Simulation Programs For The Analysis in Photonics

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI
DESIGN, FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POROUS SILICON MULTILAYER OPTICAL DEVICES

Elisabet Xifr Prez
ISBN: 978-84-691-0362-3/DL: T.2181-2007
Chapter 3
Simulation programs for the analysis of
multilayer media
In this chapter, we present the software realized for the mathematical

study and design of multilayers. Although different methods exist for the
simulation of these structures, all the programs presented here are based on the
transfer matrix method. Firstly, the transfer matrix method is explained in detail
and its mathematical bases are presented. This method is compared with two
other ones that can be also used for this purpose. After that, the realized
simulation programs based on the transfer matrix method are explained in
detail. Their selectable variables and the optical properties calculated with each
one are presented. Finally, the performance of the programs is evaluated by
comparing the simulated optical responses of widely reported multilayer
structures (Distributed Bragg Reflectors and microcavities) with the ones
obtained in the literature.
27

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CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF
3.1. Mathematical methods for the analysis and

simulation of multilayers
The development of methods for analyzing the multilayers is essential,
if we want to understand their fundamental properties. Any experimental
exploration of the multilayers must be accompanied by a quantitative theoretical
analysis so that the most interesting cases can be identified, the experimental
measurements interpreted, and stable designs for successfully operating devices
be found. This section provides an outline of the most widely used numerical
techniques that make it possible to determine the optical properties of
multilayers. The first, the Transfer Matrix method is the method used for the
analysis of the multilayers presented in this work, for this reason it is presented
in detail whereas the rest of methods are briefly explained.
3.1.1. Transfer Matrix Method (TMM)

This is the most widely used method for the mathematical study of
wave transmission in one-dimensional structures because it allows the
calculation of band diagrams [149], reflectivity and transmission spectra [150],
emission spectra [44], guided modes [126] and the modelization of porosity and
thickness gradients [85].
To study the reflection and the transmission of electromagnetic
radiation through a multilayer with the TMM method, we consider a onedimensional structure consisting of alternating porous silicon layers of different
refractive indices coupled to a homogeneous medium characterized by
refractive index n0 at the interface. Fig. 3.1 shows this structure, where n1 and n2
are the layers refractive index, h1 and h2 are the thicknesses of the respective
layers and is the period of the structure (= h1 +h2).

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h1
h2
n0
n1
n2
n2
n1
n1
n2
n1
nS
n2
A0 A1 A1 A2
A2 A1 A1 A2
A2 A1
A1
A1 A2
A2 A1 ...
A1 A2
A2 AS
B0 B1
B1 B2
B2 B1 B1 B2
B2 B1
B1
B1 B2
B2 B1
... B1 B2
B2 BS
x0
x1
st
1 period
29
x
x2
x3
nd
2 period
x4
xm-1
......
xm
th
m period
xm+1
x2N-2
.....
x2N-1
x2N
th
N period
Fig. 3.1. Schematic of a multilayer system. A(x) represent the amplitude of the righttraveling-wave and B(x) that of the left-traveling one. Note that A(x) and B(x) are not
continuous at the interfaces. It is a periodic structure made of two layers, 1 and 2. The
thickness of each layer is hm, nm is the refractive index and is the period. The
structure is coupled to a homogeneous medium characterized by n0 (initial medium) and
nS (final medium).
The dielectric structure is defined by

n 0 , x < x 0
n , x < x < x with x = x + h
0
1
1
0
1
1
n(x) = n , x < x < x with x = x + = x + h
2
1
2
2
0
1
2
M
n S , x 2 N < x with x 2 N = x 0 + N = x 2 N 1 + h2
(3.1)
with n(x)=n(x+). ns is the substrate refractive index, n0 is that of the incident

medium and nm is the refractive index of the m layer. Layer thicknesses are
related to xm by hm=xm-xm-1 (m=1..2N).
The electric field of a general plane-wave solution can be written as
E=E(x)ei(t-z) , where the electric field distribution E(x) can be written as

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A0 e ik 0 x ( x xo ) + B0eik 0 x ( x xo ) , x < x0
E(x) = Am e ik mx ( x x m ) + Bm eik mx ( x x m ) , xm 1 < x < xm ,

A' e ik Sx ( x x 2 N ) + B ' eik Sx ( x x 2 N ) , x < x
S
2N
S
(3.2)
where kmx is the x component of the wave vectors kmx =nm cosm/c and m is
the ray angle in each layer. Am and Bm represent the amplitude of the plane
waves at interface x=xm (see Fig. 3.1).
If the two general amplitudes of E(x) are represented as column vectors,
the plane waves at different layers can be related by
A
Am'
Am 1
1
= Dm 1 Dm ' = Dm11 Dm Pm m
Bm 1
Bm
Bm
m=1,2,...,2N+1
(3.3)
where matrices Dm are the dynamical matrices given by
1
1
for TE wave
n m cos m n m cos m
Dm =
cos m cos m
for TM wave
n m
nm
(3.4)
and Pm is the propagation matrix, that can be written as
e ik mx hm
Pm =
0
e ik mx hm
0
(3.5)
The relation between A0, B0 and As, Bs can thus be written as
A0
= D01 D1 P1 D11 D2 P2 D21
B0
M
DS = 11
M 21
where N is the number of periods in the structure.
M 12 AS'

M 22 BS'
(3.6)

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3.1.1.1. Reflectance and transmittance of the multilayer

The reflectance and transmittance of monochromatic plane waves
through the multilayer structure are calculated from the matrix elements.
If the light is incident from medium 0, the reflection and transmission
coefficients are defined as
B
r = 0
A0 BS = 0
A
t = S
A0
(3.7)
BS = 0
Using the matrix equation (3.6) and following the definitions in Eq. (3.7), we
obtain
r=
M 21
M 11
(3.8)
1
t=
M11
Reflectance is given by
M 21
R= /r / =
M 11
(3.9)
provided medium 0 is lossless.

If the bounding media (0,s) are both pure dielectric with real ns and n0,
transmittance T is given by
n cos s 2 ns cos s 1
T= s
t =
n0 cos 0
n0 cos 0 M 11
(3.10)

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3.1.1.2. Bloch waves and band structures

Wave propagation in periodic media is very similar to the motion of
electrons in crystalline solid. In fact, formulation of the Kroning Penny model
used in elementary band theory of solids is mathematically identical to that of
the electromagnetic radiation in periodic layered media. Thus, some of the
physical concepts used in solid-state physics such as Bloch waves, Brillouin
zones and forbidden bands can also be used here. A periodic layered medium is
equivalent to a one-dimensional lattice that is invariant under lattice translation.
In other words n2(x+)= n2(x), where is the period
According to the Floquet theorem, solutions of wave equations for a
periodic medium are of the form [151]
EK(x,z)= EK(x)e-iz e-iKx, where
EK(x+)= EK(x). The subscript K indicates that the function EK(x) depends on
K. The constant K is known as the Bloch wave number. The problem is thus
that of determining K and EK(x).
In term of our column vector representation and from Eq. (3.2), the
periodic condition EK(x+)= EK(x) for the Bloch wave is simply
A1

B1 n
period
A
= e iK 1
B1 n 1 period
(3.11)
From the matrix expression (3.3), the unit cell of the periodic multilayer can be
defined as
A
A1

= D11 D2 P2 D21 D1P1 1
B1 n 1 period
B1
S T A1
U
V
B1
n period
(3.12)
n period
It follows from this equation and Eq. (3.11) that the column vector of the Bloch
wave satisfies the following eigenvalue problem:
S T A1 iK A1
= e

B
U V B1
1
(3.13)

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The phase vector eiK is thus the eigenvalue of the translation matrix (S,T,U,V)
and is given by
eiK= (1/2)(S+V) {[(1/2)(S+V)]2-1}1/2
(3.14)
The eigenvectors corresponding to this eigenvalues are obtained from Eq. (3.13)
and are
A0 T
= jK
B e S
(3.15)
times the arbitrary constant. The Bloch waves that result from Eq. (3.15) can be
considered as the eigenvectors of the translation matrix with eigenvalues eiK
given by Eq. (3.14). The two eigenvalues in Eq. (3.14) are the inverse of each
other since the translation matrix is unimodular. Eq. (3.14) gives the dispersion
relation between , and K for the Bloch function,
K(,)= (1/) cos-1[(1/2)(S+V)]
(16)
Regimes where /(1/2)(S+V)/<1 correspond to real K and thus to propagation

Bloch waves; when /(1/2)(S+V)/>1, however, K=m/+iKi which has an
imaginary part Ki so that the Bloch wave is evanescent. These are the so-called
forbidden bands of the periodic medium. The band edges are the regimes where
/(1/2)(S+V)/=1.
The dispersion relation can be also written as
cos K =
1
1
( S + V ) = cos k 1 d 1 cos k 2 d 2 sin k 1 d 1 sin k 2 d 2
2
2
(3.17)
n 22 k1x n12 k 2 x
k 2 x k1x
+
for TE waves and = 2
+
for TM waves, and
where =
k1x k 2 x
n1 k 2 x n 22 k1x
=nm sin/c.
In order to study the omnidirectional band gap of a multilayer, the

dispersion relation is calculated for all incidence angles, obtaining the projected
band structure (PBS).

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3.1.1.3. Advantages and drawbacks of the TMM

The TMM has many advantages. It is a very useful algorithm, very
appropriate for reflectivity and transmission calculations of multilayer
structures. It can take in values for the refractive index that are either real or
complex. A real refractive index represents a lossless material whereas a
complex refractive index can represent either one of two types of materials. If
the imaginary part of the complex refractive index is negative then the material
is absorptive. If it is positive then this is an indication of having a gain medium.
The TMM can also handle any number of layers in a multilayer structure.
In addition, these layers can be ordered in any manner and there is no
requirement that they should be periodic. Even if they are periodic, the unit cell
that is repeated does not have to be composed of two layers only, but any
number of layers. There is also no restriction on the thickness of any layer. The
thickness and the refractive index of each layer can be defined independently.
This makes the TMM most suitable for modelling structures formed by different
periodic multilayers stacked together, since they are not fully periodic.
The TMM can handle structures having a high index contrast between
their two composite materials contrast material systems. This makes the TMM
suitable for modelling multilayer structures, which usually have a high index
contrast between their composite materials.
The TMM has also some drawbacks. For example, it assumes that the
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation is infinite, meaning that each
layer in a multilayer structure extends infinitely in both of its dimensions. Of
course, this is unrealistic, so the layers that are modelled have to be wide
enough to avoid errors from this assumption. The TMM calculates the field
throughout the structure by propagating it from one layer to the other by matrix
relations. As such, it depends greatly on the computational speed and is
therefore limited by it. It lacks a mathematical expression that can relate the
field between multiple layers, which would reduce the mathematical
calculations required and consequently the computational time.
Another drawback of the TMM is that it is limited to continuous wave
propagation and cannot handle pulse propagation. To model pulses, the TMM

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must be combined with the Fourier Transform. Pulses are better modelled with
other techniques such as the Finite Difference Time Domain method.
3.1.2. Plane Wave Method

Another way to calculate photonic band structures is to adapt the
methods of electronic band structure calculations to the case of photonic
crystals. The plane wave expansion method can be classified as one of the
numerical techniques borrowed from solid state physics. However, it had to
undergo various adjustments before it could be carried over to the photonic
case. These adjustments reflect the differences between photonic and
conventional crystals, such as the fact that the electromagnetic field is
inherently vectorial by nature or that the scattering potentials of photonic
atoms are known beforehand and do not have to be determined self-consistently.
The plane wave method is used to solve periodic electromagnetic
problems, among them the modelization of periodic structures, because accurate
and reliable results are obtained [152]. It is widely used to find the Bloch
frequencies of infinite periodic structures [125,153,154].
This method uses the Fourier expansion in terms of harmonic functions
(modes), defined by the reciprocal space vectors. By applying the Fourier
expansion in terms of Bloch waves H k (r) = u k (r)eikr , the Maxwells equations
are converted to an eigenvalue and eigenvector problem:

2

H (r ) = H ( r )
c
(3.18)
1
is the Maxwells operator. The uk(k) function is a
where =
(r )
periodic function that follows the structure periodicity.
The plane wave method is one of the first methods used, because it is
easy to understand and computationally very straightforward to implement. It
can be used to solve periodic problems in one, two and three dimensions.
However, it has some serious limitations which restrict its usefulness. First, the

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method fixes the wave vector k and then determines the eigenfrequencies for
r
this k , so the method runs into difficulties if the dielectric constant is itself a
function of frequency. Hence, structures that include metallic or other dispersive
materials are beyond the scope of the plane wave method. Second, the key step
in the method is the matrix diagonalization, so the computer time required
scales like N3, where N is the number of plane waves used in the expansion.
This scaling law is inefficient and renders the calculations impossibly time
consuming when a large number of plane waves is required for more complex
structures [155].
3.1.3. Finite Difference Time Domain

The finite difference time domain (FDTD) approach overcomes all the
drawbacks of the plane wave method. It was first described by Yee in 1966
[156] and so has been known to the electrical engineering community for 40
years. The methodology and computational schemes for a variety of photonic
problems can be found in the excellent book by Taflove [157].
The FDTD method is a general method for numerically solving the
time-dependent Maxwells equations in real space, approximating the space and
time derivatives with finite differences. With the appropriate choice of the
points at which the various field components are to be evaluated, the set of
finite difference equations can be solved and the solution will satisfy the
boundary [156].
It is a widely used technique for solving electromagnetic problems and
has many advantages: the method is a direct solution of Maxwell's time-domain
equations, consequently, it is a complete full-wave solution that contains no
approximations; it is extremely general in the materials and geometries that it
can analyze; and, finally, the memory requirements of FDTD are significantly
less than other methods, like PWM [158].
The principal disadvantage of the classical implementation of FDTD is
that all structures must conform to a Cartesian grid; consequently, all curved

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surfaces must be modeled by a "stairstep" approximation, which can introduce

errors in the results.
3.2. Development of the simulation programs

The simulation and study of the optical behavior of multilayer structures
has been carried out with two programs especially developed. The optical
behavior of multilayers is characterized by the reflectivity, transmission and
absorption spectra, as well as by the band diagram. Omnidirectional mirrors are
also characterized by the projected band structure (PBS), which determines the
band diagram for all incident angles and for both polarizations.
The realized programs calculate all these characteristics using the transfer
matrix method [151]. All the graphs that are presented in the next sections have
been calculated using these simulation programs.
3.2.1. Program for the calculation of reflectivity, transmission,

and absorption spectra.
The main objective of this program is to study the optical response of a
multilayer before its fabrication. The simulated structures can be either alldielectric or metallo-dielectric multilayers. The program is based on the transfer
matrix method. In Fig. 3.2 we can observe the main program window, where
the user can define all the parameters required for the simulation. These
parameters are:
Incidence angle: Angle between the propagation direction of the
incident wave and the normal to the surface of the layers. This angle ()
can go from 0 to 90 degrees.

Refractive index of the ambient medium: the ambient medium is the
medium from which the incident wave arrives to the surface of the
multilayer.

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Refractive index of the substrate: the substrate can be either a material

in case that the multilayer is stacked to the wafer or a medium if the
multilayer is a membrane detached form the substrate.
Data plotted: reflectivity, transmission, absorption or any combination
of them.
Wavelength range: the initial and the final values of the wavelength
range to be studied and the step, all of them in nanometers.
Graphs: the data calculated is plotted in two different graphs, one for TE
polarization and the other for TM polarization. Each graph or both can
be also plotted in a separate window selecting the check box Plot in a
separate window, where the user can change the properties of the plot in
the same way that any Matlab plot.
Fig. 3.2. Main program window. The schematic of a multilayer is presented to visually
indicate the user the parameters that can be adjusted. The default values of the
parameters can be observed.

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Number of bilayers: number of periodic multilayers stacked together

that form the multilayer structure. This number can range from 1 to 6
bilayers. When the user chooses the number of bilayers of the structure,
one frame for each bilayer appears in the program window with the
parameters to be adjusted: refractive indices and thicknesses of the two
layers and number of periods. An example with three bilayers is shown
in Fig. 3.3.
Bilayer frame: The parameters of each periodic bilayer are determined in
this frame. These parameters are the thicknesses and refractive indices
of the two materials that form the bilayer and the number of periods.
The refractive index can be either constant (real or complex) or variable
with the wavelength, in which case different materials can be selected
from the popup menu n layer variable?: silver (Ag), aluminium (Al),
gold (Au), copper (Cu), water (H2O), magnesium fluoride (MgF2), nickel
(Ni), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and silicon dioxide (SiO2). The variable
refractive indices used for these materials have been obtained from [159].
The possibility to determine up to six different periodic bilayers stacked
together makes it possible to simulate different multilaye

Sum TE-TM: The spectrum of a wave containing both polarizations is
plotted in a separate graph when this check box is selected.
Write a text file: Enables the possibility to save the data plotted in one or
both graphs to a text file.
Header: The text file with the results of the simulation can be written
with or without a header. Selecting this check box, the text file is written
with a header.
Load Graph: Selecting this checkbox, the data from a text file can be also
plotted with the simulated results. With this option, it is possible to
compare simulations with measurements and different plots in an easy
way.
Calculate: Once all the parameters for the simulation have been selected,
the program is executed pushing this button.

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Fig. 3.3. Main program window. In this case the user has selected to simulate a structure
formed by three bilayers.
Fig. 3.4 shows the simulation of a multilayer with two bilayers. The first
bilayer consists of the repetition of two dielectric materials with constant
refractive indices whereas the second bilayer is formed by a dielectric layer with
constant refractive index and a silver layer. The refractive index of the silver
layer is variable with the wavelength and the best way to simulate this material
is to select its refractive index in the popup menu. The reflectivity spectrum of
the multilayer is plotted in the graphs. We can also observe the difference
between the TE and TM polarizations when the incidence angle is 50 degrees.

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Fig. 3.4. Example of the simulation of a multilayer consisting of two periodic bilayers
stacked together. In Bilayer 2 the second layer is silver, for this reason the
corresponding refractive index variable with wavelength has been selected.
3.2.2. Program for the calculation of photonic band diagrams

The main objective of this program is to study the band diagram of a
multilayer before its fabrication. It also compares the band diagram with the
reflectivity or transmission spectra of the multilayer to confirm that there is an
agreement between the calculated band diagram and the spectrum of the
multilayer and to observe the influence of the finite number of periods on the
bandgap edges. The program can also calculate the projected band structure
(PBS) of the studied multilayer, which represents the band diagrams for all
incidence angles from 0 to 90 degrees. This program is also based on the
transfer matrix method.

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In Fig. 3.5 we can observe the main window of this simulation program,
where the user can define all the parameters for the simulation. The band
diagram is a characteristic of infinite periodic multilayers therefore for the
calculation of the band diagram and the PBS, the only required parameters are
the ones presented in the frames named Infinite periodic structure and Band
diagram:
Refractive index of the layers: denoted by n 1st layer and n 2nd layer.
h1/period: Thickness of the first layer normalized to the period
thickness. Thus, h1/period can range from 0 to 1. The thickness of layer 2
is calculated from h1 using: h2=period-h1.
Maximum value of the normalized frequency: maximum value of
(/2c) for the calculation of the band diagram.
Plot PBS: The projected band structure (PBS) of the multilayer is also
plotted in a separated window when this check box is marked. In Fig. 3.6
the PBS calculated by the program is shown.
The band diagram calculated for this multilayer is plotted in the left side
graph. This band diagram belongs to an infinite multilayer but the fabricated
multilayers are finite, consequently it would be interesting to compare the high
reflectivity (or low transmission) bands of the finite multilayer with the band
diagram. For this reason, the right-side graphs show the reflection/transmission
spectrum of the finite multilayer (upper graph) and the band diagram of the
infinite multilayer (lower graph) for an easy comparison. For the calculation of
the spectrum the next parameters are required:
Refractive index of the ambient medium: the ambient medium is the
medium from which the incident wave arrives to the surface of the
multilayer.
Refractive index of the substrate: the substrate can be either a material in
case that the multilayer is stacked to the wafer or a medium if the
multilayer is a membrane detached form the substrate.

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Fig. 3.5. Program for the calculations of the band diagram and projected band structure
of a periodic multilayer. The reflectivity spectrum is also presented.
Incidence angle: Angle between the propagation direction of the incident

wave and the normal to the surface of the layers. From 0 to 90 degrees.
Number of periods of the multilayer.
Data plotted: reflectivity or transmission spectrum.
Fig. 3.6 shows the main program window with the results of the
simulation for an example multilayer. The design parameters of the multilayer
can be read in the window program. The comparison between the band diagram
and the transmission spectrum indicates that, for this number of periods, the
edges of the bandgaps are not sharp. For this reason, the ranges of frequencies
with transmission zero are slightly narrower than the bandgaps of the infinite
multilayer. In the next sections the relation between the sharpness of the band
edges and the number of periods of the periodic multilayer is studied. The PBS

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of the multilayer is plotted in a separate window and can be observed at the

bottom of Fig. 3.6. The omnidirectional bandgap (black region) is also plotted.
TE
TM
Fig. 3.6. Top: Example of the simulation of a multilayer using the explained program.
Bottom: Window with the PBS of the infinite multilayer simulated.

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All the different optical devices studied in this work have been analyzed
using these two simulation programs.
3.3. Performance of the developed programs for the

study of optical devices
In order to evaluate the performance of the developed programs
explained in the previous section, different optical devices based on multilayers
and widely reported in the literature have been simulated. The obtained spectra
have been compared with the ones reported. These optical devices are
Distributed Bragg Reflectors and microcavities. Besides, the developed
programs have been used to study the influence of the different parameters of
these devices on their optical behavior.
3.3.1. Distributed Bragg Reflectors (DBR)

These filters, as is explained in chapter 2, are characterized by a spectral
region with a very high reflectivity, the so-called forbidden band or bandgap,
centered at wavelength . This high reflectivity is due to the fact that all the
beams that are reflected at the multiple interfaces of the multilayer have the
same phase when they arrive to the top interface, interfering constructively. For
wavelengths different to , the interference is not constructive and for this
reason the reflectivity decreases.
3.3.1.1. Performance of the developed programs for the simulation

of DBRs
The developed programs have been realized to theoretically study
multilayers consisting of dielectric and/or metallic layers. To evaluate the
performance of the programs, the spectra of two DBRs made of different
materials have simulated. Firstly, a dielectric DBR, in concrete one of the
porous silicon DBRs presented by Pavesi in [78], is simulated with the same

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parameters used by the author. The reported DBR consists of two layers with
nH=1.86 and nL=1.27 repeated 20 times. It is a /4-DBR, so the optical
thickness of the layers are /4= nH dH=nL dL with =600 nm. For the
simulations, the author considered no absorption, nair=1 and refractive index of
the substrate nSubs=4.1. This structure has been simulated with our program and
the reflectivity spectrum obtained is shown in Fig. 3.7 together with the
spectrum reported in the literature. It can be observed that our simulated
spectrum completely agrees with the spectrum reported in [78].
1 .0
Reflectivity
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
450
500
550
600
650
W a v e le n g th ( n m )
700
750
800
Fig. 3.7. Reflectivity spectrum of the porous silicon DBR simulated by Pavesi (After
[78]) (solid line). It is compared with the simulated reflectivity spectrum obtained with
our program for the same multilayer structure (symbols).
The
developed
programs
can
also
simulate
metallo-dielectric
multilayers as the one presented by Scalora et. al. in [160]. In that work, the
transmission spectrum of a multilayer consisting of a layer of silver and another
of magnesium fluoride (MgF2) repeated 4 times is studied. The thickness of the
silver layer is 10 nm and the one of the MgF2 layer is 110 nm. Fig. 3.8 shows
the comparison between the transmission spectrum reported in the literature and

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the one simulated with our program. It can be observed that the two spectra
agree.
0 .8
Transmission
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
20 0
40 0
600
800
W ave le n gth (n m )
1 0 00
Fig. 3.8. Transmission spectrum of the metallo-dielectric multilayer simulated by

Scalora (After [160]) (solid line). It can be compared with the transmission spectra
simulated with our programs (symbols).
The agreement between the simulated spectra and the spectra reported
in the literature confirms the properly performance of the developed programs
and their suitability for the simulation of dielectric and metallo-dielectric
multilayers.
3.3.1.2.
Study of the DBR parameters
The simulation is a very helpful tool to study the influence of the

different parameters of DBR on the reflectivity spectrum. These parameters are:
a) Refractive index ratio nH/nL
This ratio influences on the width and the sharpness of the DBR
bandgap. The increase of the ratio nH/nL leads to the widening of the bandgap.
This effect can be observed in Fig. 3.9, where the reflectivity spectra of three
/4-DBRs with different nH/nL ratio show a bandgap with different width. We
can also observe that the band edges become sharper when the ratio increases.

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(a)
(b)
(c)
Wavelength (m)
Fig. 3.9. Reflectivity spectrum for normal incidence of three different /4-DBR with 15
periods. The thickness of the layers have been calculated to obtain a bandgap centered
at =1 m. The nH/nL ratio is a) 1.7/1.3, b) 2/1.3, c) 2.3/1.3.
The bandgap of these spectra are not symmetric around the central
wavelength, in this case 1 m, because the symmetry can be observed when the
magnitude of the x-axis is wavenumber instead of wavelength. To verify this
symmetry, the three spectra of Fig. 3.9 are plotted in Fig. 3.10 using
wavenumber for the x-axis.

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Reflectivity
1.0
1.7/1.3
0.8
2.0/1.3
2.3/1.3
49
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
-1
4
Wavenumber cm (10 )
1.2
1.3
Fig. 3.10. Reflectivity spectrum for normal incidence of three different multilayers
already presented in Fig. 3.9. In this case, the wavenumber is used for the x-axis. The
symmetry of the bandgaps, centered at 1 cm-1 can be observed.
b) Number of periods of the multilayer
The number of periods (N) influences on different characteristics of the

bandgap. The increase in the number of periods N leads to an increase of the
reflectivity within the bandgap, and enlarges its width. The band edges also
become sharper. Fig. 3.11 shows four /4-DBR with nH=2.1, nL=1.5 and
different number of periods N. We can observe that when N increases, the band
edges of the filter are sharper and the reflectivity tends to the unity
exponentially with N [161].
Wavelength (m)
Fig. 3.11. Reflectivity spectrum of a /4-DBR with nH=2.1, nL=1.5 and number of
periods 4, 6, 8 and 25.

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3.3.1.3. Design of a porous silicon DBR for 1.55 m applications

The use of porous silicon for the study and design of DBR does not
imply more difficulties than any other dielectric material. The main
consequence of the use of porous silicon is that the range of refractive indices
that can be obtained is limited due to the characteristics of the material. For this
reason, the bandgap width of porous silicon DBR is limited because of the nH/nL
ratio limitation. In order to obtain a DBR with a wide bandgap, two typical
values, one of the highest and one of the lowest values of this refractive index
range, have been chosen [19]: nH=2.5 and nL=1.55. The number of periods is
high enough to obtain reflectivity near 1 within almost all the bandgap (N=25).
This DBR is designed to work for 1.55 m applications, like all the
porous silicon optical devices studied in this work. This wavelength is usually
used for telecommunications applications. Since the bandgap of the /4-DBR
must be centered at 1.55 m, the optical thickness of the layers must be
1.55 m/4 = nHhH=nLhL. According to this, the layer thicknesses are hH=155 nm
and hL=258.3 nm. The reflectivity spectrum of this DBR can be observed in Fig.
3.12. The bandgap width is around 500 nm for reflectivity higher than 99.9%.
This would be one of the widest bandgaps obtainable with periodic porous
silicon DBR centered at this wavelength.
Wavelength (m)
Fig. 3.12. Reflectivity spectrum of a porous silicon /4-DBR for 1.55 m applications.
It has 25 periods, nH=2.5, nL=1.55, hH=155 nm and hL=258.3 nm.

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3.3.1.4. Reflectivity spectrum of stacked filters

Usually, the applications of DBR require wide bandgaps. As has been
demonstrated in the previous section, the widening of the bandgap is obtained
with the increase in the nH/nL ratio. Due to the limits of the nH/nL ratio for
porous silicon, an easy way for obtaining enlarged bandgap reflectors is to stack
together two or more reflectors. The reflectors used for the stack must have their
bandgaps centered at different wavelengths but close enough to intersect one
with the other.
Wavelength (m)
Fig. 3.13. Reflectivity spectrum of a) two DBR with nH=2.3, nL=1.6 and N=20. One of
them is formed by layers with optical thickness /4=1.88 m/4, and the other is formed
by layers with optical thickness /4=2.27 m/4. b) DBR with 40 periods and nH=2.3,
nL=1.6 consisting of the two DBRs stacked together.

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Fig. 3.13a shows the reflectivity spectrum, for normal incidence, of two
DBR with the same refractive indices and the same number of periods. On the
contrary, the thicknesses of the layers are different for each DBR, and therefore
their bandgaps are centered at different wavelengths. We can observe that the
bandgaps intersect. Fig. 3.913b shows the reflectivity spectrum of a multilayer
formed by the two DBR stacked together. We can see that its bandgap is the
union of the bandgaps of the DBRs presented in Fig. 3.913a .
Although, in this example, the filters have the same refractive indices and
different thicknessese, it could be possible to use different refractive indices
and/or thicknesses. One of the aims of the stack of filters is the widening of the
DBR bandgap but it could be also used for obtaining a DBR with high
reflectivity at separated wavelength ranges. In this case, the stacked filters
should have bandgaps situated at the desired wavelength ranges.
3.3.2. Microcavities
It is possible to fabricate a particular class of interferometers, named
microcavities or Fabry-Prot filters, by using two parallel reflectors separated
by a spacer layer. Usually the reflectors used are /4 DBR. The reflectivity
spectrum of microcavities consists of a wide high-reflectivity bandgap with a
narrow pass-band in its center. The wavelength at which this pass-band (also
called transmission peak) is situated, its width and its reflectivity level depend
on different parameters.
3.3.2.1. Performance of the developed programs for the simulation

of microcavities
Microcavities are multilayer structures widely studied for many different
applications. We use here a porous silicon microcavity reported in [78] to
evaluate the performance of the simulation programs. The microcavity consists
of two /4-DBR with 4 periods where nH=2.24 and nL=1.27. The optical
thickness of the layers are /4= nH dH=nL dL with =600 nm. The spacer layer

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thickness is /2 and its refractive index is ns=1.27. Fig. 3.14 shows the
simulated reflectivity spectrum of this multilayer where we can observe that it
completely agrees with the reflectivity spectrum reported in [78].
1 .0
Reflectivity
0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
0 .0
500
600
700
W a v e le n g th (n m )
800
Fig. 3.14. Reflectivity spectrum simulated with our program (symbols) and simulated
reflectivity spectrum of the same microcavity structure reported in [78].
3.3.2.2. Study of the microcavity parameters

The influence of the different parameters of microcavities on the
reflectivity spectrum has been also studied.
a) Thickness of the spacer layer (hs)
Whereas the optical thickness of the DBRs are usually /4, the optical
thickness of the spacer layer can be either or /2. In both cases, the
transmission peak is centered at wavelength . The reflectivity spectra of
microcavities with a or a /2 spacer layer are compared in Fig. 3.15. This
figure shows the reflectivity spectra for normal incidence of microcavities
consisting of two parallel DBR with 6 periods and optical thickness /4, where
=1.55 m. In Fig. 3.15a, the optical thickness of the spacer is , whereas in

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Fig. 3.15b this thickness is /2. Both spectra are very similar. The transmission
peak is centered at 1.55 m in both cases and the reflectivity for both is almost
zero at this wavelength. However, the bandgap of the microcavity with the /2
spacer is slightly wider than the one with thickness and the side-lobes closer
to the bandgap show a lower reflectivity.
(a)
(b)
Wavelength (m)
Fig. 3.15. Reflectivity spectrum of a microcavity consisting of two DBR with optical
thickness /4 and a spacer layer of thickness a) , b) /2.
b) Refractive index of the spacer layer
The refractive index o the spacer layer can be one of the indices used in
the DBRs (nH,nL) of the microcavity or a different value. The influence of this
value on the reflectivity spectrum of the microcavity has been studied for all the
possible cases: for a refractive index lower than nL, equal to nL, between nL and
nH, and equal to nH. The results can be observed in Fig. 3.16. The four plots
belong to porous silicon microcavities for 1.55 m applications. The /4-DBRs

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55
that form them have nL=1.6, nH=2.3 and N=6. The spacer thickness is /2 and
its index ns is 1.4 (ns<nL), 1.6 (ns=nL), 1.8 (nL< ns<nH), and 2.3 (ns=nH). The
transmission peak is positioned for all of them at 1.55 m and its reflectivity is
almost zero for all, therefore we can deduce that the refractive index of the
spacer does not noticeable affect the bandgap or the transmission peak. The
difference between these spectra is observed at the side-lobes.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Wavelength (m)
Wavelength (m)
Fig. 3.16. Reflectivity spectrum of a microcavity consisting of two DBR with nL=1.6
and nH=2.3. The thickness of the spacer layer is /2 and its refractive index is a) 1.4, b)
1.8, c) 1.6 d) 2.3.
c) Number of periods of the DBR
The width of the transmission peak depends on the number of periods N

of the DBRs of the microcavity. When N increases, the transmission peak
becomes narrower, the reflectivity of the bandgap increases and its edges are
sharper. These effects can be observed in Fig. 3.17.

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Wavelength (m)
Fig. 3.17. Reflectivity spectrum of a porous silicon microcavity for 1.55 m

applications where the DBRs that form it have a different number of periods.
3.4. Summary and conclusions

We have demonstrated that the transfer matrix method is a very useful
and simple mathematical method for the simulation of multilayers. Very userfriendly programs based on this method have been developed and all their
variable parameters have been explained. They calculate the reflectivity,
transmission and absorption spectra; and the photonic band diagrams of
multilayers. The parameters that can be adjusted by the used are the refractive
index and thickness of the layers, the number of periods, the incidence angle
and the wavelength range. Besides, one of the programs can be used for the
study of different periodic multilayers stacked together.
Although the simulations realized during this work have been focused on
porous silicon layers, any other material could be simulated because the user
can select the refractive indices. These refractive indices can be either constant
(real or complex) or variable with wavelength, in which case different materials
can be selected (Ag, Al, Au, Cu, MgF2, Ni, Si3N4, and SiO2). The number of
selectable materials will be increased in a near future.
To evaluate the performance of the developed programs we have
simulated different Distributed Bragg Reflectors (DBR) and microcavities. The

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simulated spectra agree with the ones reported in the literature, which indicates
the suitability of the developed programs. With the study of DBRs, we have
observed that porous silicon is a suitable material for the fabrication of filters
with a wide bandgap centered at =1.55 m. This bandgap can be wider with
the fabrication of porous silicon stacked filters. The introduction of defect layers
in the DBR has lead to the study of microcavities and the understanding of the
effect of these layers on the reflectivity spectrum of the multilayer structure.

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UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

DESIGN, FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POROUS SILICON MULTILAYER OPTICAL DEVICES

In this chapter, we present the software realized for the mathematical

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

3.1. Mathematical methods for the analysis and

3.1.1. Transfer Matrix Method (TMM)

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CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

The dielectric structure is defined by

with n(x)=n(x+). ns is the substrate refractive index, n0 is that of the incident

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

E(x) = Am e ik mx ( x x m ) + Bm eik mx ( x x m ) , xm 1 < x < xm ,

where matrices Dm are the dynamical matrices given by

and Pm is the propagation matrix, that can be written as

The relation between A0, B0 and As, Bs can thus be written as

where N is the number of periods in the structure.

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CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

3.1.1.1. Reflectance and transmittance of the multilayer

provided medium 0 is lossless.

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CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

3.1.1.2. Bloch waves and band structures

EK(x,z)= EK(x)e-iz e-iKx, where

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CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

Regimes where /(1/2)(S+V)/<1 correspond to real K and thus to propagation

In order to study the omnidirectional band gap of a multilayer, the

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CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

3.1.1.3. Advantages and drawbacks of the TMM

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CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

3.1.2. Plane Wave Method

are converted to an eigenvalue and eigenvector problem:

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

3.1.3. Finite Difference Time Domain

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

surfaces must be modeled by a "stairstep" approximation, which can introduce

3.2. Development of the simulation programs

3.2.1. Program for the calculation of reflectivity, transmission,

can go from 0 to 90 degrees.

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

Refractive index of the substrate: the substrate can be either a material

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

Number of bilayers: number of periodic multilayers stacked together

together makes it possible to simulate different multilaye

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

UNIVERSITAT ROVIRA I VIRGILI

CHAPTER 3. SIMULATION PROGRAMS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

3.2.2. Program for the calculation of photonic band diagrams

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