UNDERSTANDING OF THEORIES IN LENSES ON READING

Understanding of Theories in Lenses on Reading

Paper
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ECI 545

NC State University
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Yuanyuan Fang
February, 2015

UNDERSTANDING OF THEORIES IN LENSES ON READING

Behaviorism---Connectionism Theory
Behaviorism is a worldview that focuses on observable changes in behavior. As a theoretical
perspective of learning, it operates on a principle of stimulus-response : a change in external
behavior achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions. In the classroom, this
kind of learning resulted in repetitive actions, reward for correct outcomes and immediate
correction of mistakes or punishment for failure. Connectionism, put forth by Edward Thorndike
who believes that stimuli that occurred after a behavior also had an influence on future
behaviors, is one of its major theories. Connectionism posits four laws: the Law of Effect, the
Law of Readiness, the Law of Identical Elements, and the Law of Excise. The Law of Effect,
known as the Principle of Reinforcement, states that when satisfying change in an environment
follow behaviors, those behaviors should be repeated, or correct responses should be praised, and
vice versa. The Law of Readiness meant that critical behaviors that are related but harder than
previous easier tasks need to be sequenced. The law of identical elements and excise dictated that
students practice repeatedly on sets of target knowledge to ensure the bonds or connection
between stimulus and response. Thorndikes Connectionism concentrated on the effects of
varying stimuli that occurred after a behavior, which is in contrary to the theory that the
consequences of varying stimuli preceded actions.
Weakness:

Students learn passively and mechanically in a teacher-centric environment;

It does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed;

It does not take into account the unique characters or experiences of learners;The notion
that one size fits all denies diversity among children;

The notion that knowledge itself is given and absolute denies childrens creativity,
imagination, ability in acquisition of skills and their developmental experiences.

Constructivism ---Inquiry Learning Theory

UNDERSTANDING OF THEORIES IN LENSES ON READING

Constructivism is a theory about how people learn. It emphasizes the active construction of
knowledge by individuals(Gunning, 2010). In terms of constructivist viewpoint, learners build
their own understanding and knowledge of themselves, others or the world by integrating new
knowledge with existing knowledge. In this theoretical perspective, the good integration of new
knowledge with prior ideas and experiences can occur when the learner is initiatively and
actively engaged in the learning process. When they encounter something new, they reconcile it
with the previous knowledge, perhaps changing what they believe, or getting rid of the new
information as irrelevant. In this case, learners are active creators, natural builders of their own
knowledge. In addition, constructivism is characterized by the notions that learning occurs
through internal mechanisms in the absence of external observable indicators, that learning
results from a hypothesis-testing experience by the individual; learners construct their knowledge
through making inferences that is central to learning process. In constructivism, the active role of
the teacher or the value of expert knowledge is not ignored. Teachers facilitate students to
construct knowledge, such as problem-solving and inquiry-based learning activities.
Inquiry Learning Theory
Inquiry Learning, developed by John Dewey(1916) emphasizes the importance of problem
solving, social collaboration, and motivation, based on interest and curiosity in learning
originated from Unfoldment Theory. In inquiry learning perspective, great emphasis was put on
the growth of the individual, the importance of environment, and the role of the teacher in
students learning. It was designed to develop students cognitive abilities to produce engaged
citizens capable of participating in a real world. Consistent with a constructivist perspective,
Inquiry Learning attaches emphasis on a problem-based learning approach. It suggests that
students need to formulate their hypothesis, collect data to prove or test it, draw conclusions and
inferences, reflect on the original problem, and pool and convey how they understand knowledge
in a collaborative environment. According to Dewey, this process of education promoting
collaboration and cooperation would best prepare students for the real-world. Inquiry Learning

UNDERSTANDING OF THEORIES IN LENSES ON READING

emphasizes the active construction of knowledge by individuals and views learning as internal
instead of observable phenomenon, so it is constructivist in nature.
Weakness:
It does not account enough for individuality. For those special students or students who are
lacking in learning motivation, the external stimulus is necessary.
Social Learning Perspective---Social Constructivism Theory
Social Constructivism/Social-Historical Theory, created by Lev Vygotsky, emphasizes the
central role of social interaction in the development of knowledge and learning, and describes the
ways in which knowledge is constructed within individuals as a result of social interaction with
others. According to Vygotsky, development is the transformation of socially shared activities
into internalized processes (Davidson, 2010, P. 247). Childs cognitive development depends
much on interactions with others in the childs world and the tools that culture provides to
support thinking, which is different from Piagets Child constructing and understanding the
world largely alone. In addition, in Social Constructivist perspective, development depends on
sign systems--a cultures language, writing, and counting systems, through which children can
think and respond to the world. According to Vygotsky, childrens learning is most affected by
their mastery of this sign system. And they learn it from the people around them with whom they
interact. In this perspective, the influential concept within this theory is the Vygotskys zone of
proximal development, which he defined as the difference between the developmental level of a
child and the developmental level a child could achieve with appropriate guidance and support
provided by adults or other competent peers during learning process. He called this guidance
scaffolding. At this level, children are more likely to be successful when teachers or other expert
peers foster learning, independence, and growth among students (Temple et al., 2011). Children
learn during experiences within the zone of proximal development as a result of others
scaffolding. In contrary to Piagets notion that development precedes learning, Vygotskys social
constructivist notion is that Childrens internalized learning is the result of interacting with
others.
Weakness:

It does not consider emotions and motivation as important or connected to learning.

It is not consistent with rigid school curriculum.

It is often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.

UNDERSTANDING OF THEORIES IN LENSES ON READING

It does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters.
Putting Them All Together:Classroom Application

Behaviorism has affected reading in multiple ways. It provides an important instructional

element in helping general education students and English language learners progress in reading.
Direct instruction is one form of reading instruction that is clearly linked to a behavioral
behavioral theoretical perspective. Good direct instruction will provide guidelines and then allow
for students constructivist, original thinking and creative learning. Furthermore, social learning
perspective will encourage teachers to facilitate students and guide them to gain meaning and
develop as independent learners in real-world contexts. In this sense, a good combination of
using some direct or explicit modeling instruction to guide an task, encouraging students to use
their prior ideas or experiences to respond to the target task, and asking students to formulate
hypothesis, investigate, and test it to conduct a meaningful learning with teachers guidance, will
make a good lesson in which behaviorism, constructivism, and social constructivism are being
used well.
In my grade 10 English reading class of intermediate level, I employ Connectionism first.
The law of readiness is apparent in the way that I structure my lessons throughout the week. I
choose an easier reading material first for practice and instruction prior to more challenging
reading, and introduce a new concept by telling a related story first, and then guiding students to
brainstorm ideas or answer some engaging questions related to the concept of the text. These
questions are designed to simultaneously arouse students interest in the target text by making
connections to students prior experiences or ideas. During the process, I try to catch my students
doing something well and praise the positive behaviors to encourage other students to actively
participate in learning. Next class, my subsequent lessons on the concept get harder. I try to
contain some similar/identical vocabulary or phrases students have learned in previous classes in
the relevant types of harder reading materials to enhance their developing skills. In class, I ask
students to read first, and then talk and share. When assigning students to read and dividing class
into circles, I employ Vygotskys differentiated instruction, and provide students with
opportunities to learn at their own individual level by encouraging advanced students to read
independently and lower level students to read in pairs or small groups. While each student
experiences the reading, I walk around the room and interact with my students. I ask guiding

UNDERSTANDING OF THEORIES IN LENSES ON READING

questions and scaffold, or clarify parts of the concepts of the reading for them, if they do not
understand. After that, I welcome students to pose questions of their own through padlet. Then, I
incorporate these questions to encourage aesthetic responses besides facts to activate their
motivation in learning. I find students really connect their real life or social experiences with
what we are reading, and sometimes they project themselves in the context of the reading
materials. Once they are attracted to the reading, they can create a new discourse or challenge
more difficult concepts.
For assignment, I refer to collaborative learning and encourage students to work
collaboratively by doing a project or designing an activity on a daily basis based on the
compelling questions they pose in class. Rather than competing, students work together to
articulate, identify, investigate and figure out the possibilities of their questions, and help each
other to produce a final project. Furthermore, through the use of digital tools in the inquiry-based
projects, students can acquire the 21st century skills--critical thinking and problem solving,
communication, collaboration, creativity, and Innovation. For example, students are encouraged
to design a virtual reading zones or visual projects related to reading concepts. Through dipity,
google cultural institute, voicethread, or iMovie, students created virtual museum, creative lifemap, visual reader bibliography or virtual tours. During the collaboration process, they talk,
think, discuss, collaborate, synthesize, act out, and produce. Since they are naturally social, this
learning process really motivates students and engages them in learning.
In Constructivism and Social Learning perspective, teachers active role or the value of
expert knowledge is very important. As a teacher of reading, I will try my best to collaborate
materials, provide students with more helpful tools, design interactive activities, and creates a
safe, supportive and collaborative climate/environment to help them construct knowledge for real
life.

References:
Davidson, K. (2010). The integration of cognitive and sociocultural theories of literacy
development. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 56 (3), 246-256.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan.

UNDERSTANDING OF THEORIES IN LENSES ON READING

Gunning, T.G. (2010). Creating literacy instruction for all children (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Tracey, D.H., & Morrow, L.M. (2012). Lenses on reading: An introduction to theories and
models (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Temple, C., Ogle, D., Crawford, A., & Freppon, P. (2011). All children read: Teaching for
literacy in todays diverse classrooms (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson.
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