaf
which depends on the relative humidity of the surrounding environment. Cured leaf low in
hygroscopicity is very difficult to get to `order' or `condition', with the result the leaf handling is
difficult. High hygroscopicity on the other hand, entails operational difficulty in the cutting and
making machines.
Combustibility
Combustibility or burning quality of tobacco involves several criteria like fire holding
capacity, rate of burn, evenness or completeness of burn and character of residual ash. Leaf burn is
very commonly used to determine the burning quality of cured leaf.

Chemical Characters:
Total nitrogen
It is generally considered that flavour and taste of smoke is correlated with nitrogenous
constituents. Flue-cured tobacco containing 1.6 to 2.3% total nitrogen gives the most satisfying
smoke. Higher nitrogen content of tobacco would result in, apart from curing difficulty, deep brown
coloured trashy leaf which shatters readily and it has flat-insipid tasting smoke. Generally high level
of nitrogen is associated with high level of nicotine. Lower nitrogen content would result in `washed
out', pale coloured leaf, lacking in rich colour characteristic of good tobacco.
Nicotine

156

Nicotine content of tobacco is an important constituent because of its stimulatory effect on

the smoker. In FCV tobacco, a nicotine level of 1.7 to 2.0% is desirable and nornicotine should not
exceed 5% of total alkaloids. Higher proportion of nornicotine leads to abnormal and objectionable
smoke due to pyrolysis of nornicotine into myosmine.
Nitrogen / nicotine ratio
The ratio of nitrogen to nicotine is assumed to give some chemical balance within the leaf.
Tobacco with higher ratio is less desirable because it tends to be light bodied. A ratio of about 1.35
results in pale colour, slick texture, poor physical characters and deficiency in aroma. In fact, a value
exceeding 1.0 has been ascribed as unbalanced. Low value (below 0.5) is considered undesirable
because the tobacco is heavy bodied and associated with high nicotine content and low level of
reducing sugars. Ratio in the range of 0.6 - 0.7 is adjudged as most desirable in medium to light
bodied matured tobacco.

Reducing sugars
Higher content of reducing sugars in flue cured tobacco is undesirable as it imparts an acidic
character to the smoke. Lower content imparts alkalinity to smoke due to high nitrogenous
constituents. During smoking, sugars yield CO2 and water as pyrolysis products, thus helping to
neutralise free base and increase moisture content in smoke and serving as an emollient.
Reducing sugars / nicotine ratio
The ratio of sugar to nicotine would give a balance of opposing effects and thus serve as an
index of smoking quality. Higher ratio indicates mildness and smoothness while a very low ratio
reflects the harsh and irritating smoke. If cured leaf is low in nicotine and sugars, as generally is the
case with Indian flue-cured tobaccos, the ratio appears to be acceptable. Higher sugar content
consistent with nicotine level is the most desirable feature for smoking quality in flue-cured tobacco
and the desirable ratio is 7-13.
Carbohydrate / protein ratio
The ratio of carbohydrates to proteins is known as Shmuk number and the ratio of
carbohydrates to total nitrogen is known as Kovalenko coefficient. These ratios also give similar
indications as in the case of reducing sugar to nicotine.
Chlorides
Higher level of chloride in leaf inhibits leaf burn or combustibility. The chloride content of
leaf must be preferably less than 1. 5% but should never exceed 2%. Chloride content is positively
correlated with deterioration of colour. High chloride content in leaf leads to dull muddy orange
colour with sour or linoleum smell. Further, such leaf due to its moisture holding capacity bruises
easily and tends to develop `off-colour'. These characteristics render this type of leaf to be of low
value for cigarette manufacture. Chlorine acts as a negative combustion catalyst in tobacco.
Potassium
Potassium content in the cured leaf improves the burning quality of tobacco. An adequate
level of potassium in cured leaf tends to off-set the deleterious effect of chloride on burning quality.

157

Potassium acts as a mineral catalyst and oxygen carrier in promoting leaf burn. Cured leaf with low
potassium content is trashy and dull which may not have any commercial value.
Acceptable limits for the important quality constituents and quality indices in flue -cured
tobacco.
Constituent/Quality Index
Total Nitrogen (%)
Nicotine (%)

Acceptable Limits
1.0 - 3.0
0.7 - 3.0

Total Sugars (%)

Reducing Sugars (%)

10.0 - 26.0
8.0 - 24.0

pH
Reducing Sugars/ Total N

4.6 - 5.5
7 - 13

Reducing Sugars/Nicotine
Total N/ Nicotine

7 - 13
< 1.2

Chloride (%)
Filling value at 60% R.H. and 20 0C

< 1.5
3.3 - 3.8cc/g of shreds

Equilibrium moisture content at 60% R.H. and 20 0C

Pore Volume

11 - 15%
0.13 - 0.18 ml/g

Combustibility
Leaf burn

2.5 - 3.5 mm/min

3 - 6 sec.

Shatterability Index

>3

Note: The individual chemical constituents alone should not be taken into consideration for quality
evaluation. The ratios of the constituents are also very important and should be taken into
consideration for quality appraisal of tobacco.
In the case of non-FCV tobaccos, all the visual characters mentioned in the case of FCV
tobacco are also important. Nicotine content is considered to be an important chemical constituent
determining quality. Nicotine contents of different tobaccos produced in India are presented below.

Tobacco Type
Virginia tobacco
Bidi tobacco (Anand)

Nicotine (%)
1.2 - 3.6
9.7

HDBRG (Guntur)
Natu tobacco (Black soils)

3.9
2.8

Natu tobacco (Light soils)

Burley tobacco

3.5
1.3

Chewing tobacco (Tamil Nadu)

Cigar tobacco (Tamil Nadu)

2.9
1.2

Chewing tobacco(Bihar)

3.7
158

Cigar filler (West Bengal)

2.0

Cigar wrapper (West Bengal)

Jati-Chama (West Bengal)

1.4
3.7

Jati-Podali (West Bengal)

Motihari-Hemti (West Bengal)

4.0
4.8

Motihari-Bitri (West Bengal)

6.6

159

LECTURE NO-32

AGRO-301 Crop Production-II

METHODS OF CURING

Air curing
The matured leaves are primed and kept around the plant. The primed leaves are tied in to
bunches of 8 to 10 le aves and cured on bamboo splinters in curing sheds for 4 to 6 weeks. Various
indigenous tobaccos are subjected to air-curing. Most prominent among them are; wrapper tobacco
of West Bengal, lanka tobacco and Burley tobacco grown in Andhra Pradesh. The process is rather
slow and takes 6-8 weeks. Generally air-cured tobacco is dark brown in colour with lower levels of
sugars and rich in nitrogenous constituents.
Pit Curing
Bundles of shade-cured leaves are pit cured in the pits of 8 feet diameter and 3 feet depth by
keeping them in circular layers up to half of the pit and then covered by palmyrah leaves and soil to
make it air tight. After 24 hours, the leaf is transferred to another pit of the same dimensions, filled
and covered in the same way as the first one and kept for 48 hours. Later, the leaf is transferred to the
1st pit in the same way and kept for 24 hours. This transferring process is done at nights to avoid loss
of moisture. Eg. Lanka Tobacco in A.P. and Hookah Tobacco in Punjab.
Sun-curing
In India, a number of tobaccos are Sun-cured. In this method construction of costly structures
are avoided. The process is relatively quick (2-3 weeks) and there is little interference from weather
changes. After initial wilting in the field , Leaves are stung to bamboo poles and sun cured for 15 to
20 days. There are many modifications of Sun-curing.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Curing whole plant on racks: Cigar and chewing tobaccos of Tamil Nadu.
Curing leaves together with pieces of stalk on racks: Natu tobacco in Andhra Prades h.
Curing whole plant on the ground: Bidi tobacco of Gujarat, Hookah and chewing tobacco in
Bihar.
Curing primed leaves on the ground: Chewing tobacco in Uttar Pradesh and Hookah tobacco
in West Bengal.

Fire -curing: (Smoke curing)

Important type of tobacco that is fire-cured is Jaffna tobacco of Ceylon and Tamil Nadu used
for chewing purpose. The leaf is harvested by either priming or stalk-cutting each leaf together with
a portion of the stem.
The leaves are wilted for four hours in the field, tied into bundles and hung of laths in smoke
huts. They are then smoked for 12 hours by burning coconut husks, leaf stalks and palmyrah nuts,
stacked for 3 days and again smoked. Alteration of firing and stacking at an interval of few days
helps in making the colour of leaf uniform. During the smoke treatment, creosotic substances are
deposited on leaf surface imparting a peculiar taste. After smoking, the leaves are bulked for 3-4
weeks and treated with salt water/jaggery prior to sale.
160

Flue-curing of Virginia Tobacco

Harvesting
Harvesting of two or three well-matured and ripe leaves is termed as priming which is
essential for production of quality tobacco. Ripe leaves have greenish-yellow colour, with a velvety
feel, losing much of the stickiness. They have a tendency to lie horizontally or bend slightly down
the plant and the leaf-tips are slightly dry. As a general rule, leaves are harvested from bottom lower
leaves on slightly greener side, middle leaves when they are ripe and top leaves when they are fully
ripe. Harvesting must be done on a clear weather day and on an average, not more than three leaves
are harvested at a time. Immediately after rains or irrigation, harvest is to be delayed by 2 - 3 days.
Under normal conditions, harvests are carried out at weekly intervals. Leaves should be plucked
against the direction of the sun for better judgment of the colour of matured leaf. While picking,
midribs should not be bent down, but they have to be bent side-ways. A well-matured leaf will snap
crisply with a characteristic sound. The leaves are to be carried carefully without pressing to one end
of the field and placed carefully in a wide basket with tips upward. The basket has to be taken to the
tying shed as early as possible to minimize wilting in the field.
Green-leaf grading:
In spite of utmost care, there is a chance that immature and over mature leaves are harvested.
The over ripe (yellowish white) and under-ripe (dark green) leaves have to be sorted out and tied
separately so that each stick contains leaves of uniform colour.
Tying the leaves:
The leaves are to be tied to sticks by handling gently in a shaded place avoiding wilting and
bruising. A bruised leaf (physically damaged) does not cure well in the barn. About three leaves are
tied in a bunch, back-to-back, with a jute twine loop on a stick. About 90-100 such leaves are tied in
separate bunches with a series of loops on a stick approximately 130 cm long. The leaves are
distributed uniformly all over the length of the stick to avoid over crowding.
Loading the barn
For a satisfactory curing, the whole barn should be loaded with the freshly harvested leaves
from a single priming. The un-ripe leaves (green) are placed on the top tiers, the over-ripe leaves
(yellowish-white) leaves on the bottom tier and well-matured leaves (greenish-yellow) in the bulk of
the intermediate tiers. The sticks are placed on the tiers at a distance of 20-25 cm so that the leaves
from the adjacent sticks slightly touch each other without pressing. A 5m x 5m x 5m barn is usually
loaded with 750 sticks with the above spacing. The barn should not be over loaded while curing the
bottom and middle leaves since slow rate of drying affects leaf quality. Top leaves may be crowded
slightly by closer spacing without affecting grade outturn.
Curing practice
Curing virginia tobacco according to fixed schedule is not possible always because of the
variability in green leaf due to various factors like weather condition, plant position, leaf maturity,
disease prevalence and in such cases, slight adjustments are necessary.
Curing principle

161

In the early stages of flue-curing biological activity continues in the leaf involving
destruction of chlorophyll, conversion of starch to simple sugars and leaf proteins to soluble
nitrogenous constituents. These cellular reactions take place in fully turgid leaf cells in aqueous
medium and for completion of enzymatic reactions, thermal deactivation of these enzymes must be
prevented. High humidity and low temperature in the barn are favourable for these reactions during
this period leaf turns yellow with higher levels of soluble sugars. Now, further breaking up of sugars
by respiratory enzymes has to be prevented to ensure optimum concentration of sugars in the cured
leaf. Browning reaction caused by enzymes like polyphenol oxidase which turns the yellow colour of
the leaf to brown has to be avoided. Similarly bio-chemical conversion of soluble nitrogen to
ammonia has to be arrested since some of these soluble nitrogenous constituents transform into
aroma-bearing constituents at a later stage. These are achieved by thermal desiccation at the
subsequent stage of curing by progressively raising the temperature of the barn and lowering relative
humidity by adjusting ventilators. However, since all these biological reactions are a sort of
continuous process, changing the temperature and humidity of the barn must necessarily be slow and
progressive; abrupt change in temperature and humidity should never be made in the barn while
curing is in progress. Details of the improved curing method are given below:

1.Yellowing:
Temperature: Dry bulb:
Wet bulb:

85-105 oF,
82-94F.

Time:
36-48 hours.
Furnace is charged after loading the leaf and temperature is raised by 5 to 6F above outside
temperature. Top ventilator is left very slightly open, especially during the cooler hours of the night,
bottom ventilators are left open with slight gaps so that upward movement of air continues in the
barn.
Temperature is raised by not more than 1 to 2F per hour up to 105F when the leaf becomes
yellow and is ready for fixing. Top and bottom ventilators are gradually opened to 3 .
2. Fixing colour
Temperature:

Dry bulb:
105-120F
Wet bulb:
94-98F
Time:
5-10 hours
Progressive total time:
39-47 hours.

Utmost care is required in raising the temperature during this stage. It is raised by not more
than 1 to 2F per hour. Bottom ventilators are opened to 3 to 5 at the base. Top ventilator is raised
to a height of 3 to 5 from the roof. It is not necessary to raise the top ventilator completely.
3. Leaf drying
Temperature:
Time:

Dry bulb:
Wet bulb:
36-48 hours

120 to 145F
98 to 110F

After attaining 130 F, the top ventilators are gradually closed and subsequently the bottom
ventilators are closed. At 140F all the ventilators are closed.

162

4. Midrib drying
Temperature:

Dry bulb:
145 to 160F
Wet bulb:
110 to 114F
Time:
24-36 hours
Progressive total time:
88 to 101 hours.

Temperature is raised and maintained at a maximum of 160F until the stem is dry. The
ventilators which have been closed during the later part of the leaf -drying stage continue in the
closed position.
Unloading the barn:
After the curing is over, the fire is put off. The barn is allowed to cool down keeping the
ventilators closed. The leaf has to attain proper condition for handling. For this, all doors and
ventilators are kept wide open at night so that leaf will absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and
becomes pliable. In dry weather, wet gunny bags are put on the flue pipe with very slow fire in the
furnace to build up humidity inside the barn for few hours just enough for leaf handling. The sticks
are removed from the barn and kept in the racks. The leaf is untied from the sticks when there is
proper condition preferably in early morning hours and bulked.
Bulking the cured leaf:
Bulk must be made for efficient grading. If space is not a constraint, leaves of different
varieties and stalk positions must be bulked separately. However, when space is limited, leaves may
be bulked together with adequate identification marks for each priming (paper markers may be
placed in between two primings). The bulk must be about one meter high on a raised platform. The
bulk should never be on the floor or near any material, likely to give offensive odour, like
insecticides, fungicides or fertilisers. When leaf is being bulked, a close watch should be kept on
moisture condition. Bulking too dry makes the leaf shattery and over-conditioned leaf, may loose
colour and become moldy. The correct condition can be judged by handling a bunch of cured leaves
and pressing them tight in the fist of the palm and if after release of pressure, the leaves spring back,
if it is over-conditioned. If it breaks while squeezing, it is under-conditioned. The bulks have to be
covered with polythene sheets (or some other suitable covering e.g., tarpaulin) and sufficient weight
is to be applied to compact the bulk without damage to prevent gain or loss of moisture. Bulks are to
be examined from time to time and turned for approximately 2-3 times prior to grading depending on
the moisture content.
Grading:
Grading is the sorting of cured leaves basing on plant position, colour, blemish, damage,
texture, leaf length and ripeness. It is also governed by the tobacco type and market requirements. In
black soils farm grading (Table 7) and in light soils plant position grading is practiced.
Grading is one of the important production practices in flue-cured Virginia tobacco
production. Proper grading at farmers level helps the growers to realise more income for his
produce. It obviates the need for grading at traders level thus reducing the marketing cost and saving
time.
Table 7: Grade specifications for the 10 farm grades for black soil tobacco

163

S. No. Grade
1

Farm-I

Color

Body

Bright lemon or
Thin to
orange
Medium
Light Brownish
yellow or Brownish Medium
lemon
Good to
Light Brown
Medium

Texture

Blemish not to Corres-ponding

exceed
Agmark grade

Soft

25%

1 to 4

Good

25% (White to
yellow blemish
allowed)

LBY 1

Medium

50%

LBY 2

50%(brown
blemish allowed)

Brown

50%

Dark Brown

10%

LG

25%

LMG

35%

MG

Farm-II

Farm-III

Farm-IV

Brown

Heavy
Body

Medium to
Coarse

Farm-V

Dark Brown

Heavy
Body

Farm-VI

Light Greenish
orange

Good

Farm-VII

Light Medium green Heavy

Farm-VIII

Medium Green

Farm-IX

10

Farm-X

Dark Green
Coarse
Orange, yellow
Variable
green and / or brown

Medium to
Coarse
Soft to
Medium
Medium to
Coarse
Medium to
Coarse
Coarse

Heavy

DG
-

Pl & Bits

164