Advanced Building Skins 2012 Papers
Advanced Building Skins 2012 Papers
Advanced Building Skins 2012 Papers
International Conference
on Building Envelope Design and Technology
Organized by
Prof. Dr. Oliver Englhardt
Institute of Building Construction
Graz University of Technology, Austria
http://buildingskins.tugraz.at
Imprint
Editorial
advanced building skins - Building Envelope Design and Technology
Building skins have rarely been as fascinating and challenging as they are today. They are the most interesting field in contemporary architecture. Facades and building envelopes are determining the visual identity, character and expression of architecture.
They are shaping the urban environment.
The facade of a building is the interface between inside and outside, between public and private realms. The skin affects both appearance and performance in such a way that these diverse constitutive features promote new design concepts and spur technical
developments for the architecture of the future.
There are multiple demands on facade constructions and they are increasing continuously. First and foremost, performance criteria are driven by the need to reduce carbon emissions. Furthermore, technical requirements are aimed at all areas relevant to
human comfort within the built environment, such as aspects relating to visuals, acoustics and safety.
Modern building envelope designs range from simple and flat ones to those containing extraordinary folds and curves. They rise
up in a play on light, colours, surfaces and haptics. In conjunction with a huge number of traditional and exciting new materials
and the availability of new production processes the design base for extraordinary building envelopes are broadening enormously.
Architects, structural and mechanical engineers, facade engineers, specialists in building physics and energy design, material
developers, researchers and manufacturers: only full cooperation and interaction between all these professionals can provide
successful and holistic concepts in the development, design and construction of advanced building skins.
With this international conference we will bring them together: creative and innovative professionals and researchers at the forefront of skin design. We will discuss tasks and issues in research, design and manufacturing of high-performance facades and
building envelopes.
I would like to thank all the authors who have enriched this publication with their revealing and extraordinary contributions. Special
thanks go to the staff of the Institute of Building Construction and all the sponsoring partners. Without their support this conference
and this publication would not have been possible.
Oliver Englhardt
Table of Contents
Keynote Speakers
Werner Sobek
Manuelle Gautrand
Number
Title of Paper
Full Paper
Availability
Paper on CD
Author
Rene Ziegler
ABS_01
Benjamin Schneider
Udo Ribbe
ABS_02
Wolfgang Rieder
ABS_03
Michael Reifer
ABS_04
Thomas Ries
Paper on CD
ABS_05
Alexander Schiftner
Construction-aware Design of
Freeform Facades
Paper on CD
ABS_06
Hanno Stehling
Fabian Scheurer
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Lucio Blandini
ABS_07
Timo Schmidt
Thomas Winterstetter
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Energy-oriented Facade-Renovation of
Architectural Monuments
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Predictable Sustainability?
The Role of Building Certification in
the Design of Innovative Facades
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Werner Sobek
ABS_08
ABS_09
ABS_10
ABS_11
ABS_12
Johann Sischka
Iris Maniatis,
Barbara Siebert
Stephan Messner
Bernhard Weller
Sebastian Horn
Torben Valdbjorn
Rasmussen
Gerardo Wadel
ABS_13
Pol Alonso
Joan-Luis Zamora
Pablo Garrido
ABS_14
Roman Smutny
Alexander Passer
ABS_15
Thomas Mach
Helmuth Kreiner
Peter Maydl
ABS_16
Christian Eckhardt
Stefan Schfer
ABS_17
Scholeh Abedini
Frederic Bcker
Christian Ludwig
Christina Pardal March
ABS_18
Oriol Paris
Ignacio Paricio
Andreas Trummer
ABS_19
Felix Amtsberg
Franz Forstlechner
Stefan Peters
ABS_20
Andrei Gheorghe
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ABS_21
ABS_22
ABS_23
ABS_24
ABS_25
Vlad Silvestru
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Paper on CD
Christof Erban
Paper on CD
Tina Wolf,
Paper on CD
Oliver Englhardt
Jens Schneider
Johannes Kuntsche
Jrgen Neugebauer
Eleanor Voss
Mauro Overend
Frank Schneider
Helmut Krger
ABS_26
Thomas Misiek
Thomas Ummenhofer
Helmut Hachul
ABS_27
ABS_28
Philipp Molter
ABS_29
Martin Lutz
Paper on CD
ABS_30
Andreas Lichtblau
ABS_31
Jens Schneider
Paper on CD
ABS_32
Ernst Giselbrecht
Dynamic Facades
Paper on CD
ABS_33
Frank Wellershoff
Paper on CD
ABS_34
Thomas Lorenz
Paper on CD
ABS_35
Josef Ludwig
ABS_36
Marc Chiu
Paper on CD
ABS_37
Arjan Habraken
Paper on CD
ABS_38
Mario Giraldo
Paper on CD
ABS_39
Robert Wehdorn-Roitmayr
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Summary
The rationalization of a mathematically described digital form into a discrete model and its further
development towards a built structure assembled out of numerous components with materialimmanent characteristics, confronts both architects and engineers and mathematicians and building
firms with new challenges.
A close interdisciplinary collaboration, an exact understanding between the project involved
parties and a consistent parametric data model are therefore the key to optimization potential and a
successful project. It is necessary to constantly adapt the methods of design development to the
upcoming challenges.
Introduction
For the past century, architects have been using cylinders, cones, rotational and ruled surfaces for their
designs. Meanwhile digital design tools enable architects to use a very rich amount of different forms
and computers and software are necessary for throughout the architectural design and planning of the
construction industry. Whether it is the design or the draft of drawings of new complex building
shapes, working with digital content has become the standard for the industry. There is a continuous
tendency to give up linear forms with easily manageable numbers of the same elements. Free-form
structures originated by the creativity of architects beginning in the last decade of the previous
millennium have developed to symbols of elegance, grace, progress, and innovation. The construction
of arbitrarily shaped building envelopes necessitates the computerized design and calculation of large
number of unique elements. To transfer the architectural concept into built reality, an intense
collaboration of geometrical and structural engineers combined with production and material
management experience is necessary to standardize complexity and hence increase the feasibility of
the design (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: Multilayer freeform structure, Louvre Paris (Mario Bellini and Rudi Ricciotti)
The interaction of design, construction, mathematics and an intensive cooperation between architect,
engineer, geometer and client are essential and mandatory for successful projects and led to synergies
of development and research. With the know-how of the participating architects and consultants,
industrial enterprises and universities architectural visions became reality.
Mathematics and in particular geometry served for decades as inspiration in architectural design and
many of the designs created by architects would not be realizable without deep geometrical knowledge
(Figure 2).
Dismantling surfaces into discrete parts and individual panels, so called rationalization of surfaces, is
an important challenge for the building industry. The mathematical research supports the construction
firms in setting up a digital model with the supply of the basic nets, smoothing of the curve networks
over several nodes and the improvement of member orientation for the simplification node details.
This development requires a consistent argument with the principles of the geometry of complex
envelopes and further an adjustment and an improvement of the treatment and management of digital
data sets. The integration of the Advanced Geometry Engineering (Figure 3) department in the
planning process of Waagner-Biro was an important step towards the demanding market of freeform
structures.
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With the roofing of the Great Court of the British Museum in London (Figure 4) and the envelope of
the Yas Marina Hotel in Abu Dhabi (Figure 5) the Waagner-Biro Stahlbau AG was able to show the
viability of geometrically challenging steel glass structures in a competitive environment.
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The geometrical properties of a double curved building envelope lead to a large number of elements
and these will influence the following detailing process and, last but not least, will drive the costs. The
goal of developing a rational steel structure which considers the immanent physical properties of the
construction materials is an essential item within the building process. This includes tendering,
aesthetics, structural calculations, detail design, manufacturing and installation on site in consideration
of costs and economy.
Beside the feasibility one of the most influencing parameters are the costs. To maintain the given
budget, quite often optimizations and changes of the original design are necessary, which is called
value engineering. As part of the tendering process each component of the building is evaluated and
assessed from a commercial point of view. The replacement of costly parts by reasonable alternatives
is called value engineering. It is much more cost efficient to use proven standards instead of
prototypes. A close partnership between the contractor and the manufacturer in the course of the
years results in a vast knowledge and expertise in dealing with this process. Waagner-Biros focus is
to provide an economic and cost-effective solution which respects the design intent of the architect.
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All these factors of a panelised surface directly influence the properties of glass elements. While many
designs may be approximated by triangular or in some cases flat quadrangular glass panes, there are
cases where the original form and their smoothness have to be preserved either because a solution is
only possible with a significant visual impact or the architect does not allow changes. Assuming there
is a proper budget available for such a project this isnt a problem at all.
A further approach is the use of cold or thermally bent glass. According to Eigensatz et al [5], pane
types can be classified in flat, cylindrical, toroidal and spherical forms, which differ in material,
fabrication method and costs. Various fabricators have developed proprietary methods and techniques
for manufacturing spherical glass elements. An interesting method to decrease the costs of double
curved glass structures is to simplify the geometry and breakdown the different types into a few
manageable groups. To facilitate the workflow and enable important optimising techniques custom
made software tools were developed by Evolute.
In the past years, researchers have solved various demanding tasks, like the panelisation of a double
curved surface with a rectangular grid consisting of planar quadrangular faces. An additional approach
in contrast to using an existing model is to perform a kind of reverse engineering and to remodel the
complete compliant geometry. A big advantage of doing this is to be able to better understand the
initial design and to create a clean model of the building which satisfies the needs for further
processing. A disadvantage of this new model is that it is just an interpretation of the original
geometry, including deviations and maybe misinterpretation, which we have to keep in mind while
processing the project. The extracted curve network and the resulting mesh out of it is always an
approximation of the original NURBS surface, whereby the nodes of the mesh ideally lie exactly on
the compliant surface. For this reason there are many possible alternatives to interpret the base
geometry, differing in number of members, panes size, aesthetics and costs.
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Figure 8: Frankfurt MyZeil Shopping Centre by Massimiliano Fuksas (image courtesy of Frank Mller)
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Digital Data
Reduced use of conventional plans and drawings in the design phase is leading to an increase of the
usage of 3D models, which are directly integrated into the design, assembly and manufacturing
process. 3D models provide much more control than technical 2D drawings and a complete overview
of the structure. Handling of a large amounts of different construction details and therefore the
extraction of plans and drawings is only effective and economic with the full automation of creating
3D construction drawings and further drawing generation processes.
It is essential to manage data transfer between the main contractor and the manufacturer and not to
allow any room for interpretation and ambiguity. Only an exact compliance and execution of the given
data allows smooth assembly on site.
3.1 Consistent Data Model
Data models usually develop from different levels of detail from the conceptual model to the highly
detailed parts for production. The 3d model is the base of all further derivate drawings like plans,
sections, elevations, detailing, renderings, and CNC-data.
How to achieve a consistent data model? Generally known there are various file types to exchange
data between certain software applications. Every exchange of data between applications inhibits the
risk of loss of information. This information is addressed as meta-data. Examples of meta-data may be
the name of a truss member, its cross-section area, overall surface area or assembly weight. Storing all
your custom information to a specific object of your model, we would like to refer to this as a richdata-model.
How to generate and obtain such rich-data-models? Each software application inherent means of
storing meta-data, but the challenge is to export or re-import files. One suitable approach is to use the
API (Application Programming Interface) of your software applications. Most applications offer a
very good programmable interface, which are able to transport more data than the common existing
exchange file-formats.
An example of data sharing is to import structural data from Dlubal RStab into the McNeel
Rhinoceros environment. Rhinoceros with its strong geometrical capabilities (NURBS-based modeler)
also offers possibilities to customize your own commands. It is also very often the start for the design
geometry provided by the architect or by reengineering the system geometry out of other data formats,
even 2d drawings. Rhinoceros is very capable of storing heaps of meta-data, this data can derive not
only from a single, but from various software applications, to a single object which can be compared
or altered between various stages in the progressive design. Also the existing meta-data can be
remapped onto possible alterations of the architects geometry, which gives a huge advantage to not
set up a new model in the structural application and apply all the various load cases again. This gives a
high flexibility and therefore time and cost savings when handling different design variations.
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Especially in early stages of a design the parametric modeling has a huge advantage to study multiple
solutions, therefore finding to optimum solution concerning the design. In later stages the design is
often driven by other values like feasibility, costs, manufacturing limits and assembly issues. So it is
necessary to alter certain parameters of the design to achieve the optimum solution, even going back to
the very start and applying an altered (improved) basic geometry to the algorithm. Since the defined
rules of the algorithm dont change you can easily recalculate the total geometry.
This again gives a high flexibility and therefore time and cost savings when dealing with very late
design changes, sometimes these are major (basic geometry), sometimes these are minor (detail
geometry).
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References
[1] Schodek, D., Bechthold, M, Griggs K, Kao K. M., Steinberg M.: Digital Design And Manufacturing,
Wiley,2005
[2] Ceccato C., The Master-Builder-Geometer, Advances in Architectural Geometry 2010, Springer, 2010
[3] Del Campo M., Manninger S.: Performative Surfaces, Proceedings of the Design Modelling Symposium
Berlin 2011, Springer, 2001.
[4] Ziegler R., Schneider B.: Digitale Vision und gebaute Wirklichkeit, Stahlbau 05.2011
[5] Eigensatz, M., Deuss, M., Schiftner, A., Kilian, M., Mitra, N., Pottmann, H., Pauly, M.: Case Studies in
cost-Optimized Paneling of Architectural Freeform Surfaces, in Advances in Architectural Geometry 2010,
S. 49-72.
[6] Khabazi, Z.: Generative Algorithms using Grasshopper, 2010
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Summary
In the contemporary architecture formable materials get more and more important. Plastic
materials are predestinated for modern architecture and its language of facades. The paper wants to
analyze the creative potential of plastic materials in faade applications and tries to prove it by
introducing a new contemporary project, the Oskar-von-Miller-Tower in Munich with its 42 m
high faade made of a translucent plastic material. In the conclusion the paper wants to answer the
question which are the characteristic and unique attitudes of plastic materials in faade
applications by a short comparison of buildings like Olympic Stadium Munich (1972), Art House
Graz (2003) and the Oskar-von-Miller-Tower (2010) also in relation to the possible change of
exposure to the material and the structural design
Introduction
In the Nineties of the last century a new kind of architectural organic design developed more and more.
This was not only ascribed to a new and special generation of architects, it is more caused by the
digitalization of the planning offices since the beginning of the Nineties. Finding structures and forms
with the help of digitalized mediums brought the architects and designer to a leaving of material
reality, a leaving of conventional geometries. Now every form, every structure seems to be possible,
can be simulated, and new complex geometries and new ideas of spaces and building designs are
creaeted totally free. That is one of the important reasons why designs of Zaha Hadid or Ben van
Berkel for example are existing and have been built in reality. Forms and structures becoming more
free flowing, amorphous it began a time of creating a new organic style of architecture with new
materials suitable to the new development of designs. These materials must follow the simulated,
flowing form, nearly jointless in their surfaces. As building is characterized by economics more and
more the skin of the buildings become thinner and must include more and more technical functions.
We can realize this development in the line of projects like the Eden Project by Nicolas Grimshaw, the
art house Graz from Peter Cook and finally it cumulates in the skin of the Allianz Arena, Munich by
Herzog & DeMeuron or the envelope of the Unilever Building, Hamburg, by Behnisch architects. This
development and specification is characteristic for plastic materials with their attitudes and so you can
realize digitalization of building is one of the main reasons for reinforced application of plastic
materials in the building envelope after their golden time in the Sixties and Seventies.
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The creative potential of plastic materials is dominated by four significant items: individuality,
formability, transparency or transmission and finally the size. All these items characterize the skin of a
building and are completely responsible for the architectural design of the Oskar-von-Miller-Tower in
Munich, the new sign of the Technical University Munich in Garching.
As the existing tower had to be removed a new one was built in the entrance of the campus Garching.
In the northern entrance to Munich it has the direct neighbourship to the second symbol of modern
architecture with plastic materials in Munich the Allianz Arena and stands into the tradition to the
Olympic stadium in Munich from 1972 as the used material was the same: PLEXIGLAS. So for the
material itself the building stands for the new generation of PLEXIGLAS in the contemporary
architecture. The tower as the new emblem of this innovative university site is 52m high up to the end
of the cladding and the architectural demands for the faade material were very complex. It should be
the translation of the idea of a dancing ballerina: You see the elegance and beauty of the form and the
skin however in the same moment you see the strength, power and making of of the structural
design under the shiny and mystical clothes of the faade. In detail in relation to the geometry of the
building every faade element has another oval geometry and had to be so long as possible in order to
create a nearless jointless faade. The material should be on the one hand translucent as possible for
shining through the steel and concrete substructure in daylight and on the other hand nevertheless it
had to be opaque as possible for LED projection and lighting by night. These architectural demands
were only solved by the significant items of a plastic material.
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Let us have a look to the item individuality which is the dominating attitude of the used cladding
material. What is the meaning of this item for plastic materials? Individuality of a material is defined
by reaching a high performance and variety in all points of construction and design with always using
the same base material only changed in some few components. In order to reach a high flexibility of
the attitudes of the material on a unmodified substance base you must have a suitable production
process. Principally it is only possible for a synthesized material, which is controlling his attitudes
with the special additives. It will be perfect if the additives are parts of the whole material and
homogenous distributed in the profile as only covering of additives on the surface because this would
be very vulnerable against mechanical damaging. The production process, cast and extrusion, of
plastic materials perform this account very well. Mainly for design the production of many colours in
combination with different qualities of surfaces is very interesting. Further each colour can be
produced with different kinds of transmission. The game between transparent, translucent and opaque
surfaces creates a lot of endless possibilities for our design ideas like no other material. Technical
attitudes can be adjusted individually by mixing special additives with optical (UV, IR) or mechanical
attitudes.
For the Oskar-von-MillerTower this mixing of special optical attitudes into the project specific
formulation of the material was the translation of the design idea of a special translucency into the
right grade of transmission. In the combination with the chosen kind of production as an extruded
material the main characteristic attitudes of the skin could get true: very long elements, up to 6m long,
made of a material with an individual and optimal translucency for the different lighting situation by
day and night.
The second main item responsible for the design was the formability of the material. Regarding the
geometric form of the tower each of the 251 elements had to have an individual radius. Therefore the
material of the faade must be formable in a quick and economical way. The manufacturer used a
negative form out of a high-pressured foam for the thermoforming process which could be milled into
the next geometry after thermoforming an element which was the best and economic way to produce
the individual geometries.
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One of the main problems was the structural design of the fixing. On the one hand the fixing should be
minimized as possible on the other hand the landscape in the north of Munich is determined by large
wind suction problems on tall buildings. Especially in the high levels there were an enormous wind
suction so it would be necessary to use a material with high elasticity suitable to the substructure
system. In order to get the substructure in a small dimension the weight of the elements had to be very
low. The special pigmented PLEXIGLAS, 25mm thick, was chosen for the faade elements drilled
every 480 mm and fixed by consoles sitting on hanging steel frames. This kind of construction reduces
disturbing horizontal joints and shows a very homogenous impression of the faade. An alternative
solution with a glass faade would have been nearly impossible as first of all the self weight of the
cladding material glass would have been to high for a the demanded small dimension of the steel
frames and mainly second only a flexible material like a plastic material in combination with a point
fixing was the ideal structure to take over the existing loads, which was approved by the necessary
technical tests before starting installation of the faade. Especially the choose of a restoring
construction by consoles in combination with the PLEXIGLAS faade elements was the reason for
the extremely high deflexion without any problems concerning the tension loads into the fixing points
of the plastic material.
The Oskar-von-Miller-Tower in Munich shows the creative potential of plastic materials in faade
applications very convincingly. Translucency, formability, weight and dimension as attitudes
combined in one material and transferred into faade elements are the character of the architecture
besides the typical geometry and they are responsible for the perfect translation of modern faade
design into an innovative skin with an high architectural and technical performance
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The Growing Idea of Structural Design with Plastic Materials A Review and Outlook
Comparing the Oskar-von-Miller-Tower to other projects it is the youngest milestone on the way to
develop the right symbiosis of structural design for building skins and plastic materials. The roof of
the Olympic stadium in Munich from 1972 is characterized by using only flat sheets on a cable
construction which is responsible for the geometric form. The fixing distances are very small and the
fixing points are very dominating in the architectural design. The weight of the construction was the
main technical feature why a plastic material was chosen in this application besides the protection
against rain and the wish of high lightness of the architectural design.
If you have a look to the Art House Graz from 2003 the symbiosis of structural design and plastic
material is getting stronger. The distances of the point fixing are higher as the stiffness of the
thermoformed sheets is much higher than of the flat sheets in Munich. Further the development in this
project is coming forward as the aspect of the translucency and the combination with light is realized
in a faade project the first time. The geometric potential of the material is tapped completely and
therefore in this project you can realize the transformation of a pure applied faade into a complete
architectural skin of the building which characterize the architectural design.
Last of all the Oskar-von-Miller-Tower in Munich tries to go forward the next step by adding the
plastic material as a necessary part of the structural design. The steel substructure, the kind of point
fixing by consoles and the stiffness of the plastic material PLEXIGLAS are one structural unit which
is necessary for the structural design of this building on this site. In contrast to Munich here the plastic
material is not only a cladding material, now it is getting an important part of the structural design.
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The next step into the future will be to reduce the substructure more and more and to go into the
direction of a nearly self-bearing structure made of plastic materials in order to exploit besides the
creative potential the complete structural potential of plastic materials in building applications like the
attitude to glue the material with a high strength in combination with a high stiffness created by
thermoforming. First steps in this direction were done in a cooperative project with the Bauhaus
University Weimar and the Evonik Industries in 2010. The development of this complete transparent
bearing structure (roof element span wide 6m) is the right step in direction to a nearly self bearing
building skin and to come to the point to show the real potential of plastic materials in building
applications in future.
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Summary
This paper is a case-study on how a consortium consisting of a Norwegian and a Swiss timber
contractor, a Norwegian boat builder, a Swiss timber engineer and designtoproduction as
consultants and planners developed a modular timber faade system for the doubly curved
waterfront faade of the KILDEN PERFORMING ARTS CENTER in Kristiansand, Norway. The
whole project is based on tightly integrated teamwork between all involved parties, resulting in a
continuously digital production chain from detail development until CNC-fabrication. The core of
the process was a parametric CAD-model holding more than 14,000 individual building
components and over 60,000 connection details.
Introduction
The Kilden Performing Arts Center in Kristiansand, Norway, designed by Finnish architects ALA and
opened in March 2012, provides facilities for the Kristiansand Symphony Orchestra, Opera South and
a number of local theatre groups. The building volume is more or less a rectangular box with one
exception: a 100 m wide and 22 m high overhanging and undulating timber wall that looms over the
foyer areas and defines the buildings face towards the waterfront. The doubly curved wall cantilevers
up to 35m and is bisected by a vertical steel/glass faade into both an exterior and an interior part. It is
clad with oak boards that feature a continuous pattern of 10mm wide gaps along the whole faade,
demanding a meticulous finish.
The original construction concept put out to tender consisted of curved steel tubes defining the shape
of the faade and welded to straight steel beams suspended from the buildings concrete structure.
Several thin layers of timber substructure and finally the oak skin would be attached on site.
However, a mock-up of several square meters did not meet the high demands in terms of precision as
well as visible and tangible quality. The on-site assembly of the cladding boards which were straight,
but twisted and had to be slightly tapered between the curved (longer) bottom edge and the straight
(shorter) top edge of the faade proved to be immensely laborious. But the most serious problem lay
in the substructure: 3000 running meters of shape-defining steel tubes had to be bent with
continuously changing radii in order to follow the wave form. As the only machines capable of
bending tubes with the required cross sections were limited to fixed radii, the geometry had to be
approximated by short arc segments, welded together on-site.
At this point, a consortium around the Norwegian timber contractor Trebyggeriet decided to suggest
an alternative construction concept based on prefabricated faade elements.
Instead of building the faade as one continuous structure on-site, it is divided into 126 elements with
rectangular footprints. The elements bring their own stiff substructure, which consists of two straight
and a maximum of 13 single-curved glue-laminated timber beams, to which the cladding boards are
then attached. These up to 50 sqm large elements can be pre-assembled off-site and hoisted directly
into the primary steel structure, reducing on-site labor to an absolute minimum.
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With this approach, the critical part of the assembly precise placement of the oak cladding boards
is brought away from the construction site to a much more controlled workshop environment. The
substructure frame of each element can be laser-measured for quality control before and after attaching
the boards. Moreover, the elementation as such prevents possible inaccuracies from adding up across
the whole faade. The suspension detail between faade elements and primary steel girders allows for
final adjustment during erection, which was one of the main challenges, since the building tolerance of
the primary steel structure (15mm) was ten times larger than the required precision for the outer
faade layer (see also fig. 9).
This way, the whole faade consisting of more than 14,000 individual building components could
be produced with assembly gaps of as little as 10 mm between adjacent elements. This is no wider
than the defined gap between oak boards, letting the elementation disappear completely in lateral
direction.
Figure 4: Gaps between elements are only visible in one direction (Trebyggeriet)
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2.1 Maintenance
A panelized faade is generally easier to maintain than a faade assembled in place from individual
components, because maintenance can much like the assembly process in the first place engage on
a level of self-contained faade elements.
In the wave wall, the elements do not overlap at all. Thus, every element can be released and lowered
individually, should it be necessary. The only exception are the lowermost elements, which stand on
the ground. Here, the element above has to be taken away first.
Critical advantage of the prefabrication system over the original approach is the replacement of the
bent steel tubes by curved timber beams. When bending timber lamellas to produce curved gluelaminated beams, the springback leads to similar tolerance issues as when bending steel. But contrary
to steel, pre-curved timber beams can then be machined in a CNC mill at high speed and a precision of
some tenth of a millimeter, yielding very exact and completely strainless building components. On top
of that, the shapes are not limited to (series of) arc segments but allow continuous changes in curvature.
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Figure 6: Curved secondary beams with embedded seat cuts for the oak cladding boards (designtoproduction)
While as shown in the previous section geometrically timber performs much better than steel,
structurally the comparison is more ambivalent. Timber generally requires larger cross-sections, while
on the other hand it weighs much less. Letting aside the details of structural calculation, there are two
main concerns when applying timber structurally its anisotropic nature and its flammability.
4.1 Fiber Cutting Angle
Wood is an anisotropic material, meaning that its load bearing capabilities (or general properties) are
depending on the load direction. It has by far the most strength in its fiber direction. This is
alongside the aim to minimize cutoff the reason for using curved timber blanks (which are gluelaminated from thin lamellas in a bending mold) instead of milling curved beams out of much cheaper
straight blocks.
From a structural point of view, the optimum would be a curved blank that exactly follows the
direction of the beam it is supposed to become. But in most cases including the Kilden Faade with
its nearly 1,800 individual curved beams it is not feasible to order blanks with batch size one, due to
the time-consuming lamination process. So at this point a nonlinear optimization process is applied,
weighing material cut-off against timber blank diversity to assign as many different but similar beam
geometries to the same blank geometry. In the case of the Wave Wall, it was possible to mill up to 13
different curved beams out of identical blanks without exceeding acceptable cutting angles for timber
fibers.
Figure 7: One common timber blank geometry for nine similar, but different beams (designtoproduction)
-5-
One specific feature of the Wave Wall is that the upper part of the faade acts as an exterior wall while
the lower part behind the vertical glass faade is the interior wall/ceiling of the main foyer. Thus,
concerning building physics there are different demands to meet.
5.1 Thermal Insulation
Main thermal insulation perimeter of the wall is the glass faade with its vertical continuation through
the back structure up to the roof (see fig. 1). So the faade elements below the glass faade only have
to protect the foyer against the partly insulated roof volume. The space between the timber beams is
filled with rock wool. On the outer side a layer of black fleece separates it from the oak cladding (also
relevant for room acoustics, see 5.2) and two layers of plywood and gypsum plates terminate the
elements on the inner side. The elements above the glass faade only separate exterior from nonclimatized interior space. Still, they are partly insulated in a similar way, mainly to prevent
condensation due to quick chilling.
Structurally, the timber elements are not directly connected to the glass faade to allow independent
movement of both parts. The resulting shadow gap, which is filled with insulation, also meets the
architectural design intent (see fig. 4).
5.2 Room Acoustics
The distance between the cladding boards had to be negotiated between the demands of the design
(narrow gaps) and the room acoustics (wide gaps). Also, the gap width had to look the same
everywhere despite changing angles between adjacent boards along the faade. All three demands
were met by reducing the width of the boards towards their backside. Thus, the gaps widen from
10 mm at the visible side towards the connection to the frame, where the black textile membrane
closes the element surface both optically and acoustically.
Figure 8: The cladding boards are individually tapered and numbered (Risr Trebtbyggeri)
-6-
A project like the one presented here, with exactly 14,309 individual components of which no two are
the same, is only feasible with parametric modeling, i.e. abstracting the numerous different geometric
conditions into a considerably smaller set of rules and rendering those into a set of tailor-made CAD
tools. For this to succeed, a consistent design and construction principle is necessary in the first place,
as each exception to the rule drives up complexity and effort by a high degree. Secondly, the digital
process must not stop with the geometry model but extend into fabrication: Only with a continuous
digital chain from design to production, the sheer amount of individual parts becomes manageable.
In case of the Kilden Faade, only two types of Timber/Steel connections exist that can adapt to the
varying conditions throughout the wall by a set of defined rules. Furthermore, through the concept of
embedding complexity in the building parts (see 3.1) the adaptation even takes part in the individually
milled timber beams, so that the steel connectors and any other parts necessary can be off the shelf.
And this is where the material decision becomes key to success: 56,000 precise seat cuts could not
have been milled into steel tubes.
Figure 9: Two parametric connection details that adapt to different geometric conditions by individual cuttings in
the timber beams (designtoproduction)
Thus, an elaborate prefabrication process that engages early in the building process possibly even
negotiating details of the design to ease fabrication while maintaining the design intent combined
with a continuous digital production chain from 3D model to CNC-fabrication can help to reduce cost
and effort while ensuring a high quality of the result. Some of this money has to be spent earlier:
When the first parts arrive on site in fact, even when the first material is ordered most of the work
has already been done. While this should be most welcome, as it makes the building process much
more predictable and not least highly reduces the work on site, it is antipodal to traditional processes.
This seems to be one of the main obstacles for processes like the one presented here to be applied
more frequently today.
-7-
Acknowledgements
-8-
Summary
The exhibition gallery of the Enzo Ferrari Museum in Modena has been designed by Future Systems London referring to iconic free form elements of the sport car design. The gallery faade is
composed of a curved glass envelope facing Enzo Ferraris birth house as well as of a free-form
yellow aluminum roof. This paper focuses on the customized solutions developed to engineer both
the glass and the aluminum faade.
Introduction
The recently opened Museum dedicated to Enzo Ferrari in Modena plays with the duality between the
renovated historical building where Ferrari was born in 1898 and a futuristic exhibition gallery designed by Jan Kaplicky (Future Systems, London), shortly before his death. The gallery embraces the
masonry building and relates to it, whereas its sculptural form is clearly inspired by sport car design.
However, while in the car industry complex geometries are realized by moulding presses to produce
numerous identical elements, in architecture the specificity of each work, the difference in scale and
costs requires a different approach to deal with such forms. The philosophy chosen in engineering the
faade for the Enzo Ferrari Museum in Modena was to maintain a relative simple geometry for the facade panels which have to be assembled and to adapt to the different geometrical situations by means
of complex customized detailing.
The 11 m high cable-stayed inclined glass faade is geometrically defined by two intersecting conical
surfaces. A set of 32 mm vertical stainless steel cables supports the flat insulated glass units, made of a
10 mm fully tempered glass pane outside and two 6 mm heat strengthened glass panes laminated with
a SentryGlasPlus interlayer inside. The sinuous form of the faade was accomplished using straight
cables and planar glass units. These had to be cut with certain specific angles to match the conical
geometry.
Figure 2: Enzo Ferrari Museum during the opening View from outside (Werner Sobek Stuttgart)
Figure 3: Enzo Ferrari Museum during the opening View from inside (Werner Sobek Stuttgart)
-2-
Special attention was paid to control the deflections of the whole faade as well as the warping of the
most critical insulated glass units by optimizing every single cable pretension force. These vary from
80 to 330 kN. Black coated curved aluminum shading devices further characterize the faade design
and mitigate the museums heat gain.
Figure 4: Glass fixing and cable clamp. Rendering (left); Assembled cast piece (right) - (Werner Sobek Stuttgart)
The cable clamp and glass fixing has been designed specifically for this museum with the aim of reducing the material to a minimum and to match the specific architectural language. The 3D-Model for
the pieces has been precisely defined in collaboration with a small casting factory specialized in Italian
design objects.
Aluminium Roof
The 77 m long and 43 m wide freeform aluminum roof has to withstand wind, rain and snow while
still being able to freely deform due to temperature variations and the absence of any expansion joints.
A sophisticated detailing which allows for controlled movements and a parametric approach were the
keys to address this task.
-3-
The outer skin is made of a system of coated extruded aluminum profiles, developed by Pinical. It
adopts solutions typically used in the ship building industry. The profiles are joined through a malegasket-female system and are connected to a steel secondary structure through adjustable screwed
connections. The profile curvature was mainly achieved by bending the profiles on site along their
longitudinal axis. The width has been set to 125 mm and therefore suitable for site-warping without
visually detectable tessellation. Double curved roof elements showing small bending radii were prebended in longitudinal direction and additionally warped on site. This system allows to generate advanced double curved skins without prior thinning the material through plastic deformation. The analysis of the Gaussian curvature on a 3D surface model helped identifying the critical zones around the
skylights and at the backside of the roof.
Figure 6: Analysis of Gaussian curvature on the 3D surface model. (Werner Sobek Stuttgart)
The roof has been designed to withstand high temperatures without any expansion joints through a
system of movable and adaptable supports. It is fully floating but fixed at certain points along two axes,
thus allowing thermal expansion in all directions. The roof temperature was assumed to reach up to
80C on a sunny summer day and -20C in winter. Taking a temperature difference of 100 K into consideration, the maximum thermal movement will be 3 cm at the roof edges. The node details therefore
have to allow the roof surface to slide up to 6 cm in longitudinal and transversal direction. It was indispensable during installation to constantly measure the temperature and fix the roof to the nodes according to the surface temperature. Beside the sliding ability, the node detail can adapt to the different
roof inclinations and is adjustable in height. This allowed utilizing only one typical detail to bridge the
different heights arising between the segmented support surface (steel structure, insulation and waterproofing layer) and the smooth outer surface.
Figure 7: L-profile sub-structure (left). Node point with attached L-profiles and aluminum surface (right)
(Werner Sobek Stuttgart)
-4-
In order to trace the roof curvature, 2.500 laser-cut steel plates were bended into L-shaped profiles to
generate a unidirectional substructure. Around 62.500 boreholes were positioned using parametric
modelling tools to match the node points. This way more than 95% of the roof surface could be quite
easily engineered. The Pareto principle (also known as the 8020 rule) states that, for many events,
roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes; hence the utilized time follows the same
principle. The required time to detail the remaining last 5% of the roof (edges and skylights) was definitively more than 80% of the detailing time. The comparatively small surface area of the ten skylights was constructed by laser-cutting 400 individually metal sheets with 25.200 individually positioned bolts. Furthermore edge lines were extracted from the 3D model to laser-cut rubber foils, which
could be utilized as cutting gauges for the aluminum profiles along the skylight edges.
Figure 8: Individual laser-cut metal sheets of one skylight (Werner Sobek Stuttgart)
One of the main challenges in detailing the cladding metal sheets, was the definition of non-standard
fixation points to be compatible with the roofs movement. Thanks to parametric design tools, the skylight cladding surfaces and the relative fixings were automatically generated. Especially the positioning of the bolts played a major role in the detail design of the skylights. Since the local curvature in the
skylights is higher than elsewhere in the roof, bolts welded on the rear side of the metal sheets forces
the sheets in position along the edges without any material preforming process. A Gaussian curvature
analysis was performed to identify the areas with small curvature radii in both directions.
Figure 9: Metal cladding at the skylights. The red arrows indicate zones of strong double curvature.
(Teleya)
-5-
Figure 10: Metal cladding at the skylights. Partial assembling next to the site (left); visualization of the main
components (middle). Pre-assembling on site (right). (Werner Sobek Stuttgart)
Conclusions
Building highly complex freeform buildings skins calls for a change in planning process from 2D
drawings to 3D digital models. Nowadays standard planning tools support a quick architectural design
of highly complex surfaces. However, the detailing, production and erection of such envelopes
remains a very complex and challenging task. Several aspects (building physics, thermal behaviour,
load bearing capacity, production processes, etc.) need to be synthesized during the overall
engineering process. The first step is the definition of detailing and production principles which could
be adapted to different geometrical and loading conditions. The second step is the implementation of
the information into a 3D model and the finding of suitable interfaces to transfer data. Parametric rules
have to be identified to match all the different conditions, so that the process could be automated as
much as possible by means of scripted tools. Such a process allow for complex surfaces to be
materialized with an impressive end quality, while still keeping the costs within a reasonable range.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Foundation Casa Natale Enzo Ferrari for having made this museum
possible. A special thanks is also due to the architect Andrea Morgante (Shiro Studio), to the structural
engineer Fabio Camorani (Politenica) and all the contractors involved in the faade work (Teleya, Pinical, etc.) and in the site coordination (CdC) for the very good collaboration.
-6-
Summary
In this paper a case study is presented relating to the redesign of an office building dating from the
1960s. Especially the detailing and the structural complexity of designing the new double skin
faade are described.
The building consists of a two-storey podium topped by a nine-storey tower, the overall height is
40m above ground level. In order to optimise the building's energy efficiency and present the
public a modern appearance the whole building is completely renovated. The existing building
envelope which mainly consisted of prefabricated concrete elements was dismantled and is now
replaced by a transparent floor to floor double skin faade. Within the renovation two new storeys
(12th and 13th floor) are added.
Keywords: glass; redesign; structural complexity; double skin faade; transparent floor
to floor glazing
Introduction
Rising energy costs and amendments to regulations have strengthened the society's awareness of
energy saving measures. In order to reduce CO2 emissions many buildings dating from the 1960s and
1970s are being now refurbished. They scarcely comply with the stricter building standards introduced
in recent years and very often need to be renovated not only in terms of energy efficiency but also in
terms of fire protection and functionality.
Retrofitting existing buildings is very often even more complex than designing new ones as the
remaining structure has to be included in the design concept and in many cases compromises have to
be made to meet standards and requirements.
In this paper a case study is presented relating to the redesign of an office building dating from the
1960s. This example shows the creative potential but also the complexity that lies in the renewal of
older buildings. Especially the detailing and the structural complexity of designing the new double
skin faade are described.
Built in 1969 the building complex accommodating a bank company sets an important accent within
the city centre of Rosenheim, which is a medium size town in Germany. The building consists of a
two-storey podium topped by a nine-storey tower, the overall height is 40m above ground level. In
order to optimise the building's energy efficiency and present the public a modern appearance the
whole building is completely renovated. The existing building envelope which mainly consisted of
prefabricated concrete elements was dismantled (Figure 1a & b) and is now replaced by a transparent
floor to floor double skin faade Within the renovation two new storeys (12th and 13th floor) are
added. The overall office area is 4000m2. The energy consumption will be reduced from 400 kWh/m2
to 100 kWh/m2 which is a reduction of 75%.
-1-
The design of the office building dating from the 1960s as well as the redesign was planned by
Schleburg Architects, Rosenheim.
The floor plan of the nine-storey tower has a rectangular shape having a size of approximately 22.5m x
13m.
The outer faade is suspended from steel fins which are mounted on the concrete floors. The
dominating glazing parts of the secondary faade have a size of 2.5m x 2.5m, in the 11th floor the
glazing height increases to 4.3m. The inner part of the facade consists of an insulated wooden cladding
with linear supported floor to floor double glazed systems. Whereas the outer screen consists of glass
panels which are locally supported by clamps along their edges.
2.1 Glazing
The dominating glazing parts of the secondary faade have a size of 2.5m x 2.5m, in the 11th floor the
glazing height increases to 4.3m. The glass panels are supported by clamps along their edges. The
glass set-up consists of 2 x 10mm laminated heat strengthened glass and in the corner areas of 2 x
12mm laminated heat strengthened glass.
The glass panels are visually broken up by openable louvres which are 0.55m high and 1.25m wide,
they are linearly supported along their short edges and have a glass set-up of 2 x 8mm laminated
annealed glass. The louvers are used for natural ventilation and will also open in case of any smoke
emission. Figure 2 shows the elevation of the faade.
The wind loads were determined based on a wind study which was carried out for the double skin
faade.
As the gap between outer and inner faade is to be accessible for cleaning and maintenance the outer
faade has to resist also impact loads. Therefore besides the structural analysis impact tests had to be
carried out (see section 3).
For the louvers also additional requirements regarding remaining load carrying capacity after glass
breakage had to be taken into consideration. This was necessary as the open louvers having an
inclination more than 10 are classified as an overhead glazing. The testing is described in section 3.
For the secondary glazing of the faade a special permit from the authorities was needed.
-2-
When designing the supporting elements the main problem was the connection to the concrete
structure. Due to the poor concrete quality dating from the 1960s and insufficient reinforcement at the
slab edges it was necessary to fix the anchors at defined locations which were able to resist these
additional loads (Figure 5). The gap between anchor and drill hole was filled with a suitable mortar to
avoid any slip.
-3-
Furthermore complex supporting details had to be developed to transfer the compressive forces locally
into a defined area of the concrete edge (Figure 6a). To guarantee a uniform load distribution
additionally the gaps between the steel sections and the concrete were filled with a high strength grout
(Figure 6b).
high strength
grout
The supporting elements were modeled by means of finite element analysis (Figure 7, Figure 8).
Testing
3.1 Introduction
The design of this complex faade structure should not only be based on numerical simulation
therefore full scale tests of the supporting elements were carried out to be able to evaluate the FEAmodel in a qualified way (section 3.2).
As the gap between outer and inner faade is to be accessible for cleaning and maintenance the outer
faade functions as a barrier and has to resist also impact loads. Therefore for the glazing of the outer
skin impact tests were required according to TRAV [7] (section 3.3).
Finally the post-breakage performance of the openable louvres was determined (section 3.4). This was
necessary as the open louvers having an inclination more than 10 are classified as an overhead
glazing and a safe post-failure behaviour in the event of breakage for people beneath has to be
guaranteed.
3.2 Deformation of the Outer Skin
Goal of these tests was to verify that there are no significant deformations or any slip of the faade
supporting elements induced by dead, wind and traffic loads. The tests were carried out in full scale on
site.
The loads where applied step by step starting with the characteristic values. Finally the design values
were applied. For each load step the horizontal and vertical deformation was determined (Figure 9).
The loads were simulated by cement bags (Figure 10) and fixed to the location of load application by
steel cables and deflection pulleys. The exact load value was determined by force transducers.
The following maximum deformations were determined: horizontal direction 1.3mm and vertical
direction 5.0mm. These values matched very well with the calculated values of the structural analysis.
In the tests no slip of the supporting structure was determined.
3.3 Impact Resistance
For the glazing of the secondary faade impact tests according to German TRAV [7] were performed
using a standard pendulum according to EN 12600. A drop height of 900mm was used. The tests were
carried out in full scale in the laboratory (Figure 11). The impact body hit the specimen on points that
caused maximum glass and support damage. After an impact at the corner of the specimen the
laminated glass broke (Figure 12), but as the impact body did not penetrate the laminated glass and no
dangerous glass fragments fell down the test was passed.
-5-
-6-
Conclusion
Retrofitting existing buildings is very often even more complex than designing new ones as the
remaining structure has to be included in the design concept and in many cases compromises have to
be made to meet standards and requirements.
Redesigning this office building the main problem was the connection of the faade supporting
elements to the existing concrete structure. Due to the poor concrete quality dating from the 1960s and
insufficient reinforcement at the slab edges it was necessary to design special joints and fix the
anchors at defined locations which were able to resist these additional loads.
Moreover for the outer glass skin besides the structural analysis additional requirements such as
resistance against human impact and post-breakage performance were demanded from the building
authorities.
Although redesigning the building was very complex, by improving the energy efficiency and present
the public a modern appearance the renovation of the building was very successfully (Figure 15 a & b).
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
-7-
Summary
The Schco ERC50 modernization faade offers maximum efficiency in saving and generating
energy and also efficient process flows for design, fabrication and installation, for clients,
developers, users and metal fabrication companies. Highly energy-efficient components, which in
terms of installation procedures have been specially developed for use in building renovation,
prevent high overhead costs due to loss of rental, accelerate the construction process and raise the
value of the property in the long-term.
-1-
Philosophy
The new Schco faade system for efficient modernization of existing buildings arose from the everyday challenges of modernization projects: as a rule, tenants / users of rooms adjacent to the faade
have to vacate their workspace during building work, so that old window and faade units can be taken
out and new units installed and attached. This results in stress and discomfort for the users and
ultimately high consequential costs (rental etc.) for the landlord / building owner, not to mention
enormous logistics problems.
The new aluminium system construction method puts the client in a position to keep the building in
operation all throughout the building work. An external load-bearing structure is fitted with fixing
brackets from ceiling to ceiling over a specified distance onto the grid of the building structure. In this
way non-loadbearing spandrel areas can be bridged. This load-bearing structure is used as the basic
framework for the integration as a whole of the following system modules:
Faade-integrated
1.1
Less loss of utility / virtually no loss of rental (as a result of new installation principle)
Reduction in drilling work and necessary fixing material (less noise / lower costs)
No load-bearing spandrels required, as the system can span from floor to floor
solutions
in
terms
of
costs
Because in terms of their energy levels, around 70% of existing German buildings are below the first,
1977, thermal insulation regulations. On average they consume 5 to 6 times more heating energy than
modern buildings. The situation is similar in many European countries.
-2-
Modernizing existing buildings with a new building envelope improves the comfort, functionality and
value of a property. The operating costs are reduced at the same time. Rental income and returns
therefore offer significant potential for growth.
Maximum Use minimum operating costs
2.1
Modernized facades give existing buildings a contemporary and future-proof design with added value.
2.2
New facades save energy for heating, cooling and air conditioning. They can generate energy at the
same time using photovoltaic modules.
2.3
Intelligent Functionality
Efficient faade systems integrate functions, such as decentralized ventilation, heat recovery, solar
shading, solar electricity generation and the building management system.
2.4
Optimum Comfort
Comfort and efficiency increase due to effective insulation, solar shading and decentralized ventilation.
2.5
Attractive Appearance
When it comes to design, there are no Limits to the way architectural demands can be met.
2.6
New building envelopes make a significant contribution to climate protection due to the combination
of saving and generating energy.
As a result of the use of a new type of installation technology and the relocation of all functions to the
externally-mounted building envelope, a new Schco-faade can be installed while the building is still
in use with hardly any disruption and within a short period of time. This reduces the consequential
costs and the building can continue to be used during modernization.
Successful modernization in the shortest possible time
-3-
Modernizing without disruption! Reliable cost planning! The requirements of building renovation are
clear. The project should be completed in the shortest time possible to reduce loss of utility and rental.
Noise a disruption to operational processes must be avoided. The key requirements are reliable
planning and costing. Three arguments speak in favour of modernization with Schco.
3.1
No Disruptions to Operations
Efficient modernization should minimize the disruption to the users during the work. To achieve this,
it is ideal if almost all building work is carried out outside the building and new building envelope is
complete before building work begins on the inside. Or if relocation is not necessary and ongoing
business operations are hardly disturbed.
3.2
Perfect modernization also means achieving maximum planning reliability, due to the high level of
prefabrication of all the building components to be fabricated. Specific processes guarantee optimum
time and cost management with maximum adherence to deadline and budget.
3.3
The modernization of a faade is undoubtedly associated with noise. However, modern processes
reduce such noise emissions to a minimum and guarantee that day-to-day business is largely
undisturbed.
The new Schco ERC50 (Energy Efficiency Renovation Construction) system faade offers a superior
range for well-directed modernization. Modular system components guarantee a high level of energy
saving, excellent functionality and new comfort in an old building. Efficient installation reduces to a
minimum any disruption to operations in the building. There is no loss of rental. Schco offers unique
benefits for increasing the long-term value of existing buildings.
-4-
4.1
Modern aluminium windows from Schco guarantee maximum energy efficiency up to passive house
standard. Mechatronic fittings, such as Tip Tronic, which are also suitable for hybrid ventilation and
automatic night-time cooling, provide maximum comfort. Schco window systems can be easily
integrated into building management system.
4.2
The high performance solar shading from Schco combines optimum shading properties with a high
degree of transparency. The Schco CTB is flush-fitted and concealed in the modernization faade.
Maximum wind stability ensures that it can be used at all times.
4.3
Decentralized Ventilation
Efficient solutions from Schco for decentralized ventilation in the ERC50. This ensures that the
comfort levels for the building users are maximized, as ventilation devices fitted with CO2 sensors
guarantee a constant exchange of fresh air, and significantly reduce heat loss through ventilation by
means of simultaneous heat recovery.
-5-
4.4
Faade-integrated PV uses the large available surfaces of the building envelope to generate solar
energy. The outstanding performance characteristics make it particularly suitable for use in faade, for
example as a cladding panel in the spandrel area of the modernized faade.
4.5
Building Automation
Schco systems with mechatronic features can be easily integrated in the existing building
management system and enable the users to control functions such as ventilation, solar shading, etc.
The comfort of the building occupants is significantly improved after modernization.
-6-
The Schco ERC 50 modernization faade is installed and wired entirely from the outside, whilst the
building is still in use. This means the window units on the inside can be removed efficiently and to
precise deadline.
This is how it works:
1. The old structure with an existing faade with an in-filled, reinforced concrete skeleton
structure.
2. The load-bearing pilaster of the modernization faade is fixed to the building structure above a
fixing bracket as a vertical load-bearing system.
3. The new window units are installed on the inside of the load-bearing pilaster, whilst the old
windows initially remain in the faade.
4. After sealing the new window units to the building structure, the remaining building areas are
insulated.
5. Installation and wiring of the concealed, flush-fitted solar shading system.
6. The different infill units, such as glass, sheet metal or Schco ProSol TF photovoltaic units,
can now be efficiently and quickly mounted on the installed load-bearing structure.
7. Once the outside is complete, the old window units on the inside are removed. The reveals are
clad with panel units made from wood, sheet metal or plasterboard.
8. The modernization is complete. View of the redesigned and perfectly insulated faade, which
now accommodates numerous functions.
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Step 6
Step 7
Step 8
Figure 9: Installation while the building is still in use
-7-
Energy-oriented Facade-Renovation of
Architectural Monuments
Bernhard Weller, Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Technische Universitt Dresden, Institute of Building Construction, Germany,
Bernhard.Weller@tu-dresden.de, www.bauko.bau.tu-dresden.de
Sebastian Horn, Dipl.-Ing.
Technische Universitt Dresden, Institute of Building Construction, Germany,
Sebastian.Horn@tu-dresden.de, www.bauko.bau.tu-dresden.de
Summary
Architectural monuments are a vivid picture of history and play an important role for the identity
of the society. Energetic enhancement and the climate change adaption presents a major challenge
to architectural monuments. As a part of building stock they cannot escape from this problem. This
paper describes the energetic renovation of two significant monuments. It includes a description of
the buildings as well as a variety of solutions and their practical implementation. The conflict
between both, an energetic renovation and a sensitive handling with historical landmarks leads to
new developments and concepts. These results can be transferred to comparable buildings.
Bauhaus Dessau
1.1 Introduction
With regard to the high level of occupancy, heating loads and rising energy prices, constantly rising
operation costs occur for the Bauhaus-building in Dessau. Consequently, first ideas for an energetic
enhancement of the building started in 2009. The main focus has been put on the preservation of the
original appearance and the quality of the monument. Apart from the financial aspect of the high
facility costs, the thermal comfort shall be improved. Because of the radiative cooling of single
glazing, some users complained about strong drafts in the rooms. Very soon it became obvious that
only the development of an overall concept can protect the value of the monument.
The complex of buildings of the Bauhaus in Dessau consists of five main parts workshop wing,
north wing, bridge, atelier building and intermediate building which were built within one year
(1925/1926) and inaugurated in December 1926. Figure 1 gives an overview of the Bauhaus-building.
The workshop wing is fully glazed on the upper floors. The glazing itself is impressing due to its
filigree work and transparency. Destroyed areas had been closed with a perforated facade after World
War II and restored during the first general renovation in 1976. The design of the curtain wall of the
workshop wing was oriented on the original construction, but instead of the original steel profiles
aluminum profiles with larger dimensions were used. Because of the status as an architectural
monument renovation works cannot be done on this facade.
-1-
The north wing shows continuous strip windows that were put in front of the facade. It was used as a
commercial vocational school. The atelier building includes a perforated facade to the east and the
west of the building. All window constructions of the Bauhaus-building originally consisted of hot
rolled steel profiles with a single glazing. Currently only in some areas the old windows are still
present. The window elements of the strip windows and the window constructions of the live-in
studios have the same appearance as the original windows, but the shape of the profiles has been
simplified. Furthermore, the number of opening casements was reduced and the opening function
modified. Figure 2 shows the views and sectional drawings of windows of the north wing from the
beginning (1926), after the first renovation (1976) and after the current renovation (2011). The most
important change between 1926 and 2011 is the change of the single glazing into an insulation glass
under restoring the opening functions which were changed in 1976.
1926
1976
2011
1926
1976
2011
-2-
In a first step the designers wanted to change the windows, which were declared as changeable, to
insulating glass. After a few steps of simulation they noticed, that this method would be very
inefficient. Due to the high amount of leakages and no thermal separation of the steel profiles the
designers expected only a small benefit. Therefore, an energetic improvement and a technical approval
of the steel profiles were necessary. In further investigations it became clear that the original windows
consisted of crystal plate glass. This glazing has a high transparency and creates - depending on
lighting conditions and viewing direction laminar reflections. Since this glass is not any longer
produced today, it is important to find a suitable replacement.
Because of the status as an architectural monument the solid areas of the facade and the original
substructure of the strip windows in the north wing of the north facade cannot be renovated with
regards to energetic properties. This would require building physics studies for critical areas.
1.3 Practical Implementation
Because of the status as an architectural monument the Bauhaus-building in Dessau allows minimal
structural modifications. Therefore, the first steps of renovation were organizational measures for a
better adaption of the utilization. Consequently, the offices of the workshop wing and the other
buildings moved into the north wing. Because of the temporary occupancy of the workshop wing a
reduced heating with a lower limit of 16 C could be realized. Furthermore, the heating and cooling
control systems was optimized, which means 50 % less heating load. To compensate the loss of energy
in this wing, a photovoltaic system will be installed on the north wing of the Bauhaus-building and on
an adjacent building.
To use the energetic advantages of new insulation a thermal separation of the steel profiles was
required. Very soon it became clear that profiles with a sufficiently fine sash and frame were not
available on the market. In cooperation with the company MHB bv from the Netherlands, a suitable
thermal separated profile had been developed. Based on the existing product SL30-ISO, designers
found a solution which enabled an energetic optimization as well as the reflection of the original shape.
In order to receive a technical approval, the Technische Universitt Dresden carried out a lot of tests in
its testing facilities. As a result the product CLASSIC-ISO was developed. It consists of hot-rolled
flat steel with laser-welded U-profiles and a thermal separating bar of fiber reinforced plastic. The
width of the bars and their location for the thermal separation is variable. The variability allows the
development of different profiles with different specifications, based on one system. The CLASSICISO-System allows sightlines of 30 mm for frames and 51 mm for the sash. Depending on the
glazing the whole window-element can reach a U-value of UW = 1.2 W/mK. Figure 3 shows drawings
of the original profiles and of a prototype of a profile which has been tested in the testing facilities of
the Technische Universitt Dresden.
Original profile
CLASSIC-ISO
The sealing of the stationary glass elements is achieved by putty. In the area of the sash, three
integrated strip seals guarantee the sealing. Visible drainage does not exist.
-3-
Another problem was the choice of the new glass for the windows. It should reach the same high level
of quality in flatness and the surface as the original crystal plate glass. Modern insulating glass often
includes coating systems based on metal oxides to improve the energetic properties. After several tests
with different glasses from different manufacturers in test facades the designers realized that the
reflection behavior of the glasses is influenced by the different coating systems. As a result they used a
krypton-filled insulating glass with uncoated iron oxide reduced white glass. In contrast to insulating
glass with coating, which have a U-value of Ug = 1.0 W/mK to 1.6 W/mK, this glass has an
U-value of only Ug = 2.6 W/mK.
Areas which are not renovated because of their status as an architectural monument have to be
investigated with a focus on building physics. As a result designers used a mineral insulating plaster in
the reveals of the atelier building. The original steel sub construction of the strip windows in the north
wing was not thermally separated. Therefore, an electrical trace heating in form of heating tapes has
been added. These two measures could not prevent the condensation of water at reveals and walls
during extreme temperature and humidity conditions. So, the users had been introduced in the proper
ventilation behavior. In some areas electronic humidity controls had been installed. These systems
emit a signal, which triggers the ventilation. Figure 4 shows the renovation of the steel sub
construction of the strip windows at the north wing.
1.4 Results
All measures on the Bauhaus-building in Dessau led to a simulation result of 39 % in energy saving at
the north wing and 66 % at the eastern facade. It is a fact that there is a low value of saved energy in
the north wing in contrast to the eastern facade due to uninsulated areas and the electrical trace heating.
All participants agreed that an architectural monument with the status as a world cultural heritage
cannot be compared to a new building in term of energy saving. So, the energetic renovation will take
second seat behind heritage protection. The designers accepted a glazing with a U-value of
Ug = 2.6 W/mK. By comparison to the original windows with a U-value of Uw = 5.88 W/mK, this
still means a huge improvement of the indoor climate and the quality of occupancy. During this
renovation obtained results and technical solutions represent a progress in the renovation of steel
windows for buildings of the International Style.
-4-
2
2.1
Schillerpark Berlin
Introduction
The residential estate Schillerpark, which was built in the 1920s and 1950s by the architects Bruno
Taut and Hans Hoffmann belongs together with five other estates of the Berliner Moderne to the
UNESCO World Cultural Heritage. For this renovation, the focus was put on the development and
implementation of a sustainable energetic concept.
The estate is composed of six construction stages. The first three sections were built between 1924 and
1930, sections four to six in the years between 1954 and 1959. The blocks of flats of the construction
stages five and six possess plastered facades and were designed as 2 - room flats. After World War II
the buildings were built with a high level of transparency. Figure 5 shows the facade to the backyard
which is almost completely glazed. The window areas of the balconies consist of two layers of single
glazing, which are divided by a 50 cm wide space. This type of glazing is also called Blumenfenster
(flower window) and has a high priority for the energetic renovation as well as for the status as a
monument.
On the one hand it is a major part of the monument and on the other hand it is critical for the energetic
performance of the building. Figure 6 shows a thermal image, which has been made during the
investigation of the Technische Universitt Dresden.
The remaining windows are composite windows consisting of two panes. The external walls, which
represent the most area of the outer shell, consist of 24 cm hollow blocks and are plastered on both
sides. A brick-chippings-concrete-ceiling is the bottom of the heated volume. The floor consists of
2 cm slag wool, 3 cm screed and the floor covering. The bottom side is covered by Heraklit-panels.
The massive roof construction consists of two shells of brick-chippings-concrete with an insulation
layer between them. The lower shell was built as a ribbed slab and the upper shell with an overhang.
-5-
2.2
Variety of Solutions
For the development of an energetic concept for the residential estate Schillerpark the designers in
cooperation with the Technische Universitt Dresden both used experiences of renovations of similar
buildings and modern simulation software. Two concepts were investigated.
For concept A an insulated composite system with a thickness of 8 cm, consisting of high quality
insulation material with a conductivity of = 0.022 W/mK is used. The external pane of the
Blumenfenster is replaced by an insulating glass. The single glazing of the inner pane will not be
changed. To prevent thermal bridges, an additional insulation in the space between the two layers of
the Blumenfenster is necessary. The other windows of the flat also will be replaced by insulation glass.
The roof construction gets a subsequent insulation on the outside by 20 cm expanded polystyrene hard
foam (EPS) with a conductivity of = 0.035 W/mK. The cellar ceiling also gets a subsequent
insulation by 4 cm mineral wool. The thickness of the insulation is very small because of the low floor
heights. Thus, an expensive lowering of the floor can be avoided. A major component of the concept is
the ventilation concept. Because of a negative pressure in the flats the air will flow through the
Blumenfenster. According to the simulation, the insulation of the external walls will just save 33 % of
heating energy. The overall concept would reduce the heating load to 41 % in dependence of the start
consumption.
Concept B is a standard-concept according to the guidelines of the current building regulations
(EnEV). It contains an insulated composite system of Polystyrene with a thickness of 14 cm and a
conductivity of = 0.035 W/mK. All windows get replaced by a triple glazing. The inner pane of the
Blumenfenster is completely removed. This would cause the positive effect of a bigger floor area. To
prevent a discomfort caused by cold air downdraughts, the position of the radiators in living and
sleeping rooms has to be changed. This causes a large intervention in the substance of the monument.
Like mentioned in concept A the roof construction gets a subsequent insulation on the outside by
20 cm EPS-insulation. The cellar ceiling also gets a subsequent insulation by 10 cm mineral wool.
This causes an expensive lowering of the floor. The ventilation concept is realized in form of classic
window ventilation, which creates a few disadvantages: first uncontrolled air and humidity conditions
would be created, and second no positive effects of heat recovery would be gained.
Overall the amount of saved energy from concept B is nearly the same as in concept A. Figure 7
shows the consumption of the building at the actual state as well as the simulated heating loads for the
actual state and for the concepts A and B.
[%]
[kWh/ma]
100
120
80
96
60
72
40
48
20
24
actual state
consumption
actual state
simulation
heating load
concept A
heating load
concept B
Furthermore the simulation shows that the thermal bridge grows in the result of the reduction of the
inner pane of the Blumenfenster.
2.3
Practical Implementation
Simulations showed that concept A is advantageous for the thermal comfort in the rooms. The risk of
radiation asymmetry due to differences of temperature of the surfaces decreases. The PMV-value as an
-6-
index of comfort is in the uncritical range of -0.3 to + 0.3. Based on the results of the simulation and
under the aspect of the status as an architectural monument, the designers developed a renovation
concept. This concept is based on an altered concept A which contains ideas of concept B for special
areas.
All opaque areas with insulation get a mineral plaster, which imitates the originally plaster in its optic.
To save the appearance, a variable thickness of insulation around the building was used. The areas of
entrance and the gable wall get an insulation of EPS with a thickness of 14 cm. Thus, the windows can
be placed into the layer of insulation and the originally depth of the reveals can be preserved. The
facade with the balconies is isolated with a high quality and expensive Resol-hard foam with a
thickness of 8 cm. This minimizes the change of the geometry of the building. The entrance element
remains in the original style. The filigree steel profile construction of the staircase has to be preserved.
Therefore, corroded parts must be derusted and repaired. To carry the new insulation glazing, the steel
profiles had to be reinforced with additional steel profiles on the inside. The whole facade must be
placed flush with the new insulated external wall.
In the area of the balconies the ends of the balustrades and the partition walls have to be shortened in
the thickness of the insulated composite system. All windows must be replaced but the color, profiles
and geometry should be the same as in the original windows. The single glazing of the entrance is
replaced by a triple glazing and profiles with greater dimensions. The Blumenfenster remain in their
original type. Only the outer pane is replaced by an insulated glazing. Figure 8 shows the view of the
balconies before and after the renovation. The major difference is the color of the parapets, which was
changed to the original color.
Before renovation
After renovation
To realize the ventilation concept apertures were installed in the frame of the outer pane of the
Blumenfenster. So, the outside air is heated in the space between the two layers of the Blumenfenster,
flows into the room and is removed through the chimney.
2.4
Results
During the renovation of the residential estate Schillerpark, one flat was modified to the renovation
concept under supervision of the Technische Universitt Dresden. Especially the ventilation concept
was under investigation, because it has a great influence on the thermal behavior of the building. With
the help of a Blower-Door-Test, the air flow inside the flat was investigated. The emphasis was
primarily on the inflow in the area of the Blumenfenster. The test also was used to validate the
simulations of thermal comfort which are shown in figure 9.
-7-
A measurement of the flow velocity confirmed a slow and evenly inflow of the air. The maximum
speed was unpleasant, which saves the user from unpleasant drafts. The measurements confirmed the
efficiency of the ventilation system and the results from the simulation by the Technische Universitt
Dresden. When the renovation works will be finished a controlled commissioning with an
optimization of the systems will start. A comparison to the consumption before and after the
renovation cannot be done because of a missing billing of the operation costs.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Winfried Brenne of Winfried Brenne Architekten, Berlin as well as Mark
Mathijssen of MHB, Herveld (NL), and the staff of GWT-TUD, Dresden and Stiftung Bauhaus
Dessau for the good and professional cooperation during the renovation of the Bauhaus-building.
For the renovation of the estate Schillerpark the authors wish to thank Winfried Brenne of Winfried
Brenne Architekten, Berlin, Prof. Wolfgang Richter of Technische Universitt Dresden, Claudia
Templin of Berliner Bau- und Wohnungsgenossenschaft von 1892 eG, Hans Timm of Hans Timm
Fensterbau, Dr. Anna Odenthal of the Landesdenkmalamt (State Monument Office), Berlin and Sabine
Djahanschah of Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt (DBU) who grandly supported the project.
Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8: Winfried Brenne Architekten. Figures 6, 7, 9: Technische Universitt Dresden.
References
[1] Brenne, W. et al.: Innovative Stahlfensterkonstruktionen fr das Weltkulturerbe Bauhaus Dessau, in:
Weller, B.; Tasche, S. (eds.): Glasbau 2012. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 2012, pp. 348-363.
[2] Weller, B.; Jakubetz, S.; Fahrion, M.-S.: Fassaden der Nachkriegsmoderne Konstruktion und Sanierung,
in: Gisbertz, O. (ed.): Nachkriegsmoderne kontrovers Positionen der Gegenwart. Jovis, Berlin, 2012, pp.
166-177.
[3] Jakubetz, S.: Denkmal und Energie Bewertung von energieeinsparenden Manahmen an Baudenkmalen,
Dissertation, Dresden, 2012.
[4] Weller, B.; Fahrion, M.-S.; Jakubetz, S.: Denkmal und Energie, Vieweg+Teubner, Wiesbaden, 2012.
-8-
Summary
A new principle for pressure reduction of the zone underneath the ground floor construction of
prefabricated lightweight elements were introduced and demonstrated. The principle was
demonstrated on a ground slab floor, constructed of a concrete slab on top of a thermal insulation
layer above a capillary-breaking layer mounted on stable ground. The thermal insulation and the
capillary-breaking layer consisted of a rigid insulation material. The novel solution introduced
integrates the capillary-breaking layer and a radonsuctioning layer in one element. The novel
solution introduces the radon-suction layer as a horizontal grid of air ducts with low pressure to
catch air and radon from the ground. The new principle was shown to be effective in preventing
radon from polluting the indoor air by introducing low pressure in the horizontal grid of air ducts.
A pressure lower than the pressure inside the building must be introduced. The element was
integrated into the insulation material of the ground slab floor. The element and the insulation
material were made of expanded polystyrene.
Introduction
Radon is a radioactive noble gas that develops as a result of the decay chains of uranium and thorium
(Clavensj 2004). When radon decays into different radon daughters, it generates alpha, beta and
gamma radiation. Radiation is harmful to human beings. Radon originates in the ground and is the
primary source of natural radiation in most countries [1]. Therefore the geological character of the
ground, on which a building is situated, sets the level for how high the radon concentration of the
indoor air can become. Radon mainly penetrates into a building by air infiltration from the ground
through cracks or other unintended openings in the ground construction [2].
In 2009, the World Health Organization, WHO, recommended that requirements to the accepted
maximum radon concentration in the indoor air should be tightened from 200 Bq/m3 to 100 Bq/m3.
The new recommendations are a result of WHOs evaluation that radon is responsible for 3-14% of
lung cancer incidents, depending on the average radon exposure in different countries [3]. These
results show radon as the second-largest cause of lung cancer; smoking is still the principal cause.
Radon exposure must be taken seriously in the fight against radon-induced lung cancer due to the large
number of people that are exposed daily in buildings and especially in residential buildings [3], as a
large number of residential buildings are built with a slab on ground. An investigation shows that if
people spend their whole life in a building with an average radon concentration in the indoor air
exceeding 200 Bq/m3, their risk of getting lung cancer is higher than 1%. This is far too high and
higher than what in other contexts is an acceptable single-factor risk [4]. Ensuring a good quality of
the indoor air includes a focus on radon and methods to control the radon concentration in the indoor
air.
In 2010, the requirements recommended by WHO were implemented in the Danish Building
Regulations. The Danish Building Regulations now stipulate a maximum radon concentration of 100
-1-
Bq/m3 in the indoor air in all new buildings. For existing buildings, simple and cheap actions are
recommended if the concentration ranges between 100 Bq/m3 and 200 Bq/m3 in the indoor air;
however, if the radon concentration exceeds 200 Bq/m3, immediate intervention is necessary and more
efficient efforts and improvements are recommended in order to lower the concentration of radon in
the indoor air [5]. The first radon provisions were introduced in the Danish Building Regulations in
1995 [6].
Solutions to prevent radon from polluting the indoor air are traditionally based on a combination of
three different principles: i) establishing a skin against radon by using airtight materials and
membranes, ii) introducing pressure reduction of the zone underneath the ground floor construction,
and iii) providing effective dilution of the indoor air with outdoor air. Of these the principle ii),
pressure reduction, is considered by far the most efficient. The paper presents a new prefabricated
lightweight element designed to reduce and control the pressure reduction of the zone underneath the
ground floor construction. The effect of the element was demonstrated on a ground slab floor, which
was constructed of a concrete slab on top of a thermal insulation layer above a capillary-breaking layer
mounted on stable ground. The thermal insulation and the capillary-breaking layer consisted of a
traditional rigid insulation material of expanded polystyrene, EPS. The new element integrates the
capillary-breaking layer and the pressure reduction zone, denoted the radonsuctioning layer, in one
element. The novel solution introduces a horizontal grid of air ducts, the radon-suction layer, with low
pressure to catch air and radon from the ground. Results showed the pressure needed in the air ducts
underneath the ground floor construction as a function of the pressure inside. The low pressure
prevents radon from polluting the indoor air. Simulations were made by using a finite difference
program. The element that was made of EPS was designed to be handled on site by one man. The
element was integrated into the insulation material of the ground slab floor.
Solutions to prevent radon from polluting the indoor air and to control radon concentration in the
indoor air are based on a combination of three different principles: 1) A layer protecting against radon
infiltration established by using airtight materials and membranes, 2) Pressure reduction of the zone
underneath the ground floor construction, and 3) Effective dilution of the indoor air with outdoor air.
The three principles are shown in Figure 1.
2) Pressure lowering
3) Ventilation
1) Protective layer
Figure 1: By combining three principles, the radon penetration and concentration indoors can be controlled. 1)
Establishing a protective layer that prevents air infiltration from the ground. 2) Lowering the pressure difference
over the floor construction of the building facing the ground. 3) Diluting the indoor air in the building with
outdoor air.
-2-
Pressure Lowering
The most effective way of preventing air that can contain radon to infiltrate from the ground into a
building is considered to be a radon-suction system [7]. The principle is that the pressure of the zone
underneath the ground slab floor of the building is lowered. The pressure difference can be up to 10
MPa between the interior of the building and underneath the ground slab floor. This pressure
difference can be equalised by establishing a connection between the atmosphere and a highly
permeable layer underneath the building. In such a construction, the pressure difference, over the floor
construction of the building facing the ground, will decrease and result in a decrease of the amount of
ground air that can infiltrate. The radon-suction system can either be passive or active, i.e. creating
suction through the stack effect only or creating suction by means of mechanical ventilation. A pipe
can be led directly from the radon-suction layer and above the roof. Suction is introduced through the
pipe to the radon-suction layer.
Theory
The Heat2 [8] finite difference program was used for the pressure equalisation calculations. It was
assumed that the pressure difference was so low that the air would not be compressed. Additionally, it
was assumed that the speed of the air through the materials of the ground slab floor was in the range of
a laminar airflow. Furthermore, the individual materials were porous and homogeneous. Under these
conditions, air flowing through a porous material can mathematically be described in the same way as
a stationary thermal conductance problem. A stationary thermal conductance problem is described by:
T T T
kz
0
kx
ky
x x y y z z
(1)
Where,
T is the temperature
kx, ky, kz are the thermal conductance in the x, y, z direction, respectively.
The differential equation, Equation (1) expresses that the total effect that is supplied to and removed
from a control volume is equal to zero.
The result of a thermal conductance problem is a temperature distribution within the analysed element.
From the temperature distribution the effect that needs to be removed or absorbed through the borders,
to maintain the stationary temperature distribution can be determined. In the same way, the air
pressure distribution can be calculated and the amount of air that needs to be removed or absorbed
through the borders, to maintain the stationary pressure distribution, can be determined for porous
materials.
Using the finite difference program Heat2 [8] for air-pressure calculation, the temperature was
substituted by the air pressure, the thermal conductance was substituted by the air permeability and the
effect was substituted by the amount of air per time. A stationary air pressure problem described by
Equation (1), then expresses that the amount of air that is brought in and the amount of air brought out
of the control volume is equal to zero.
Using the Heat2 program and a PC for the pressure analyses, the input data for the thermal
conductance values were substituted by the air-permeability values and the prescribed temperatures
were substituted by the prescribed air-pressure values. Stationary-state calculations were carried out
reaching air-pressure equilibrium between the air pressure indoors and the air pressure in the ground.
For the state of pressure equilibrium, the amount of air per time that needs to be removed or absorbed
through the upper surface of the concrete slab facing the indoor environment was determined.
-3-
Usually the air permeability of a material is given as the resistance known as the Z-factor with the unit
(h m2 Pa)/g describing a specific building component of a specific thickness. For these calculations,
the air permeability must be determined as the reciprocal value of the Z-value multiplied by the
thickness of the building component.
The highly permeable and capillary braking layer underneath the building often consists of i.e.
shingles, pebbles or coated ceramic pellets but can also be a layer of EPS with a horizontal grid of air
ducts.
5.1 Material
The prefabricated element was made of EPS to form an element that could be used as the capillarybreaking layer and the radonsuctioning layer integrated in one element. The element was produced as
one element through a production including an injection moulding process. The EPS is produced from
a mixture of about 5-10% gaseous blowing agent (most commonly pentane or carbon dioxide) and 9095% polystyrene by weight. The solid plastic is expanded into a foam by means of heat, usually steam.
The polystyrene is filled with trapped air, which gives it low thermal conductivity, [9]. The air
permeability was 0.0144 g/(m h KPa).
5.2 Design
The prefabricated element was produced as units of 600 mm in length and 400 mm in width and 50
mm in thickness. A horizontal grid was cut out and removed from the upper surface of the element,
thus creating air ducts 30 mm in width and 30 mm deep with a centre distance of 100 mm. At the
border towards the upper surface of the element, an air duct 15 mm in width and 30 mm deep was cut
out and removed. The element is shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
30 mm
100 mm
30 mm
-4-
15 mm
50 mm
Figure 3: The EPS element used as the integrated capillary-breaking layer and radonsuctioning layer of a
traditional ground slab floor. The ground slab floor was constructed of a concrete slab on top of a thermal
insulation layer above the element, that works as the integrated capillary-breaking layer and the radon-suction
layer, mounted on stable ground.
Modelling
Calculations of the airflow through the ground slab floor were carried out by using a PC and the finite
difference program Heat2 [8] version 7.0. Calculations were stationary-state calculations with a
constant air pressure indoors and a constant air pressure in the ground. Heat2 [8] was used for
calculating the amount of air passing through the upper surface of the concrete slab, using a constant
air pressure above the concrete slab representing the air pressure inside and a constant air pressure in
the air ducts of the element combined with a constant air pressure in the soil underneath the ground
slab floor. The air pressure in the soil underneath the ground slab floor was 101 328.6 Pa. The Ground
slab floor is shown in Figure 4 and the model used for the calculations is shown in Figure 5.
100 mm
300 mm
30 mm
100 mm
30 mm
50 mm
15 mm
Figure 4: The ground slab floor constructed of a concrete slab on top of a thermal insulation layer above the new
element. The combined capillary-breaking layer and the radon-suction layer are shown as the new integrated
element.
-5-
Figure 5: The model used for calculations. The model includes a concrete slab on top of a thermal insulation
layer above the new element mounted on stable ground. The horizontal grid of air ducts are shown as square
units that are numbered 1:1 to 20:1. Usually the top-soil layer is removed from an area covering the area of the
building. The excavated area is then covered with gravel to level the excavated area. Included in the model were
50 mm of gravel and 100 mm of soil. The model was 2.0 m in length.
Results
For the calculations the air permeability of a the concrete, the soil and the gravel were 0.018 g/(m h
KPa), 0.36 g/(m h KPa) and 0.576 g/(m h KPa), respectively. The atmospheric pressure was 1 atm
equal to 101 325 Pa. For the calculations the pressure inside were 101 321.25 Pa, 101 323.24 Pa and
101 324.85 Pa, respectively in combination with a number of different pressure levels in the air ducts
of the new element, between 101 325.00 Pa and 101 320.00 Pa. The thickness of the concrete and the
layer of thermal insulation were 100 mm and 300 mm, respectively. The thermal insulation was EPS.
Results are shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Amount of air passing through the upper surface of the concrete slab in milligram per hour each square
metre. A positive number for the amount of air represents air moving through the ground slab floor towards the
air ducts.
-6-
A new prefabricated lightweight element that can be used to reduce the air pressure in the zone
underneath the ground floor construction has been introduced. The new element is made of expanded
polystyrene, EPS. The element is produced as one integrated element consisting of units of 600 mm in
length and 400 mm in width and 50 mm in thickness. A horizontal grid of air ducts is cut out from the
upper surface of the element, thus creating air ducts 30 mm in width and 30 mm deep with a centre
distance of 100 mm. At the border of the upper surface of the element, air ducts 15 mm wide and 30
mm deep are cut out and removed. The element is designed to be handled on site by one man.
Traditionally, a ground slab floor is used that is constructed of a concrete slab on top of a thermal
insulation layer above a capillary-breaking layer mounted on stable ground. The thermal insulation
layer consists of a rigid insulation material. The capillary-breaking layer consists of either a layer of a
rigid insulation material on a thin layer of gravel used to level the excavated area or a layer of i.e.
shingles, pebbles or coated ceramic pellets. The new element makes it possible to combine the
capillary-breaking layer and the radonsuctioning layer in one integrated element of EPS. The most
effective way of preventing radon from infiltrating from the ground into the indoor air of a building is
to lower the air pressure of the zone underneath the ground floor construction. By lowering the air
pressure of the zone underneath the ground floor construction, the pressure difference over the floor
construction can be lowered. A pipe can be led directly from the radon-suction layer and above the
roof. Suction is introduced to the radon-suction layer through the pipe. The suction can either be
passive or active i.e. creating suction through the stack effect only or creating suction by means of
mechanical ventilation. A horizontal grid of air ducts in a layer of EPS is shown to be able to be used
as, a permeable layer that can be used as a radon-suction layer underneath a floor construction of a
building. The novel element can be used to lower the pressure difference over the floor construction of
the building facing the ground, and in this way prevent ground air from infiltrating from the ground,
and additionally prevent the risk of radon polluting the indoor air.
Calculations of the airflow through a ground slab floor were carried out by using a PC and a finite
difference program. Mounted on stable ground, the ground slab floor was constructed of a concrete
slab on top of a thermal insulation layer above the new element that works as the combined capillarybreaking layer and the radon-suction layer. Stationary-state calculations with a constant indoor
pressure and a constant pressure in the ground were made. Calculating the amount of air passing
through the upper surface of the concrete slab shows that the air pressure in the air ducts of the radonsuction layer needs to be lower than the pressure inside to prevent radon and ground air to infiltrate
from the ground through the floor construction. Figure 6 shows that the amount of air passing through
the upper surface of the concrete slab is approximately zero for an indoor air pressure equal to 101
321.25 Pa, 101 323.24 Pa and 101 324.85 Pa and an air pressure in the air ducts equal to 101 320.28
Pa, 101 322.53 Pa and 101 324.35 Pa, respectively for an outdoor air pressure of 101 325 Pa. The
needed pressure difference over the ground floor construction decreases as the air pressure inside gets
nearer the outdoor air pressure.
If the pressure underneath the building is lower than the pressure inside, air could be drawn from the
inside. This might be a concern if there is a risk of warm, moist air being drawn down through the
floor construction, where it is cooled down in organic material resulting in risk of mould growth.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the Danish association for the Plastics Industry, EPS section.
-7-
10
References
[1] Danish Enterprise and Construction Authority. 2007. Radon and Dwellings, in Danish. (Erhvervs- og
Byggestyrelsen. 2007. Radon og enfamiliehuse). Copenhagen.15 p.
[2] Lehmann R., Landfermann H., Junkert A. and Schppler U. (ed.). 2001. Radon-Handbuch Deutschland.
(The radon handbook, in German). Bundesministerium fr Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit,
Bonn. Bundesamt fr Strahlenschutz, Salzgitter.
[3] Zeeb H. and Shannoun F. (ed). 2009. WHO Handbook on indoor radon a public health perspective.
World Health Organization. Geneva. 94 p.
[4] Andersen C. E., Bergse N. C., Brendstrup J., Damkjr A., Gravesen P. & Ulbak K. 1997. Radon 95: En
undersgelse af metoder til reduktion af radonkoncentrationen i danske enfamiliehuse. (Examination of
measures to reduce the concentration of radon in Danish dwellings, in Danish). Roskilde. 108 p.
[5] Danish Enterprise and Construction Authority. 2010. Danish Building Regulations 2010, in Danish.
(Erhvervs- og Byggestyrelsen. 2010. Bygningsreglement 2010). Copenhagen. 253 p.
[6] Danish Enterprise and Construction Authority. 1995. Danish Building Regulations 1995, in Danish.
(Bygge- og Boligstyrelsen. 1995. Bygningsreglement 1995). Copenhagen. 203 p.
[7] Valdbjrn Rasmussen T. 2010. SBi-anvisning 233: Radonsikring af nye bygninger. (SBi-instructions 233:
Measures prenting radon to penetrate into new buildings; in Danish). Danish Building Research InstituteAalborg University. Hrsholm. Denmark. 44 p.
[8] HEAT2 - Heat transfer in two dimensions. BLOCON SWEDEN, Lund Group for Computational Building
Physics, Department of Building Physics, Iliongrnden 159, S-224 72 Lund, Sweden, www.blocon.se,
www.buildingphysics.com, http://www.buildingphysics.com/index-filer/heat2.htm
[9] Petersen, W. 1986. Understanding polystyrene insulation. (Dow Chemical Co, Midland, MI, USA) Source:
Construction Specifier, v 39, n 11, Nov, 1986, p 110-114.
-8-
Summary
The Faade FB720 project is the result of research funded by the Spanish Governments Centre for
Industrial Technological Development (Centro para el Desarrollo Tecnolgico Industrial, CDTI)
(IDI-20090761). The aim of the project was to design and develop a lightweight, modular, unitized
faade with low environmental impact and high energy efficiency, mainly for use in the Iberian
Peninsula (temperate climates). The basic technical strategies to achieve this aim were as follows:
Reduce the consumption of building materials
Use renewable or recycled materials
Optimize the faade structure and the transparent surfaces as elements to control solar
radiation.
Keywords: prototype, lightweight modular faade, life cycle analysis, case study
Introduction
The architectural design of the faade is based on a proposal by the company b720 arquitectos, with
the participation of various companies and technology centres acting as consultants. The Universitat
Politcnica de Catalunya (UPC) provided advice on the life cycle analysis, in collaboration with the
environmental consultancy Societat Orgnica. The consultancy JG Ingenieros was involved in the
thermal and light evaluation. The characteristics of the new FB720 faade were verified by assessing
their environmental impact in all the life cycle phases. This was achieved by means of energy
simulations of the use phase and real trials carried out using several prototypes. While these processes
were carried out, a series of rectifications and adaptations were made to optimize the design.
The results of the verification were validated by comparing the FB720 faade with a standard,
lightweight, modular, quality faade. It was found that the energy consumption and the CO2 emissions
due to the production of materials, transport, construction, maintenance and dismantling were
substantially lower for the FB720 faade, with improvements of over 50% attained. With respect to
the light and thermal evaluation, the energy saving in the areas of the building that are immediately
next to the faade was approximately 34% in the most favourable cases. The project has not been
published yet and was completed in December 2011.
-1-
Figure 1: Photographs of different prototypes that are versions of the FB720 faade system
Technical Characteristics
The thickness of the faade itself was used as solar protection, by placing the strong
substructure (uprights) towards the exterior.
Alternative materials with less environmental impact were incorporated.
A system of variable solar protection glass that has been developed specially for this project
was incorporated.
The combination of these strategies provides an opportunity to increase the visibility of actions to
improve sustainability that are promoted by architectural approaches. The final result is a building
solution that is competitive due to its initial costs, which are appropriate for mid- to high-range
projects; the impact of the built area, which is lower than that of other double skin faades; and the use
of passive means of climate control.
2.2 Depth and Protection
One of the main characteristics of the FB720 system is that the uprights and crossbeams have been
moved to the exterior. Although this approach was used in the first curtain walls, in contemporary
systems the substructure has tended to be situated preferentially towards the inner face, to obtain better
continuity of thermal protection and impermeability. Due to current technical requirements, the
following design adaptations had to be made to recover the exterior position of the uprights:
The assembly and replacement of glazing is expected to be carried out from the inside.
Thermal break elements are positioned in alignment with the interior face of the frames.
The joints between wider panels are on the inner face to enable anchor to be fastened on the
central part of the frame.
-2-
The aim of moving the substructure frames to the exterior is to provide better solar protection for the
faade, by taking advantage of the shadow that it casts on the plane of the wall. This is really a
reinterpretation of a design that always been used in architecture: thick walls and deep openings. The
result is a lightweight faade in which the main feature is depth and shadow, rather than glass and its
reflections. Improved solar values can be obtained through an appropriate substructure design. For
example, a faade located at latitude 41 (Barcelona), with uprights placed every 60 cm, the total
incident radiation is reduced during the summer by approximately 53% if the faade is south facing,
38% if it is south-west or south-east facing and 27% if it is west facing.
As an additional advantage, the external position of the substructure provides an exterior preenvironment that forms part of the thickness of the faade and could be used for various purposes.
Thus, additional sheets could be installed over the frame to create ventilated air chambers in opaque
modules or complementary solar control systems could be hung in front of the glazed areas. All of
these would form part of the original thickness of the faade. Other technical devices could be
incorporated, such as solar collections, photovoltaic panels, large format screens for transmitting
information and even plant modules.
Figure 2: Detailed view of a horizontal cross-section and view in perspective of a possible architectural
configuration of the entire FB720 faade system
Likewise, alternative materials can be incorporated into the infill panels in opaque modules to reduce
the environmental impact. Examples of materials include: composites of natural fibres (sheeps wool,
cotton), sheets of recycled textile waste, boards comprised of reused waste from carpets and laminated
plasterboards containing recycled paper fibres. This range of alternative materials means that the
FB720 construction system can be adapted to the financial, cultural and industrial context of each
building design. Therefore, it is not a closed solution, but an approach that is open to the
opportunities that arise in each case.
3.1 Objective
Numerous variants of the FB720 faade can be constructed as a result of the combination of different
materials, the types of glass, the proportion of transparent area and the distance between uprights. On
the basis of a preliminary design created by the team of architects, the following questions were drawn
up:
Is it possible to carry out a summary LCA of different versions of the same development of a
new curtain wall called FB720? The versions are based on different combinations of materials
(exterior uprights, thermal insulation, interior walls, etc.), types of glass (clear, seasonal, low
emissivity, etc.), proportions of the transparent part of the wall (75% and 37%) and separation
between the axes of the uprights (60 cm and 120 cm), all for a 50-year life cycle.
Which of the possible configurations of the FB720 faade leads to the greatest reduction in
environmental impact?
How does the LCA of the new FB720 faade compare with that of a standard modular curtain
wall (MCW) and that of a standard traditional facade (TF)?
To answer these questions appropriately, an LCA advisory team was formed by the UPCs
Architecture Technology and Innovation Laboratory (Laboratori dinnovaci i Tecnologa a
lArquitectura, LiTA) and the Societat Orgnica consultancy company, which is made up of PhD
graduates trained at the UPC. The environmental assessment that is presented here refers only to the
environmental impacts of the cycle of materials during the useful life of the faade. The environmental
analysis of the faades thermal and light behaviour as the skin of the building was carried out by
another technical team and is not described in this paper.
TF (cross section)
3.2 Method
The method used in this case was a LCA with a shortened procedure, considering that the aim was to
support the team in their decision making. The following considerations were taken into account:
Extraction and manufacture of materials. The study confirmed that the use of natural materials
with few additional industrial processes is the option that leads to the lowest environmental
impact. However, some factors, such as the distance between uprights (the further apart the
better) and the full/empty ratio (the higher the better) are also essential to achieving the best
environmental results. The materials used in all of the FB720 versions that have the greatest
environmental impact, even in the best design options and taking into account that the
amounts employed are significantly lower than in conventional faades, continue to be
aluminium (even when 100% recycled aluminium is used), glass and synthetic materials
(joints, spacers between glass sheets, etc.).
Transport. The raw materials or materials that are already incorporated into the faade
modules are transported over considerable distances and may even travel part of a route more
than once. Therefore, it is essential to consider the flows of materials resulting from the
location of prefabricated faade workshops, materials suppliers and the building sites. Another
extremely important aspect is to optimize the load capacity of the mode of transport. For
example, lorries are not always at full capacity on journeys between the warehouse and the
building site. Finally, we should consider using modes of transport that are more efficient than
road transport, taking into account the ratio between kg transported/energy consumed. One
option is rail transport.
Construction. The differences in the impacts of prefabricated and in situ systems are most
evident in this phase. This is due to the fact that many operations are brought together and
made efficient in prefabricated systems. As a result, there is less use of machinery in the
workshop and on the building site, less direct consumption of materials (which does not mean
that the total materials requirement, counted from the extraction of raw materials, is also
lower) and less waste generation. In addition, waste that is generated in the workshop is easier
to classify and consequently a higher proportion can be recycled. However, packaging
materials (which become waste as soon as they reach a building site) also represent a
considerable fraction of the energy and emissions cost of construction systems: up to 30% and
20% of the total in prefabricated systems (FB720 and MCW) and in situ (TF) respectively.
Maintenance. In this 50-year phase (35 initial years of maintenance and a second period of 15
years, once the first period has been completed and the walls replaced), the differences
between the faade systems are again notable. In other phases, the ranges of impact values
enable us to group the performance of the prefabricated faades FB720 and MCW together,
and place the in situ TF in another group. However, in the maintenance phase, the order of
environmental performance, from best to worst, is FB720, followed by TF and finally by
MCW. There were considerable gaps between the values for the first and second positions (1.8
and 2.6 times greater impacts) and between the first and third positions (between 1.9 and 3.5
times greater impacts). This is mainly due to the completely different strategies for the
materials in each of the prefabricated options: natural renewable materials and recycled
industrial materials that are separable and recoverable in the case of FB720, and industrial
materials, few of which are recycled, that often cannot be separated or recovered in the case of
MCW. As a result, the replacement of the wall at 35 years in the second case has an impact
equivalent to the construction of a curtain wall for the first time.
Demolition/dismantling. There are variations in the mechanical work required in the
operations of demolition and dismantling. It is much more intensive in the first case, due to the
force of striking and breaking the faade as well as the additional equipment required to move
machines, workers and waste. In addition, each one of the faade systems differs in the
amount of waste that is generated at the end of its life cycle. The dismantling of faade FB720
enables the separation of reusable or recyclable materials, as this was one of its design
premises. In contrast, the dismantling of faade MCW and the demolition of the TF faade do
not enable resources to be recovered in the same way, as they were not designed for this.
Therefore, the loading, transport and final waste management operations that are needed for
these two faades make their environmental impact higher than that of FB720.
-7-
Extraction and manufacture of materials phase: the proposal was changing some of the 100% recycled
aluminium frames for laminated wooden strips. The technical details were redefined (Fig. 6). We used
as a hypothesis the A/II/37/120 configuration of the wall and proposed the replacement of up to 2.2
kg/m2 of aluminium with 3.07 kg/m2 of laminated wood. This resulted in a reduction in the energy
used to produce the materials of 65 MJ/m2, compared to the original configuration. This represents
4.5% of the 1447.5 MJ/m2 of energy consumption of all the materials in the original configuration of
this faade. This may appear to be a negligible energy saving, but it represents over 6 times the energy
used in the construction and dismantling of the faade (between 11 and 12 MJ/m2).
Transport phase: the proposal was to situate the faade manufacture workshop as close as possible to
the areas of large cities in which there is a potential demand for installing curtain walls in new
buildings or in renovations. The aim of this measure is to reduce the fuel consumed by the lorries that
travel between the factory and building sites. This would reduce the energy consumed and the
associated CO2 emissions. We considered reducing the distances in the study (by moving the faade
manufacture workshop from Olot, which is 750 km from the building site, to Madrid, where one of the
hypothetical building sites is located). This is a reduction in the order of 10 to 1. In other words, the
journey would be only 75 km if the manufacturing workshop was situated in Toledo and the building
site in Madrid. The initial situation results in diesel consumption of 2.44 litres/m2 or 102.71 MJ/m2.
If the journey from the workshop to the building site was 75 km instead of 751 km, the diesel
consumption would be 0.74 litres/m2 or 31.31 MJ/m2. The energy reduction attained is 71.40 MJ m2,
which is 69.5% of the total energy in the transport phase.
-8-
Construction phase: the proposal was that the packaging materials should be reusable and 100%
recyclable. The installation of the FB720 system hardly generates construction waste, as the building
work only involves anchoring the wall to the structure of the building. Therefore, the main waste is the
materials used to package the faade panels. These materials have two main impacts: during their
production (extraction-manufacture) and their final management as waste (separation, loading,
transport and final treatment). In terms of energy consumption, the production of the packaging
materials that are used (mainly polythene, expanded polystyrene, wood and steel) represent 3.78
MJ/m2. The management of the waste generated by this disposable packaging has an energy impact of
0.51 MJ/m2. The energy saving brought about by employing a reusable, recyclable packaging system
is estimated at 80% of this consumption, taking into account a minimum of five uses and complete
recycling (which would avoid final waste management, but not the energy consumed loading and
transport processes). Under the previous hypothesis, the energy consumption in this phase could be
reduced to 0.78 MJ/m2.
Maintenance phase: the proposal was to increase the useful life of the entire faade from 35 to 50
years. In the initial hypothesis of this study and on the basis of existing market knowledge on the
durability of curtain walls, we considered that almost the entire faade would need to be replaced at 35
years. This is the case of curtain walls constructed in the 1970s, whose main faults are a loss of water
and air tightness due to the deterioration of joints, and little thermal insulation or solar protection.
However, we still do not know the durability of recently manufactured curtain walls. They could be
more durable if the flexible materials used in the joints are found to have a longer useful life. The total
replacement of the FB720 faade (activities of removal, loading and transport, as well as identical
operations for the new faade) represents an energy consumption of 442.91 MJ/m2 (if we assume that
a certain proportion of materials are recovered and that only the part proportion to 15 years of useful
life is affected, i.e. from year 35 to year 50 in this study). In contrast, if we manage to increase the
useful life of the faade to 50 years (this durability is potentially attainable in all the materials except
for the joints and the sealing chords) and resealing is planned at 15 years, which is taken into account
in the calculation, and again at 30 years, the energy impact is just 0.027 MJ/m2 (taking into account
the contribution of the sealing material and the additional construction equipment needed to apply this
material up on the faade). Therefore, the energy saving could reach almost 100% of the impact of this
phase.
-9-
Dismantling: the proposal was to redesign the glazed panels with air chambers in order to be
completely disassembled and recycled. Currently, waste management is complex for various types of
glass including glazing with air chambers, laminated glass, and printed, inked, coated and silkscreened glass. The composition and type of joints between the different types of glass that make up
the panels are not reversible, which means that the original materials cannot be recovered in a state
that enables them to be recycled in a technically and financially simple manner. Consequently, much
of the glass that is used in construction is not recycled but downcycled (it is ground up and used as a
component of lower quality compounds). The aim of the proposed measure is to avoid two
environmental impacts: that due to downcycling (which could be avoided by dismantling and selective
separation of the glass components) and that due to the production of new materials (which would be
avoided if the existing glazing could be reused or recycled). Even when we take into account that most
of the materials would be recovered to be reused or recycled, the environmental impact of disassembly
in terms of energy is 10.99 MJ/m2. If we exclude the operations of disassembly, loading and transport
to a recycling centre where the panels would be taken apart, the environmental impact that could be
avoided with this measure is 0.15 MJ/m2 corresponding to waste management at a dump (the joints
and the glass panels with an air chamber) and 0.25 MJ/m2 corresponding to transport from the site
where the faade module is disassembled to the dump. In addition, up to 204.5 MJ/m2 would be saved
due to the reuse of the glass (assuming 50% of the total is reused), as this would reduce the need to
produce new material.
Sheets of glass
Air chamber
1
2
Spacer bar
First seal
Drying molecular sieve
Second Seal
3
4
5
6
Figure 10: Detailed view of glazing with an air chamber and the process of removing a seal
Impact of the proposals to improve the life cycle: figure 11 shows the combined positive impacts of
the different proposals to improve environmental performance, in absolute and relative terms (taking
into account total energy consumption for the FB720 faade of 2,278.08 MJ/m2 throughout the entire
life cycle).
- 10 -
Figure 11: Table of the combined positive impacts of the various improvements proposed, in absolute and
relative terms
Although the degree of difficulty in implementing the various proposed improvement measures varies
(relocating a faade manufacturing workshop is not as complicated as developing new packaging),
there are sufficient opportunities to make improvements that have a positive impact. When these
measures are combined, they could lead to savings of up to a third of the total initial energy.
Barcelona, December 2011
- 11 -
Summary
Several post-occupancy-evaluations of Passive Houses (PH) have been performed by BOKU
Vienna in order to assess user satisfaction and real energy performance. This paper is based on
these studies and investigates the environmental life cycle performance of PH compared with Low
Energy Houses (LEH). Scenarios for the insulation thickness and for insulation materials have
been calculated for the Viennese housing estate Mhlweg-C. The crucial research questions were:
How much environmental benefit can actually be achieved by the PH standard? How much impact
has the electrical energy consumption for mechanical ventilation? How much additional ecological
effort is needed for the building skin in PH standard and when does it pay back? What are the
effects of different insulation materials on the life cycle performance and payback time?
The results show about 10 % to 20 % environmental improvement by the PH standard compared to
LEH standard. This concerns nonrenewable primary energy and greenhouse gas emissions for the
whole life cycle of residential buildings. Mechanical ventilation systems improve the
environmental performance (about 5 %) and also have further benefits e.g. higher indoor air
quality. The additional ecological effort to produce, maintain and dispose PH-insulation is about
1 % for EPS-skins. But the environmental improvement for the whole life cycle is about 2 %. The
environmental payback time for PH-skins with EPS is about 6 to 10 years compared with LEHskins. Shorter payback times can be achieved by alternative insulation materials e.g. mineral wool,
wood fiber or flax boards. Wood fiber insulation improves the environmental life cycle
performance by about 5 %.
Keywords: Life Cycle Assessment, LCA, Passive House, Low Energy House, ETICS,
insulation, Mhlweg
Introduction
Austria has the most useable living area in Passive House (PH) standard per resident worldwide and
Vienna has the most PH-area in housing estates of all towns worldwide. The biggest PH (Roschgasse
20) was realized in Vienna and currently the biggest PH construction site Eurogate is located in
Vienna. [1]
Until 2015 the PH-Standard as target value for all subsidized residential buildings in Austria is sought
for. In 2008, 7 % of all new buildings in Austria were constructed in PH standard. The actual
performance of PH was investigated by post-occupancy-evaluation and energy monitoring. Housing
estates in Vienna (VIE) [1] and in the urban development project solarCity Linz-Pichling (SCP) [2]
were analyzed. The energy monitoring covered 2665 apartments in total with 521 apartments (10
buildings) in PH-standard. The actual energy consumption of PH was compared to a selected group of
housing estates of the same construction period (2003-2008). Many of the reference buildings already
-1-
comply with the LEH-standard. The results indicated that the planned target values for space heating
had been achieved. The target-actual-comparison based on measured energy consumption showed
good matches in general for all housing estates. The consumption of useful energy was about on the
same level as the calculated demand values for space heating considering an actual indoor air
temperature of 23 C and actual climate data. [1], [2], [4]
The PH standard saved about 30 kWh/(m.a) delivered energy on average compared with conventional
housing estates of the same construction period [1]. Many of the conventional reference buildings
already comply with LEH standard because of legal regulations for subsidized residential buildings.
Nevertheless, critical voices claim that PH might have a worse life cycle performance than LEH e.g.
due to higher electrical energy consumption for the ventilation system or due to higher ecological
effort for the production of the building skin. Therefore the main questions of this paper were:
Methodology
CO2 emissions*
g/kWh
Electrical energy
2.15
617
Fossil gas
1.17
236
* The OIB directive [3] for the calculation of the energy certificate of buildings uses
CO2-emissions instead of CO2-equivalents as indicator for climate protection.
Planning team:
Developer: BAI Bautrger Austria Immobilien GmbH.
Architect: Dietrich I Untertrifaller
Building physics and PH consulting: IBO Austrian Institute for Healthy and Ecological
Building (T. Zelger); Schberl & Pll
Area data:
Address: 1210 Vienna, Fritz-Kandl-Gasse 1
Gross floor area (GFA) with climatic conditioning: 8205 m
Opaque building skin: 7528 m
Surface-volume-ratio (A-V): 0.37 m-1
Energy data:
Energy supply with fossil gas and solar heat; space heat emission with mini-radiators
Central ventilation unit with high efficient heat recovery for each building
Useful energy demand for space heating: 10 kWh/(m.a) per gross floor area
Thermal insulation: Mix of EPS, XPS, wood fiber, glass wool and rock wool. Insulation
thickness is 25 cm 32 cm for walls, 45 cm for roof and 35 cm for basement ceiling.
Mean heat transfer coefficient of the building skin (Um): 0.24 W/(m.K)
Windows: 31 % of outer walls area ; U-value 0.74 W/(mK) with timber-aluminum frame
Shading factors: North: 0.90; East/West: 0.53 0.77; South: 0.55
Figure 1: Passive Housing estate Mhlweg-C in Vienna. Photo: Bruno Klomfar, BAI.
1.3
Description of Scenarios
The analysis of different building skins was done by scenarios of the Passive housing estate MhlwegC in Vienna (table 2 and table 3). The PH skin was compared with scenarios for LEH skins taking into
account different insulation materials. LEH standard is defined in NORM B 8110-1 with a limiting
value for the useful energy demand for space heating. This value depends on the surface-volume-ratio
of building skins and amounts 32.9 kWh/(m.a) for Mhlweg-C. The effects of scenarios on energy
efficiency were calculated with the original energy calculation tool (PHPP Passive House Planning
Package, Vers.2004) for Mhlweg-C. The savings of useful energy during building operation were
converted to savings of fossil gas demand by means of a COP of 0.85.
For the comparison of different insulation materials the physical properties of table 4 have been taken
into account to calculate the equivalent insulation thickness. For the comparison of different LCAdatabases the datasets of table 4 and table 5 have been taken into account.
-3-
Optimization strategy
1. Thermal ventilation
losses
Mechanical
ventilation with heat
recovery
2. Thermal
transmission losses of
windows
Triple glazed
windows with heat
protective coating
and insulated frames
LCA-datasets of
ECOINVENT 2.2 [7]
3. Thermal
transmission losses of
opaque building skin
Thermal insulation
PHPP-Calculation
LCA-datasets of kobau.dat
2009 [5]
PHPP-Calculation.
Table 3: Investigated scenarios for less energy efficient building skin of housing estate Mhlweg-C.
Scenario
Scenario
Scenario
Title
Description
[kWh/(m.a)]
Actual state
No ventilation
LEH-windows
Standard
windows
Less insulation
15 cm less insulation
5-a
LEH-1
32.9 **
5-b
LEH-2
32.9 **
PH standard,
10.0
24.8 **
13.3
16.0
15.4
* Useful energy demand for space heating per gross floor area was calculated with PHPP2004
** Additional reduction of electricity demand due to window ventilation: about 2.7 kWh/(m.a) [4]
Table 4: Physical properties of insulation materials and data sets for LCA
Insulation
material
Thermal
conductivity
[W/(m.K)]
Equivalent
thickness
[cm]
Density*
[kg/m]
Mhlweg
0.0423
13.2
EPS
0.035
10.9
30
LCA dataset
for production [5]
LCA dataset
for end-of-life [5]***
2.02 EPS PS 30
6.8 Verbrennung PS in
MVA incl. Gutschrift
Expanded polystyrene
-4-
Table 4 - continued: Physical properties of insulation materials and data sets for LCA
Insulation
material
Glass
wool
board
Thermal
conductivity
[W/(m.K)]
Equivalent
thickness
[cm]
Density*
[kg/m]
0.035
10.9
50
Rock
wool
board**
Wood
fibre
board
Flax
board
LCA dataset
for production [5]
LCA dataset
for end-of-life [5]***
9.5 BauschuttDeponierung
2.01 Glaswolleplatte
ISOVER
2.01 Steinwolleplatte
ISOVER
0.045
0.040
14.0
150
12.5
25
2.22 EOL
Holzfaserdmmplatte
Wet processed
2.12 Flachsvlies
Hemp
board**
9.5 BauschuttDeponierung
* ON-V 31: Bauwesen 1 - Katalog fr wrmeschutztechnische Rechenwerte von Baustoffen und Bauteilen.
** Insulation material used for comparison of LCA datasets
*** TT = Thermal treatment in waste incineration plant with cogenerated heat and power.
Glass
wool
Rock
wool
Wood
fibre
board
Ecoinvent [7]
Baubook [8]
Flax
board
Hemp
board
Reference value,
Hanfdmmplatte mit
Sttzfasern, 30 kg/m
-5-
2
2.1
Results
Life Cycle Performance of Passive Housing Estate Mhlweg-C. Comparison of Actual
State with Low Energy House Scenario
The following figure shows the impact of the scenarios on the useful energy demand for space heating.
Scenario No ventilation seems to have the most impact with additional 15 kWh/(m.a) energy
demand but the reduction of electrical energy for ventilation also has to be taken into account. The
scenarios Standard windows and 15 cm less insulation cause about the same effect: about
5 kWh/(m.a) additional energy demand. The combined scenario for LEH causes about 23 kWh/(m.a)
additional useful energy demand for space heating corresponding with approximately 27 kWh/(m.a)
additional delivered fossil gas.
kWh/(mGFA.a)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
Usefulenergy
forspace
heating
Reduced
electricity
demand
Figure 2: Passive House Mhlweg-C. Comparison of actual state with scenarios for less energy efficient building
skin. Increase of useful energy for space heating and reduction of electricity demand due to window ventilation.
2.2
The environmental impact of the opaque building skin of Mhlweg-C was compared with a scenario
for a building skin meeting LEH standard (scenario 5a). The comparison was done for a time frame of
30 years, corresponding with useful life period for thermal insulation (figure 3).
The ecological profile shows the additional environmental burden for the production of the opaque PH
skin (left side of the figure) and the environmental savings during building operation. The operation
period was estimated with 30 years and landfill or thermal treatment was considered at end-of-life
(buckling at right side of the figure).
The energy payback time for nonrenewable primary energy is about 5 to 11 years. The higher value
applies for EPS and wood fiber, the lower value applies for flax boards and glass wool. Regarding the
total balance for the whole life cycle, wood fiber insulation saves about 50 % more nonrenewable
primary energy than the other three insulation materials, which are about on the same level.
The payback time for greenhouse gas emissions is about 0 to 7 years. The higher value applies for EPS
and glass wool. Flax boards have a payback time of about 2 years and wood fiber already starts with a
greenhouse gas credit caused by CO2 storage during the growth of trees. Regarding the total balance
for the whole life cycle, wood fiber insulation saves about the double amount of greenhouse gases
during the whole life cycle than the other three insulation materials, which are about on the same level.
-6-
Primaryenergy,
nonrenewable
kWhpermGFA
Greenhousegas
emissions
kgCO2Equ.permGFA
75
30
50
20
25
10
25
10
50
20
75
30
100
40
125
50
150
60
175
70
200
80
225
90
250
0
100
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 years
EPS(30kg/m)PEnonren.
GlasswoolPEnonren.
EPS(30kg/m)GWP100
GlasswoolGWP100
WoodfibrePEnonren.
FlaxboardPEnonren.
WoodfibreGWP100
FlaxboardGWP100
Figure 3: Ecological profile of insulation materials per square meter gross floor area. Comparison of opaque PH
skin Mhlweg-C with LEH-skin scenario 5-a. Differences of nonrenewable primary energy demand and
greenhouse gas emissions per gross floor area (GFA) for production, disposal and 30 years building operation.
2.3
Differences of LC-Databases
A sensitivity analysis was done for the assessment of insulation materials by comparing different
databases with life cycle impact data for insulation materials. The data for production (cradle to gate
analysis) and production combined with end of life processes were analyzed. Databases kobau.dat
2009 (BD) [5], Ecoinvent 2.2 (ECOINV) [7] and Baubook [8] have been compared. Major
differences of the methodology behind the databases are:
Energy mix (electrical energy mix) for production and for environmental credits of thermal
treatment with combined heat and power generation.
Share of secondary raw materials: E.g. the share of waste glass for glass wool production is
65 % in Ecoinvent and 0 % in kobau.dat.
CO2 intake of biogenic material by photosynthesis: Considered in kobau.dat and Baubook
Environmental credits at end of life:
o kobau.dat includes environmental credits e.g. the end-of-life process for wood fiber
boards is thermal waste treatment with combined heat and power generation that substitute
electrical energy (German mix) and fossil gas.
o Ecoinvent does not consider environmental credits. The recovery of energy by thermal
waste treatment is considered within the process(es) for waste treatment and improves the
energy mix.
o Baubook does not include end of life processes
Generally there are considerable differences for all insulation materials and the range and ratio of
impact data are varying for each material (figure 4):
-7-
GLASSWOOL
ROCKWOOL
EPS
BDProd
ECOINVProd
BaubookProd
BDProd&EoL
ECOINVProd&EoL
Greenhousegasemissions
kgCO2Equ./kg
8
PEnr[kWh/kg]
7
GWP100[kgCO2Equ./kg]
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
BDProd
ECOINVProd
BaubookProd
BDProd&EoL
ECOINVProd&EoL
BDProd
ECOINVProd
BaubookProd
BDProd&EoL
ECOINVProd&EoL
BDProd
ECOINVProd
BaubookProd
Primaryenergy,nonrenewable
kWh/kg
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
4
WOODFIBRE
HEMP
BDProd&EoL
BDProd
BaubookProd
BDProd&EoL
BDProd
BaubookProd
BDProd&EoL
ECOINVProd&EoL
FLAX
Figure 4: Comparison of databases: kobau.dat 2009 (BD) [5], Ecoinvent 2.2 (ECOINV) [7] and Baubook [8].
Life cycle impact data for production (Prod) and end-of-life processes (EoL) of insulation materials.
2.4
PH windows save about 3 kWh/(m.a) to 6 kWh/(m.a) useful energy for space heating compared with
LEH-windows and compared with standard windows (see figure 2). Triple glazing with heat protective
coating and insulated frames make the difference. The LCA for the production and disposal of
windows shows no big difference between double glazed and triple glazed windows but big
differences for different frame materials. Windows with aluminum frames need two times more
nonrenewable primary energy and cause two times more greenhouse gas emissions than windows with
-8-
timber frames. This is true for double glazed and triple glazed windows. The database Ecoinvent 2.2
[7] has been used for this comparison because there is more window specific data included than in
kobau.dat 2009. Yet it has to be taken into account, that the Ecoinvent data for window frames is
related to a heat transfer coefficient of 1.5 to 1.6 W/(m.K). This value is insufficient for PH windows
but has been used for the comparison. Because of the lack of data for PH window frames and the big
variety of materials for qualified PH window frames the comparison is not further investigated here.
Nevertheless it can be assumed, that the frame material has the most importance for the ecological
impact (of window production and disposal). Since there are full solid timber frames with certification
of PH-Institute Darmstadt available, this seems to be one of the best solutions regarding the
environmental life cycle.
Primaryenergy,nonrenewable
kWhperwindowarea
1.000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Greenhousegasemissions
kgCO2Equ.perwindowarea
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
CEDne[kWh/m]
GWP100[kg/m]
Figure 5: Life cycle assessment of production and disposal of windows based on ECOINVENT 2.2 [7].
Nonrenewable primary energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions per window area for double glazed (2-S)
and triple glazed (3-S) windows with different frames.
Conclusions
The results show a significant environmental improvement by the PH standard compared to LEH
standard. For the Passive housing estate Mhlweg-C about 26 kWh/(mGFA.a) nonrenewable primary
energy and 5 kg/(mGFA.a) greenhouse gas emissions per gross floor area could be saved by a more
energy efficient operation phase.
Mechanical ventilation cause significant environmental improvements for gas supplied buildings. The
effect of space heating savings is much more important than the additional electrical energy demand
for the ventilators. Additionally, there are other benefits e.g. a higher indoor air quality.
The building skin of Mhlweg-C was investigated separately for the opaque and transparent parts of
the skin. The results for both parts indicated that the production, maintenance and disposal of the PH
skin compared with the LEH skin can have a higher or a lower environmental impact depending on the
material used for insulation and window frames.
Production, maintenance and disposal of the opaque building skin in PH standard caused additional
1 2 kWh/(mGFA.a) nonrenewable primary energy and additional 0.25 - 0.5 kg/(mGFA.a) greenhouse
gas emissions per gross floor area, depending on the insulation material (EPS, glass wool or flax
board). In case of insulation with wood fiber the PH skin would slightly improve the overall life cycle
impact by 2 kWh/(mGFA.a) nonrenewable primary energy and 0.75 kg/(mGFA.a) greenhouse gas
emissions.
-9-
The overall environmental life cycle performance for all insulation materials shows a positive
environmental impact. The environmental payback time for PH-skins with EPS is about 6 to 10 years
compared with LEH-skins. Shorter payback times can be achieved by alternative insulation materials
e.g. mineral wool, wood fiber or flax boards.
Environmental impact data of different LCA-databases show significant differences for all
investigated insulation materials. A major reason for these differences are different methodological
approaches for environmental credits considering energy recovery at end-of-life and considering CO2
intake by photosynthesis for biogenic materials. These environmental credits are not included in
Ecoinvent data. Further reasons for varying impact values are different production processes, different
additives and different electrical energy mixes.
Therefore the comparison of insulation materials can produce different results depending on the data
source for environmental impacts. Taking the energy savings of the operation phase into account, the
differences of LCA-databases shift the payback time for greenhouse gas emissions and nonrenewable
primary energy by about 1 to 4 years for the investigated housing estate Mhlweg-C.
The transparent building skin in PH standard has a significant positive contribution for the operation
phase of the building. There is a lack of LCA data for PH windows and big variety of suitable
windows. Nevertheless, the results of the comparison of different windows show that the frame
material has the most importance for the ecological impact (of window production and disposal) and
full solid timber frames seem to be one of the best solutions regarding the environmental life cycle.
Regarding the impact on the overall environmental life cycle performance, data for a virtual reference
housing estate of the same construction period was used [4]. The improvement by the operation phase
amounts about 14 %. The additional ecological effort to produce, maintain and dispose PH-insulation
is about 1 % for EPS-skins. But the environmental improvement for the whole life cycle is about 2 %.
Wood fiber insulation improves the whole life cycle performance by about 5 %.
Regarding the total LCA of housing estates the differences of LCA-data for insulation materials cause
a small but noticeable variation of the results. With data of Ecoinvent, the nonrenewable energy
demand and greenhouse gas emissions are about 1 % higher in case of EPS insulation and about 3 %
higher in case of wood fiber insulation. Nevertheless, the overall environmental life cycle performance
for all insulation materials shows a positive impact and improves the total balance by about 1-2 %.
References
[1] Treberspurg, M., Smutny, R., Ertl, U., Grnner, R., Neururer, C., Keul, A.: Nachhaltigkeits-Monitoring
ausgewhlter Passivhaus-Wohnanlagen in Wien. Project NaMAP. Vienna: Viennese housing research,
2009.
[2] Treberspurg, M., Smutny, R., Ertl, U., Neururer, C.: Endbericht Ergebnisse Energiebilanz und
Treibhausgasemissionen. Forschungsprojekt Evaluation der solarCity Linz Pichling. Vienna, 2010
[3] OIB: Richtlinie 6. Energieeinsparung und Wrmeschutz. Ausgabe: Oktober 2011. OIB-330.6-094/11.
Vienna: sterreichisches Institut fr Bautechnik (OIB). Austrian Institute of Construction Engineering,
2011
[4] Smutny, R.: Environmental Life Cycle Analysis of Housing Estates in Austria. in print. Proceedings of
IALCCE2012. Third international Symposium on Life-Cycle Civil Engineering, Vienna, Oct. 3-6, 2012
[5] BMVBS: kobau.dat 2009. Berlin: Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development
http://www.nachhaltigesbauen.de/baustoff-und-gebaeudedaten/oekobaudat.html, 2009
[6] BMVBS: Assessment System for Sustainable Building. Administration Buildings. Berlin: Federal Ministry
of Transport, Building and Urban Development, www.nachhaltigesbauen.de, 2011
[7] Althaus H.-J., Lehmann M.: List of ecological indicators for construction materials in Switzerland
(kologische Baustoffliste) (v2.2e), basierend auf ecoinvent v2.2 (April 2010) (www.ecoinvent.ch), EMPA,
Technology and Society Lab, Dbendorf, 2010
[8] Baubook: Baubook Deklarationszentrale Produktdaten und Richtwerte. Energieinstitut Vorarlberg & IBO.
http://www.baubook.at/zentrale/, accessed in April 2012
- 10 -
Predictable Sustainability?
The Role of Building Certification
in the Design of Innovative Facades
Alexander Passer, Ass.Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.techn., MSc.1)
Thomas Mach, Dipl.-Ing. Dr.techn. 2)
Helmuth Kreiner, Dipl.-Ing. 1)
Peter Maydl, Univ.-Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.techn. 1)
1) Institute of Technology and Testing of Building Materials,
Graz University of Technology, Austria
Alexander.Passer@tugraz.at
www.tvfa.tugraz.at
2) Institute of Thermal Engineering,
Graz University of Technology, Austria
thomas.mach@tugraz.at
www.iwt.tugraz.at
Summary
The papers provides an overview of current standardization work of CEN regarding sustainability
of construction works as well as the role of building certification systems in the design of
innovative faades. In the first part, the upcoming CEN standards are explained as well as the new
Construction Products Regulation with its new Basic Requirement No. 7 Sustainable use of
natural resources. In the second part of the paper current international and national building
certification systems are described. In the third part with a comparison of building certification
systems regarding their relevance and completeness of assessment criteria for faades is
undertaken. In the case of the Multifunctional Plug and Play Faade (MPPF) the design
consequences for the development of innovative facades are explained and it is investigated the
extent to which the assessment criteria used in building certification systems can be influence by
faade design according to the MPPF design principles. In the last part of the paper it is explained
how this might be integrated in the planning process to guarantee a better predictability of
sustainability in the development of faades. Using a systematic approach could be one way in
coping with the complexity of different requirements.
-1-
1
1.1
Introduction
Green and Sustainable Building
The construction sector has a great influence on sustainable development since it plays a key role in
the consumption of energy and resources as well as in solid waste accumulation [1, 2]. It is therefore
of high importance to quantify the environmental performance of buildings in order to communicate
their potential environmental impacts. [3, 4, 5]
Assessment methods for sustainability have been developed since the early 1990s. The International
Standardization Organization (ISO), for example, prepared the first standards to address specific issues
and aspects of sustainability relevant to buildings and civil engineering works (e.g. ISO 21930[6]).
Already these standards were based on the Life Cycle Assessment methodology (LCA) in
ISO 14040 [7].
On the basis of the ISO work, the European Committee for Standardization is working on a set of
standards to harmonize the methodology for a sustainability assessment of buildings using the life
cycle approach. According to the upcoming European Standards [8, 9 ,10 ,11 ,12] the assessment of
the environmental performance of buildings is based on LCA expressed with quantitative categories
and Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA).
In the past few years a growing number of building certification systems for green and/or sustainable
buildings has been emerging in the market [13, 14, 15] parallel to standardization work to endorse
green and sustainable buildings. As several building certification systems involve the assessment of
the environmental and/or economic performance, these methodologies are definitely worthwhile
looking at more closely [16, 17, 18].
A first evaluation of national and international building certification systems used in Austria shows
that most of them do not include the assessment of the environmental performance with the use of
LCA and the economic performance with the use of Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA) explicitly
and are currently not fully in line with the upcoming European framework of CEN/TC 350.
1.2
The aim of the present work is to compare current building certification systems used in Austria and to
show how they implement the assessment of faade systems. Furthermore, the Multifunctional Plug
and Play Faade (MPPF) is investigated to determine how many of the assessment criteria used in
building certification systems can be influence by faade design.
In the conclusion and outlook we show how this might be integrated in the planning process to
guarantee a better predictability of sustainability in the development of faades.
1.3
The European Committee for Standardization (CEN/TC 350 - sustainability of construction works) has
been assigned by the European Commission to provide a framework for the harmonization of the
sustainable assessments of buildings.
In the framework document of CEN/TC350 EN 15643-1:2011[8], the goal is defined by supplying a
common framework methodology which includes the principles, requirements and guidelines for a
holistic assessment of the sustainability of buildings concerning their environmental, economic and
social performance over the whole life cycle. The item to be assessed is the building including the site
on the basis of user-requirements in terms of a so-called "functional equivalent". The standardization
documents will not include regulations regarding evaluation, quality-levels, or classes (benchmarks).
It is generally assumed that most of the CEN/TC 350-sustainability-standards should be available by
2013. Figure 1 shows the concept of the integrated building performance that incorporates
environmental, social and economic performance as well the technical and functional performance
which are intrinsically related to each other.
-2-
1.3.1
The current point of view is that the assessment of the economic performance of buildings should be
mainly based on performance expressed in terms of cost over the life cycle or in terms of financial
value over the life-cycle. The economic performance primarily includes reduction in life cycle costs
and the sustainable conservation of value/ increase in value of a building. In this way, ISO 15686-5
[20] differentiates between "whole life cost" and "life cycle cost". It is due to this that future
assessments of buildings and, consequently, real estate valuations will have to enlarge their system
boundaries compared to todays practice. Currently, only the initial costs (e.g. manufacturing costs)
and sometimes the cost of operation without consideration of technical and functional aspects form the
basis for these assessments. However, in future assessments the latter will probably be weighted more
highly (e.g. energy efficiency). The inclusion of holistic assessments in real estate evaluations is
hardly predictable.
1.3.2
The scope of this working group is based on the description of applicable quantitative indicators. For
this reason, LCA-methodology is used with data, preferably based on environmental product
declarations (EPDs) [10]. Additionally to CEN/TC 350 activities, the present Construction Products
Directive (CPD) is currently being revised and enlarged with the basic requirement No. 7. (sustainable
use of natural resources)[21,22]. Currently 22 indicators are being discussed regarding inclusion in
LCA investigations [12].
1.3.3
Looking at the latest discussion in working group 5 [19], the social performance measures will be
represented through performance categories such as accessibility, health and comfort, loadings on the
neighborhood, maintenance, safety / security, sourcing of materials and services and stakeholder
involvement.
1.3.4
In Austria, the technical and functional performance in the context of sustainability assessments of
buildings has not been specified yet. In contrast, the technical and functional requirements are defined
in the Austrian OIB-guidelines 1-6 [23], which are largely in line with the essential requirements of
the construction product directive [21,22]. A first definition of technical and functional performance is
given below. Thus functional requirements are qualitative requirements used to describe a defined goal
(e .g. demand on energy efficiency construction methods). The fulfillment of functional requirements
is determined by the following different performance requirements (or technical requirements):
-3-
Quantitative performance requirements (product-specific, construction-specific and buildingspecific) and descriptive/defining performance requirements
In other words, "functional quality" depicts the aggregation of the degree of fulfillment of the
functional requirements. "Technical quality" reflects the degree of fulfillment of the
aggregation of the individual technical requirements.
1.4
The Construction Products Regulation (305/2011/EU - CPR1) replacing the Construction Products
Directive (89/106/EEC - CPD 2 ) is laying down harmonised conditions for the marketing of
construction products. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union adopted the
CPR on March 9th 2011. However, the main parts of its substantial articles will apply first from 1 July
2013. Until then, the CPD therefore remains in application. The already applicable parts of the CPR
focus on the notification and designation processes of the Notified Bodies (NB) and the Technical
Assessment Bodies (TAB). The CPR is to ensure reliable information on construction products in
relation to their performances, which is achieved by providing a common technical language, offering
uniform assessment methods of the performance of construction products. These methods have been
compiled in harmonized European standards (hEN) and European Assessment Documents (EAD).
This common technical language is to be applied by:
the manufacturers when declaring the performance of their products, but also by
the authorities of Member States when specifying requirements for them, and by
their users (architects, engineers, constructors) when choosing the products most suitable
for their intended use in construction works.
One the major revisions concerns the basic requirement hygiene, health and environment and the
addition of a new basic requirement (No. 7) sustainable use of natural resources.
This means that construction works must be designed, built and demolished in such a way that the use
of natural resources is sustainable and in particular ensure the following:
a) reuse or recyclability of the construction works, their materials and parts after demolition;
b) durability of the construction works;
c) use of environmentally compatible raw and secondary materials in the construction works.
How this will be implemented e.g. in an OIB-guideline is still under discussion [21].
In the past few years, an increasing number of building certification systems have been placed on the
market. Due to multi-characteristic influences in the context of sustainability assessments of buildings
a complete evaluation criteria-structure is essential. A very large number of international building
certification systems have existed since the 1990s. In the following, the two most common, LEED and
BREAM, will be briefly described. In Austria, three national certification systems currently exist,
DGNB/GNI, klima:aktiv and GNB (TQ-B). As regards assessment of buildings, these certification
systems implement different approaches to environmental performance, e.g. completely or partly using
LCA methodology. The differences between the three certification systems used in Austria are
described below taking into account certifications on "new construction dwellings". Apart from
already existing building certification system, reference is also made to the ongoing R&D European
projects developed under the FP7 framework European as OPEN HOUSE3 or SuPerBuilding4.
1
2
3
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:088:0005:0043:EN:PDF
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1989:040:0012:0026:EN:PDF
OPEN HOUSE - Benchmarking and mainstreaming building sustainability in the EU based on transparency and openness (open
source and availability) from model to implementation. http://www.openhouse-fp7.eu/
-4-
2.1
2.1.1
LEED
The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System is a
third-party certification program developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) in 2000. Its
latest version is LEED v2009. LEED is a point-based system for buildings of all types and sizes where
building projects earn LEED points for satisfying specific green building criteria. The five categories
include sustainable sites (SS), water efficiency (WE), energy and atmosphere (EA), materials and
resources (MR) and indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and an additional category, innovation in
design (ID) which addresses sustainable building expertise as well as design measures not covered
under the five environmental categories.
According to [25], the USGBC is moving in a careful way to integrate life cycle information into the
LEED framework. This means that LEED's implementation of LCA is partial in many ways (implicit).
Each credit was evaluated against a list of 13 environmental impact categories, including climate
change, indoor environmental quality, resource depletion and water intake, among many others [26].
Comparing it to other building certification systems, LCA aspects are not assessed in an explicit
(transparent) way, i.e. an explicit LEED credit, to compare buildings using LCA benchmarks. As
stated in [16] the LEED credits actually implemented are not always the most beneficial for the
environment.
2.1.2
BREEAM
BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) [27] is a voluntary design and assessment
method for sustainable buildings that was established in the UK by the Building Research
Establishment (BRE). It can be used to assess the environmental performance of any type of building.
BREEAM uses an explicit weighting system derived from a combination of consensus-based
weightings and ranking by a panel of experts within the categories: management, health & wellbeing,
energy, transport, water, materials, waste, land use & ecology, pollution and innovation (additional).
In the materials group, the number of credits achieved for this BREEAM issue are based on a
spreadsheet-based calculator for each applicable elements Green Guide rating using the Ecopoint
method. The Ecopoint used is a single score that measures the total environmental impact of a product
or process as a proportion of overall impact occurring in Europe. Green Guide ratings are derived by
sub-dividing the range of Ecopoints/m achieved by all specifications considered within a building
element and are based on LCA data generated using the BRE Environmental Profiles Methodology.
These can, therefore, not be compared with the indicator values according to CEN or other building
certification systems.
2.1.3
DGNB
The German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) [28] together with the Federal Ministry of
Transport, Building and Urban Affairs (BMVBS) developed a voluntary certification system for
sustainable buildings in 2007. The building certification system of DGNB is based on the CEN/TC350
approach. The DGNB certification system criteria-set includes five weighted topics (main criteria
groups): ecological quality (22.5%), economic quality (22.5%), social quality (22.5%), technical
quality (22.5%), quality of process (10%) and one additionally not weighted, separately evaluated
topic (main criteria group) quality of the location.
The assessment is based on a holistic life cycle approach considering the before-use phase, use phase
and end-of-life phase with a reference study period of 50 years.
DGNB implemented an explicit LCA method [29]. The goal of the assessment is to quantify and
document the environmental performance of the building under consideration (office building, retail,
hospital, school, etc.) by means of applying LCA methodology and to compare the results with a
defined benchmark.
-5-
2.1.4
SBTool
The SBTool5 is based on the philosophy that a rating system must be adapted to local conditions
before its results can become meaningful. The system is therefore designed as a generic framework,
with local non-commercial organizations being expected to define local context conditions and to
develop appropriate weights and benchmarks. The system has been designed to facilitate such a
regional calibration; in fact, the system requires the insertion of regionally meaningful benchmarks.
SBTool covers a wide range of sustainable building issues, not just green building concerns, but the
scope of the system can be modified to be as narrow or as broad as desired, ranging from 120 criteria
to half a dozen;
The system allows third parties to establish parameter weights that reflect the varying importance of
issues in the region, and to establish relevant benchmarks by occupancy type, in local languages. Thus,
many versions can be developed in different regions that look quite different, while sharing a common
methodology and set of terms. The main advantage, however, is that an SBTool version developed
with local knowledge is likely to be much more relevant to local needs and values than other systems;
The system provides separate modules for Site and Building assessments, with Site assessments
carried out in the Pre-design phase and Building assessments carried out in Design, Construction or
Operations phases;
SBTool takes into account region-specific and site-specific context factors, and these are used to
switch off or reduce certain weights, as well as providing background information for all parties.
Weights for criteria that remain active are re-distributed, so that the total always remains 100%.
There is a capacity to carry out assessments at four distinct stages of the life-cycle and the system
provides default benchmarks suited to each phase.
2.2
2.2.1
The klima:aktiv building and refurbishment certification system for New Construction Office [30] is
divided into four assessment categories according to a system of 1000 points. The categories are
design and construction (Category A maximum 120 points), energy (Category B, maximum 600
points), building materials and construction (Category C, maximum 160 points) and comfort and
indoor air quality (Category D, maximum 120 points).
Klima:aktiv assessment allows LCA to be carried out in two different ways. On the one hand, category
C 2.1a (ecological benchmark of the whole building) and alternative category C 2.1b (ecological
benchmark of building envelope). The assessment considers three environmental impact categories
GWP, AP and PEI.n.e. (or CEDnr). For the final assessment these three environmental impact
categories are aggregated into one ecological benchmark (OI 3).
In the first case, the assessment goes only partly in line with the CEN/TC 350 approach. The Use
phase only focuses on environmental impacts. Due to the fact that the construction and maintenance
processes are considered by the assessment, environmental impacts caused by energy demand during
use phase are not included in the aggregated results. Environmental impacts are partly embedded in
category B 2.2 (CO2 emissions) and B 2.3 (cumulative energy demand).
In the second case, due to time-related focus of the before use phase and the spatial-related focus of
the building envelope as well as the declaration of environmental impacts in CO2-emissions, the
environmental assessment concept does not correspond to the CEN/TC 350 concept, which is based on
a holistic approach. The influence of neglecting spatial and/or time related aspects is shown in detail in
[5].
At most, 100 points (or 10%) can be achieved by using case one, and 75 points can be reached by
accomplishing LCA in case two. Taking into account the previously mentioned categories B 2.2 (125
points) and B 2.3 (125 points), a total of 350 points using case one, and 325 points using case two, can
be achieved.
Overview of the SBTool assessment framework, Nils Larsson, iiSBE and Manuel Macias, UPM Spain, April 2012
-6-
2.2.2
GNB (TQB)
The GNB (Austrian Association of Sustainable Building) [31] certification system (also named
TQB) is separated into five main categories behind a 1000 point system as in the klima:aktiv
certification system. The main categories are quality of the location and infrastructure (Category A,
maximum 200 points), economic and technical object quality (Category B, maximum 200 points),
energy (Category C, maximum 200 points), health and comfort (Category D, maximum 200 points),
materials and construction (Category E, maximum 200 points).
LCA is embedded in category E.3.1 ecology of materials and construction. In contrast to klima:aktiv,
the environmental assessment is based on the new assessment concept which was developed during a
national research project named "Nachhaltigkeit Massiv" [33] which allows focusing on the spatially
related system boundaries of flexible assessment. The time-related system boundary chosen for
GNB-assessments for dwelling-types considers before-use, use and end-of-life-phase. Compared to
case two assessments in klima:aktiv, the spatially related system boundaries have been enlarged. Next
to the building envelope, finishes are also included, but the technical equipment is not included due to
missing data-sets. Environmental impacts are assessed in a similar way to the klima:aktiv assessment
system, thus it is also not in line with CEN/TC350. The reference study period is stated to be 100
years. At most, 60 points (or 6%) can be achieved with LCA within the sustainability assessment by
GNB certification system.
2.2.3
GNI
The Austrian Green Building Council (GNI) [34] was founded in 2009. Due to a cooperation
agreement with the DGNB, signed in June 2009, a substantial basis for the operation of the council
was established, and thus the German certification system for sustainable buildings (DGNB) has been
successfully adapted to Austria. The DGNB/GNI certification scheme criteria-set includes the same
criteria as DGNB. Each of the main topics is divided into several assessment criteria. For instance, the
Global Warming Potential, Total Primary Energy Demands and Proportion of Renewable Primary
Energy, Thermal Comfort in Winter and Summer or Energetic and Moisture Proofing Quality of the
Buildings Shell are considered for the evaluation of a building. For each criterion, measurable target
values are defined, and a maximum of 10 points can be assigned. The measuring methods for each
criterion are clearly defined. The certificate follows the concept of integral planning that defines the
aims of sustainable construction with the related building performances at an early design stage. This
means sustainable buildings can be designed which are based on the latest state of technology, and
their performance can be communicated with the relevant criteria in the pre-certificate at the planning
stage and in the certificate after completion. The consulting auditor accompanies the owners during
the certification process and prepares an accompanying planning and construction documentation in
accordance with the specifications of the documentation guidelines. Having completed the building,
the auditor compares and checks the building specifications with the realized project.
Finally, DGNB/GNI reviews the entire certification process and performs a conformity inspection
based on the documentation guidelines, makes plausibility checks and takes control samples, and
checks whether everything was executed properly according to the documentation. If all requirements
are fulfilled, the owner receives a certificate. [35]
There is no doubt about that the sustainability performance of buildings will play a major role in the
future. But the question is, what are the difference between the various approaches and how they affect
the design of faades.
Future design and construction of buildings concluding functional and technical requirements can be
accomplished on the basis of the CEN/TC 350 framework going in line with the current essential
requirement and future basis requirements of the construction product regulation [21]. This means the
installation of suitable building products that include the interaction between products, construction
and building that fulfills the product-, construction-, and building requirements supplemented with
descriptive/defining performance requirements. Anyway, the fulfillment of requirements 1 to 6 is the
primary assumption for sustainability assessments according to future basic requirement No. 7.
However most of the Architects and Engineers feel overstrained with the multiplicity of requirements.
-7-
3.1
Therefore at first in the following Figure 2 a comprehensive comparison of the different assessment
criteria in the mentioned building certification system is pictured. It can be seen that the various
building certification system have both similarities and differences. Due to the fact that in the
DGNB/GNI building certification system most of the technical and functional performance criteria
are considered, this system is taken for the further investigations.
Figure 2: Comparison of assessment criteria. Source: extended table [36], based on Fig. 04 [37] and Fig 4.12
[38]
3.2
In the last decades industrial prefabrication has been used mainly for building products and to some
extend for building elements. The lack of technical knowledge and the lack of possibilities for
individualization of components often lead therefore to a monotone design of elements and buildings.
-8-
Again the poor standard raised a poor sectorial image of prefabrication technology. Recently some
things have changed to a better starting position. The rapid growth and availability of computer
capacity to perform calculations and newest prefabrication technologies allow for the first time a
combination of highly efficient prefabrication technologies with design tools simultaneously allowing
a high individualization of products i.e. faades. In practice, this leads to enormous time- and cost
savings as well as following possibilities:
Due to this initial position the K-Project, Multifunctional Plug & Play Faade (acronym: MPPF),
launched in 2008. The research project MPPF aims the development of a multifunctional faade
system to be used in modular construction methods with the highest possible level of prefabrication.
The approach lies in the expansion of the functionality of these prefabricated faade elements with
building engineering functions (like e.g. heat, cold input, air input, lighting, water, power and IT
supply) as well as by solar energy technologies (solar thermal, PV)[39]. Figure 3 shows the function
modules (1-18) integrated in the first version of the MPPF test facade of the consortiums leader
FIBAG in Stallhofen, Styria.
Function modules in MPPF Protoype 1
01) opaque polycrystalline PV ceiling - south
02) opaque polycrystalline PV centre - south
03) opaque polycrystalline PV baseline - south
04) opaque polycrystalline PV ceiling - west
05) opaque polycrystalline PV centre - west
06) opaque polycrystalline PV baseline - west
07) amorphous semi-transparent (10%) PV - south
08) amorphous semi-transparent (20%) PV - south
09) daylight photovoltaics module (PTM) - south
10) Solar thermal ceiling module - south
11) Solar thermal centre module - south
12) Solar thermal baseline module - south
13) Solar thermal ceiling module - south
14) Solar thermal centre module - south
15) Solar thermal baseline module - south
16) HVAC module - west
17) HVAC electrochromic glazing - south
18) HVAC electrochromic glazing - west
Figure 3: Different function modules integrated in the test facade. Source [39]
-9-
3.3
Within the MPPF project a criteria list for requirements for a Multifunctional Plug & Play Facade was
developed [40]. These requirements are based on following design principles [acc. to 41]:
1.
2.
3.
Components shall be
a. Accessible,
b. Verifiable,
c. Repairable and
d. Replaceable.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
In addition to these MPPF design principles it could also be shown [43] that the MPPFaade
guarantees best possibilities in terms of dismantling und recyclability. More than 84% of the used
materials can be directly used for recycling, if a carefully planned recycling concept is implemented.
3.4
Design Influence
In addition to the above listed differences in the building certification systems a screening of the
assessment criteria of the DGNB/GNI certification system regarding the possible influence of the
design of faade and the related assessment criteria was undertaken. Table 1 shows the criteria list
with the maximum target achievement of each assessment criteria. The assessment criteria which can
be influenced by the design of a MPPF faade are marked with an x.
- 10 -
Table 1: Assessment criteria related to faade design in the case of GNI/DGNB [42]
Criteria
Description
Weighting
MPPF
13,5%
C6
3,4%
C8
1,1%
C14
C15
Space demand
2,3%
2,3%
LCCA
13,5%
C17
9,0%
C18
1,6%
C19
2,4%
C20
2,4%
C21
Acoustic comfort
0,8%
C22
Visual comfort
2,4%
C23
1,6%
C24
0,8%
C25
0,8%
C26
Handicapped accessibility
1,6%
C27
C28
Space efficiency
0,8%
1,6%
C29
Public access
1,6%
C30
Bicycling convenience
0,8%
C31
2,4%
C32
0,8%
C33
Fire prevention
4,5%
C34
Sound insulation
4,5%
C35
4,5%
C40
4,5%
C42
4,5%
C43
1,3%
C44
Integral planning
1,3%
C45
1,3%
C46
0,9%
C47
0,9%
C48
0,9%
C49
0,9%
C50
1,3%
C51
Commissioning
1,3%
Sum
100%
LCA
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
84,0%
In total 31 out of 43 assessment criteria can be possible influenced by different design options of the
faade, which means that up to 84 percent of the assessment performance respectively. The big
influence is due to the reason that the MPPF project aims the expansion of the functionality of these
prefabricated faade elements with building engineering functions as well as by solar energy
technologies. This means that the design process of the MPPFaade has a very big influence on the
overall sustainability performance of a building.
The assessment criteria for LCA (01, 02, 03, 04, 05,10 and 11) are listed as one LCA.
- 11 -
Acknowledgements
The research project Multifunctional Plug & Play Faade (Project-Nr: 815075) is supported by
funds of the Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG), by the federal states of Styria, Carinthia and
Lower Austria, as well as by a consortium of scientific institutions and companies, guided by the
Hans Hllwart Forschungszentrum fr integrales Bauwesen AG (CEO, Mario J. Mller).
The analysis described in chapter 3.1 is part of the PhD research of H. Kreiner [44] at Graz University
of Technology with the working title Interdependency between LCCA and LCA in the assessment of
buildings, supervised by P. Maydl and A. Passer, which is not yet appropriated.
References
[1] Wallbaum H and Meins E (2009): No sustainable planning, constructing and operating (still) common
praxis in the building industry for a good reason?, Bauingenieur, Band 84, Juli / August 2009: 291-303
[2] Maydl P, Structural Sustaillability - the Fourth Dimension? Structural Engineering International 3/2006:
268-269
[3] Mateus R. and Braganaa L., Sustainability assessment and rating of buildings: Developing the
methodology SBToolPT-H, Building and Environment, Volume 46, Issue 10, October 2011, Pages 19621971, ISSN 0360-1323, DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2011.04.023.
[4] Bribian I. Z., Uson A. A., Scarpellini S., Life cycle assessment in buildings: State-of-the-art and simplified
LCA methodology as a complement for building certification, Building and Environment, Volume 44,
Issue 12, December 2009, Pages 2510-2520, ISSN 0360-1323, DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.05.001.
[5] Passer A, Assessment of the environmental performance of buildings, PhD-Thesis, TU Graz, 2010;
https://online.tugraz.at/tug_online/wbAbs.showThesis?pThesisNr=22305&pOrgNr=2265&pAutorNr=2270
2&pFassungNr=2&pPersNr=
- 12 -
- 13 -
[35] Passer, A.; Kreiner, H.; Smutny, R.: Adaption of DGNB-Methodology to Austria - Lessons Learned from
the first Certificates. SB11, World Sustainable Building Conference, Helsinki, Finnland, 2011
[36] Kreiner H.: Interdependency between LCCA and LCA in the assessment of buildings, not yet appropriated.
Ph. D. thesis, Graz University of Technology, 2012.
[37] Wallbaum H. and Hardziewski R.: Minergie und die Anderen Vergleich von Vier Labels, TEC21 (2011),
47:3239.
[38] Ebert, T., Essig, N., Hauser, G.: Zertifizierungssysteme fur Gebaude: Nachhaltigkeit bewerten,
Internationaler Systemvergleich, Zertifizierung und Okonomie. Institut fur internationale ArchitekturDokumentation, Munchen 2010.
[39] Mller M.: Multifunctional Plug & Play Facade, K-Project Review Core Document, FFG, 2010
[40] Cresnik, G., Maydl, P.: (2008), Sustainability in Construction: Future Requirements to Facade
Constructions, enova 2008 International Congress at the Fachhochschul- Studienzentrum Pinkafeld
[41] Cresnik, G., Maydl, P.: Multifunctional Plug & Play Facade, Annexbericht: MPPF Standard okologische
Nachhaltigkeit, (2009).
[42] Passer, A.; Kreiner, H.; Cresnik, G.; Maydl, P.: Genormte Nachhaltigkeit?. - in: Nachhaltige Gebude Planung, Betrieb und Bewertung (2010), S. 25 33, Internationaler Kongress e-nova ; 2010.
[43] Cresnik, G., Maydl, P.: Multifunctional Plug & Play Facade, Annexbericht: Integration von
kreislaufwirtschaftlichen Gesichtspunkten in die Entwicklung von MPPF Bewertung der Fassade des
FIBAG- Gebaudes (2010).
[44] H. Kreiner, A. Passer: Interdependency of LCCA and LCA in the assessment of buildings, submitted to
IALCCE 2012, Third international Symposium on Life-Cycle Civil Engineering, Vienna, Austria, 2012
- 14 -
Summary
The skin of a building is the main architectural intend of a building. A skin becomes interesting if
it has an unusual topography. This paper wants to show different types of modern building skins.
To beam with joy can form a human face and can be an aim in a faade application.
Some samples of realized projects with a new material are presented in this paper. The basis is the
knowledge about the material. Only with this knowledge it is possible to design appropriate for the
material involved.
Introduction
A skin of human beings is very interesting. On one hand you have the total appearance. It is the first
impression of your vis--vis. If you have the second look you can see more details of the person. For
example some wrinkles, indicating a lot of fun and laughter of a person. In detail the skin is the
biggest organ of the body. This organ is responsible for the climate, protection etc. in total it is very
important for the well-being of the whole person.
The building skins are the counterpart in a whole building. The skin is the main architectural afford of
a building. It becomes interesting if it has an unusual topography. The following examples want to
give an impression of the possibilities in facades.
At the faade of the fashion label Reiss in London the Architects wanted to have translucence at
daylight and an interesting lighting at night. The idea was realized with a milled plastic material. The
milled surfaces give different impressions. They are milled structured, satiniced and transparent to
have a lined faade like a barcode.
The second example I will discuss is the liquid wall in Berlin. Due to polished surfaces in a convex
and concave way, the look through the sheets of the flagship store of Raab Karcher is similar to the
look into water.
The third example is the shin of the friendly alien of Graz, the Kunsthaus Graz. In the middle of the
old town of Graz the city decided to build one of the most modern facades. The art gallery itself is
surely a piece of art. At night a special translucence let it be a multi media faade.
Those examples want to explain an idea of a skin and its transformation into reality.
-1-
Material PMMA
Polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA for short, is the chemical name of a highly transparent plastic.
Brand names for it are Plexiglas or Acrylite for example. PMMA belongs to the group of
transparent thermoplastics and stands out due to good weathering resistance and a relative hard surface
as well as its transparency. For sheet material there are mainly two manufacturing processes, extrusion
and cast.
The material characteristics are dependent on the type of manufacturing and the environmental
influences such as temperature and exposure time. The most important material characteristics under
standard climate conditions according to DIN 7823 are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Material characteristics according to DIN 7823
Extruded PMMA
Cast PMMA
Unit
Youngs Modulus
2900
3000
MPa
Tensile Strength
60
70
MPa
Tensile Strain
Flexural Strength
100-115
100-115
MPa
Density
1,19
1,19
g/cm
Thermal Expansion
Coefficient
7 x 10-5
7 x 10-5
1/K
In Figure 1 the dependence that Youngs Modulus has with the temperature is shown. At 23C you can
see a youngs modulus of 3300 MPa. At 60C it drops down to 2500 MPa.
The strain can be divided into three different parts. An energy elastic strain occurs immediately when
a load is applied. The second part is an entropic elastic strain, with which the position of the molecule
chains relative to one another is changed. This part of the strain is slowly reduced after the load is
relieved. The third part is a viscous flow that represents an irreversible deformation. In Figure 2, the
stress relaxation over the duration of the load is plotted. With a steady deformation, the stress is
relaxed significantly over time. The relaxation is dependent on the level of stress that is applied.
PMMA has a very high transmission, which results in the material heating up only a very small
amount in the sun.
-2-
Examples
The refraction of light caused by different routing patterns creates a constantly shifting play of light
for the viewer, both outside and inside, depending on the lighting situation. At the same time, the
heterogeneously machined surface provides pleasant light, without glare, which is especially important
for the offices and workshops behind the faade. At night, individually controlled LED strips beneath
the individual panels transform the faade into a translucent curtain of glistening light, and
demonstrate the high light conductivity of the PLEXIGLAS material.
The demand on the material was transparency combined with translucency, achieved with the
possibility for machining PMMA. The applied material is a Plexiglas with 50mm thickness,
machined on a mill.
-3-
The basic design element for the store is the shop window with a deforming effect. A 50 mm Plexiglas
block was milled, formed and polished to get convex and concave surfaces like a lense. This form has
the effect of a moving room while passing the window and adjusts the view into a swimming pool.
To realize the effect it had to be possible to machine the material with a polishing option for the finish.
At the end 50mm Plexiglas were milled 3-dimensional and hand polished. The thickness of the
material was important to have enough for the convex and concave form. Another important demand
was the absolute weather resistance. Acrylic material is often used in glasses. Therefore it was nearby
to use the same material in this object.
A special installation process was used to prevent the glowing outer shell from casting undesired
shadows. The 4.39 m long white tubes were linked with each other by clear, 16 cm long ones.
Specially developed silicone gaskets provide the requisite stability. The 4,248 white tubes and 4,104
connecting tubes were made from special colored, weather resistant material and thermoformed to the
desired shape. The use of products with standard geometries, manufactured with specially adjusted
-4-
properties in individual lengths for this project, makes a clear architectural statement. So does their
simple modification by means of forming and their consciously spare, clean assembly.
3.4 Kunsthaus Graz
The terrifying scenario of an alien invasion is normally the stuff of science fiction novels. Not so in
Graz, Austria, chosen as European Cultural Capital 2003. In that city, a friendly alien has landed, with
a 3D formed outer skin.
The Kunsthaus that opened in late September 2003 really does stand out from its environment like
something from another planet. It took many years and many discussions to persuade the authorities to
let the alien dock into the neighboring Eisernes Haus (cast-iron house), parts of which are listed as
historical monuments. The structure concocted by Cook and Fournier was unanimously chosen as the
winner from 102 entries in an architects competition announced throughout Europe. Many people
have thought about curved, organic buildings. But very few have actually built them, says Colin
Fournier.
The 4800m Plexiglas faade is also a Media faade. It can be illuminated at night by round light
points. The material thickness is 20mm, every sheet is formed individually. The illumination of the
faade and the formability were the main aspects to use Plexiglas. Every sheet was formed in a
different way. The ease of the forming process was essential to the material decision.
-5-
With new materials like Plexiglas new forms of facades are possible. Especially with various demands
the choice of the material becomes difficult and the performance of common material might be limited.
Acylic material has advantages in the possibilities of machining and illuminating. The examples tried
to show the possibilities in forming like the faade of the Kunsthaus Graz or in structuring like the
Liquid wall or the Reiss faade. The possibilities are not totally used by now. Even in extreme
applications like mega glazing of deep see aquariums or for the windows of deep going submarines the
material is in use.
This paper tried to give an impression of the use of the material and want to inspire for new
applications.
-6-
Summary
The usage of metal sheets in visible components of building exteriors has become an important
tool in the repertoire of modern architecture. A drawback of such building envelopes is a
requirement of a dedicated supporting structure underneath their surface. Load carrying sheet
metal parts are well known in mechanical engineering. However, if confronted with aesthetic
requirements their manufacturing process still poses a challenge to the principles of their
manufacturing procedures. Within the Collaborative Research Centre 666 (CRC 666) a process
chain is being developed, which allows the manufacturing of complexly curved sheet metal
structures stiffened by rips. The rips are on one side of a sheet whereas a smooth surface with no
visible joints is retained on the other side. The new possibilities in architectural design resulting
from this technology are methodically investigated within the CRC 666. With provision to the
limitations of a cost-efficient manufacturing possible shapes and their assembly to free formed
surfaces are derived and analyzed.
Keywords: Metal sheet facades, metal forming, linear flow splitting, constructional and
light facades, innovative technologies, plane load-bearing structures, building skins
Introduction
New possibilities in CAD (computer aided design) and CAM (computer aided manufacturing) allow a
new exploitation of geometry in contemporary architecture. More complex shapes and volumes can be
accomplished with these mathematical tools. Only a few years ago architects working with a CAD
application were limited to the pre-set abilities of the available software. In more recent versions of
CAD and CAM software tools such restrictions are eased. New CAD applications, such as
Rhinoceros with its plugin Grasshopper allow creating more complex freeform shapes in digital
designing. If the pre-programmed tools are not sufficient, the architect has the possibility to script the
tools he may need. The feasibility of new designs is facilitated by new manufacturing methods based
-1-
on CAM process chains. However currently we are restricted by certain limits. One problem of the
new architects original language consists in the fact, that the shape-giving skin of buildings can be
realized only by very costly and expensive substructures. The skin of the building itself is limited
exclusively to the aesthetic qualities and fulfills no structural or structural-physical properties.
Furthermore, the realization of these structures is still very expensive, which is due to two factors: first,
production costs of the buildings skin, as this is usually made of a large amount of unique items.
Second, recent dimension tolerances in the construction branch require a high degree of adaption on
building sites. In the mechanical engineering industry these tolerances are only at a fraction of the
construction tolerances existing in the building industry. The Collaborative Research Centre 666
Integral Sheet Metal Design with Higher Order Bifurcations at the Technische Universitt Darmstadt
can integrally produce innovative products from sheet metal. Using this method load-bearing and thin
facade components become possible [1]. This new manufacturing process enables the serial
production of components for the building industry with small tolerances. When using this new
manufacturing process, it is very important to create modular component systems to realize the new
freeform architecture with as few components as possible. One way to understand how freeform
geometries can be modularized, is to decode how it works for rule geometries. On the basis of these
findings, strategies can be developed how any freeform geometry can be modularized.
tensile strength up to 800 N/mm2 without material failure to a total splitting depth of 20 mm per side
[7]. Also standard steels like DD11 (StW22), stainless steel X6Cr17, Aluminium AlMg3, H480LA
and other fine-grained steels have been split successfully.
The linear flow splitting process is limited to the production of bifurcations originating from the bend
edge. For the production of bifurcations at nearly any place in the sheet metal the new bulk forming
process linear bend splitting was developed. The essential difference compared to linear flow splitting
is the semi-finished part. For bend splitting the plane sheet metal strip first is formed for instance into
a U-profile by a conventional roll forming process (figure 2). The splitting rolls then target the
bending edges of the U-Profile. Thus it is possible to create a bifurcation in the place of the bended
edge with the existing splitting stands. After the splitting process the parts can be processed by roll
forming to a desired cross-section. Continuously produced parts are shown in figure 2. Especially
stringers are in focus for the use in load carrying surface structures.
Figure 2: Process chain linear flow splitting (upper) and linear bend splitting (lower) with preprocessing by roll
forming to different target geometries
The presented linear flow and linear bend splitting processes have a variety of benefits in comparison
with other possible manufacturing processes. In general, profiles made of sheet metal with bifurcations
(e.g. double T-profiles) have to be manufactured by lamination of sheet and entail a considerable
amount of work for tool design. Also the lamination leads to greater amount of material, which has to
be used. Furthermore the linear flow splitting process runs at ambient temperature. It is not necessary
to preheat the semi-finished part like it is, if double T-Profiles are produced by hot rolling. The
amount of energy needed is significantly less than producing by hot rolling. These advantages lead to
considerable resource and energy savings. Another benefit of the process can be seen by looking at the
resulting material properties. Because of the high natural strain in the deformed zone under superposed
-3-
compressive stresses, the grain structure changes during the process [7]. An ultra-fine grained
structure is obtained. The special characteristics of this grain structure are a good ductility and a
concomitant high tensile strength. The tensile strength is raised by the process in comparison to the
base material up to over 60% [8]. Again a better resource efficiency of this process can be claimed.
2.2 Deep Drawing of Blanks with bifurcated Cross-sections
A bend split metal strip can be cut into blanks at the end of a splitting line. These blanks serve as
wrought material for a subsequent deep drawing process in which they are formed to their final
spatially curved shape.
Deep drawing is a wide-spread and well known forming technology. It is used whenever sheet metal
parts with complex geometries (e.g. car body parts) are to be manufactured in large numbers. The
maximum size of deep drawn parts depends on the target geometry and the machinery used and varies
from a few square millimeters to a few square meters.
A classical deep drawing tool consists of a punch, a die and a blank holder (see figure 3). The blank is
positioned between the die and the punch, whose surfaces correspond to the target surfaces of the
finished part. By closing the gap between punch and die their shape is reproduced in the work piece.
The blank holder holds the blank in position. The adjustment of the blank holder force controls the
material flow into the gap and is a key parameter of the deep drawing process. It influences the stress
and strain distributions in the workpiece, the resulting sheet thickness at the end of the process and is
also used to prevent wrinkling in regions of the work piece which are under compressive stress during
the process.
Since within the context of deep drawing the term flange is used for the outer regions of a workpiece
(see figure 4) the flanges that result from the splitting process are referred to as stringers from here
on. Sheets with bend split bifurcations will be referred to as stringer sheets.
-4-
Deep drawing as described above cannot be applied to stringer sheets, simply because there is no room
for the stringers between the punch and the die. A variant of the process however replaces the punch
by a pressurized liquid medium. This pressure medium pushes the blank into the die as a punch would
do, but does not cause any collision of the stringers with solid parts of the tool. This variant of deep
drawing is referred to as sheet metal hydroforming. A detailed description is given in [9]. Figure 4
shows the schematic of a sheet metal hydroforming process.
It is noticeable that in hydroforming the stringers have to be on the inside of the global curvature of
the part. A replacement with a pressurized medium not of the punch but of the die allows for stringers
to be on the outside of a global curvature. This variant of deep drawing is referred to as hydromechanical deep drawing, described e.g. in [10].
Hydroforming of stringer sheets was first introduced in [11] using a rectangular cup as the target
geometry. A number of process limitations originating from the use of stringer sheets were identified:
The sudden change of the cross-section at the end of stringers causes high local stress
concentrations. In some cases this leads to necking or even cracking of the sheet.
High tensile stresses at the free edge of stringers (as may occur e.g. when a stringer is formed
across a concave edge) may result in collapsing stringers or sometimes rupture.
High compressive stresses in the free edge of a stringer cause them to buckle. Two kinds of
stringer buckling can be observed: global buckling occurs during free expansion when the
sheet is not yet in contact with the die but a dome with the stringers on the inside is formed by
bending. Then compressive stresses at the free edge of the stringers are induced. Local
buckling is a consequence of the part being formed into form features of the die with strong
convex curvatures inducing compressive stresses.
An uneven material draw in from the flange into the die cavity affects the positioning
tolerances of the stringers.
Strategies to overcome these challenges have been developed over the past few years. Results of this
development as well as the successful manufacture of the demonstrator shown in figure 5 are
described in [12].
As a basis for the gain in knowledge about the modularization of freeform geometries, it is first
important to examine the modularization of rule geometries. Three component families can be defined:
single-curved, double-curved in the same direction (synclastic) and double-curved in opposite
directions (anticlastic) [13]. To analyze possibilities of general modularization, below selected
geometries of these component families are examined.
3.1 Single-Curved Geometries
Single-curved geometries can be divided into two sub-groups. The first sub-group has a constant
curvature. Geometries of the second sub-group have a partially constant curvature and can be
assembled out of several constant sections. The more the curvature becomes non-constant, the more
components are needed for its modularization. In its extreme form this means that a fully non-constant
geometry can be composed of unique modules only.
Single-Curved Constant Geometries
As figure 6 shows, a single-curved constant geometry can be build just out of one repeated component.
In the idea of modularization both equilateral triangles and right-angle triangles were in use. In the
further investigation the approach of the right-angled triangles is pursued.
-5-
Figure 8: Non-constant
single-curved geometry
20 Component sections
80 Component sections
All identical
-6-
Triaxial Ellipsoid
The triaxial ellipsoid can be produced only with a large number of individual parts, because there are
different curvatures in all three axes (figure 11). Nevertheless, the triaxial ellipsoid is both in the yand z-axis symmetrical. In addition, just like the ellipsoid of revolution, through the axial symmetry in
the x-axis, all components in the y- and z-axis are mirrored.
3.3 Double-Curved Anticlastic Geometries
A double-curved anticlastic geometry can be identified for example in the geometry of a hyperbolic
paraboloid (figure 12).
This can be manufactured either with only one component or it is composed of several components.
The geometry is axial symmetric to the center point. Thus, the geometry can produce two identical
components or modular systems (depending on meshing) with the second part being a mirror of the
first part (figure 12). However, this principle can only be applied if the geometry is curved constantly
in both axes.
3.4 Conclusion of the Modularization of rule Geometries
It is not possible to define a modular component system and to create different freeform geometries
out of this. If a freeform geometry with the correct degree of curvature is to be split in a component
system, it needs to be divided into its own modular set of components. It is also assumed that no
component is similar to a segment of a different geometry. If freeform geometries are modularized in
modular component systems, other computer-based tools will have to be used.
-7-
Freeforms can be modularized with a number of different approaches, most of which are derived from
construction practice requirements. In doing so, individual solutions for specific projects were
developed. The Yas Island Marina Hotel serves as an example, in which the panelization and steel
beam layout for the gridshell were optimized [15]. In contrast, there are approaches based on
algorithmic solutions for the optimization of the aesthetical and manufacturing requirements. In [16]
freeform geometries were approximated by strips of ruled surfaces. The modularization of doublecurved geometries into planar quadrangles is described in [17]. In [18] Eigensatz et al. demonstrated
modularization possibilities of freeform geometries into curved components using as many planar or
single-curved components as possible. Double-curved components should differ only in their pre-cut
but not in their curvature. This way the required tools can be reused as much as possible. These
approaches are already used in construction practice. They generally optimize the single components
according to aesthetical or manufacturing requirements and lead to individual solutions for individual
freeform geometries.
The idea of using the advantages of contentious production as provided by the technology of the CRC
666 calls for a definition of a more general modular component system. This should contain as few
parts as possible but at the same time be usable for different freeform geometries.
4.1 Composite Rule Geometries
A first approach to the modularization of freeform geometries is the assembling with well known and
already modularized geometries. The disadvantages are the limitated design options which can only
rely on a given geometry catalog (figure 13).
4.3 Creation of Modular Component Systems for Freeform Geometries using Planar
Components
Modularizing freeform geometries into modular component systems result in deviations from the
original geometry. The more deviation is allowed the potential for creating modular component
systems arises. One current approach is to map a given geometry with a limited number of planar
components.
As figure 15 shows, a grid is projected from one direction of projection onto the geometry and the
geometry is subdivided correspondingly. If the surface is divided into planar triangles, 200 unique
triangles are needed (figure 16). Then the edges of the triangles were positioned in a vertical grid to
avoid later the fracturing of the surface. Next, two modular component systems with triangles are
determined. The modular component systems are defined by a section through a prism of a triangle.
The number of components of the modular system is based on the defined edges in the X direction
times the gradations in the Y direction. The large modular system has 399 and the small one has 43
components. Next, the area on the grid of the predetermined geometry is compared to the possible
previously defined components and replaced with the most similar component from the predefined
building blocks. In order to avoid extensive manual processing, a script has been programmed.
Depending on the size of the predefined modular component system, the original geometry is shown
nearly ideal or abstracted. The programmed script uses from the available modular component system
just the needed components. Figure 17 shows how the large modular component system (399 pieces)
was used to build the geometry with 101 different components. Similarly, figure 18 shows how the
small modular component system (43 pieces) was used to build the geometry with 21 different
components.
4.4 Future Prospects on New Approaches
Products manufactured with the technology of the CRC 666 are qualified excellently for the usage in
building skins. They fulfill the requirements of both structural and structural-physical properties. Due
to the technology of hydroforming of stringer sheets aesthetic requirements of non-planar surfacestructure components are also met. Every freeform geometry can be modularized in a modular
component system by using digital tools. Due to this possibility the advantage of serial production can
be used in addition. Parametric and algorithmic based methods can improve modularization. This
includes, among other things, the ability to abstract an existing geometry by a modular component
system with a limited number of curved components. Another option in contrast is to already
incorporate these constraints into the geometry creation software. With software like this only such
freeforms can be generated which are suited for modularization.
Future investigations will include the question of how the flexibility of modules as well as module
connections limits the number of components of a modular component system.
-9-
Acknowledgements
The investigations presented in this paper were carried out within the research projects D2, B4 and B5
of the Collaborative Research Centre 666 Integral sheet metal design with higher order bifurcations Development, Production, Evaluation. The authors thank the German Research Foundation (DFG) for
founding and supporting the CRC 666.
References
[1] Herbert, J., Schfer, St.: Verwendungspotenziale im Bauwesen fr integrale Blechbauweisen hherer
Verzweigungsordnung, in: Bauingenieur 83 (10/2008), pp. 410-418.
[2] Zaeh, M. F., Huber, S., Gerhard, P., Ruhstorfer, M.: Bifocal Hybrid Laser Beam Welding and Friction Stir
Welding of Aluminum Extrusion Components, in: Advanced Material Research 43 (2008), pp. 69-80.
[3] Fiedler, U.: Prozesssicherheit beim HSC-Frsen von Aluminium-Knetlegierungen, in: Darmstdter
Forschungsberichte fr Konstruktion und Fertigung, Dissertation, Shaker Verlag, Darmstadt, 2002.
[4] Eberl, F., Gardiner, S., Campanile, G., Surdon, G., Venmans, M., Prangnell, P.: Ageformable panels for
commercial aircraft, in: Journal of Areospace Engineering, Professional Engineering Publishing, Vol. 222,
Number 6, (2008), pp. 873-886.
[5] Vucic, D.: Methoden zum Herstellen und Weiterverarbeiten von Spaltprofilieren, Shaker Verlag, Aachen,
2010.
[6] Jckel, M.: Grundlagen des Spaltprofilierens von Blechplatinen, Shaker Verlag, Aachen, 2005.
[7] Mller, C., Bohn, T., Bruder, E., Bruder, T., Landersheim, V., el Dsoki, C., Groche, P., Veleva, D.: Severe
Plastic Deformation by Linear Flow Splitting, in: Materialwissenschaft und Werkstofftechnik, 38(10)
(2007), pp. 842-854.
[8] Bohn, T., Bruder, E., Mller, C.: Formation of ultrafine-grained microstructure in HSLA steel profiles by
linear flow splitting, in: Journal of Materials Science 43 (2008), pp. 7307-7312.
[9] Singh, H.: Fundamentals of Hydroforming, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 2003.
[10] Tschaetsch, H.: Metal Forming Practise, Processes Machines Tools, Springer Verlag, 2006.
[11] Ertugrul, M., Groche, P.: Hydroforming of Laser Welded Sheet Stringers, in: Key Engineering Materials
410-411 (2009), pp. 69-76.
[12] Bcker, F., Groche, P., Abedini, S.: Stringer Sheet Forming, in: Proceedings of the NAMRI/SME, Vol. 40,
Notre Dame, USA, 2012.
[13] Petzold, M., Wellnitz, F., Schfer, St.: Zusammenhang von Geometrie und Konstruktion im Bauwesen, in:
Tagungsband 3. Zwischenkolloquium SFB 666 (2010), pp. 117-122.
[14] Krausse, J., Lichtenstein, C.: Your private sky: Discurs R. Buckminster Fuller, Verlag Lars Mller, 2001.
[15] Burry, J., Burry, M.: The new mathematics of architecture, Thames & Hudson, 2010.
[16] Flry, S., Pottmann, H.: Ruled Surfaces for Rationalization and Design in Architecture, in: LIFE
in:formation. On Responsive Information and Variations in Architecture (2010), pp. 103-109.
[17] Schiftner A.,Balze, J.: Statics-Sensitive Layout of Planar Quadrilateral Meshes, in: Advances in
Architectural Geometry (2010), pp. 221-234.
[18] Eigensatz, M., Kilian, M., Schiftner, A., Mitra, N. J., Pottmann, H., Pauly, M.: Paneling Architectural
Freeform Surfaces, in: Advances in Architectural Geometry (2010), pp. 49-72.
- 10 -
Summary
Two highly distinct building systems live side by side in conventional ventilated faades. Even
though outer skins have reached a high level of technological sophistication, inner walls are mostly
shackled to tradition.
This study focuses on the development of a prefabricated panel to meet the functional needs and
specifications of the inner skins of ventilated faades. Panel design depends on the grouping of the
basic inner skin functions.
The most interesting solution is a concrete sandwich panel with two very thin exterior layers made
of UHPCFR with an XPS core. This proposal offers all the required functions and can be
optimized for each situation through the specific design of the materials.
masonry units with mortar in such a way that they form a solid wall. Whether the faade functions
correctly depends on this being carried out properly.
Here, two highly different techniques live side by side in one unique architectural element. While the
first is shaped by ongoing developments in architectural technology, the second depends on the skill of
the workforce used to put it together. One is clean and dry, while the other generates a significant
amount of rubble and requires the use of binding agents that require curing time.
This coexistence would not entail any problem were one able to conceive of the faade as a single,
whole element. However, the lack of methods to guarantee the stability and flatness of the inner skin
means that one cannot count on it as support. The outer skin is designed in an autonomous way, by
observing the edges of the slab and incorporating more or less complex mechanisms to ensure
verticality.
Therefore, the design process for the outer skin cannot gain from the benefits of having a properly
planned inner skin.
Ventilated faades entail significant advantages over traditional faades, even though they have yet to
reach an optimal state of development. We are at an intermediate point in the evolutionary process,
and only by conceiving of the system as a whole can it be optimized.
Not only is the inner skin highly unreliable in terms of its execution due to the increasing scarcity of
skilled masons, but one must provide solutions to multiple functionalities without the benefit of having
analyzed the mechanisms available for satisfying them, a priori.
Though ventilated faades incorporate a specific mechanism to make them waterproof, and in most
cases they also provide thermal insulation, the remaining functionalities of the enclosure are provided
by brick work. There has not been an analysis of how this brick work fulfills all those functions.
Thus, it is important that we carry out a functional analysis of the faade as a whole so as to
determine where and how these functionalities should be resolved in the section of the enclosure.
1.3 Initial Proposals for Rationalizing the Faade as a Whole
Teams of architects and researchers from different companies specialized in areas related to the
enclosure of faades have made proposals illustrating how far this development could evolve. The
plethora of initiatives (such as drywall, metal sheets, and precast and sandwich panels) reflects the
lack of systematic criteria.
The simplest solution supposes the inner skin of the ventilated faade to be a drywall construction
made up of a traditional framework of galvanized steel studs girded with cement boards or ribbed
panels made of steel. In these cases, the outer membrane is disconnected from the inner skin, which
would hardly be able to withstand the pressure of the wind. For this reason, there is a trend towards
prefabricating the inner skin, by which the concept of the faade as a whole continues to be ignored.
The quest for a maximum optimization of this framework explains the proliferation of other systems
that can enable it to bear the weight of the faade. Some are based on well-known stick-type curtain
wall technology.
-2-
Though these systems conceive of the faade as a whole, they still are frameworks that must be
assembled on site. Nevertheless, the assembly process could easily be shifted to a workshop and the
component panels could be brought to the construction site.
The panel format seems to be the best choice. Thus, any sort of panel can be used in this new
application, from solid monolithic panels, to lightweight ribbed ones.
The faade of Renzo Pianos building on the Rue des Meaux in Paris has come to represent a historical
paradigm, as it represent one of the first known instances in which a prefabricated inner skin was used
to support the weight of the totality of a faade.
Its opening was closed off with a G.R.C. sheet that was high enough, wide enough and thick enough to
be affixed directly to the main structure of the building, though this could have alternately been
resolved using any other kind of interlocking paneling.
The new Spanish building codes, encapsulated in the publication Cdigo Tcnico de la Edificacin
(Technical Building Codes, henceforth referred to as CTE), have been an obstacle to the evolution
of the conventional ventilated faade, as they require any alternative building solutions not included
within its guidelines to seek approval via a Documento Reconocido (Recognized Document) that
guarantees that it will comply with whichever functionalities they are meant to provide. Any
innovative proposal not sponsored by a company able to take this extra step is thus rendered
economically unfeasible.
Most of the solutions cited do not conform to the building solutions compiled in the CTE, which
entails that they must be backed up by a Recognized Document.
What is apparently negative for technological innovation in the field of construction should be
understood as a catalyst for a process for change, whereby future development depends on an effective
management of the issue by organizations representing architects interests.
-3-
2.1 Objective
This thesis focuses on the development of a panel aimed at resolving the inner skin of ventilated
faades so as to provide a rigorous solution to the functionalities and requirements that these faades
necessitate. Such a panel will also support the weight of the faade without actually forming part of
the main structure of the building.
2.2 Hypothesis
The inner skins of ventilated faades must be resolved with a semi-product or multifunctional
component panel that is optimized so as to meet the functionalities required of it. These panels are
large in format and make use of dry-set, reversible methods of attachment.
2.3 Strategy: The Reassigning of Functionalities as a Criterion of Panel Design
The type of panels that arise from this study will vary depending on the range of functionalities they
are designed to fulfill.
The panels studied herein can be based on semi-products as well as component pieces; in other words,
some will be highly prefabricated products that in certain cases will admit dimensional variations on
site (semi-products), while in other cases these will not be possible (as in the case of components).
Whether a panel makes use of semi-products or components entails that one analyzing it will do so
based on whichever functionalities are already incorporated when the panel is brought to the
construction site.
Elements added on site to complete the faade system do not form part of the panel.
The functionalities that the inner skin of a faade must fulfill are those which are vital to making the
space inside habitable; providing thermal comfort and acoustical insulation and creating an airtight
interior. Fire prevention and load-bearing requirements, insofar as they relate to the forces that act on
the enclosure, are also basic functionalities.
The remaining requirements are not taken into account when defining the proposals for the inner skin,
though they will play a determining role when evaluating these proposals.
2.4 Defining the Functionality of the Panel: Load-bearing Capacity versus Horizontal
Deflection
There are many functionalities that can be provided by the panels of a faade, but there is only one that
is common to every combination of requirements: that of bearing the faade weight and wind load.
Out of the different layers that can make up the inner skin of the ventilated faade, the panels focused
on in this study satisfy the functionality of bearing the load of the faade system.
In any system, not just those used in construction, once the skeleton has been identified, any other
requirement can be resolved by adding a functionality to that framework or by incorporating a new
element to it. If the framework has not been defined, the system will lack an underlying structure,
which means that the remaining elements that make it up will neither be able to maintain their position
nor be held in place.
-4-
Of the two basic types of functionalities, conditioning and service, only those related to conditioning
imply regulation of energy and material flows through the faade. These functionalities play the
largest role in the design and definition of the materials that make up the enclosure.
Service-related functionalities have little relevance when choosing materials, although they do play a
role in the exterior finishes. They should also be taken into account when designing the assembly of
layers that make up the enclosure, although normally these will not imply considerable variations to a
design aimed at conditioning in- and outflows.
Functionalities of conditioning that can or should be resolved by the inner skin of the faade
Service functionalities that can or should be resolved by the inner skin of the faade
Though service functionalities cannot be assigned quantifiable values, they do have an impact on the
design of the enclosure. The installation of utilities can influence the superimposition of layers while
also favoring given geometries for the panel.
Slenderness
Light weight
Objective:
To satisfy the functionalities necessary such that the faade as a whole
provides an acceptable level of comfort inside the space it surrounds.
Context:
The design of a panel for the inner skin of the ventilated faade depends on the functionalities it must
provide a solution to. Its typically null presence in the finished building gives it a purely functional
character, which is not conditioned by formalism or other subjective variables.
-5-
As was stated at the beginning, ventilated faades are those enclosures characterized by a
specialization in waterproofing, while the remainder of the functions are entrusted to an inner skin of
prefabricated paneling that recalls traditional construction techniques. Regarding this inner skin,
however, there have been few occasions on which specialists have reflected on what these
functionalities are and what the best way to satisfy them is. For this reason, it is precisely such a
functional analysis that we are interested in, and which will serve us as a guide vis--vis the taxonomy.
4.2 Separation of the Functionalities from the Inner Skin
The objective of this taxonomy is to categorize the possible solutions for load-bearing inner skins in
ventilated faades based on the remaining functionalities they must fulfill.
The maximum concentration supposes the satisfaction of five basic functionalities, subsequently to
which these functionalities are separated into specialized layers. These layers are themselves resolved
by specific elements designed for precisely such a purpose, whereby the resolution of these
functionalities ceases to be the responsibility of the load-bearing element.
It is possible that as the number of functionalities separated from the load-bearing skin increases, they
end up being resolved by a single layer adjacent to the latter. In such a case, separation would not be
accompanied by specialization, but would instead have produced a regrouping of functionalities
around a different element than the one focused on in this study. Insofar as what concerns us in this
study, these would be functionalities that had been expelled from the panel and would thus have no
impact on the definition of the latter.
4.3 Sequence of Separation
The progressive separation of functionalities does not automatically yield functional types. Instead,
these depend on the range of possible combinations in which the functionalities can be grouped in the
panel. A panel can satisfy the functionality of thermal insulation without being fireproof, or vice versa.
There is no a priori determined order to which functionalities should be separated first.
Despite the fact that five functionalities have been taken into account in developing the taxonomy, the
possible combinations should not include them all.
Load bearing
The load bearing functionality is indispensable, as it is a characteristic of the element being studied.
This functionality is the only one that can be resolved by means of a discontinuous panel. This
discontinuity can yield a variation in the thickness in section or an alternation of solids and voids.
The load bearing functionality is not always located in the inner skin. Wind load can be deflected by
the outer skin, by resorting to supports of a lesser mechanical capacity to make up the structure of the
inner skin. There is also the possibility that this breaking down of the load bearing element can be
carried to an extreme, whereby by substructures appear for the different layers forming the enclosure.
Still, breaking the load bearing functionality down into substructures, or even relocating it to the inner
skin does not simplify the design of the enclosure. As has been stated above, this has been taken as a
defining characteristic of the inner skin panel in this study.
Airtightness
Airtightness is a basic condition for achieving thermal insulation, fire retention and acoustical
reduction. As such, it cannot be separated unless all three of these have already been delegated to
another element beforehand.
Acoustical
The acoustical functionality requires a minimum value for the massing. If this is not met, a
discontinuity must be established between whatever sheets make up the panel. If the panel has an
adequate section so as to satisfy the functionalities of thermal insulation and fire retention, it will
typically also provide for the necessary degree of acoustical reduction, either by dint of its mass or the
succession of layers.
According to the Law of Mass and as is stipulated in the CTE, a mass of 43 kg/m is sufficient to
provide the necessary 32 dBA of insulation. This mass can be achieved with a 3-cm-thick material of a
density of 1,433 kg/m, 5 cm if the density is 860 kg/m or 8 cm for 538 kg/m. These densities could
-6-
correspond to a lightweight concrete or even wood or aerated concrete. Fulfilling the load bearing
functionality could possibly lead to an increase in density or thickness, but even so the thermal and fire
retention properties would not be resolved.
Thermal insulation and fire retention
A material that is a poor conductor and is not highly combustible satisfies the functionality of thermal
insulation but not that of fire retention. By increasing the thickness, it is possible to improve the
response to the latter by slowing its loss of integrity.
In this case, the thickness is conditioned by fire retention and not by thermal insulation.
If a material is sufficiently conductive, the thickness required to provide thermal insulation will surely
be greater than that needed to avoid fire propagation.
For instance, the combustion speed (0.76 mm/min) of KLH plywood requires the use of a 117-mmthick panel to satisfy the fire retention property. This thickness is increased to 200 mm to fulfill the
required transmittance.
This same thickness of aerated concrete is capable of withstanding fire for six hours but it barely is
able to fulfill the transmittance required in the harshest climatic zone, E1.
In combustible materials of a thermal conductivity of around 0.035 W/mK, that is, all those thermal
insulators not included in category A1, the increase in thickness is justified by the materials satisfying
fire retention requirements.
In a steel sandwich panel with a polyisocyanurate (Polyiso) core, less thickness is required to satisfy
the thermal functionality (80 mm) than for satisfying the needs for fire retention (175 mm).
The combination of separating these two functionalities from the panel gives rise to the definition of
two types that each fulfill four functionalities, depending on whether the fourth functionality included
is that of thermal insulation or fire retention, respectively.
STRUCTURE
MORPHOLOGY
Rectangular
Homogeneous
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Sandwich
Hollow
Heterogeneous
Ribbed
Nervate
Stud
Non-rectangular
-7-
It does not make much sense to apply panels of a complex structure to functional types that provide
responses to only a few functionalities.
The different shapes lead one to work with a diverse array of materials depending on the typical
processes used to craft these materials.
Ribbed structures typically bring to mind folds, laminates or extrusion, which in turn favor the use of
wide variety of metals, among which one finds steel. Steels high thermal conductivity and mechanical
capacity confirm the non-multifunctional character of the solution, which is instead focused on the
stability and airtightness of the faade.
Hollow corrugated panels are benefited by the monolithic nature of the amorphous materials made by
molding or extrusion. These same materials allow one to insert connectors between the strips of the
sandwiches prior to assembling them.
The possibilities resulting from this combination of functional types and morphologies are
summarized in the array accompanying this text. Obviously some morphologies fit better to a specific
functional type than to another.
Figure 6: Array of possibilities for the inner wall of the ventilated faade.
The resulting array raises several possibilities for the development of prefabricated inner wall
solutions for the ventilated faade. After a detailed analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of
each of them, included in the complete document of the doctoral thesis The inner skin of the
ventilated faade. Analysis, taxonomy and prospects for the future, the next step has been the
development of one of those solutions.
In collaboration with iMat Construction Technology Centre - we are working in the implementation
of this inner wall for ventilated faade based on a sandwich panel made with two thin exterior layers
of UHPCFR (15 mm each one) and a XPS core material which is the only responsible for the
solidarity between layers.
All the essays conducted so far have been very successful from the point of view of solidarity between
layers without the inclusion of specific connections. The panel is able to easily support wind loads up
to 200 kg/m.
-8-
References
[1] Cyril Sweett - Global knowhow. Kingspan off-site architectural facade benchmark study issue report.
08/2006. Reference im/240806/15612/word.
[2] Paricio, I. La Construccin de la Arquitectura Vol. 2 Los Elementos. Institut de Tecnologia de la
Construcci de Catalunya - ITEC. 3 edicin Marzo 1996.
[3] Avellaneda, J. Faanes lleugeres ventilades. Criteris per al disseny constructiu. Papers de Construcci,
1997 Departament de Construccions Arquitectniques I.
[4] Avellaneda, J. Impermeabilidad al agua en fachadas de placas ligeras con juntas abiertas. I Congreso de
Ventanas y Fachadas ligeras, 1997. Centro de Investigacin Tecnolgica, CIDEMCO .
[5] A.J. Brookes. Cladding of buildings. Construction Press, London and New York. 1983.
[6] Russell, B. Building Systems, Industrialization, and Architecture. John Wiley & Sons. London, New York,
Sydney, Toronto. 1981.
[7] Brock, L. Designing the exterior wall. An architectural guide to the vertical Envelope. Ed. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2005.
[8] Manual De Producto: Fachadas Ligeras. Madrid: Asociacin Espaola de Fabricantes de Fachadas Ligeras
y Ventanas ASEFAVE, 2006. ISBN 8481434655.
[9] Araujo, R. y Ferrs, X. Muro Cortina. Tectnica n16 Diciembre 2003. (Revista)
[10] G.O. Handegord. The Performance of Exterior Walls. Building Science Forum 1982. National Research
Council Canada - Institute for Research in Construction.
[11] Hutcheon, N.B. Fundamental Considerations in the Design of Exterior Walls for Buildings. Annual
Meeting of the Engineering Institute of Canada, Halifax, May 1953. National Research Council Canada Institute for Research in Construction.
[12] Cdigo Tcnico de la Edificacin (CTE). Ministerio de la Vivienda, Madrid: BOE, 2008. Real Decreto
314/2006, de 17 de marzo, por el que se aprueba el Cdigo Tcnico de la Edificacin. ISBN
9788434017375 Coleccin: Separatas del Boletn Oficial del Estado.
-9-
Summary
This paper describes the first steps of the realization of a resource efficient, process-controlled, on
prefabricated parts based construction method for shells and freeform geometries in concrete and
ultra high performance concrete. Fundamental idea is a parametrical computerized fabrication
method, which is characterized by its potential to enable the achievement for almost every
essential work step by one industrial 7-axis robot minimizing the required machine outfit.
An adaptive reusable formwork for prefabricated segments is the core area of our research project,
which is also carried by the Institute for Structure Concrete, the Institute of Technology and
Testing of Building Materials and the Laboratory for Structural Engineering.
-1-
The idea of modern architecture, irrelevant if you think about trivial architecture or landmark projects,
is connected to the questions of sustainability and energy efficiency. In todays discourse an essential
contribution to resource efficiency is the economization of construction materials for building
structures and envelopes, as well as an optimization of the energetic production expenditure. This can
be reached by consequent use of lightweight design and lightweight materials, which have an
influence on the whole material usage from the building envelope to the foundation. The research
project presented in this paper is based on the lightweight design of shell structures in UHPC (Ultra
High Performance Concrete).
1.1 Shells Inspiring Structures for Architects and Engineers
Shells as single- or double-curved surfaces are lightweight load-bearing structures, and because of
their special geometry they have a favorably load bearing behavior which causes the immanent low
material consumption. In addition to that they fascinate by their elegance and a logical combination of
form and distribution of forces. Like no other principle shells combine the load carrying structure and
the building skin to a unique architectural entity. Referring to this, Heinz Isler ones wrote that the thin
walled shell might be the most efficient construction method in material universe [1].
1.2 Material and Production
Concrete, because of its properties like its compression strength and being castable, is an ideal
material to manufacture this kind of structure. Thats why concrete shells where produced for many
years, not just for landmark projects (e.g L`Oceanografic, TWA Terminal) using the iconic character,
but also for functional industrial buildings.
Many works and patents for construction methods document the diversity that resulted from the ideas
of architects and engineers, especially during the first half of the twentieth century, and which had one
ambition: increasing the efficiency of shells. New developments like on-site production methods, like
they were realized by Wallace Neff or Dante Bini, and their special concepts for membrane formworks,
or the segmentation in semi-precast elements that coined Pier Luigi Nervi lifes work, enhanced the
idea gradually. Nervi resumed after 30 years of work that prefabrication still seemed to be that kind of
building technique, offering most potential to free concrete structures from the slavery of timber
formwork [2].
1.3 State of the Technology
Even if these developments show a still incompletely exploit potential, the height of the concrete
shells ended during the 1970s. Except a few examples, shell and freeform geometries are realized
using glass, steel, or membrane structures today. Increasing technical complexity is accepted for this.
Often named reason for the explained paradigm change is the proportionately expensive formwork in
comparison with the cheap material reinforced concrete [3]. But labour costs for formwork and
falsework cause this problem. Moulds (especially for double curved elements) still are milled from a
solid component, or in bigger scale made by a multitude of planar or single curved elements [4, 5].
Adaptive formworks are in demand to react on this deficit. That means formworks that are able to
reproduce many different geometries based on a reversible system. First ideas can be found in actual
research reports. In Axel Kilians dissertation from 2006 experiment 10 showed a model controlled
using 9 motorized threaded rods, and ADAPA-Adapting Architecture presented a similar looking
project for the fabrication of thin concrete panels at the Computational design modeling in Berlin
2011 [6, 7].
The chapter State of technology has shown the hidden potential, lying in the use of the new digital
tools, not just for form generation but for production. A direct transmission of these techniques, and
their application on new high performance materials, could help to realize a production process as
efficient as the geometrical structure.
-2-
-3-
a)
b)
b)
a)
c)
c)
A.3b. Analysis
of special segments
A.5. Reinforcement
A.7. Concreting
-4-
special segment
Adaptive Formwork
The adaptive formwork [Fig. 3] (mentioned in the organigram as A.6a) is built up of a rotatable frame
that is rasterized in orthogonal field of pins on both sides. These pins can be axial adjusted and fixed
serially by an industrial robot. A formwork facing that is connected to the pins covers the field and
flexible layered battens proof the border area.
Figure 5: Grasshopper-file
Figure 6: Implementation on a
segment
Additional to the development of new analysing tools and production processes, materials technology
has evolved too. Concrete technology as well as reinforcement provides new materials with a lot of
potential. So as a logical consequence in this project steel reinforced concrete is substituted by UHPC
(with or without steelfibres) and CFPR (Carbonfiber-Reinforced Polymers).
To prove their combined material performance, first tests were conducted and several are following.
-5-
Figure 8: Investigated surface characteristics: smooth, fine sanded and coarsely sanded lamellae
The test results showed that fine sanded surface (test series 1) achieved the best bond strength results
by far with an average maximum bond stress of 8,30 N/mm. The smooth and coarsely sanded surface
achieved an average of 2,51 N/mm (test series 1) and 1,99 N/mm (test series 3), which demonstrates
that the surface roughening does not necessarily lead to bond strength improvement.
The test series 1 with fine sanded lamellae reached a maximum pull-out force of approximately 20 kN
with a bond length of 8 cm. On the assumption, that the maximum chargeable bond stress remains
constant when the bond length is enlarged, the projected anchorage length of the investigated CFRP
lamellae is 25 cm.
-6-
test series 1b
6
10
test series 1c
6
test series 2a
test series 2b
2
test series 1a
10
bond stress [N/mm]
10
test series 2c
0
0,0
0,1
slip[mm]
0,0
0,2
0,1
slip [mm]
test series 3a
test series 3b
test series 3c
4
2
0
0,2
0,0
0,1
slip [mm]
0,2
Figure 10: Cross section of the UHPC plate used for test series
The test results show that UHPC plates with centric CFRP reinforcement (test series 1) had an almost
8 times higher breaking load than those without (test series 2). Consequently, the reinforcement causes
a significant increase of load bearing capacity. The bending stiffness EJI in the non-cracked condition
was 150.000 (test series 1) and 120.000 kNcm (test series 2), the concrete cracked at a moment of 35
kNcm (test series 1) and 31 kNcm (test series 2). Thus, the centric CFRP reinforcement did not increase bending stiffness in non-cracked condition and crack moment substantially.
3,5
3,0
test series 1a
2,5
test series 1b
3,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
3,0
test series 2a
2,5
test series 2b
2,0
test series 2c
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
0,0
0
10
15
20
25
deformation [mm]
30
35
40
10
15
20
25
deformation [mm]
-7-
30
35
40
Connecting Methods
One of the core issues of prefabrication is the connection of the segments. In a loadbearing shell made
of prefabricated elements, the joint primarily has to carry membrane forces, but also bending moments
and transverse forces. Just a few examples using joining technologies that can fulfil the requirements
were realized.
a) Wet joints - Subsequent cast of the joints with overlapping reinforcement [10].
b) Use of semi-precast parts, which are casted with a second external concrete layer. Prominent
example is the Palazetto dello Sport in Rome by Pier Luigi Nervi [11].
c) Carry of the internal forces by high precision, subsequent finished dry joints in combination
with reversible fasteners, eventually used for prestressing. Realized example is the
Wildbrcke in Vlkermarkt [12].
5.1 Methodology
The method that is brought into focus is the dry joint. Idea of this technique is to maximize the
surface contact and thereby the static friction. The segments can be connected by reversible fasteners.
This technique requires high precision grinding of the contact faces.
According to these requirements the tools and the grinding material were developed in close
cooperation with Rappold Winterthur Technology GmbH. They are available for first tests. The
specification was defined as following:
a) Material: Steel fibre reinforced UHPC
b) Precision: 2/10 mm measured at the outline
c) Minimize forces in the tool
The process scheme is known from the typical milling process and is divided in two stages. In the first
step the tool roughs down the concrete. In the second step the abrasive disc cuts the steel fibre
reinforcement. The first tests attest the strategy fulfilling all demands. On-going research focuses on
questions of speed and the rate of removal.
A transfer of this strategy for the application on double curved elements is aim of the next steps.
Arising questions to solve are:
Get knowledge about the tool material interaction using thin elements made from UHPC
Questions of measurement systems to align the elements and to verify the results of machining
-8-
Preview
Previous results of our research demonstrate the potential of the new developed procedure. The
interacting of the three topics: form/geometry, material and assembly/fabrication have become a
key issue at the Institute for Structural Design.
In the next 4 years to come the realization of a big scale prototype of a parametrical designed and
prefabricated UHPC-shellstructure will be the aim of our research.
References
[1] Isler, H.: Moderner Schalenbau, in: Arcus 18: Zum Werk von Felix Candela Die Kunst der leichten
Schalen, pp. 50, Verlagsgesellschaft Rudolph Mller, Kln, 1992
[2] Rhel, H.: Wie wurden Schalen gebaut, in: Arcus 18: Zum Werk von Felix Candela Die Kunst der
leichten Schalen, pp. 42, Verlagsgesellschaft Rudolph Mller, Kln, 1992
[3] Sobek, W.: Auf pneumatisch gesttzten Schalungen hergestellte Betonschalen, Verlag Ursula Sobek,
Stuttgart, 1987.
[4] Nerdinger W. Freiform: Ortbeton, in: Wendepunkt/e im Bauen Von der seriellen zur digitalen
Architektur, pp.164-167, DETAIL, Institut fr internationale Architekturdokumentation, Mnchen, 2010.
[5] Bollinger K., Grohmann M., Weilandt A.: Rolex Learning Center in Lausanne, in: Detail Analog und
Digital, pp.470-478, DETAIL, Institut fr internationale Architekturdokumentation, Mnchen, 2010.
[6] Kilian, A.: Design Exploration through Bidirectional Modeling of Constrains. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 2006.
[7] Raun, C. Kristensen, M.K., Kirkegaard, P.H.: Dynamic Double Curvature Mould System, Computational
Design Modelling , 291-300, Springer-Verlag, Berlin heidelberg, 2011.
[8] Knig, G.: Hochleistungsbeton, Ernst Sohn Verlag, Berlin, 2001.
[9] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton: Sachstandsbericht UHPC, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, 2008.
[10] Dallinger, S.; Pardatscher, H.; Kollegger, J.: Zweifach gekrmmte Schalen aus Betonfertigteilen. In:
Zement + Beton 5/2009
[11] Nerdinger W. Stahlbeton-Halbfertigteile, in: Wendepunkt/e im Bauen Von der seriellen zur digitalen
Architektur, pp.112, DETAIL, Institut fr internationale Architekturdokumentation, Mnchen, 2010.
[12] Sparowitz, L.; Freytag, B.; Reichel, M.; Zimmermann, W.: WILD Bridge - A Sustainable Arch Made of
UHPFRC -. - in: Sustainable Arch Bridges 2011, pp. 45 70, 3rd Chinese-Croatian Joint Colloquium on
Long Arch Bridges, Zagreb, Croatia
-9-
Summary
This paper describes a research project initiated by MArch student Andrei Gheorghe in
collaboration with engineers (Werner Sobek, TimMacFarlane) at the Graduate School of Design
(GSD) Harvard. The project explores degrees of visual and climatic permeability by using glass. It
introduces glass fins, which are twisted in order to allow for cross-ventilation and dichroic effects.
The torsion capability of glass is analyzed with the aim to create a porous, air permeable faade
prototype. Further aspects are identifying the effect of twisting on the bending capacity of glass
and corresponding deflection measurements. The project attempts to identify the technical limits of
this application through FE analysis and small scale model building.
Design aspects and material qualities of dichroic glass are investigated. Through layers of metal
oxide, visible light is split in beams of different wavelenghts (colors). The color changes at
different viewpoints. Details and alternative solutions of joints and gaskets are developed and
discussed.
Keywords: twisted glass, dichroic effects, permeable glass facade, kinetic facade
General Approach
With fast developments currently occurring in structural design techniques, technology and
ecotechnology, one of the most fascinating and interesting frontiers in architecture takes place during
collaborations of designers with open-minded engineers Sobek et al. [1]. The research project was
conducted by MArch student Andrei Gheorghe in collaboration with the engineers Werner Sobek and
Tim Macfarlane at the Graduate School of Design (GSD) Harvard. The project explores degrees of
visual and climatic permeability by using glass. It introduces glass fins, which are twisted in order to
allow for cross-ventilation and dichroic effects.
1.1 Main Question
The torsion capability of glass is analyzed with the aim to create a porous, air permeable faade
prototype. Further aspects are identifying the effect of twisting on the bending capacity of glass and
corresponding deflection measurements. The project attempts to identify the technical limits of this
application through FE analysis and small scale model building. Design aspects and material qualities
of dichroic glass are investigated. The glass color changes at different view points and perspectives.
Details and alternative solutions of joints and gaskets are developed and discussed.
Aesthetics
and Andos pierced structures are obvious examples. Furthermore, light has most emotional power
when it is filtered, or reflected, or intensified by mediating elements [2].
2.2 Dichroic Glass
The affective qualities of light are accentuated by motion of the mediating elements. Natural light
becomes transcendent when it is being squeezed through small openings, or broken into patterns, or
filtered into colors while coming from a hidden source Carpenter [2]. Kinetic effects may be
transmitted which bring into a building a mysterious living pulse. Multicolored projections of light
patterns in the Oregon Institute of Technology are created by sun passing through strips of dichroic
glass. The visual display changes color depending upon the angle of entrance or reflection of light
[3].
In this research project, design aspects and material qualities of dichroic glass are investigated.
Through layers of metal oxide applicated on the glass, visible light is split in beams of different
wavelenghts (colors) [4],[14]. The color changes at different view points. Figure 1 displays reference
examples by James Carpenter and John Blazy.
Sustainability
3.1 Overheating
With the increasing use of glass in facades the realization of the disadvantages became visible:
overheating and heat loss [5]. In 1969, in The Architecture of Well-Tempered Environment
Reyner Banham spoke against the high energy requirements of artificial air conditioning systems [6].
People like Mike Davies [6] started to propose the development of multiple performance glazing
which could dynamically regulate the energy flow from outside to inside and vice versa.
The Breathable Glass Faade project explores degrees of climatic permeability by using glass. Glass
fins are twisted in order to allow for cross-ventilation and reduce overheating.
Kinetic Architecture
An intelligent glass faade can adapt in a dynamic, almost living way to changing light and
weather conditions using self-regulating thermal protection and solar control measures [5].
According to Andrea Compagno, the intelligence of a faade is not measured primarily by how
much it is driven by technology, but how it makes use of natural, renewable energy sources, such as
solar radiation, air flows and the ground heat in as environmentally compatible way as possible
Compagno [5].
The Breathable Glass Faade project uses twisted glass fins. This research attempts to identify the
technical limits of this application through FE analysis and testing through small scale kinetic models.
Figure 2 displays the kinetic concept.
-2-
-3-
The lamellas are fixed on their lower and upper endpoints through a horizontal truss system.
Horizontal tension cables apply torsion at the midpoint of the glass lamella (Fig. 5,6).
-4-
The performance calculations and analysis has been conducted in collaboration with Tim Macfarlane /
Dewhurst and Martin Bechtold / GSD Harvard - Solid works 2008 (non-linear FE analysis). Torsion
has been applied to assess the maximum twisting angle before failure.
Figure 8: Stress
Figure 9: Deformation
The maximum opening angle for the glass fins (6000 x 400 x 6 mm) figured approx. 50 degree. This
results in a maximum porosity (relation of open to total glass surface) of 56.3 % (Fig. 10,11).
-5-
6.2 Joints
The Elbphilharmonie building by Herzog & deMeuron, sliced and opened the massive glass skin to
provide natural ventilation, as well as to draw in the smells and sounds of the environment [12].
According to Herzog & deMeuron [12], the formal deformation of the glass creates openings in the
faade and generates a rich play of reflections that transforms according to the location, weather and
perspective.
In the Breathable Glass Faade project, the glass fins are in their initial position while the faade is
closed. In this position, the joints have to guarantee water and wind tightness. After analyzing
reference examples [13],[15], details and alternative solutions of joints and gaskets (single glazing,
double glazing, laminated glass ) were developed and discussed in collaboration with Timo Schmidt
and Werner Sobek. Figure 12 shows different detailing options for single and double-glazing.
Prototype Model
-6-
Conclusion
This project suggests a radical new approach towards using glass. Usually, twisting is avoided, due to
the brittle behavior of glass. The author claims that applying torsion below certain limits will allow to
create openable glass faade systems. This will help reduce mechanical ventilation by allowing natural
ventilation when needed. Through the use of dichroic glass visual color effects can be achieved
through the twisting motion. This project attempts to apply kinetic principles to combine technological
knowhow and aesthetic effects while offering a new experimental approach on glass faade systems.
-7-
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Samina Gheorghe for the support in creating and editing this paper.
10 References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
Sobek, W., Macfarlane T.: Course Syllabus, GSD Harvard 6315 Innovation in Structure, Cambridge, 2008.
Carpenter, E.: Breath of Light, Arcaedizioni, Milano, 2000, p7.
Carpenter, E.: Breath of Light, Arcaedizioni, Milano, 2000, p16.
Compagno, A.: Intelligent Glass Facades, Birkhuser, Basel, 1999, p45.
Compagno, A.: Intelligent Glass Facades, Birkhuser, Basel, 1999, p7.
Compagno, A.: Intelligent Glass Facades, Birkhuser, Basel, 1999, p8.
Macfarlane, T.: Structural Properties of Glass and the Design of Simple Structural Assemblies, GSD 6315
Innovation in Structure, Cambridge, 2008.
[8] Macfarlane, T.: Glass Manufacturing and Processing, GSD 6315 Innovation in Structure, Cambridge, 2008.
[9] Blandini, L.: Structural Use of Adhesives in Glass Shells, GPD Glass Processing Days (2003), pp 183-185
[10] OCallaghan, J.: Apple Computer Inc Retail Store - All Glass Staircase and Bridge - A Technical Review of
Innovative Design and Fabrication Techniques Utilised, GPD Glass Processing Days (2003), pp 191-194
[11] Eekhout, M.: Stressed Glass, NAi Publishers, Rotterdam, 1996.
[12] Herzog & deMeuron: A Crystal in the Harbour The Glass Facade of the Elbphilharmonie, Detail (2010),
Issue 5, pp 498-506
[13] Behling, S., Behling, S..: Glass Structure and Technology in Architecture, Prestel, Munich, 1999, p43.
[14] Wurm, J.: Glas als Tragwerk Entwurf und Konstruktion selbsttragender Hllen, Birkhuser, Basel, 2007,
p74.
[15] Wurm, J.: Glas als Tragwerk Entwurf und Konstruktion selbsttragender Hllen, Birkhuser, Basel, 2007,
p75.
-8-
Summary
Transparency is a characteristic, which is often requested for the facades of banks, shopping malls,
office buildings or other public constructions. One possibility to increase the transparency of the
facade is to use glass not only to separate the interior of the building from the exterior, but also as
structural elements in the form of glass fins. In this paper a rectangular and a trapezoidal geometry
for glass fins are analysed and compared. Additionally, grout and thermoplastic blocks are used as
contact materials for both geometries in order to apply the loads into the glass edges. The results of
numerical simulations and experimental tests are discussed and conclusions about which glass fin
type behaves the best are formulated.
Keywords: Transparent Facades, Glass Fins, Structural Glass, Load Application into
Glass Edges, Contact Materials, Grout, Thermoplastics
Introduction
The recent developments in the design of transparent building skins involve a maximal reduction of
the visible structure. To achieve this purpose architects either plan cable facade systems or use glass
as structural elements. In the second case the glass facade can be designed to bear loads by itself
(Figure 1 left) or glass fins can be used to stiffen the facade (Figure 1 right). For glass fins there are
several standard solutions, but there is still room for optimisation.
Figure 1: Curved glass facade at the MAS (Museum aan de Stroom) in Antwerp, Belgium (left); Glass fins at the
Main Entrance Canopy of the ADNEC Capital Gate in Abu Dhabi (right) [by courtesy of Waagner-Biro]
-1-
The main problem in the design of glass fins is the development of the connection between the glass
part and the supporting (steel) structure. Usually bolted connections in combination with grout, resin
or thermoplastic blocks (POM, PA 6) are used [1]. Disadvantages of this type of connection are the
boreholes in the glass, which have to be realised before the heat strengthening process and which bring
extra costs and imperfections (for example an offset of the glass edges in the case of laminated glass).
The aim of the research was the optimisation of suspended glass fins, focusing on the load application
from the fin into the steel supporting structure [2]. This interesting research topic was proposed by
Waagner-Biro Stahlbau AG. Two different geometries were analysed, a rectangular one and a
trapezoidal one. As contact materials the grout Hilti HIT-HY70 and the thermoplastic material
polyoxymethylene (POM) were used and compared for both geometries. This resulted in four different
types of glass fins, which were analysed in this research. In all cases laminated glass formed of three
sheets of fully tempered glass and polyvinylbutyral (PVB) as an interlayer was used. The fins had a
length of 2,8 m and the support area was 0,5 m long. Other dimensions are shown in Figure 2. In the
numerical model the glass was simulated as one sheet with shell elements with a thickness of 24 mm.
The effect of the lamination was not important, since the fins were loaded in the plane of the glass
sheets and stability problems were not analysed in this research project. For the experimental tests a
stability failure was also excluded.
2.1 Geometries
First, the more common rectangular geometry (Figure 2 left) has been analysed. In this case the dead
load is transferred by a bolted connection with one bolt. Horizontal loads (e.g. wind load) are
transferred by contact at the glass edges. In the case of the second analysed geometry (Figure 2 right),
due to the inclined edge, all the loads can be transferred by contact at the glass edges. The big
advantage is that no boreholes and no bolts are needed anymore.
Figure 2: Rectangular (left) and trapezoidal (right) geometry of the analysed glass fins
-2-
Figure 3: Supporting area of the rectangular glass fins with grout (left) and with thermoplastic blocks (right)
In the case of a horizontal load (wind) on the edge of the trapezoidal glass fin the reaction force at the
inclined edge includes a vertical component. To reach an equilibrium state it is necessary to transfer
loads also at the upper edge of the glass fin. This is the reason why contact materials were arranged
also at this edge (Figure 4).
Figure 4: Supporting area of the trapezoidal glass fins with grout (left) and with thermoplastic blocks (right)
-3-
In this chapter the results of the numerical and the experimental analysis are shown and compared. For
the experimental tests (financed by the Waagner-Biro Stahlbau AG and performed at the Institute of
Structural Engineering/Steel Structures of the Vienna University of Technology) different
measurement techniques were used:
Inductive displacement transducers - to measure the relative displacement between the glass
fin and the testing frame (displacement 1), the relative displacement between the glass fin and
the supporting steel bracket (displacement 2) and a potential displacement of the glass fin out
of plane;
Strain gauges to measure the maximal tensile and compressive strain below the supporting
area;
Photogrammetric measuring system ARAMIS [5] to measure the strain distribution in the
supporting area.
First some measured parameters from the experimental tests are shown in Table 1. The highest failure
loads were reached in the case of the trapezoidal glass fins with grout as contact material. The
maximal measured tensile stress of 147 N/mm2 is 1,25 times higher than the characteristic tensile
strength for glass of 120 N/mm2 mentioned in standards.
Table 1: Measured parameters for the different experimental analysed glass fins
Test specimen
Failure load
Maximal strain
[kN]
[%]
[N/mm2]
33,9
0,19
133
V2M
35,3
0,21
147
V3M
29,8
0,17
119
Test run trapezoidal glass fins with thermoplastic blocks as contact material
V4K
29,5
0,19
133
V5K
33,0
0,21
147
V6K
25,4
0,20
140
30,2
0,18
126
R8M
30,4
0,18
126
R9M
31,1
0,20
140
Test run rectangular glass fins with thermoplastic blocks as contact material
R10K
24,2
0,16
112
R11K
24,8
0,17
119
R12K
23,4
0,15
105
In the next two sub-chapters the results of the analysis are separately treated for the rectangular and
the trapezoidal fins. Load-displacement diagrams, stress/strain distributions and some pictures of the
test specimens are shown.
-4-
Figure 5: Load-displacement diagrams for the rectangular glass fin with thermoplastic blocks as contact material:
relative displacement between glass fin and testing frame (left); relative displacement between glass fin and
supporting steel bracket (right)
Figure 6 shows the stress distribution from the numerical simulation (left) and the strain distribution
measured with ARAMIS (right) for the test specimen R10K. For both pictures the load level before
failure has been chosen. A very good qualitative similarity can be observed. Quantitative, single strain
values were compared on failure load level and showed a good agreement. A more detailed evaluation
of the photogrammetric measurement results is in progress.
Figure 6: Rectangular glass fin with thermoplastic blocks as contact material: stress/strain distribution from the
numerical simulation (left); strain distribution from the photogrammetric measurement (right)
An important aspect for using glass as structural elements is the residual load-bearing capacity after
failure. Except for one test specimen, in the case of all other rectangular glass fins all three sheets
broke at the same time. Due to the bolted connection and to the PVB-interlayer, the glass fin did not
fall down from the steel support (Figure 7 left). Unfortunately, the glass fin loses its stiffness because
of the breakage of all sheets at the same time (Figure 7 middle) and cant bear anymore loads. This is
-5-
one of the reasons why a high redundancy is necessary, when structural glass elements are included in
a facade design.
Figure 7: Rectangular glass fin: residual load-bearing capacity (left & middle) and fracture pattern (right)
Figure 7 right shows the fracture pattern for the test specimen R12K, the unique one for which only
one glass sheet broke. This is advantageous for analysing the fracture pattern, because the stress
trajectories can be clearly recognised. It is obvious that in the induced load scenario only the upper left
and the lower right thermoplastic blocks are effective only here loads are transferred from the glass
fin into the supporting steel bracket. It can be also observed that a compression diagonal goes exactly
through the borehole. This is the reason why the position of the borehole in the middle of the
supporting area is not the most convenient.
3.2 Trapezoidal Glass Fins
Figure 8 shows load-displacement diagrams for the trapezoidal glass fins with grout as contact
material. The diagram in Figure 8 left illustrates the relative displacement of the glass fin to the testing
frame, while that exhibited in Figure 8 right shows the relative displacement of the glass fin to the
supporting steel bracket. The black line in the second diagram is numerical determined and shows a
good agreement with the measured load-displacement curves. This proves that the grout can better
adjust to imperfections in the steel surface or at the glass edges.
Figure 8: Load-displacement diagrams for the trapezoidal glass fin with grout as contact material: relative
displacement between glass fin and testing frame (left); relative displacement between glass fin and supporting
steel bracket (right)
-6-
Figure 9 shows the stress distribution from the numerical simulation (left) and the strain distribution
measured with ARAMIS (right) for the test specimen V1M. For both pictures the load level before
failure has been chosen. As in the case of the rectangular glass fins with thermoplastic blocks shown in
Figure 6 a very good qualitative similarity can be observed. For this specimen, single strain values
were also compared on failure load level and showed a good quantitative agreement.
Figure 9: Trapezoidal glass fin with grout as contact material: stress/strain distribution from the numerical
simulation (left); strain distribution from the photogrammetric measurement (right)
Concerning the residual load-bearing capacity the same observation as for the rectangular glass fins
could be made. Even though there is no bolted connection from which the PVB-interlayer could hang,
the glass fins remain in the steel brackets after failure (Figure 10 left). This happens because the
broken glass fin clamps in the narrowing bracket. Because of the breakage of all three sheets, also the
trapezoidal fins lose their stiffness (Figure 10 middle) and cannot bear anymore loads.
Figure 10: Trapezoidal glass fin: residual load-bearing capacity (left & middle) and fracture pattern (right)
Figure 10 right shows the fracture pattern for a trapezoidal glass fin with grout as contact material.
The trajectories are not as clear as in the case of the rectangular fin shown in Figure 7 right, because
all three sheets are broken and the fracture patterns are overlapped. However, it can be recognised that
a compression trajectory goes to the upper edge, so the arrangement of contact materials in this area is
justified. The initial fracture point can be observed at the left edge (tension).
-7-
Conclusions
In most cases the problem in the use of glass as a load-bearing structural element is the load
application into the glass edges. To prevent the formation of stress peaks due to a contact between
glass and steel, different contact materials, like grout or thermoplastic blocks, are used. In the
performed analysis the grout showed a better behaviour than the thermoplastic blocks. On one hand
the failure loads were higher for both the rectangular and the trapezoidal glass fin in the case of the
grout. On the other hand the grout has the big advantage that it compensates the inaccuracies of the
steel surface and possible offsets of the glass edges. In addition the grout is easier to assemble,
because in the case of the thermoplastic blocks, they have to be cut in the right dimensions to fit
perfectly between the steel bracket and the glass fin.
The experimental tests showed that the trapezoidal geometry of the glass fin and the steel bracket are
enough to guarantee that the fin does not fall down from the supporting steel bracket after the fracture
of all sheets. The big advantage of this design is that no boreholes are needed.
Finally, the use of the photogrammetric measurement system during the experimental tests showed
that this technique is proper for the use on glass surfaces. However further applications of this
technique have to be made on glass specimens and a more detailed analysis of the results has to be
done. One of the disadvantages of such measurements is that only values for the surface of the test
specimen, which is orientated to the two cameras, are collected.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the mentoring during the research by Manfred Zellinger and to
thank the Waagner-Biro Stahlbau AG (especially Tobias Mhr, Rene Ziegler and Thomas Henriksen
from the department of research and development) for proposing this interesting research topic and for
financing the experimental tests.
References
[1] Kooymans, J., Schneider, J., Techen, H.: Long Span Glass Fin Design, Challenging Glass 2 Delft, 2010.
[2] Silvestru, V.: Numerische und versuchstechnische Untersuchung von hngenden Glasschwertern, Master
Thesis Graz University of Technology, Graz, 2012.
[3] Silvestru, V.: In-Plane Load Application into Glass Edges, COST Training School Structural Glass
Recent, Current and Near-Future Research on Structural Glass, Ghent, Belgium, 2012.
[4] Weller, B., Schneider, J., Reich, S., Ebert, J.: Kontaktmaterialien zur Einleitung von Druckkrften in Glas,
in: Bauingenieur 85 (2010), issue 3, pp. 118-127.
[5] GOM Gesellschaft fr optische Messung: ARAMIS Optische 3D-Verformungsanalyse
http://www.gom.com/de/messsysteme/systemuebersicht/aramis.html - 16.03.2012
-8-
Summary
The increasing use of thin film photovoltaic modules and the increasing occurrence of damages
raise the question about a sufficient safety level for the glass-glass-modules used at present. This
paper compares the experimental determination of the load-bearing capacity used in the solar
industry according to IEC 61646 and a calculative method according to the German structural
design standard for glass structures (DIN 18008). Substantial differences in the safety level are
pointed out. Moreover, the load case temperature can become relevant for the structural design
because of the high solar absorption of the modules. This influence is currently not regulated in the
standards. For typical installation situations, a calculative consideration of this load case is
discussed.
This article was published in CHALLENGING GLASS 3 CONFERENCE
STRUCTURAL APPLICATIONS OF GLASS, TU Delft, June 2012.
ON
ARCHITECTURAL
AND
Introduction
The use of photovoltaic (PV) modules is growing more and more due to falling prices of the modules
and governmental subventions. In 2010 Germany produced more than 11 billion kilowatt hours of
electricity by photovoltaic systems according to the Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature
Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) [1]. This represents an increase by 77% compared to 2009.
This is accompanied by the rising occurrence of damages at installed modules (Figure 1). Especially in
thin-film modules with glass-glass assembly (Figure 2) increased cases are noticed, where, due to
glass breakage, the modules lose their function as a power supplier and also become problematic due
-1-
Upper Glass
Thin Film
Lamination Foil
Lamination Foil
Thin Film
Lower Glass
Lower Glass
The solar industry is testing the performance of their products based on IEC 61646: Thin-film
terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type approval [2]. Herewith, the
achieved safety level for the load-bearing capacity of PV modules that are currently in use is
significantly below the usual safety level of the German structural design standards in glass structures
Technische Regeln fr linienfrmig gelagerte Verglasungen (TRLV) or the new DIN 18008.
The draft standard to DIN VDE 0126-21: Photovoltaik im Bauwesen Photovoltaic in building [3]
provides that PV modules must meet the requirements of DIN 18008, depending on the application. In
practice, however, the tests according to IEC 61646 are considered to be sufficient so far.
Apart from the discussion of the standards, this article illustrates by examples, which maximum load
standard glass-glass PV modules can bear using computational design. It is shown that a consistent
application of the German structural design standards in glass constructions would severe restrict the
applicability of the already installed modules. Framed and clamp-supported modules and modules
with back rail systems are compared.
In the solar industry, thin film photovoltaic modules are tested according to IEC 61646, which
specifies the requirements for the testing of the modules. The term type approval used in the title
does not imply that by meeting the requirements of the standard, a general technical approval for
building constructions is achieved. The goal of the standard is to determine the electrical and thermal
characteristics of the tested modules. However, the test series also include a mechanical load test,
which is deemed to determine the ability of the module to withstand wind, snow, ice or static loads.
A complete test series of thin-film PV modules according to IEC 61646 contains a total of eight
specimens. However, only one of these eight specimens is subjected to the mechanical load test. In
this test, the module is loaded cyclically. The load corresponds to a constant surface load. The module
is attached to a rigid support structure with the manufacturer's prescribed method of attachment.
Firstly, the module is subjected to a uniform distributed compressive load of 2.4 kN/m. This load is
hold for an hour. Then, without dismounting the module from the substructure, the same load is
applied as a suction load and also held over an hour. This pressure-suction-cycle is repeated for a total
of three times.
If big snow and ice accumulations are to be expected, the pressure load must be increased to 5.4 kN/m
in accordance to IEC 61646. But the installation situations where this increased load is required are
not defined. Moreover, it is pointed out that even tougher test may be necessary if the tested loading
does not cover the installation situation. Therefore, theoretically a common design according to
DIN 18008 or TRLV would have to be performed. In practice, however, the common belief is that
with fulfilling the IEC 61646, the application range of any construction is covered.
In addition to the mechanical load test, IEC 61646 requires a thermic cycling test. However, this test is
only deemed to ensure the electric functionality and does not consider sufficiently the glass-specific
material behaviour under thermal loads.
-2-
The new German structural design standard in glass constructions DIN 18008 with the already
published parts [4], [5] describes the required analysis for the ultimate limit state and the serviceability
limit state of glass components. In contrast to the currently valid German standard TRLV [6], where
the concept of global safety factors is prescribed, for the analysis according to DIN 18008, the concept
of partial safety factors is specified. The safety level aims at a failure probability of pf = 10-6 per year
according to the common construction standards, e.g. [9].
The computational load bearing capacity of glass constructions is proven by the fact that the existing
principal tensile stresses in the glass due to the loads according to DIN 1055 or EC 1 do not exceed the
design strength of the glass. Generally, the design strength of the glass Rd is determined by:
Rd
k mod k c f k
(1)
with:
kmod: coefficient for consideration of the load duration of annealed float glass (0.7 for wind,
0.4 for snow and 0.25 for dead weight),
kc: coefficient for consideration the type of construction (1.0 or 1.8),
fk: characteristic bending tensile strength (45 N/mm for annealed float glass, 70 N/mm for
heat-strengthened glass (HSG), 120 N/mm for fully tempered glass (FTG)),
M: partial safety factor for resistance (1.8 for annealed float glass, 1.5 for HSG and FTG).
The strength of annealed float glass is highly dependent on the load duration due to the subcritical
crack growth. In DIN 18008, this is explicitly taken into account by the coefficient kmod.
If tensile stresses occur at the free edge of the glass, for annealed float glass only 80% of the glass
strength can be applied due to the existing damage from the edge treatment.
If laminated glass (LG) or laminated safety glass (LSG) is used, the design value may be increased by
10% (Table 1).
Table 1: Design values of glass strength according to DIN 18008 [4].
Type of Glass
Load duration
kmod
long
Rd [N/mm2]
monolithic
+ laminated
+ edge stress
0.25
6.3
6.9
5.5
middle
0.4
10.0
11.0
8.8
short
0.7
17.5
19.3
15.4
HSG
46.6
51.3
51.3
FTG
80.0
88.0
88.0
Annealed float
DIN 18008 prescribes kc = 1.0, unless otherwise specified. Only for vertical annealed glazing with
circumferential linear support kc = 1.8 may be applied. Below, the general case kc = 1.0 is assumed,
since PV modules are mainly used as horizontal glazing (inclination to the vertical > 10).
The determination of the design load values results from the respective valid standards (DIN 1055 and
DIN EN 1991).
Older regulations like the TRLV are based on the concept of global safety factors. Here the load
-3-
values are characteristic values. The resistance (glass strength) is reduced by a global safety factor
(Table 2).
Table 2: Allowable bending stress according to TRLV [6].
zul [N/mm2]
Type of Glass
overhead
vertical
Annealed float
12
18
Laminated (Annealed)
15
22.5
FTG
50
50
Comparison of the Safety Levels According to IEC 61646 and TRLV or DIN 18008
The IEC 61646 contains only the performance of one mechanical load test with a pressure or suction
load of 2.4 kN/m. The standard explains in the comments the origin of this value with a wind pressure
of 0.8 kN/m2, corresponding to a wind speed of 130 km/h and a safety factor of = 3.
This relationship between wind velocity and pressure can be confirmed by DIN 1055-4 [7]. However,
a characteristic wind pressure of 0.8 kN/m2 is achieved already for a building in wind zone 2 at a
building height of 10 m to 18 m. This does not yet include the cpe-factor, which takes into account the
geometry of the building, the mounting position in the building and the size of the loaded area.
Which actions (wind, dead weight, snow and ice loads, and combinations thereof) are associated with
the increased pressure load of 5.4 kN/m2 and which application should be covered with this load is not
described in IEC 61646.
However, the specified global safety factor of = 3 for the wind pressure of 0.8 kN/m2 is too low for a
design based on only one test. A comparison with the safety level of the TRLV demonstrates this. For
horizontally mounted laminated glass made of annealed glass, the global safety factor is determined
by:
global
fk
zul
N
mm 3.0
N
15
mm
45
(2)
This global safety factor is based on the characteristic value (5%-fractile) of the glass strength.
According to IEC 61646, the safety factor is, however, based on a mechanical load test with only one
test specimen. The (high) scattering of the glass strength is therefore not considered. If, in addition to
the 5%-fractile value, the mean value of naturally aged annealed glass with fm = 80 N/mm [8] and the
95%-fractile are estimated, this results in the global safety factors according to Table 3.
Table 3: Safety factors according to TRLV for horizontal mounted LSG made of annealed float glass.
5%-fractile value
mean value
95%-fractile value
45
80
115
3.0
5.3
7.7
100%
178%
256%
-4-
This comparison can also be made with the new DIN 18008 to take into account the concept of partial
safety factors. For laminated safety glass made of annealed float glass, the design value for the
resistance under wind load results in:
R d 1 .1
k mod k c f k
1 .1
0.7 1.0 45 N mm
N
19
1 .8
mm
(3)
This only considers the resistance side. The partial safety factor for the load (wind) according to DIN
1055-100 [9] is Q = 1.5. This must be multiplied with the partial safety factor for resistance to allow a
comparison with the global safety factor. Taking into account the scattering of the glass strength, the
required safety factors are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Safety factors according to DIN 18008 for LSG made of annealed float glass under wind load.
5%-fractile value
mean value
95%-fractile value
45
80
115
2.4
4.2
6.1
3.6
6.3
9.1
Comparison to
IEC 61646
118%
211%
303%
The comparisons for global and partial safety concept show similar results. The performance of one
mechanical load test according to IEC 61646 with the stated global safety factor of = 3 does not
provide a comparable level of safety to TRLV or DIN 18008. If a glass with a high strength (e.g. 95%fractile) would be tested, a global factor of = 9.1 would be needed to meet the safety level of
DIN 18008.
Moreover, the IEC 61646 does not consider sufficiently the time-dependent behaviour of the strength
of annealed float glass. The load duration for the mechanical load test is longer than the short-term
load (wind, 10 minutes) but well below the middle-term load (snow, 30 days). Moreover, as the tests
are carried out at room temperature, a certain shear transfer between the upper and the lower glass is
active due to the lamination foil. This shear transfer does not exist in the real installation situation
under solar radiation with the usual viscoelastic lamination foils (PVB, EVA).
Basically, a proof of the bearing capacity with mechanical load tests is possible, but should be based
on the fundamentals of structural design. DIN EN 1990 [10] describes in Appendix D how to perform
a test-based design of construction elements. Thereafter, with a test sequence which includes the real
actions (storage conditions, load type and duration, temperature, etc.) and a sufficient number of
specimens, the design value of the resistance can be determined. This can subsequently compared with
the actions for the particular installation situation.
Photovoltaic modules are offered in different designs. Mostly, framed modules are used. Here, the
glass-glass module is held by a circumferential aluminium frame which is fixed to the support
structure. Unframed modules can be held either locally by clamping brackets or linearly by using a
back rail system which is glued to the rear glass of the modules. The systems, each with typical
dimensions, are shown in Figure 3.
-5-
Figure 3: Typical support structures of glass-glass modules, a: framed, b: clamped , c: back rail supported
A laminated glass with 2 x 3.2 mm float glass is used for the calculation below, which is usual in the
market. Thus, these types of modules represent assemblies, which have passed in identical or similar
design the tests according to IEC 61646 and are currently used in construction industry.
According to DIN 18008, the positive effect of shear resistance is not taken into account in the
calculations. The design value of resistance Rd is given by Table 1.
The aluminium back rail profile, which is shown in Fig. 4, is glued to the rear glass of the module by
an adhesive tape. The adhesive tape has been simplified to a linear-elastic material model (Youngs
modulus E = 1.0 N/mm; Poisson's ratio = 0.4). The calculation takes into account geometrically
nonlinear behaviour of the glass-glass laminate (Figure 4).
The calculation gives the load capacity at which the glass strength Rd is reached. This load
corresponds to the design value of the action load Ed in the ultimate limit state:
E d Rd
(4)
In order to obtain the characteristic load capacity Ek, the pre-determined design values are divided by
the partial safety factor according to the load duration for permanent loads (e.g. dead weight) G = 1.35
and for short and medium loads (e.g. snow, wind) Q = 1.5. In accordance to DIN 18008, the higher
value of kmod is used when considering load combinations. For example, in the combination of dead
-6-
weight plus wind, kmod is set to 0.7. The results for the determined characteristic loads Ek are shown in
Figure 5.
The comparison of the characteristic load capacity in buildings with usual wind and snow loads shows,
that the application of these modules is highly limited.
The framed module can bear about 0.6 kN/m2 in addition to its dead weight for a medium load
duration (snow) and about 1.3 kN/m for a short load duration (wind). A comparison of these values to
the characteristic loads in accordance to DIN 1055 demonstrates the limited application possibilities of
these modules. For example, a building in snow load zone 2 (about 80% of Germany) with a roof
slope of up to 30 must withstand a characteristic minimum snow load on the roof of s1 = 0.7 kN/m
according to DIN 1055-5 [11]. This already exceeds the characteristic load capacity of the module.
The module which is clamped at four points reaches its full bearing capacity already under its dead
weight. With the approach of the lower value for kmod for combined loads (dead weight plus snow or
wind) after DIN 18008, the additional load capacity is so low that it is hard to find a possible
application.
The back rail supported system shows the best structural behaviour of the presented systems. Despite
the larger dimensions of the module, the load bearing capacity is only slightly below the framed
system.
A neglected aspect in the examples is the position of the connection socket. This can be located at the
edge or on the surface area of the module. In an assembly on the surface area, a hole in the rear glass is
required. This hole reduces, depending on its location, the load capacity of the modules again
significantly. According to DIN 18008, holes in annealed float glass are not permitted, so the drilled
rear glass would have to be thermally toughened.
Furthermore, it has to be discussed, whether an increased coefficient for consideration the type of
construction kc may be applied for framed PV modules in conjunction with a proof of sufficient
residual load-bearing capacity. This would reflect the fact that the PV modules are often mounted on
existing roof structures or on a field and thus not directly provide a risk on persons if they have
sufficient residual load-bearing capacity after glass berakage.
-7-
The influence of solar radiation on photovoltaic modules compared to transparent faade glazing is
much higher due to the fact that the absorption coefficient increases. Uncoated glasses have a solar
absorption of approximately 8-20 % depending on the glass thickness [12]. A thin film photovoltaic
module (ASI), however, has an absorbance between 60 % and 90 %.
The solar absorption basically leads to two superposed temperature profiles over the module thickness.
A constant temperature load can be superimposed with a variable temperature profile over the cross
section (Fig. 6).
The constant temperature Tc only leads to compressive stress in the glass for framed modules with an
idealized system (constant linear horizontal support of the edges).
For locally clamped modules and temperatures up to 50 C (compare [13]) with a 2 mm elastic support
of the glass edge and soft contact materials (Young's modulus E = 5 200 N/mm, = 0.5, e.g.
EPDM), no design-relevant tensile stresses occur, too. Only for very stiff contact materials (Young's
modulus E = 1 000 3 000 N/mm, = 0.3 - 0.4, e.g. POM), the principal tensile stresses would be in
a design-relevant dimension.
For back rail supported modules, no significant tensile stresses are caused by constant heating of the
glass sheets due to the flexibility of the overall system.
With a variable temperature profile, the (suppressed) bending of the glass panes leads to tensile
stresses, which may be relevant to structural design.
A parametric study using the above framed module with two types of a variable temperature profile
shows this clearly. In the first variant (symmetric temperature distribution), the upper and lower sides
of the laminate are cooler than the thin film and the lamination foil in the middle due to the ambient
atmosphere. In the second variant (asymmetric temperature distribution), a reduced cooling of the
lower glass panel was taken into account and therefore a constant temperature distribution assumed
(Figure 7).
For the frame, the limits "soft" and "rigid" were investigated. Here "soft" means free glass edges (x, yand z-direction), "rigid" means simply supported edges of both glass panes in z-direction.
The interlayer is modelled with a Young's modulus of 1.0 N/mm and a Poisson's ratio of = 0.499.
The temperature difference T was increased progressively up to 20C (e.g. rain cooling). Figure 8
shows the stress distribution of the finite-element calculations which takes into account geometrical
nonlinearity.
Figure 8: Principle tensile stresses on the outer surface of the upper glass pane with symmetrical (left) and
asymmetrical (right) temperature distribution and soft frame
The maximum principal tensile stresses occur under symmetrical load T,1 at the outer surfaces. With
the asymmetrical load T,2 these are located on the outer surface of the upper glass pane (Figure 9).
Figure 9: Thermal expansion (therm) and tensile stresses (max) for symmetrical (left) and asymmetrical (right)
temperature distribution
Figure 10 shows an almost linear relation between temperature difference and the glass stresses. The
small differences arise from the geometrically nonlinear analysis. Furthermore, it indicates that the
consideration of the load case temperature can be quite relevant for structural design, especially if the
capacity of the modules is already reached with other loads.
-9-
Figure 10: Principal tensile stresses on the glass surface as a function of the temperature distribution and the
stiffness of the frame
The mechanical load test according to IEC 61646 with only one specimen leads to a much lower
safety level than the application of the structural design standards for glass constructions (TRLV,
DIN 18008).
To consider the scattering of the glass strength, the number of specimens should be increased
significantly to reach a comparable safety level to DIN 18008 (see Table 3 and 4). Instead, according
to IEC 61646, only a safety factor of = 3 is taken into account referenced to a characteristic wind
load of 0.8 kN/m. Thus, the allowable installation and application situations that may be covered by
the staggered test load according to IEC 61646 with 2.4 kN/m and 5.4 kN/m have to be discussed.
Nevertheless, it is common practice to install PV-modules, which were tested according to IEC 61646
without any additional structural calculations. The consequences are already evident in numerous
cases of damages. Only the positive post-breakage behaviour of laminated glass ensures that the
damages did not cause greater hazards to people so far.
It was shown that temperature loads and especially variable temperature profiles over the cross-section
can lead to design relevant principal tensile stresses.
For the future, besides the need of a suitable structural design method for PV-modules, the postbreakage behaviour of laminated glass has to be analysed systematically to develop appropriate
mechanical models. Moreover, specific loads on PV-modules, such as thermal stresses due to the high
solar absorbance of the thin film and the associated thermal stresses in the glass, have to be
investigated further.
- 10 -
References
[1] Bundesministerium fr Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit: "Zeitreihen zur Entwicklung der
erneuerbaren Energien in Deutschland ", 12/13/2011.
[2] DIN EN IEC 61646: Thin-film terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules - Design qualification and type
approval", 2009.
[3] DIN VDE 0126-21: Photovoltaic in building (draft)", 2007.
[4] DIN 18008-1: Glass in Building - Design and construction rules - Part 1: Terms and construction rules",
2010.
[5] DIN 18008-2: Glass in Building - Design and Construction Rules - Part 2: Linearly supported glazing",
2010.
[6] DIBt: "Technische Regeln fr die Verwendung von linienfrmig gelagerten Verglasungen (TRLV)", 2006.
[7] DIN 1055-4: Action on structures Part 4: Wind loads", 2005.
[8] Fink, Andreas: "Ein Beitrag zum Einsatz von Floatglas als dauerhaft tragender Konstruktionswerkstoff im
Bauwesen", Dissertation, TU Darmstadt, 2000.
[9] DIN 1055-100: Actions on structures - Basis of design, safety concept and design rules", 2001.
[10] DIN EN 1990: Eurocode: Basis of structural design, German version EN 1990:2002 + A1:2005 +
A1:2005/AC: 2010", 2010.
[11] DIN 1055-5: Actions on structures Part 5: Snowloads and ice loads", 2005.
[12] Interpane Glas Industrie AG: Gestalten mit Glas, 8. berarbeitete Auflage, Lauenfrde, 2011.
[13] Haase, W. et al.: Temperaturversuche an Verbundsicherheitsglasscheiben unter Sonneneinstrahlung,
Versuchsbericht des Zentrallabors des konstruktiven Ingenieurbaus, Stuttgart, 2001.
- 11 -
Summary
A recently finished and very interesting project is the new entrance of the museum quarter
Joanneumsviertel in the center of Graz in Austria. The complex of the museums buildings
consists of two wings of the existing structure. For the connection of those old parts of the
museum the architects designed the new entrance with two basement levels between them. The
architectural challenge of this project was to bring daylight into these two lower floors. The
concept of the architects was to let natural daylight flow in via vertical funnels in the form of small
round courtyards with a diameter of up to approx. 16 m into the basement. Laminated and
insulated glass was used for the cladding of these conically-shaped funnels.
Introduction
A very interesting project, finished at the end of 2011, is the new entrance situation of the museum
quarter Joanneumsviertel in the center of Graz in Austria. The complex the museums buildings
consists of two wings (museum of natural science and the museum of modern art) of the existing
structure. For the connection of those old parts of the museum the architects - eep architects, Graz/A;
Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos, Madrid/E - designed the new entrance between them. The visitors of the
museum can reach the biggest cone designed as the museum entrance via a specially designed public
place. The picture below shows this cone with an escalator. (see figure 1 bottom left).
The basement with a depth of approx. 10 m was excavated and the two levels were covered with wide
spanned reinforced concrete slabs. An architectural challenge of this project was to bring daylight into
these two lower floors (see in the model in figure 1 above). The concept of the architects was to let
natural daylight flow in via vertical funnels into the basement. These funnels have the form of small
-1-
round courtyards with different diameters of up to approx. 16 m. Laminated safety glass and insulated
glass were used for the cladding of these conically-shaped funnels.
The cones have a central axis which are inclined up to 15 from the vertical and for this reason the
inclination of the glass panes vary from the vertical position to a position of up to 30 from the vertical.
Two of the six cones interpenetrate and another one is posed on its top and situated in the center of a
larger one.
Cones 1 & 2
Cones 1&2 are the cones with an interpenetration located on the northern part of the public place.
Cone 1, with a diameter of approx. 9 m, extends into the first basement level and Cone 2, with a
diameter of approx. 6 m, extends into the second basement level (see figure 2 below). For the
balustrade, laminated safety glass with a thickness of 24 mm which consists of 2 x 12 mm conicallycurved glass panes was used. The cladding in the basement levels consists of insulated glass with
conically-curved 12 mm glass on the outer side, a 16 mm space and laminated safety glass which
consists of 2 x 8 mm conically-curved glass on the inner side.
Cone 2
Cone 1
The guaranty of the tightness against the rain for the parabolic curve (see figure 3 below) of the
interpenetration was a difficult part, as was the geometrical challenge which had to be solved. The gap
between the glass panes of the different cones was covered with a specially formed stainless steel
profile with approximately the same cross section as the stainless steel handrails of the balustrade.
-2-
Cone 3 & 4
Cone 3 has its larger diameter on the upper side in comparison with cone 4 which was posed on its top
and has the larger radius on its bottom edge. Smaller cone number 4 is situated in the center of cone 3
which is larger. For the balustrade, laminated glass with a thickness of 24 mm which consists of two
12 mm conically-curved glass panes was used. The cladding in the first basement levels was made for
both cones of insulated glass with conically- curved 12 mm glass on the outer side, a 16 mm space and
a laminated safety glass which consists of 2 x 8 mm conically-curved glass on the inner side. The
glazing in the second basement level, which is used as a depot for the exhibits, was designed to be
laminated glass. Cone 6 is equal to Cone 3.
Cone 3
Cone 4
The picture in figure 5 (see below) shows the view from the inner of the museum in the first basement
level through the insulated glass unit of the cone 3 to top of the insulated glass of the cone 4. The top
of Cone 4 is covered with an elliptical, flat, insulated glass. A very slender steel construction
positioned in the gaps between the conical glass units carries this insulated glass of the top and is
supported on the concrete slab.
-3-
The biggest cone - Cone 5 - with a diameter of approximately 16 m was designed as the new entrance
for the visitors of the museum. Via an escalator the people reach the first basement level and can enter
the museum through a sliding door. The central axis of this cone is inclined at approximately 15 from
the vertical and for this reason the inclination of the glass panes vary from a vertical position up to an
angle of 30 from the vertical (near to the escalator). For the balustrade, laminated safety glass with a
thickness of 24 mm which consists of two 12 mm conically-curved glass panes was used. In the
balustrade, a gap for installation of the escalator was positioned (see figure 7 below).
The upper edge of the laminated safety glass was covered with a stainless steel handrail and this
profile protects the glass against damage.
The cladding in the basement level was made of insulated glass with conically-curved laminated safety
glass consists of a 2 x 8 mm glass on the inner and the outer side and a 16 mm space between. The
horizontal and the vertical (inclined) gaps between the glass units were sealed.
Cone 5
-4-
The special boundary condition of the great deformation of the wide span concrete slabs of more than
30 mm (for the long-term deformation) causes the special structural system of all the cladding. The
glass panes of the balustrade had to be staked on the insulated glass of the level below. This means
that the lower glass has to carry the dead load of the glass above. To keep the distance between the
upper and the lower glass level synthetic blocks were used. The calculations made during the design
process showed that the additional stresses due to the dead load of the upper glass were not very high
and in this case acceptable. At the lower edge of the insulated glass pane the dead load is supported by
steel consoles, which were mounted on the concrete slab.
For the horizontal loads, the glass panes were glued to stiff stainless steel ring sections and those were
discretely supported at their ends. These hinged supported systems transfer the horizontal loads (e.g.
wind or human impact) to the concrete slabs and guarantee the freedom of vertical movements of the
concrete slabs (see figure 8).
balustrade
laminated safety glass
concrete slab
blocking of the
glass panes
insulated glass
concrete slab
All the different cones were designed with a finite element model which covers all glass panes. The
loads were defined with dead loads, wind loads and horizontal loads due to human impact. For the
design of the balustrade in the public are a horizontal load of h=3.0 kN/m was used. This level of the
load is based on the possibility of a big gathering. Beside these mechanical loads the climatic loads in
the insulated glass units were taken into account. These climatic loads include the difference in
temperature (summer and winter), the difference in the meteorological air pressure and the difference
in the altitude (between the production site and the building site). All these internal and external loads
were superposed in the finite element model.
-5-
7.2
Z
X
Y
Figure 9: Cone 5 deflection results of the design with a finite element program
For the laminated safety glass of the balustrade for dynamic loads in particular a pendulum impact test
was demanded. This test was carried out directly on the site for real boundary conditions. As required,
a 50 kilogram steel mass with the twin tires swung into the glass panes with a drop height of up to 900
mm (according to the standards). The test started with an impact located in the center of the glass pane
with a drop height of 450 mm. After the test was successfully passed, the height of the fall was
increased up to 900 mm. The impact located in the center of the glass causes no failure (no cracks).
Only with an impact located near the vertical edges with a drop height of 900 mm did the glass pane
on the side of the load break. The crack pattern after the pendulum impact test can be seen in the right
picture in figure 10 below. The glass opposite was still intact and only a few small pieces of broken
glass could be observed.
Figure 10: Glass before and after the pendulum impact test [2]
Acknowledgements
All these conically-curved laminated safety glass or insulated glass as well as the steel substructure
were produced by the company SFL Technologies in Austria. The structural development and the
structural design were made by the Research Center for Integral Construction Engineering fibag.
-6-
References
-7-
Summary
Modern faade design projects involve a wide range of materials whose manufacturing and
installation impose many different constraints on the design. The faade engineers role is to
manage and apply these constraints to achieve an optimal design. The paper presents a tool to
assist faade consultants in the capture, storage and use of downstream design constraints. The
aspect of the design process to be targeted by the tool is identified through two process mapping
methodologies. The tool captures expert knowledge of the geometric constraints placed on faade
panels due to the manufacturing processes. As a demonstration, the tool is applied to real-world
faade projects, and is shown to identify areas of the design requiring modification to improve
manufacturability.
Introduction
The faade sector is information intensive, and the development of a good faade design relies on the
faade consultants ability to gather and assimilate large quantities of information regarding the
constraints on the design. Using this information, the consultant must identify and communicate the
impact of these constraints to the design team. The task is made more challenging by the increasing
complexity of faade designs. This complexity arises both from the geometry and from the materials
and processes required to produce faade panels to increasingly high-performance specifications.
The primary benefits of Building Information Modelling (BIM) include the efficient storage, access
and transfer of design information, and increased collaborative working [1]. As a result BIM has been
proposed as a tool to manage and communicate design information[1]. In recent years the construction
industry as a whole has increased its use of BIM. However, BIM can be used to improve the end
product as well as the design process. The availability of semantic digital design information provides
the construction industry with the opportunity to employ knowledge-based engineering techniques[2].
Knowledge-based engineering techniques have previously been used successfully in manufacturing
industries to improve manufacturability using Design for Manufacture (DFM) strategies [3]. This has
relied partly on the availability of semantically rich digital design information. Fox et al.s [4] review
of DFM and its applicability to the construction industry places the faade sector in the group of
sectors to with the potential to benefit most from cost reductions through DFM.
-1-
1.1 Knowledge
Knowledge-based Engineering (KBE) in Faade Design
Little of the literature on the application of knowledge-based engineering (KBE) or knowledge
management (KM) to the construction industry specifically addresses the faade sector. Much of the
work that is available focuses on the service life performance of the faade, in particular thermal
performance, moisture control and energy efficiency.
Early work in this area includes the presentation of BEADS (Building Envelope Analysis and Design
System) by Fazio et al. [5], a knowledge based system approach to building envelope design. The
outputs of the work included a software tool and a knowledge representation framework to hold
attributes and values. Although drivers as broad as performance, cost, buildability and maintainability
are discussed, the implementation covers performance only. Gowris research covering the BEADS
project suggests that a key area of further work would be to expand the knowledge base to cater for
other design issues [6]. Iliescu continued the work on the application of KBE to building envelope
design in Concordia University, however, the technique shifted from rule-based to case-based
reasoning[7]. Iliesus work also focuses on the energy efficiency of building envelope designs.
Fazio et al.s [8] more recent work considers the application of BIM technology to building envelope
design. The International Foundation Class (IFC) schema is used to store and transfer design
information in a system that incorporates a database of bench mark values of faade performance. The
system evaluates design alternatives, partly based on the values stored in the knowledge database.
Again, the work only considers thermal and environmental design requirements.
Both Gowri [6] and Iliescu [7] highlight the information intensive nature of building envelope design
and therefore the applicability of computers and KBE as information handling tools for the designer.
However, the two pieces of work proposed different KBE techniques. Gowri uses rule-based design,
and Iliescu a case-based approach, on the premise that the faade sector is a weak theory domain,
making elicitation of rules unmanageable. However, both conclude that the application of KBE to the
faade sector is beneficial, particularly in the preliminary stages of design.
A key draw back of the case-based technique is the static nature of the database [7]; this indicates that
a dynamic database that learns alongside the designer may be preferable. Although this work is not
specific to the faade sector, live capture and use of knowledge has been proposed and developed in
the CAPRIKON project [9], [10]. This refers to the capture of knowledge during a project in a format
that can be used directly on the current project and on subsequent projects. Kamara et al.[9] suggest
that live capture, as opposed to post-completion capture, increases the reuse of knowledge gained on
a project and involves the supply chain with the capture of knowledge more efficiently. The paper also
notes that live capture avoids the loss of knowledge when capture is coordinated through post project
reviews. This work indicates that knowledge from the downstream supply chain is most effectively
captured using a live capture methodology. Project knowledge so captured can be used on both the
current project and future projects.
Knowledge Based Engineering and Knowledge Management in the Construction Industry
Although the research community has developed and employed technologies in this area, industry
itself has shown less progress. Robinson et al. [11] presents a review of the strategies and technologies
used by large construction firms to capture and store knowledge. Those used by the consultancy sector
included skills yellow pages, intranets, and communities of practice. These in general do not capture
knowledge in a computer-interpretable format indicating that although research communities are
automating (or semi automating) their capture and use of knowledge, industry is not and still relies on
human interpretation.
-2-
1.2 Mapping
Faade design and construction is a relatively new sector of the construction industry, as is the role of
the professional faade engineer, both in consulting and contracting [12]. In addition, the sector is
complex in the of range of materials employed, geometries involved, performance requirements and
its multidisciplinary nature. The youth and complexity of the sector suggest that a map of the design
process would be a very useful aid to researchers in this field. The main benefits of process mapping
suggested by literature include increasing understanding of actors roles and activities [13], aiding
identification of strategic, process and IT requirements [14], or forming the basis for IT systems [15].
The paper partly presents work based on two mapping methodologies. The maps have been used to
select a scope for the proposed tool and to understand availability of design information.
Mapping Design Influences
The Design Research Methodology developed by Blessing et al. [16] is a structured approach to
design research projects. By mapping the influences on design project outcomes, it is possible to
identify areas of the design process that could be targeted by the research project. In response, support
tools can be developed and tested. This methodology has been employed in the initial phase of the
research project to identify the scope of the design support tool.
Mapping Design Processes
Previous work undertaken by the authors [17] include a map of the faade design processes. One
benefit of process mapping suggested in the literature is that it form basis for IT systems [15]. For this
research, the map has been used to identify packets of knowledge that are non-project-specific and can
be captured, stored and re-used.
1.3 Paper Content
The following sections of this paper outline the research undertaken on the topic. Sections 2 and 3
present two maps of the faade design process, one showing the influences on design outcomes and
the other depicting the processes themselves. These sections describe how the maps have been used to
identify the aspects of the design process that a knowledge-based tool should target. Section 4
provides a description of the tool devised, and section 5 presents two case studies showing the use of
the tool on real-world projects. Conclusions and areas for further work are discussed in sections 6 and
7.
The Design Influence map has been developed through an iterative process, drawing on the experience
of faade engineers currently working in the faade sector. First an outline map was developed via a
series of interviews with industry members. This was then reviewed in an interview with a faade
engineering team director, whose comments and modifications were incorporated into the map. The
final iteration consisted of a workshop to elicit knowledge from a team of faade engineers and
produce the final map.
-3-
Figure 1 shows an enlarged section of the map. Each bubble in the map describes either a design
influence or a project outcome. For example, the quality of the scheme review comments passed to the
design team influences the quality of the design development undertaken by the design team.
By using the DRM it was possible to identify which factors influence the overall construction cost,
and the extent to which the final design conforms with the architects and clients original design
intent. One of the key factors identified was the faade consultants access to and understanding of
manufacturing constraints and the impact of these constraints on the design at pre-tender design
stages (shown in Figure 1). As a result, capturing, storing, using and re-using manufacturing
constraints is the focus of the tool.
As part of previous work undertaken by the author [17], a full map of the faade design and
construction process has been developed. For the research presented in this paper, the map was used to
identify patterns of use of specific information or knowledge objects. For example, by identifying the
repeated use of packets of knowledge that are not project-specific, a system can be developed to
capture, store, and make accessible these elements for re-use in subsequent projects. In addition, by
assessing when these information objects are re-used, the tool can be developed to encourage users to
update the recycled information.
-4-
The map shows that activity A1.5.1 (Fig. 2) requires knowledge on size restrictions of facade panels to
assess the panelisation scheme proposed by the project architect. This knowledge is owned by the
consultant and is not specific to the project. Activity A1.5.3 uses the same information for a
development rather than a review task. The consultant has the opportunity to update the knowledge
during activity A4.6 (Fig. 3), when the same type of information, this time owned by the contractor, is
used to review the design.
The design outcome influence map discussed in section 2 suggests that both knowledge of
manufacturing constraints, and the efficient and effective application of this knowledge by the faade
-5-
consultant are key factors in determining the success of a project. The process map shown in section 3
indicates that this knowledge is not specific to a particular project and can be re-used. Therefore, the
tool presented in this section has been developed to capture, store, use and re-use knowledge. The tool
focuses on knowledge of the constraints manufacture imposes on the faade panelisation scheme.
The proposed system is in prototype form and consists of a series of modules. Geometric design
information is stored in the Building Information Model (BIM) in IFC format (element (A) in Figure
4). Details of the extraction and analysis of design information from the IFC database are provided in
[18].
The IFC schema is unable to store details of the materials and processes that make up the faade
panels in a sufficiently structured manner. Therefore the panel materials are specified by the user using
an spreadsheet-based tool developed for the project (element B on Figure 4). The two types of design
data (geometric and material) are linked through a labelling system. For example, an attribute of the
panel object in the BIM database is the faade type (A, B, B.1 etc.); this corresponds to a faade type
specified in the tool. The material options are stored in the re-useable database (element (D) on Figure
4). This part of the database has been populated by extracting the required information from
specifications for 30 real-world projects.
Alongside providing the knowledge-based tool with the information required to identify relevant
design constraints, the tool generates and updates the project faade typology report, a key (paperbased deliverable) of the faade consulting team during the design stages (element (C) of Figure 4).
When the user uses the tool to select the materials and processes to be used to make the panel, the tool
also identifies the correct set of geometrical constraints. Several different checks may be required for
each panel. For example, dimension, curvature and aspect ratio checks may all be performed. To aid
this, the re-useable database (element (D) on Figure 4) stores a set of constraints for each possible
material or process. As the user selects each material or process for a panel, the tool also identifies a
set of constraints. The tool selects the correct constraint (maximum, minimum or range depending on
the constraint type) for each check to form a final set of constraints (one for each check type) for each
faade panel (element (E) on Figure 4). The constraints stored in the prototype tool have been gathered
from interviews with industry members.
-6-
In addition to the identification of constraints, the tool provides the user with a storage facility that can
be updated or expanded in parallel with a project. This encourages and enables live knowledge capture
by facilitating the use of the knowledge on the current project; capture of knowledge as it is identified;
and involvement of the supply chain.
The design is evaluated by comparing the constraints to the results of the corresponding geometrical
analysis performed on the design data extracted from the BIM database (element (G) on Figure 4). The
results of the evaluation can be provided visually, so as to ease communication of the design issue to
the rest of the design team (element (F) on Figure 4).
Case Studies
The following two case studies aim to identify whether the proposed tool can help the faade
consultant to identifying panels in proposed panelisation schemes that are shaped or sized in such a
way that they either cannot be manufactured, or cannot be manufactured at a reasonable cost.
Oxford Brookes, University Building
The proposed Oxford Brookes University Building has over ten different faade types, each type
having many sub-types and each sub-type consisting of several different materials. The materials
include among others: glass, with various coatings; fiber-reinforced concrete; and aluminium. The size
and shape of these panels vary over the faade area, but to simplify modelling for the case study, a
small representative area was selected.
Figure 5: An elevation of Oxford Brookes. The section of the faade used in the test is highlighted with a red
rectangle. (Image on left generated by Ramboll Faade Team)
The chosen section of faade was modeled using information from RIBA (Royal Institute of British
Architects) Stage C architects drawings. The RIBA Stage C faade typology report was used as the
information source for the materials specification. The tool checked the panel geometry against three
criteria: the maximum allowable longer dimension; the maximum allowable shorter dimension; and
the aspect ratio (a correct aspect ratio prevents distortion of glass panels during heat treatments). These
are constraints imposed by the manufacturing process of the panels.
The tool successfully identified problems with three panels. Both fibre reinforced panels had a
maximum dimension that was too long, and, the coloured glass panel was too slender. Subsequent
architects drawings show that these panels were indeed modified, based on the consultants comments
-7-
For the case study, the relevant geometrical information was extracted from the architects digital
model and converted into the required IFC format. The study was performed using preliminary design
stage information and so the panels were specified by the faade consultant only as Double-GlazedUnits; no further detail was available at this stage. The tool identified the panels that would require the
hot bending manufacturing process. In Figure 6 these panels are highlighted in red.
A comparison of the result from the proposed tool and the sub-contractors design information shows
a close match. The tool underestimated the extent of the panels requiring hot bending by 30% but
accurately identified the area of the roof that would require further design development if hot bending
was to be avoided. It is possible that the design heuristic should be adjusted if such limited design
information is available.
Conclusion
process undertaken by the faade consultant. In addition the tool stores and supplies these constraints
in a computer interpretable form to semi-automate evaluation of the proposed panelisation scheme.
Further Work
An important area for further work is to expand the knowledge base to include geometrical constraints
on faade panels that relate to maintenance or replacement of faade panels. For example, panels on
the upper floors of buildings in tight urban environments may be restricted in size due to the size of
the lift shafts in the building that will be used to transport a replacement panel.
The knowledge tool sits within a larger system that performs the required analysis of the geometry as
well as comparing this analysis to the constraints selected by the knowledge module presented in this
paper. This integration of the models is an on-going project and a key area for further development. In
addition, testing of the overall system is planned on a selection of real-world case studies. The tests
will aim to build an improved understanding of the systems performance compared to the current
industry processes.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to Focchi, Permasteelisa and the Faade Team at Ramboll for their input. We would
also like to acknowledge Ramboll and EPSRC for funding this research project.
References
[1] C. Eastman, P. Teicholz, R. Sacks, and K. Liston, BIM Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New
Jersey, 2008.
[2] M. Fischer, Formalizing Construction Knowledge for Concurrent Performance-Based Design,
Construction, pp. 186 - 205, 2006.
[3] A. R. Venkatachalam, J. M. Mellichamp, and D. M. Miller, A knowledge-based approach to design for
manufacturability, Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 355-366, Oct. 1993.
[4] S. Fox, L. Marsh, and G. Cockerham, Design for manufacture: a strategy for successful application to
buildings, Construction Management and Economics, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 493-502, Sep. 2001.
[5] P. Fazio, C. Bedard, and K. Gowri, Knowledge-based system approach to building envelope design,
Computer-Aided Design, vol. 21, no. 8, pp. 519-527, Oct. 1989.
[6] K. Gowri, Knowledge-Based System Approach to Building Envelope Design, Concordia University,
1990.
[7] S. Iliescu, A Cased-Based Reasoning Approach to the Design of Building Envelopes, Concordia
University, 2000.
[8] P. Fazio, H. S. He, a. Hammad, and M. Horvat, IFC-Based Framework for Evaluating Total Performance
of Building Envelopes, Journal of Architectural Engineering, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 44, 2007.
[9] J. M. Kamara, C. J. Anumba, P. M. Carrillo, and N. Bouchlagham, Conceptual Framework for Live
Capture and Reuse of Project Knowledge, in International Conference on Information Technology for
Construction, 2003.
[10] H. C. Tan, P. M. Carrillo, C. J. Anumba, N. Bouchlagham, J. M. Kamara, and Udeaja C. E., Development
of a Methodology for Live Capture and Reuse of Project Knowledge in Construction, Management in
Engineering, vol. 23, no. 18, 2007.
[11] H. S. Robinson, P. M. Carrillo, C. J. Anumba, and A. M. Al-Ghassani, Knowledge management practices
in large construction organisations, Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, vol. 12, no.
5, pp. 431-445, 2005.
[12] P. Karsai, Facade Procurement: The role of the facade consultant, ICBEST 97, 1997. [Online].
Available: http://www.bath.ac.uk/cwct/cladding_org/icbest97/paper19.pdf. [Accessed: 21-Sep-2011].
[13] L. Klotz, M. Horman, H. H. Bi, and J. Bechtel, The impact of process mapping on transparency,
International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, vol. 57, no. 8, pp. 623-636, 2008.
[14] G. Aouad, R. Cooper, M. Kagioglou, and M. Sexton, The development of a process map for the
construction sector, 1999.
[15] P. Tzortzopoulos, M. Sexton, and R. Cooper, Process models implementation in the construction industry:
a literature synthesis, 2005.
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[16] L. T. M. Blessing and A. Chakrabarti, DRM, a Design Research Methodology, no. 30. Springer, 2009, pp.
28-31.
[17] E. Voss, Q. Jin, and M. Overend, A BPMN-Based Process Map for the Design, Construction and
Operation of Facades, CUED Technical Report: CUED-STRUCT/TR.239, 2012.
[18] E. Voss, M. Overend, and W. Stevens, A Building Information Modelling-Based Tool for Heuristically
Assessing Faade Manufacturability, 2012.
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Summary
Today glass often plays a central part in the design of building skins. Therefore demands on such
glazing become progressively complex and manifold. Depending on the respective environment,
the occupancy and other relevant parameters individual solutions have to be developed. To
optimize energy consumption of the faade, the insulating capacity, the sun protection and the
solar energy transmittance have to be adjusted carefully according to particular boundary
conditions. Translucent insulating materials (TIM), various systems for sun and energy control and
individual design inserts allow a wide range of innovative possibilities for green buildings of the
future.
Introduction
Rising energy standards and peoples growing ecological awareness in terms of energy consumption
and CO2 emissions require new developments in the field of the buildings services facilities as well as
the buildings faade. Nevertheless, today the technical limits in the field of the Thermal Insulation are
very limited. Improvements may be achieved by exotic materials like translucent Silica-Aerogels [1].
Such nanoporous granulates prevent convection and conduction within the gas phase. Thus, an
Insulation Glass Unit filled with such a material achieves a thermal transmittance of U < 0.3 W/(mK).
Evacuated glass units may once achieve even lower values. But a durable vacuum insulating unit with
such U-values is not available at the moment due to various technical problems of keeping the vacuum
durable.
Hence, a key development in the field of thermal insulation is very limited. Therefore, it is more
effective to taken the thermal and solar parameters into account to optimize the buildings overall
energy consumption. Even with an excellent thermal insulation glass buildings tend to overheat during
the summer. Considering the fact, that cooling a room by air-conditioning requires approximately
double the energy than rising the temperature about the same value, it is often more effective to design
a suitable shading system than to reduce the thermal insulation to some percentages. The physical
properties, especially the Insulating Capacity, the Visual Light Transmittance and the Total Solar
Energy Transmittance have to be fitted carefully, depending on the individual boundary conditions to
achieve an optimal performance.
Beside solar-control coatings, integrated blinds or metal meshes with optical properties can be used to
obtain the required shading coefficient. In addition, such solutions create an individual design of the
buildings envelope. As the technical parameters of the Insulating Glass Units often do not differ much,
such design issues become more and more important.
-1-
Inside
Amount of heat Q
Te
Ti
Temperature difference T
Figure 1: Make-up of a typical Insulating Glass Units (left) and the heat transfer from warm inside to cold outside
through a double-pane IGU (right).
The U-value can be defined by the amount of heat Q which is transmitted through an area A within the
time period t along a temperature gradient T (1). The U-value can be calculated according to the
standard DIN EN 673 [2]:
U
Q
W
, [U ]
A T t
m K
(1)
The insulating capacity is influenced by the internal heat transfer hi, the heat transfer in the cavity ht,
which can be divided into ~17% heat conduction, ~17% convection and ~66% radiation and the
external heat transfer he (2).
1 1 1 1
U hi ht he
(2)
It becomes obvious that the radiation in the cavity plays a dominant role which determines the total
heat transfer. Therefore, the development of the coating technology was a main step. By reducing the
long-wave Infrared emissivity of the glass surface from glass = 89% to coating = 2% the U-value could
be reduced significant by blocking the heat radiation.
Before 1960 monolithic glass with a U-values of ~6.0 W/(mK) has been standard. By introducing
double glazing IGUs the U-value could cut in half. Today a U-value of ~1.0 W/(mK) can be achieved
with low-e coatings and gas fillings. Triple glazing achieve an U-value of ~0.5 W/(mK), depending
on the type of gas used, the glass thickness, the cavity and the inclination installed.
Generally, the dependence of the U-value on the inclination angle is not taken into consideration in
daily praxis. The U-value is defined and measured in vertical position according to the appropriate
standard DIN EN 674 [3]. Furthermore the DIN EN 1279 [4] refers to the U-value of DIN EN 674 and
-2-
does not consider the actual behaviour. Therefore, the actual insulation capacity of standard IGUs can
be much less than that expected of the preliminary design when used as a roof glazing. The reason for
this behaviour is explained in Figure 2.
Cold
outside
Warm
inside
Cold outside
Warm inside
Figure 2: Convection inside an IGU in the case of faade application (left), convection inside an IGU in the case
of roof application (right).
Inside a vertical glazing the thermal convection forms a long, slow loop as warm air rises along the
interior side. The convection is not significantly high. In the case of a horizontal glazing, the warm air
meets the colder outer side more quickly when rising. The result is the formation of many small rapid
circuits and an accelerated airflow. Thus the thermal energy is transferred faster through the cavity and
the insulating capacity degrades while the U-value rises. Therefore, the performance of a gas-filled
standard IGU drops significantly, when used in a roof application. The real U-value can be more than
50% higher than the U-value measured or calculated according to the appropriate code. If this is not
considered carefully the energy consumption of the whole building may unexpectedly rise due to the
increased heat loss.
2.2 Radiation Properties
Beside the insulating capacity the radiation properties like the Visual Light Transmission and the Total
Solar Energy Transmission characterise the functionality of an IGU. The Visual Light Transmittance
v is defined as the amount of visible light ( = 380nm 780nm) passing through the IGU, less the
reflected and absorbed fraction as illustrated in Figure 4. The ultraviolet part (UV) and the infrared
part (IR) is not been considered. The Visual Light Transmittance usually is given in % of the original
value and can be determined according to the standard DIN EN 410 [5]. v specifies how much light
comes into the building, in other words it indicates how bright or dark the glazing appears.
Solar radiation (spectral range)
Sensitivity of humans eye
Visible range
780 nm
380
relative intensity
1
0 ,8
0 ,6
0 ,4
0 ,2
0
300
UV
600
VIS
900
IR
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
wavelength (nm)
The Total Solar Energy Transmittance (TSET) is also known as g value or Solar Heat Gain
Coefficient (SHGC). This value considers the whole solar range from 250nm up to 2500nm, including
the ultraviolet (UV), visual (VIS) and infrared part (IR) of the solar spectrum [5]. Beside the direct
-3-
transmission the secondary heat is included. The secondary heat is generated by the absorbed radiation,
which is shifted into the IR range and emitted in any direction (Figure 4). The g-value is not
independent from the Visual Light Transmittance v. Both values are connected by the equation v/g <
2.
relative intensity
sensitivity of
humans eye
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
300
600
900
1200
VIS
IR
UV
energy content of UV, VIS, IR
~ 3%
~ 53%
1500
1800
2100
2400
wavelength (nm)
~ 44%
Figure 4: g value, Total Solar Energy Transmittance (TSET) in the solar range 250nm to 2500nm.
The area beneath the graph in Figure 3 and 4 is equal to the appropriate energy content. The visual part
of the solar spectrum contains already 53% of the total solar energy. Even the most effective sun
control coating may only cut off the UV and IR part with together 47% energy content. Such an ideal
coating with 100% visual light transmission and a Colour Rendering Index of 100% results in a ratio
of v = 100% divided by g = 53%. Hence the result is 1.89 (not considered the secondary heat), thus
the ratio is < 2. This physical fact is called the Spectral Selectivity.
One way to increase this ratio is to cut away the tips of high energy content in the visual range. In this
case the colour rendering index will be less than 100% as some belts were missing in the spectrum. In
other words, the glass will not be neutral and the entering light will have a certain colour. Another way,
influencing the Spectral Selectivity is the use of different inserts. To control the different aspects and
fulfill the whole range of demands, the cavity of the IGU can be used [6]. Not only gas fillings and
coatings but also integral louver systems, capillary honeycomb slabs or even high insulating SilicaAerogels allow controlling the physical properties over a wide range.
3.1 Function
Light diffusing insulating material, usually called Transparent or Translucent Insulation, is often used
to achieve a low U-value and a certain solar energy gain for the building. The working principle of
such materials is based on the polar bear coat. The material collects and conducts the light,
respectively the solar energy. At the same time a good thermal insulation is achieved.
3.2 Capillary Structures
Such materials can also be used inside an IGU to expand the features of the faade. When embedded
inside the cavity, inserts like capillary honeycomb slabs improve the thermal performance by
preventing convection. On the other hand the heat flow in the material increases at the same time. By
using a 16mm thick light diffusing capillary insert (Figure 5), the U-value could be reduced from ~3.0
W/(mK) for an air filled cavity to ~2.0 W/(mK) without any additional coating or gas filling.
Adequate triple glazing units with an additional gas filled cavity and a low-e coating even reach a UValue of ~0.6 W/(mK). This benefit of an IGU with a Translucent Insulation insert even increases
when used as a roof application. Despite a conventional gas filled unit the U-value of an element with
an adequate insert stays constant, if it is inclined to the vertical (Figure 7). Aside the low U-value of
-4-
such materials, their light diffusing characteristic brings the light very deep into the room while the
colour rendering index remains by ~100%. For that reason the translucent insert fulfills
multifunctional demands and offers additional advantages like sound insulation, the use of glare free
natural daylight and a unique faade design.
U-Value [W /(m K )]
2.5
Air 16mm
2.0
Argon 16mm
Krypton 10mm
1.5
Capillary Slab
40mm
OKALUX
40mm
1.0
AEROGEL 30mm
OKAGEL 30mm
0.5
OKAGEL 60mm
AEROOGEL
60mm
0.0
90
vertical
75
60
45
30
Inclination [
]
15
0 inclination angle []
horizontal
The natural daylight is used efficiently and without any disturbing glare. As a result, comfortable
lighting and heating conditions can be achieved, and direct solar radiation avoided. For that reason the
users comfort increased and the energy consumption for heating, cooling and artificial lighting is
reduced. Consequently such materials are often used wherever good light conditions, low U-values
and a variable Light end Energy Transmission is necessary. Typical applications are museums,
production- and sport facilities. Figure 6 shows a gym in Herzebrock. The capillaries inside the cavity
of the IGU distribute the light and illuminate the whole area homogeneous without glare.
Another application which became more and more popular in the previous years is the use of such
translucent honeycomb slabs inside of U-profiled channel glass (Figure 7). As such a double-shelled
U-profiled glass wall cannot be installed as a hermetical sealed system a gas filling is not possible in
this case. Hence an alternative solution has to be found to achieve the appropriate U-value. By using a
-5-
40 mm thick capillary slab in combination with an low-e coating an U-value of ~1.4 W/(mK) is
possible.
A nice example of such an application is the new extension to the Nelson Atkins museum in Kansas
City from Steven Holl Architects.
Figure 7: Capillary Slab light diffusing insulating panels in double-shelled U-profiled glass.
The translucent shell of the glass cubes is mostly made from U-profiled panels. The capillary inlays
softly diffuse the daylight into the exhibition rooms and show very high light transmission values and
protect the works of art from damaging UV radiation. During the day, the translucent glazing of the
cubes allows the natural daylight to illuminate the exhibition areas below. The diffuse daylight
produces a bright and pleasant atmosphere in the rooms below ground.
3.3 Silica-Aerogels
The use of translucent Aerogels as a highly efficient insulating material inside the IGUs cavity
represents the best possible thermal insulation at the moment. Again the U-value does not rise when
used as a roof glazing (compare to Figure 5). This extremely lightweight material is produced using a
Sol-Gel process. The products nanoporous particles with a diameter of 0.7mm to 3.5mm basically
consist of SiO2, the basic material of sand and glass (Figure 8). However the Aerogel has an air
content of about 97 % and only weighs 75g per liter. This makes Silica-Aerogel the lightest and best
insulating solid in the world at the moment.
Figure 8: Schematicall illustration of movement of gas molecules in air (left) and the gas molecules trapped in
the nano-porous Silica-Aerogel structure (middle). Silica-Aerogel granulate (right).
Due to the low solids content of the granulate the heat conductivity is minimal. The three dimensional
lattice of the material forms a structure with a mean pore size of approximately 20nm. Gas molecules
are enclosed in these pores, reducing their possibility to vibrate and to transfer heat by colliding with
each other. Hence, not only the convection but also the thermal conduction in the gas phase is
efficiently hindered. As a result the insulating capacity is improved and the speed of sound drastically
-6-
reduced. Therefore the material offers excellent sound and thermal insulation uniquely combined with
a high light transmittance and light diffusion. These advantages offer new design solutions for those
who want to achieve a maximum of daylight as well as an optimum of energy efficiency [1].
One project, realized with a 60mm Aerogel filling inside glass, is the new complex of the British
Antarctic Survey Research Station Halley VI, located on the Brunt Ice Shelf, a floating area of ice that
is moving westward by approximately 700m per year. Since 1956 the first Halley bases were used to
conduct research into meteorology, glaciology, seismology, radio astronomy and geospace science.
The new station will allow long-running research on global change to continue at the site where the
ozone hole was discovered. The new modular station is to be made up of eight individual modules,
which are connected together by short, flexible corridors. The modules are kept above the snow
surface using hydraulic legs mounted on skis. As well as keeping the buildings above the rising snow
level the new design will allow the station to be periodically relocated across distances of many
kilometers. The central, red colored module illustrated in Figure 8 accommodates the majority of the
stations social areas and therefore consists of double height with a large east-facing window made of
OKAGEL. The translucent faade has an U-value of U < 0.3W/(mK). Because of the extreme
temperatures of -60C and less, a standard insulation glass would not perform properly. The primary
seal of Butyl would be too hard and too brittle to keep the cavity permanently proof. Hence the gas
would get lost quickly and humidity may penetrate into the cavity
Figure 10: External blinds (left), Interior blinds (middle) and Blinds inside the cavity (right).
External blinds achieve the best performance concerning sun control and protection against
overheating. Disadvantages are the cost of maintenance and the appearance of the facade. Interior
-7-
blinds offer sun protection only, without avoiding overheating, as the heat is already inside the
building. Blinds inside the cavity offer a good compromise of functionality, maintenance and design.
An integral louver system has more to offer than merely an aesthetic advantage. Because they are
located inside the cavity, the blinds are protected from weather influences and do not get dirty which
means they are totally maintenance free. More important, the functional glass fulfills all of the
requirements of thermal insulation while allowing a differentiated daylighting to the interior.
Integrated systems exhibit a slightly higher amount of total solar energy transmission than systems
mounted on the exterior. Blinds mounted on the interior have the worst functionality in this
comparison. Practice proves them to be extremely prone to becoming dirty as well as needing
intensive maintenance. They are also hardly able to keep the summer heat out of the interior rooms.
They only afford a certain amount of glare control.
Integrated sun control systems are therefore a good compromise for a variety of different requirements.
These systems can be either fixed or movable. Even fixed louver systems, without any moving
components, allow for effective sun control and a self-regulatory function. Compared to conventional
glass with a homogeneous sun control coating the amount of incoming sunlight and with it the total
solar energy depends strongly on the position of the sun (Figure 11).
Figure 11: The selective light and solar energy transmittance of fixed integral louver systems depend on the sun
angle.
The cross-section and surface of the slat as well as the spacing and the orientation of the single slats
are decisive for perfect functioning of a sun control system. But the function also depends on the
current radiation and weather conditions. The system should be designed in such a way as to largely
suppress direct sunlight in summer allowing only diffused daylight to enter the room.
Figure 12: Integral sun control system at the faade of the Landesdenkmalamt Baden-Wrttemberg, Esslingen.
-8-
Due to its selective properties, the amount of total solar energy and light transmission entering through
such a sun control system depends on the season and on the position of the sun. In order to optimally
adapt the sun control to the buildings boundary conditions, information concerning the geographical
location of the building (coordinate and orientation) and the inclination of the facade is needed. The
result of optimal function is sunny rooms which are evenly illuminated by natural light without
becoming overheated in the summer. The sun from the south is blended out while at the same time
allowing the daylight to enter the room. Systems like this are not only suited for sun control on faades
but also for horizontal roof glazing [7]. Figure 12 gives a good impression how an integrated sun
control system may work under optimal conditions.
4.2 Individual Design Solutions
Individual and customized Design Solutions became very important for sophisticated architectural
applications. Architects and owners are looking for new ideas and possibilities to make their building
distinguish to all the other buildings. Often, the building owner is less interested in getting a unique
(and maybe more expensive) faade design, but has to make a good case for potential investors. Today
one of the best arguments for lessees and vendees is a good design. An alternative to glass coatings or
sun control blinds is an insulating glass with a metal inserts (Figure 13). Herewith a similar
functionality is possible while lending the glass faade a visual structure, colour and textured shine.
Many different designs of wire mesh, expanded metal or perforated metal sheet can be integrated as a
design element. The material and the manufacturing process of the insert determine not only the
aesthetics but also the function. A directionally selective sun protection is also possible as a partial
through-vision from inside and very good heat insulation.
Variable
Sun Protection
Transparency
Figure 13: Integral sun control system at the faade of the Landesdenkmalamt Baden-Wrttemberg, Esslingen.
Figure 14 shows an IGU with an expanded Copper mesh developed for David Chipperfields Central
Library in Des Moines, Iowa USA.
The expanded copper inlay produces soft light in the interior of the building and provides effective
protection against sunlight and glare. The glazing is semi-transparent. The fine mesh perforation
pattern offers a privacy function, as people inside can look out, but people outside cant look in.
But the inlay copper is not only a design attractive design element; it also performs the function of a
directionally selective sun protection system. The asymmetrically arranged metal perforations act as
miniature shading elements. When the sun is high, the inlay screens it out the sunlight completely,
when the sun is low, the total solar energy transmission reaches a value of ~0.13.
-9-
Figure 14: IGU with Expanded Copper Mesh at the Public Library Des Moines. The left picture shows the vision
through the glass units from the inside. The picture on the right the appearance from the outside.
Acknowledgements
The Insulating Glass Unit, once developed to guaranty proper thermal insulation for window glazing,
has to assume multiple functions nowadays. Even contradictional demands have to be fulfilled. Highly
efficient insulating systems will become more and more important, even though the technical limits
will be reached soon. IGUs with special inserts can improve the functionality, combining excellent
thermal insulation with an efficient use of natural daylight and sun control. Even energy generating
systems will be integrated into the buildings skin. Such concepts will play a major role in the future to
fulfill the rising energy saving requirements. This development does not only offer new potential for
the planer, it is also a challenge to the glass manufacturers flexibility and technical know-how.
However, the buildings envelop will become more distinctive, architects and designers will get a new
range of possibilities to realize their ideas and finally users will benefit not only from an increased
comfort but also from reduced costs for energy and maintenance.
References
[1] Schneider, F. and Gertner, G., Use of transparent aerogels for efficient thermal insulation, Intelligent Glass
Solutions, Issue 1, 2007, pp. 39-42.
[2] DIN EN 673 Glas im Bauwesen Bestimmung des Wrmedurchgangskoeffizienten (U-Wert)
Berechnungsverfahren, Beuth, Berlin, 2003.
[3] DIN EN 674 Glas im Bauwesen Bestimmung des Wrmedurchgangskoeffizienten (U-Wert) Verfahren
mit dem Plattengert, Beuth, Berlin, 2003.
[4] DIN EN 1279 Glas im Bauwesen Mehrscheiben-Isolierglas, Beuth, Berlin, 2004.
[5] DIN EN 410 Glas im Bauwesen Bestimmung der lichttechnischen und strahlungsphysikalischen
Kenngren von Verglasungen, Beuth, Berlin, 1998.
[6] Schneider, F., Technik im Scheibenzwischenraum, Deutsche BauZeitschrift 12 2006 Glas, 2006, pp. 68-70.
[7] Kster, H., Tageslichtdynamische Architektur, 2004.
[8] Schneider, F. and Hbler, O., New developements in multifunctional IGUs, Glas Performance Days 2007,
pp. 528 531.
- 10 -
Summary
The paper at hand deals with the integration of pipes into sandwich panels for using the panel as a
solar collector. The optimal location, shape, length and hydraulic diameter of the pipes are
analyzed using numerical calculations. Also the influence of various materials on the estimated
performance of the panel is investigated. The results of the performed parametric study are
presented for further use. The proper functioning of the numerical model is proved by simple test
objects.
Introduction
Low costs, high load-bearing capacity, modularity and variability were of primary interest. At that
time, further requirements especially those related to building physics (reaction to fire, fire resistance,
heat and noise protection, air tightness) were of minor importance.
1.2 Potentials
The current discussion on sustainability and energy saving confirms the global need for action
concerning CO2-reduction. Industrial buildings with their large areas of building envelope offer great
opportunities for production of energy via photovoltaic cells or solar thermal collectors. The
-1-
conventional method to mount a load-bearing framework or rack on the roof can be discarded due to
esthetic criteria. This method will only be applied in those cases were no visual demands exist. And
apparently, this method cannot be applied in walls. The solution for these problems is to integrate the
cells or collectors into the components of the building envelope. Up to now only a small percentage of
these wall and roof areas are activated for production of energy. Therefore the integration of a simple,
unglazed solar collector into the cladding and roofing is worthwhile.
Within the framework of a German FOSTA-sponsored research project [1 Nasta-homepage], the
integration of solar thermal collectors and photovoltaic cells into industrially produced building
components for exploitation of heat and electricity is investigated. The focus is laid on sandwich
panels. The investigations cover the optimization of the integrated systems with regard to energy
production, but also the use of the collected energy and the interface with the existing building
equipment and appliances. At best the feed-in of energy directly into the running production processes
is possible. Further attention is paid to the impacts of the integrated solar system on the load-bearing
behavior of the building components itself. This includes on the one hand changes of the load-bearing
capacity and on the other hand additional stresses resulting from temperature loads.. Finally, attention
is drawn to the fully automated production process of sandwich panels. For economic reasons, the
machinery already installed for the production of sandwich panels has to be compatible for the new
sandwich panels with only a few adjustments necessary.
The results of the project will be a base for individual product development. The paper at hand deals
with the integration of pipes of a solar collector into sandwich panels. The location, shape, length and
hydraulic diameter of the pipes are analyzed with regard to the optimization of the energy production.
Analysis is done with numerical models, using Finite-Element-Models. The numerical calculations are
proved by recalculation of temperatures measured with simple test set-ups. A sandwich panel with
integrated pipe system is shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: Sandwich panel with integrated pipe system for thermal activation
Implementation
Sandwich panels core material provides a thermal separation between the inner and outer
shell. The core material itself is acting as a thermal barrier.
Composite systems, such as sandwich panels, provide high load-bearing capacities. The forcefit connection between the faces and the core material stabilizes the thin walled faces. By
increasing the thickness of the insulation, the internal lever arm increases, providing even
higher load-bearing capacity.
-2-
Compared to walls with an outer shell made out of trapezoidal or corrugated sheeting, the flatplane faces of sandwich panels provide a visually appealing appearance. The organic coating
with the great variability in colors is also of great importance which allows emphasizing or
backing-out the complete building or only parts of it.
Production of the faces by roll-forming allows complex geometry for the longitudinal joints,
achieving airtight joints.
All of these points refer to passive achievements of sandwich panels. Further potential exists.
2.2 Sandwich Panels Active Potential and Integration of Solar Collectors
Up to now, sandwich panels were not used or activated for solar thermal applications or for the
tempering of buildings. Similar to additive collector systems, thermally activated sandwich panels can
be mounted on a substructure and, beside their passive task, perform also an active task. In addition to
its function as a building envelope, the modified building component is part of a collector system in
which the surface itself is a solar absorber. Solar heat is used for warming a fluid that transports the
heat for further usage. The outer faces and the adjacent pipes provide a so-called unglazed collector.
Compared to glazed collectors, unglazed collectors work without a translucent cover. This results in
high thermal losses, because only a small difference of temperature between the absorber surface and
the air temperature can be reached. The efficiency is comparatively to photovoltaic cells low.
Therefore the application of unglazed collectors is in the low-temperature-field. In applications with
large surface areas as provided by industrial buildings, the low efficiency of unglazed collectors can be
compensated. Unglazed collectors are predominantly used for pre-heating in water-supply systems,
assistance of heating system or heating of swimming pools. In summer times with small temperature
differences, an efficiency of 0.60 or even 0.70 can be reached.
Core piece of an unglazed collector is the so-called absorber area. This area absorbs the direct and
diffuse solar radiation as well as the thermal energy of the surrounding. The thermal energy is
transported to the consumer via a fluid in an integrated pipe system. The efficiency strongly depends
on the absorption and emissivity characteristics of the surfaces coating, the geometry of the absorber
area and the connection between the absorber area and the pipes.
Numerical Simulation
3.1 Introduction
The performance of a thermally activated sandwich panel is, apart from the heat input at the surface,
dependent on the concerted interactions of the joint components of the panel. Not only the chosen
materials but also the positions of the single components in the panel mainly influence the efficiency
of the whole system. To assess and optimize a planed panel according to its efficiency the knowledge
of the thermal distribution inside the element are urgently necessary.
The numerical simulations aim at identifying the different effects of each parameter on the efficiency
of the whole system. With the help of the developed solutions, a sandwich panel with integrated solar
system can be analyzed regarding unused possibilities of improvement. In general the required
research tasks can be divided into two sub steps:
First the numerical models of all components of the system are created and tested. This includes the
pipe, the sandwich panel and the glue. These single components are coupled to create a thermally
activated sandwich panel. The correct functioning of the whole system is proofed by a separate
constructed prototype. Because of the complexity of the system it is required to abstract the model to
achieve economic computing times. These abstractions are analyzed according to their influence on
the results.
The second step is to carry out the parametrical study. The results and the most important discoveries
are displayed to enable further usage.
-3-
For the numerical simulation of the prototype the surrounding air is assumed to be stationary. Also
heat losses from radiation are neglected. Because of the fact, that it is not possible to glue the pipe
always directly to the steel sheet with direct contact between both metals, a constant, filled with glue,
gap of 0.1 mm is assumed. Table 1 shows the results of the comparison between the measured and
calculated outlet temperatures. In addition to the measured outlet temperatures, a thermal image of the
prototype during test number 4 and the associated solution of the numerical calculation are shown in
figure 3. The comparison of the results of the numerical simulation with the measurements of the
prototype confirms the correct functioning of the developed model.
-4-
Fluid
velocity
Air
temperature
[C]
[l/h]
22,8
[C]
Measured outlet
temperature at the
prototype [C]
Calculated outlet
temperature by numerical
simulation [C]
0,9
16,6
16,8
17,3
29,5
11,4
16,7
26,7
26,8
35,8
11,3
17,5
31,5
31,7
36,0
8,0
16,9
28,6
29,3
37,4
3,4
16,9
24,7
25,6
Test
number
In the next step the excessive computing times of the model get reduced by straightening the pipe. For
the realistic application possible curves of the pipes are negligible compared to length of the straight
sections. But nevertheless the influence of the curves toward straight pipes is investigated by using
different boundary conditions. Figure 3 shows the results of the comparison. There are no remarkable
descrepacnies.
Figure 4: Comparison of the numerical solutions between curved and straight pipes
For transferring heat from the fluid to the inner wall of the pipe, the heat transfer coefficient is the
most important parameter. It is dependent on the temperature and velocity of the fluid and the
diameter of the pipe. In this case of a sandwich panel with an integrated solar system, heat transfer
coefficients from 200 to 2000 W/(m2K) are theoretically possible. But to achieve an economic
performance the fluid flow is assumed to be laminar. This results from the investigations documented
-5-
in section 3.3. Thus heat transfer coefficients from 200 to 600 W/(m2K) are used. Performed numerical
calculations show, that the used range of coefficients has just a small influence on the results.
3.3 Parametric Study
By using the developed numerical model, a parameter study to assess the influence of the involved
components is performed. Beside the geometric parameters shown in figure 5, also the material
properties of the transitional layer (red) or the pipe (grey) and velocity of the flow are varied. By
choosing a good thermal conductivity of the transitional layer, an increased contact area between pipe
and surface layer can be approximated. That simulates for example a pre-formed surface layer.
The heat transfer coefficient from the surface layer to the air is assumed to be constant 15 W/(m2K).
Most numerical simulations are performed with a maximum heat input of 920 W/m2 at the surface
layer and a heat loss of 50 W/(m2K). The results represent the steady state condition, according to the
chosen configuration of parameters.
Because of the various interactions of the parameters, a final solution for an optimal configuration for
a sandwich panel with integrated solar system cannot be presented. The following figures show the
influence of changing parameters, while keeping the other ones constant. In all diagrams, the function
fluid temperature vs. length of the pipe is shown. For any inlet temperature of the fluid, the outlet
temperature dependent on the length of the pipe can be read out.
In figure 6 the influence of the distance between pipe and surface layer is displayed. The pipe and the
surface layer are made of steel ( = 40 W/(mK). A transitional layer of just 1 mm made of
polyurethane foam (PU) leads to a reduction in efficiency of more than 70%. An increase of efficiency
by increasing the contact area between pipe and surface layer cannot be achieved. Also increasing the
width of the transitional layer ( = 40 W/(mK) bk cannot improve the heating of the liquid (not shown
in diagram).
a) to d)
e)
f)
g)
-6-
The next series of calculations investigates the influence of the distance between pipe and surface
layer if a pipe of plastic ( = 0.23 W/(mK)) is used. The results are displayed in figure 7. In this case,
the width of the transitional layer bk ( = 40 W/(mK) also influences the efficiency. Thus, for example,
a preformed surface layer can improve the efficiency of the system.
Figure 7: Influence of the distance between pipe (plastic) and surface layer
The third series of calculations, shown in figure 8, represent the influence of parallel fixed pipes. The
pipes are made of steel and fixed directly to the surface sheet. A distance between the pipes of more
than 100 mm leads to no further increase of efficiency.
The presented results are just a choice of the performed investigations. Of course, there are a lot of
more interactions between used materials and geometry. The entirety of numerical simulations are the
basis for following test set ups with fully installed sandwich panels with integrated pipe systems. The
construction of these thermal activated sandwich panels will connect the theoretical and numerical
analyses with new procedures for producing and installing these products. The first installed panel is
planned for summer 2012.
-7-
Conclusion
The most important results of the numerical simulations are information about useful dimensions of
the pipes and the influence of gaps between the pipes and the layer sheet. An additional important
result is that with the use of plastic pipes also a good efficiency can be achieved.
On the basis of the new findings three specific sandwich panels are planned for construction. The first
one will be a panel with nearly even surface layer with pipes with an inner diameter of 6 mm
underneath. The distance of the plastic pipes will be 100 mm. For the second and third panel a
structured surface layer, normally used for roofing, is chosen. The inner diameter of the plastic pipes
will be 6 mm and 10 mm.
Beside the practical tests further analytical investigations will be performed. This includes an
energetically conclusion of all involved components to draw up the overall efficiency. This is
important, because there are several dependencies of the surrounding components on the expected
profit. For example the diameter of the pipes has great influence on the energy consumption of the
pump.
By combining the measured results of the installed sandwich panels and the results of the numerical
and analytical simulations, an overall forecast of the efficiency of thermal activated sandwich panels
will be possible.
Acknowledgements
This research has received financial support from the Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e.V.
(FOSTA). We express our sincere gratitude for this support.
References
-8-
Summary
The European Parliament Directive 2010/31/EU, Article 9.1, requires that all new buildings will
have to be nearly net zero energy by 2020 (2018 for public buildings). A constant solar heat gain
coefficient or g value - as defined in the relevant standards - is inadequate for optimizing the
energy consumption of a building. It is necessary to take the angular dependence of g values into
account. Photovoltaics mounted on buildings can generate enough electricity in principle on an
annual basis to enable a building to compensate for energy that is consumed for its operation, but
there is a large mismatch between when the electricity is demanded and when the electricity is
supplied.
Keywords: EP Directive, net zero energy, total solar energy transmittance, BIPV
Introduction
According to the European Parliament Directive 2010/31/EU, Article 9.1, all new buildings will have
to be nearly net zero energy by 2020 (2018 for public buildings). Thus, any energy required for the
operation of the building will have to be compensated over the course of one year by the equivalent
amount of energy supplied by the building. In order to be creditable, the energy supplied by the
building has to be obtained from renewable sources, since otherwise again primary energy from
conventional sources would be used. This directive immediately has three implications for the future
usage of energy within buildings:
Due to the fact that the provision and the usage of energy from some renewable resources such as
hydroelectricity, wind energy or biomass within any building is very limited, it is much more likely
that the energy used for compensation will have to be converted from solar energy. Solar energy not
only possesses the advantage of being comparatively evenly available to everybody but it is also easily
accessible and harvestable in systems with dimensions ranging from very small such as those used in
individual households - to very large - for office or industrial buildings. Solar-thermal and
photovoltaic products that ensure reliable and sustainable kWh generation have been developed and
are available worldwide at reasonable prices.
-1-
The energy consumption of buildings is typically in the form of heat or electricity. Thermal energy is
required to either heat or cool the building to a desired operation temperature. Thus the energy
required is related primarily to the type of building usage and the thermal losses or gains through the
building envelope. This correlation is mainly described by the U value and g value of the product or
the combination of products.
100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
G - value [%]
Irradiation
Absorption
50 %
40 %
30 %
Transmission
Secondary heat
transfer
Reflection
60 %
20 %
10 %
0%
Figure 1: (a) Interaction of solar radiation and PV modules. (b) Total solar energy transmittance (g value) of
semi-transparent PV elements vs. cell coverage for monolithic panels and insulating glazing
Unfortunately, constant boundary conditions are assumed when the U or g value is determined
experimentally or calculated as described in the relevant standards. Especially the g value describing
the total solar gain through a component is strongly affected by the reflectance, absorbance and
transmittance of the component. As can be seen in Figures 2 and 3, these characteristics are for glass
not constant for varying incident angles.
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.6
6 mm Float fg023066
0.2
400
500
600
700
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.0
300
Tdd [-]
Tdd [-]
0.8
0.2
0.0
300
400
500
600
Wellenlnge [nm]
800
Wellenlnge [nm]
Figure 2: Transmittance spectra of 6 mm float glass for p and s-polarized light and
different angles of incidence [1]
-2-
700
800
0.50
1.0
6 mm Float fg023066
0.45
Rdd [-]
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.8
Rdd [-]
0.40
6 mm Float
fg023066
0.6
0.4
0.20
0.15
0.2
0.10
0.05
0.00
300
400
500
600
700
0.0
300
800
400
500
600
700
800
Wellenlnge [nm]
Wellenlnge [nm]
Figure 3: Reflectance spectra of 6 mm float glass for p and s-polarized light and
different angle of incidence [1]
As both the reflectance and transmittance values depend significantly on the glazing configuration,
including the number of panes, glass chemical composition, coatings, and surface structures, different
glazing specimens not only have different U values and g values for normal incidence, but also show
differently varying behavior when the incident angle is changed. Figure 4 shows that coated glass, in
particular, shows large deviations from the g value determined at an incidence angle of 0.
Figure 4: Calculated angular functions of total solar transmittance g for three DGU [2]
Inadequate consideration of the incident angle dependence would not be of interest for calculating the
thermal impact on buildings if the total irradiation at non-zero angles did not contribute significantly,
since the solar gain is the product of the g value and the incident solar energy. However, as figure 5
shows, the opposite is the case. The incidence angle of 0, for which the solar heat gain coefficient is
determined conventionally, contributes insignificantly to the annual total, whereas significant thermal
impact results for solar irradiation at incidence angles deviating from 0.
Note: Variations in orientation have a less significant effect on the angular distribution than variations
of the tilt angle for constant orientation.
-3-
Figure 5: Dependence of annual irradiation totals on angle of incidence for differently oriented and tilted
surfaces in Freiburg (latitude 48 N)
The incidence angle of solar irradiation on a glass surface depends on the position of the sun, the
orientation and the tilt angle of the surface itself, and the location of the building. Consequently,
surfaces that are oriented differently will have very different thermal impacts on a building. Likewise,
surfaces that are oriented identically but are situated at different locations will have very different
thermal impacts on a building.
Conclusion:
The constant solar heat gain coefficient or g value - as defined in the relevant standards - provides a
simple means to compare one product with another, but it is practically useless on its own when the
energy consumption of a building is to be optimized. If the dependence on incidence angle is not
considered, even simulations that account for the orientation of the surface as well as the solar position,
are not exact enough to really optimize the thermal behavior of a building. Simulations and
calculations like this might be state of the art for commercial or public buildings. For residential
buildings there seems to be a lack of an adequate consideration of the angular dependence of the total
solar transmittance. The same glass type is most likely being used on all sides of these buildings.
A low value for a solar heat gain coefficient is not desirable per se. It does not necessarily lead to the
optimum when the annual energy performance of buildings is investigated. In winter, a rather high but
controlled solar heat coefficient is desired for passive heating whereas in summer a rather low solar
heat gain coefficient is desired to reduce the risk of overheating or eliminate the need for active
cooling.
Figure 6 shows the angle-dependent distribution of total monthly irradiation incident on a southoriented, vertical surface in Freiburg for selected months. (Monthly data have been taken from 22nd of
the previous month to the 21st of the current month to adjust for annual symmetry in respect to
summer solstice. Data have been normalized to 30 days per month.)
Both images clearly show that:
The maximum value for incident solar irradiation in winter occurs at much smaller incident
angles than in summer.
The weather has a significant effect on the absolute value of the irradiation total per angle, as
indicated by the difference between January and December (left) or June and July (right)
(Meteonorm test reference year data have been used) The angle-dependent distribution of the
monthly irradiation totals is affected very little by the weather.
-4-
The maximum value for incident solar irradiation in winter is smaller than in summer for
south oriented vertical surfaces, but when taking into consideration that the total solar
transmittance is much greater for incident angles of 20 than for 70 (see. Figure 4), the
seasonal effect of the thermal impact on the building is only relatively weak.
E[kWh/m/
E[kWh/m/
Even in months (Figure 7) that have their maximum of incident solar irradiation at an incident angle
for which the g-value is less than 5% inaccurate (see figure 4) more than 30% of the annual energy
impact occurs at incident angles for which the g- value is more than 15% inaccurate.
4.5
4
3.5
5
4.5
4
3.5
2.5
2.5
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
[]
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
-5-
80
90
[]
The European Parliament Directive 2010/31/EU, Article 9.1 requires all new buildings to be nearly
net zero energy by 2020. As stated above, solar energy will most likely provide the means to
compensate the use of energy in order to achieve an annual net-zero energy balance.
In order to fulfill this requirement, one needs - in addition to knowledge concerning the solar
irradiation incident on the building - to know :
how much electricity a photovoltaic system is able to generate per m of photovoltaic modules
at the location the building is located
how much electricity a photovoltaic system is able to generate per m of ground floor area
considering the orientation of the building and the tilt angle of its roof
how much electricity a photovoltaic system is able to generate per m of ground floor
considering the topology of its roof.
Figure 8 shows the global horizontal irradiation (GHI) map as published by PV-GIS [4].
It shows that the annual irradiation total in the region covered by the scope of European Parliament
Directive 2010/31/EU varies roughly by the factor of two - from approximately 800 kWh/m/a in
Northern Europe to approximately 1600 kWh/m/a in Southern Europe.
Thus on a ground area of 100 m the annual GHI total ranges from 80,000 kWh in Scandinavia to
160,000 kWh in southern Spain. Considering an average system efficiency of 13% for crystalline pvcells (which account for 81.1% of the PV market in Europe [5]), one can estimate 10,400 kWh of
electricity in Scandinavia and 20,800 kWh in southern Spain for a horizontally mounted photovoltaic
system. Since most roofs are not horizontal but are tilted, one requires the dependence of irradiation
with respect to tilt angle and orientation of the roof area.
Figure 9 shows the global irradiation distribution from clear skies for differently oriented and tilted
surfaces relative to the maximum achievable value at this location. The figure is calculated for
Germany, but shows very minor variation for all of Central Europe.
Note: Figure 9 does not take account of local weather conditions.
-6-
Tilt angle
- 15
10
-1
40
-170
0
+16
+170
40
+1
50
+1
+1
30
North
-16 0
annual irradiation
30%
0
-13
+1
20
20
40%
0
- 12
+11
0
50%
-110
30
60%
+100
-1 00
70%
0102030405060708090 East
West
80%
-80
+80
+6
-60
95%
100%
-5
0
+10
+ 20
+3
0
70
0
-3
-10
-20
South
60
80
0
-4
+4
0
0
+5
50
90%
-70
+70
40
90
Christof Erban
Figure 9: Annual total irradiation for different orientations and tilt angles in Central Europe relative to the
maximum achievable value
Figure 10 introduces the topology and the orientation of the roof. It can be derived that the topology
has a much larger influence on the energy yield per m ground area than the orientation of the roof.
When both parameters are combined, the deviation from the minimum to the maximum is 3.88.
Thus the range of electricity generation on a 100 m building ranges from 3640 kWh (type 2 building
in Scandinavia - appr. 4.3 kWp) to 28288 kWh (type 4 building in Southern Spain - appr. 15 kWp).
tilt angle
30
30
30
15
30
100%
30%
58%
115%
104%
115%
energy yield2
100%
118%
118%
118%
100%
92%
100%
35%
68%
136%
104%
106
E
S
N
W
Figure 10: Energy yield for different roof topology and roof orientation
1
active roof area/ ground area, 2in comparison to GHI as in Fig. 7, 3 eq. 1 * 2
In Europe, the installed power of photovoltaic arrays on residential roofs typically ranges from 3-5
kWp. They are oriented more or less due south and provide enough electricity over the whole year
to compensate for all electricity demands in the building if the building is not heated or cooled by
electricity. If the topology and orientation of the roof is chosen properly, this holds true even in
Scandinavia. The surplus in summer is fed into the grid and sold.
On an annually averaged basis, photovoltaics in Central Europe can even contribute a significant share
of electricity for heating using a heat pump. This requires building designs with a high electricity yield
per m ground ratio.
Buildings like this incorporating photovoltaic systems as described before - thus would meet the
demands of the European directive for an annual net zero energy balance, but as figure 11 shows, there
is a mismatch between the time when photovoltaics supplies electricity in summer and the time
when the electricity is required by the heat pump in winter.
-7-
500
450
400
350
kWh
300
pv
250
Electricitydemand
Electricitydemadheatpump
200
150
100
50
0
Jan
Feb
Mrz
Apr
Mai
June
July
Aug
Sept.
Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 11: Monthly electricity balance for a house with a 3 kWp photovoltaic array vs.
a house with a 3 kWp photovoltaic array and heat pump (passive house standard) [6]
Today there are not any financially viable means or products that could provide the required seasonal
storage of electricity for single households. In addition there are limitations imposed by the capacity of
the utility grid on transferring large amounts of solar electricity to e.g. centralized seasonal storage
units. In countries with large numbers of installed photovoltaic systems such as Germany
photovoltaics contributes significantly to the noon peak electricity supply (figure 12 - which shows
data from June 2011 that were extrapolated by the amount of photovoltaic and wind power installed in
2011). On weekends, the public grid reaches its capacity limits and cannot accept more
photovoltaically generated electricity, since the output of nuclear power plants and lignite-fuelled
power plants cannot be changed within a few hours.
70000
60000
50000
photovoltaic
wind
40000
gas
coal
30000
run_of_the_river
20000
lignite
uranium
10000
0
1.Juni2012
8.Juni2012
15.Juni2012
22.Juni2012
29.Juni2012
Figure 12: Simulated electricity generation for June 2012 in Germany [7]
To summarize: Depending on the location of the building and the building design, photovoltaic
systems can generate enough electricity in principle to fulfill the EPD directive. However, with the
rapidly increasing number of installed photovoltaic systems, critical problems concerning timing,
storage and transfer will arise. The usage of photovoltaic modules that do not feature high efficiency
or building designs that are not designed to optimize the generation of electricity or that are subject to
excessive shading will not be able meet the EPD directive.
Just by being mounted at different orientations and tilt angles, photovoltaic systems can be used to
shift both the daily generation peak away from noon and to generate electricity with a more even
annual distribution than systems that are optimized solely for the highest annual total in kWh.
-8-
Summary
The European Parliament Directive 2010/31/EU, Article 9.1, requires that all new buildings will have
to be nearly net zero energy by 2020 (2018 for public buildings). A constant solar heat gain
coefficient or g value - as defined in the relevant standards - is inadequate for optimizing the energy
consumption of a building. It is necessary to take the angular dependence of g values into account, if
the thermal behavior of a building is to be effectively optimized as a step toward meeting the
requirement of the Directive.
Photovoltaics mounted on buildings can generate enough electricity in principle on an annual basis to
enable a building to compensate for energy that is consumed for its operation, but there is a large
mismatch between when the electricity is demanded and when the electricity is supplied. In countries
with a large number of photovoltaic systems, already the limited grid capacity today limits the amount
of photovoltaically generated electricity which can be fed into the grid. A better match between
photovoltaic supply and public demand can be achieved by adapting module orientation and tilt angles
to shift the generated electricity peak away from noon.
References
[1] Wilson, H.R.: Polarisationseffekte bei winkelabhngigen Messungen von Reflexion und Transmission,
Colloquium Optische Spektrometrie COSP 2007 Berlin, 2007.
[2] Platzer, W.: Angular-dependent Light and Total Solar Energy Transmittance for Complex Glazings, Final
Report of the EU-funded ALTSET project, Contract No. SMT4-CT96-209, Fraunhofer ISE, Freiburg 2000.
[3] W: Sprenger: Irradiation data provided, Fraunhofer ISE, Freiburg 2011
[4] Photovoltaic Geographical Information System, PV-GIS, JRC 2004, http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis
[5] EPIA, Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics until 2015, Brssel 2011
[6] Roos, M., Henze, N., Boyanov, N., Maas, A.: Einfluss gebudenaher Photovoltaik-Anlagen auf den
Primrenergiebedarf von Gebuden nach EnEV, 4. Anwenderforum Bauwerkintegrierte Photovoltaik,
Kloster Banz, Bad Staffelstein, Bad Staffelstein 2012.
[7] Erban, C.: 30 geneigt, nach Sden orientiert Sackgasse oder Knigsweg, 4. Anwenderforum
Bauwerkintegrierte Photovoltaik, Kloster Banz, Bad Staffelstein, Bad Staffelstein 2012.
-9-
Summary
Within the framework of a research project financed by BMU, and in collaboration with partners
from industry and research, a solar collector for office building faades is being developed. This
completely integrated collector not only functions as a power generator but as sun blind for the
reduction of cooling loads during the simultaneous use of daylight. The energy gained with the aid
of the faade collector can be used to heat drinking water and as a solar supplement to heating and
cooling. The panel/collector that has been developed received the 2010 Intersolar Award.
-1-
Introduction
In recent years, solar thermal systems have established themselves on the market, mostly to augment
domestic water heating. In 2006, about 1 million square meters of collection panels were established
in the sector. On the whole, collectors are mounted on or integrated into rooftops.
Given around 5 square meters of collector area, solar water heating systems cover between 5% to 12%
of the total heating demand of a single family home. To increase the solar thermal percentage further,
combination boilers are used. For this purpose, collection panels larger than 10 square meters are
required, which, based on levels of sunshine and the required amount of heat in office buildings, are
best integrated into the faade, since roof space is rarely available. The only systems on the market are
faade mountable, adaptive systems.
Till now, only thermal insulation manufacturers have developed products, such as flat plate collectors,
which can be integrated into their systems.
Non-residential building, particularly office and administration construction, is only now beginning to
take an interest in solar thermal systems -- not least because of the associated positive image. Since in
such buildings roof spaces are in short supply, solar thermal systems must be integrated into the
facade. In the faade, the solar thermal system is visible from outside and in certain cases may also be
visible from the inside and can be used to enhance image. The reticence of office and administration
construction in using solar thermal energy for heating water, for in-house canteens or cafeteria, for
solar cooling, or possibly also for heating assistance, is among other things largely due to the fact that
there is no system on the market which integrates them into conventional faades. Photovoltaic
systems have a similar developmental history. Originally either roof mounted or roof integrated, they
have, unlike solar thermal energy, managed the leap into architectural realization. Meanwhile, there
are a large number of award-winning buildings (mostly administrative buildings), where this
technology is successfully used in the building envelope. Photovoltaics enjoy clearly signaled support
at the political level, which encourages the active use of solar energy use in building envelopes. Thus
the current draft of the EEG (Renewable Energy Sources Act) states that integrated systems will
receive increased financial support and facade integrated systems, the maximum rate. The EEWG
(Renewable Energies Heat Act) has already been adopted. As with the modules of a photovoltaic
system, with solar thermal systems the collection panels are the eye-catching element. They occupy
roughly the same areas of the building envelope, although a partial shading of the panels is less
important than with photovoltaic modules. For flat panels, there are already systems that allow
integration into the building envelope. Currently there is no integration of vacuum tubes. However,
thanks to their aesthetic structure and geometric advantages, they offer great potential benefits for
building facades.
Research project
Integration of solar thermal systems in facades of office buildings. The promotion of renewable energy
sources by the BMU seeks to lead long-term development towards economic alternatives to the
primary energy supply in Germany. The aim of energy research programs, besides ensuring security
and efficiency of supply, is environmental sustainability, which means meeting future energy demand
in Germany in an environmentally friendly and cost-effective manner via exploitation of all
technically and economically viable options, replacement of limited resources of coal, oil and gas and
prevention
of
environmental
and
climate-related
emissions,
above
all
CO2.
The overarching goal of the project is reducing the use of finite energy sources for the supply of
offices buildings with heat and hot water, thereby minimizing the emission of greenhouse gases,
particularly CO2. For the development of a broadly applicable system, scientists, along with FGHK,
TU Munich, IBK2 and Solites, Stuttgart, supported by the industrial firms Frener + Reifer Metalbau,
Metalbau Frh and Hydro Building Systems will work on technical implementation in the facades area
based on the general relevant details. Support with respect to issues concerning collectors has been
taken over by Paradigma of Ritter-Solar. In the research project for the integration of vacuum tubes
into facades of office buildings, two different facade panels with multiple functions, which differ in
terms of their position to the thermal level, were developed. In addition to their ability for active solar
-2-
energy use, they function as transparent sun protection while also using daylight. For one thing, the
mounting of vacuum tubes outside the facade (consent has already been granted by the Office of
Building Technology) has had to be adopted for architectural and energy considerations, and the
collector pipes installed behind protective glass panes, on the grounds of safety and cleaning issues.
2.1 Multiple functions of the integrated system
Energy
A facade integrated solar collector provides absorbed heat and energy gain for the different
uses such as domestic hot water for sinks and kitchen, solar cooling, and can be used to
support space heating or the like.
Sun protection by reflection and / or absorber plate and heat dissipation
The trapped heat from the sun is dissipated by heat transfer. Through the vacuum insulation of
the tube, the heat absorbed by the tube is not released again, since the surface of the vacuum
tube is not warm.
Daylighting
With proper arrangement of the tubes or corresponding perforation of the absorber panel,
daylight is streamed into the interior, despite the sun protection properties.
Maintenance of transparency
By keeping the necessary distance between the tubes, through the transparent construction and
/or perforation of the absorber panel, the view out of the interior is maintained.
facade. The effort required to clean the glass facade is not increased by the protective glazing does nor
are there additional security requirements in case of damage. The two different installation scenarios
meet different needs and requirements from the market and therefore could even work symbiotically.
As part of the research project, the technical grade of the facade collector (vacuum tube outside and
behind glass) was further developed and improved towards small series. Due to the departure of the
Schott Glass Tube company, a new vacuum tube type, the Paradigm Sydney-tube, and the review of
the program in terms of the new vacuum tube type is necessary. Important aspects in this regard were,
in addition to energy, cleaning and security in the event of damage, the function of the collector as a
facade for sun protection and daylighting in office buildings.
Figure 2: Measures of the faade collector system at the ITW of the University of Stuttgart
The simulation calculations performed on the basis of these measurements by the Solites Research
Institute for Solar and Sustainable Thermal Energy Systems at the Steinbeis Foundation produced
encouraging results.
For the load case "office" at the Freiburg site, the proportion of demand met by solar energy was 40%
for heating and 30% for cooling. In essence, the research project simulations showed that the support
of the architectural development in particular is essential. This is due to the fact that the solar thermal
yield of possible systems depends strongly on the geometrical arrangement of the vacuum tubes and
the design details. Moreover, while generally speaking the yields achievable in a vertical facades
-4-
through the use of vacuum tubes in comparison to flat plate collectors are high, this depends on system
usage in the border area of an economically viable use of solar thermal energy.
The simulations were carried out on a solar thermal system for DHW heating, a solar thermal plant,
and a combined system for solar cooling. The system size here was adapted to the planned pilot
building SOLPOWER1. In addition, the solar thermal systems were simulated at three different sites
in Europe. These comparisons showed that on the one hand, the use of vacuum tubes in the facade for
solar thermal space heating is promising. On the other hand, the solar thermal yield from the use of
vacuum tubes in the facade for solar thermal cooling is lower than expected. Which boundary
conditions of solar thermal cooling with facade panels produce which economic advantages over a
conventional vapor compression cooling machines driven by a photovoltaic field, need to be
established.
The installation in a flat collector box vacuum tube, which, due to the glass plate mounted in front of
it, has a lower energy output, has advantages in terms of pollution and damage limitation.
Technically, the most efficient and economically sensible integration of solar thermal systems were
developed in the direction of small series installations.
3.1 Measurements under real-world conditions
Small collector area, Ritter small solar collector field, location at the premises of Ritter Solar
To maximize the performance of the various aspects of energy, sun screening and daylighting, and to
be able to test under real conditions, working prototypes for a pump station at the TU Munich and the
another on the facade of a Ritter Solar company building have been installed. The solar collector field
at Ritter Solar, with 8 faade panels connected in series, was run through into the existing building
services to integrate solar support with the heating and cooling system. Using this equipment allowed
small series thermal measurements to be taken. These results provide a good basis for the required
connection technology, cable routing as well as integration with building services systems, with the
aim of achieving an optimal cost/benefit ratio, taking into account all economic and overall energy
considerations.
-5-
Against the background of an urgently required reduction in total energy consumption of buildings and
in addition to the active use of solar energy in building envelopes, efficient sun protection to minimize
the required cooling loads as well as the efficient use of daylight to reduce lighting energy demand is
indispensible. To estimate the potential for sun protection and the use of daylight, the collector was
installed on the facade of the solar station of the Department of Technology and Design of the TU
Munich Chair of Building Envelopes and measured. The synthesis of solar energy by means of
vacuum tubes and perforated mirror with simultaneous function as a sunscreen and the concomitant
reduction in cooling demand is ideal. To ensure the quality and success of the facade collector, besides
its functional capability, the energy-rich sunlight, along with the daylight in the interior behind it, is
masked with the help of the integrated perforated reflector and integrated vacuum tubes. An adequate
supply of glare-free daylight is vital to ensuring user uptake. Studies on the function of the collector
facade for sun protection and use of daylight will be conducted to evaluate the integrated system but
also to optimize it. Thus, for example, the perforated sections of the mirror will be altered and
measured. The measurements will be carried out in a pilot series according to the issue under
investigation and using different measurement technologies.
4.1 Sun protection potential
The measurements for sun protection potential were found in comparative measurements, ensuring the
relation to conventional systems in a very direct way. For this test the container was divided into two
equal-sized spaces and each was fitted with the identical transparent facade elements (h = 2550 m, b =
1600mm). In this way, a direct and tangible comparison can be made in addition to a precise
measurement that allows for subjective experience along with scientific measurements and their
-6-
analysis. One half of the test container, test chamber B, was fitted successively for the comparative
measurements with different collector fields:
OEM 21, Collector field with the Paradigm OEM 21vacuum tube collector. This is equipped
with vacuum tubes without additional reflective mirrors.
CPC 12 19%, Collector field with the Paradigm CPC 12 vacuum tube collector. This is
equipped with 24 vacuum tubes and a specially curved mirror for enhanced reflection of solar
radiation. To ensure visibility through the facade, the mirror is 19% perforated. The opaque
portion of the tubes collector area has an effective light transmittance of 13%.
CPC 12 38%, as above, for visibilitys sake, the facade of the mirror is 38% perforated. With
the opaque portion of the tube collector area has an effective light transmittance of 26%.
On radiation-intensive summer days, the two spaces (test chamber A without, test chamber B with
facade collector) warmed differently. Test chamber A was equipped either with no shading or with
conventional sun protection (aluminum blind). In this case, the blind was set so that the light
transmittance of the slats, that is to say, the effective width of the openings corresponded to the
respective slots in the facade collector. The test measurement protocols began with Phase 1 as a
documentation of the temperature behavior of test chamber A and parallel addition of heat using a fan
heater. The energy supplied was measured. Using the energy efficiency of the heater as a benchmark,
it was possible to calculate the energy that can be designated as a sun protection effect.
With respect to the sun protective potential average, collector type CPC12-19% came off best, in that
the temperature curve remained far below that of test chamber A with the conventional blind.
Figure 5: Comparison. Collector field CPC 12 19% - collectorfield 12 /38% - conventional blind not shaded
faade element
-7-
Photometric investigations
The
photometric
measurements
were
made
up
of
three
measurement
procedures:
Results
In the studies on the potential for sun protection as well as the technical investigations in light, the
facade collector type CPC 12-19% achieved the most favorable results. The measurements of daylight
quotient were conducted using a work desk of 0.85m height at 1m distance from the facade. An
exterior illuminance of 5440 lux produced an interior illuminance of 68 lux. The daylight factor was
1.25%. According to DIN5034 a TQ of between 0.75% - 1% is sufficient. In spite of the highly
effective sun protection function, the measured daylight quotient in the interior exceeded the values
required by workplace regulations. For the system to meet the ever-increasing demands on facade
systems in administration buildings, further configuration options with regard to perforation of the
mirror and additional adaptive layers for convection or glare protection will be investigated.
The facade collector developed for active use of solar energy, which also takes on the sun protection
function with simultaneous use of daylight, received the Intersolar Award at the Intersolar 2010 in
Munich.
References
[1] Stefan Behling, Andreas Fuchs, Tina Volz (jetzt Wolf).Solare Architektur Forschung und Entwicklung.
DETAIL 6/2007, Energieeffiziente Architektur, ISSN 0011-957, S. 666 ff (Artikel)
[2] Tina Volz (jetzt Wolf). Solarthermie - Der Sprung in die Architekturwelt. Fassadentechnik, Planung und
Ausfhrung der Gebudehlle Jg.: 18 Nr. 1, 2008, ISSN: 0948-1214, S. 17 ff (Artikel)
-9-
Closed-Cavity-Facade
Martin Lutz, Dipl.-Eng. (FH) Architect, Chief Executive Officer
Drees & Sommer Advanced Building Technologies GmbH Stuttgart
Managing Partner
Drees & Sommer AG Stuttgart
Martin.Lutz@dreso.com / www.dreso.com
Summary
Energetic sustainability, minimization of life-cycle-costs, a cost-efficient and future oriented
faade type.
-1-
1.1 Only a Sun Protection Protected from Pollution is Truly Energy Efficient
The sun protection, placed in the hermetically sealed faade cavity is therefore entirely weather proof.
No contamination of any kind, which would heavily reduce the efficiency of the system, will take
place at any time. The declaration of a highly efficient daylight system integrated into the sun shading
is 100 % justified for the very first time. This is especially true for the daylight technical qualities of
the upper 1/3 of the sun shading optimised for daylight redirection. Any external sun shading, such as
often used in single layer faades, exposed to the elements and therefore prone to pollution will never
allow for an efficient daylight redirection. Promising anything else would be only half of the truth. It is
often ignored, that the constant pollution vastly reduced the efficiency. The regular cleaning in short
intervals of small, light redirecting, usually highly reflective, multi-folded lamellae, to achieve the
theoretical effectiveness achieved under laboratory conditions, is just pure, unrealistic theory, which
could not be afforded anyhow with regard to life-cycle-costs.
1.2 Tallest High-rise in Switzerland with Closed-Cavity-Facade
The prospective tallest high-rise Switzerland 178 meters in height, in the city of Bale, has been
designed by the architects Herzog & De Meuron for the pharmaceutical company F. Hoffmann-La
Roche. The project is currently under construction. For the first time every energetical and building
physical potential has been fully utilised in a product neutral design, in any way possible with regard
to economic feasibility and justifiable financial expenditures.
The architects Herzog & de Meuron are designing jointly with Drees & Sommer as General Planer and
the Roche-Project team an energetic show piece, which takes into account all aspects of sustainable
building. According to the internal Roche User-Requirements, not to put any unnecessary Life-Cyclecosts as a burden to future generations, the building will not feature an entirely glazed faade, but one
with a 32 % opaquely closed surface.
Figure 1: The prospective tallest high-rise in Switzerland with 178 meters in height, overview urban layout,
High-rise F. Hoffmann-La Roche
-2-
Figure 2: Horizontal section of the flush standard office faade facing north and south
-3-
Figure 3: Vertical section of the flush standard office faade facing north and south
-4-
1.5
In addition to the named advantages of a Closed-Cavity-Faade there are further essential advantages
compared to conventional single or double layer faades. But there are also technical challenges that
need to be solved design wise jointly with the manufacturer and the faade planning team.
The second part of this lecture will deal with another project example, the Marina Tower, and will
discuss how a ventilated cavity double layer faade can be optimised in terms of sustainability.
1.6 Delicate, Slender Facade Profiles
By omitting operable windows which require double profiles, the faade profiles themselves can be
designed much more slender (by approx. 50 %!!), because they only need to hold fixed glazing
elements. Visually they are connected almost flush to the glazing surface, which leads to an
aesthetically much more pleasing design.
1.7 Facade Cleaning Costs Cut in Half
The decisive disadvantage of a regular double layer faade compared to a single layer faade is the
fact, that a double layer faade also features double the surfaces of glass that need to be cleaned.
Depending on the site of the building this needs to take place two or three times a year.
But not so in the case of a Closed-Cavity-Faade. Because the interstitial space of the faade cannot
and doesnt need to be opened, the internal surfaces do not need cleaning just as is the case in a
regular single layer faade but even better, the sun shading system, e.g. in the form of slender
aluminium louvers in light colours, does not need any cleaning ever.
If one calculates these savings in cleaning costs over a 25-year life span of a large building, this
accumulates, depending on the size of the project, to significant numbers in the area of 7 digit Euro
sums.
A Closed-Cavity-Faade is of course predestined for countries or cities with strong air borne pollution,
such as major cities in Asia and the booming regions of China, where faade cleaning twice or three
times a year is not sufficient.
Tasks to be solved in the Closed-Cavity-Approach
The lack of condensation needs to be ensured
When designing a Closed-Cavity-Faade special care needs to be taken during the planning and
production phase, to achieve a much tighter interstitial space or cavity than is usually necessary in a
normal faade. Even with the utmost care this might not be possible ... a faade is not a Swiss watch.
To ensure the lack of any condensation a system of tiny stainless steel pressurized air ducts is installed,
supplying the cavity by means of a capillary system with constantly cleaned and dried air at a small
surplus pressure. This way a permanently conditioned cavity zone is ensured with a very low and safe
dew point during all seasons. Pressurizing elements is a viable and well proven approach, which
ideally supplies the pressurized air from a central plant. Weather data and necessary dried air supply is
controlled electronically, ensuring a low energy input. Vertical air distribution in shafts and horizontal
supply routes in stainless steel are maintenance free.
Each faade element can be adjusted individually in its air supply, even retrospectively, by means of
its corresponding capillary system.
1.8 Technical Mock-ups and Long Term Trials
To double check all technical solutions of the faade element in a scientific way and to eliminate any
risks, the client of the F. Hoffmann-La Roche project commissioned two separate 1 to 1 scale mockups to two different faade contractors prior to awarding the contract, and the elements have been
tested thoroughly. These tests have been carried out by the most renowned independent German
testing centres. Amongst others, the lack of condensation in the faade has been tested in correlation
with the supplied air volumes and in correlation with the air tightness of the faade
In addition long-term tests have been carried out successfully, e.g. a 20.000 fold lowering and raising
of the sun shading system under cavity conditions. The optimised louver system is stable despite of
-5-
peak temperatures of 85 C. Unacceptable abrasions can be controlled as well as all other sun shading
components prone to deterioration.
1.9 Competition in the Facade Market
Any client or investor of a future oriented faade with such supreme building physical and technical
selling propositions will ultimately pose the question is there a true competition in the market? Or
is the knowhow regarding the Closed-Cavity-Faade closely linked to one manufacturer?
This question can clearly be answered, especially after awarding the contract for the
F. Hoffmann-La Roche in Bale in December of 2011. There is already true competition in the market,
vital to any investor or end-user. Times when this knowhow rested with one company are clearly gone.
The Closed Cavity Faade is by no means a high-tech or even high-end product utilising unknown
products or materials, therefore within a short to medium-term time-span well established medium
sized faade manufacturers will be able to build this faade type in the necessary quality and with a
system guarantee of 10 years.
Final conclusion about the Closed-Cavity-Faade
By its state of the art design the energetic sustainability of the Closed-Cavity-Faade is successfully
linked to an essential minimisation of life-cycle-costs all this at investment costs which make this
new faade type predestined for future oriented investor projects.
Furthermore in the near future the Closed-Cavity-Faade will be predestined for the Chinese faade
market as well, with the prevailing strong drive towards sustainability.
-6-
-7-
Copyright
Figure 1, 4 Roche Building 1 Basle, Herzog & de Meuron Basle
Figure 2, 3, 6 DS-Plan GmbH Stuttgart
Figure 5 Marina Tower Vienna, MARINA TOWER Entwicklungs GMBH Vienna
-8-
Summary
Energy-Plus-houses generate more energy than their residents need from external sources. But the
building should not be understood as a simple technical power station or an aggregation of
adaptive energy technologies, but its integral design should also focus on living space quality and
on resource efficiency.
Our concept divides the building into two zones interacting with each other both functionally and
energetically. Next to a classical living space, the energy garden is an active and multifunctional
space. Beyond the classical weather protection, it includes other functions like collecting, storing
and distributing of energy, plants like in a garden and it can be used to park and re-charge a
clean and small electrical car.
Classical overhead and vertical semi-transparent solar panels integrated in a glass faade are used
to ensure a new high-quality living space between the classical inside and outside. Solar
radiation also heats the air in the energy garden which is absorbed by a heat absorber and
distributed through a ventilation system by using natural convection. The passive part of the
building, the classical living space, is protected by a highly-insulating, opaque faade structure,
which is a purely inorganic sandwich construction and combines an Ultra-High-PerformanceConcrete-shell with an insulating cement based mineralized foam.
This article shall give a detailed insight into the architectural and energetical concept of the house
and its faades.
Keywords: faade,
mineralized foam
Energy,
energy
garden,
-1-
Ultra-High-Performance-Concrete,
Introduction
The energy transformation through the building envelope is a key topic in the planning of EnergyPlus-houses. Therefore the faade can be understood both as an energy barrier as well as an energy
collector and converter. Besides the classic functions of the building skin, such as the protection
against weather conditions a major challenge lies in the energy management. In addition to the energy
efficiency, the essential function of the building as a living space has to be treated on an equal footing
in the design concept.
To meet these very ambitious and fascinating challenges an intensive interdisciplinary dialogue is
essential among all participants in the planning process. Architects and specialist planners for
structural design, building physics, building service technology and energy supply work together on a
coherent overall concept, which fulfills the basic idea of the positive-energy building with regard to
room conditioning, hot water supply, lighting and operation of electrical appliances as well as the
requirements of the comfort of the living space.
Due to the recent development of electric mobility the synergistic interface between mobility and
property is a challenge in the future. Thus there is a need to coordinate the field of construction and
automotive sector to generate a holistic energy concept. In the following proposed draft, which is the
result of an interdisciplinary team project at the Technische Universitt Darmstadt, this interaction
between different disciplines and the resulting interfaces is shown by the example of the building skin.
The team developed a concept for the building envelope, that represents an equal consideration of the
competing goals of energy, resource efficiency and living space. For the integration of electric
mobility a possible interface to the building service is shown. Finally, general approaches are
discussed, how to consider multifunctional facade systems in an economic evaluation.
Could it be that the widespread use of electricity driven cars will change our attitudes towards
automobiles? Will it bring about a change in the status we attribute to cars and what consequences will
result for their positioning and functioning inside buildings?
Maybe the car of our future will be one among many other means of transportation such as scooters,
electric bikes and bobby cars. Quite contrary to conventional automobiles electric cars are relatively
clean vehicles that are more comparable to a trolley or a bike. So we were questioning ourselves if it
still aquires a space monopolized by it.
This assumption formed the basis for our design of a single family house with integrated electricitydriven mobility and our search for new efficient spacial solutions. Our suggestion proposes to
transform the monofunctional areas which surround conventional family dwellings into a
multifunctional space that serves multiple technical purposes and supplements the actual living rooms.
A simple climatic protective skin guarantees usability also during the seasons between summer and
winter. Electric cars may be stationed here among bikes and other mobility devices but it is also a
space where family gatherings and birthday parties can take place without any traces of those vehicles
left.
Half of the building is completely built from elements of concrete which are fully recyclable and it is
complemented by a volume which is defined by a transparent skin covered by solar panelling. We thus
get a well isolated passive house supplemented by its climatically active counterpart.
The In-between space which connects inside and outside can be understood as integral part of the
building skin as it actively regulates its climatic balance. It represents more or less an extension of the
interface we have in windows with double glass plates into a more spacious and functionally wellequipped interval between the core of the house and its skin.
Such an In-between space is not a new invention. The flower-windows popular of the 20ties up to the
50ties, orangeries and the classical winter garden are the forerunners of this type of space incorporated
into buildings. However in our judgement the integration of such intelligently used systems of space
into a holistic view of residential buildings forms an essential part in developing long term sustainable
concepts for buildings.
For those inhabiting the house this climatic interspace offers by the very fact that it has no predefined
purpose free space for a variety of activities. Life inside the house can be extended into this space and
withdrawn again if weather conditions change. Weather conditions thus have a direct say in the
configuration of life inside. It makes the inhabitants perceptible to the linkage of inside and outside.
-3-
Energy Concept
In the basic considerations a building concept was sought, which creates an attractive living
environment that integrates the systems of energy supply without compromising comfort and
aesthetics. Only solar radiation should be used to provide the required amounts of electricity and
thermal energy. Three architectural designs were compared with each other. Selected was the
presented design concept, which is characterized in its outer contour of a familiar building geometry.
But on closer examination there are two completely different halves of the building, both in terms of
its function and structure. The northern half of the building consists of the living area, while on the
south side of the building a so called solar garden is located. Thus, the proposed building is divided
clearly into a passive and an active part.
The passive northern residential area is designed to minimize energy losses of the building. This is
achieved by a highly insulating, airtight building envelope with a high effective thermal storage
capacity of the components. To ensure a sufficient supply of daylight it is provided with daylightoptimized windows with triple glazing.
Figure 4: Energy concept under winter (left) and summer (right) conditions
-4-
The required air exchange rate of the building is ensured by a ventilation system with heat recovery.
On the other hand receives the energy garden an active role in gaining energy to supply the building
with thermal energy and electric power for the electrical consumers. For this purpose sections of the
roof and the sides of the energy garden are covered with semi-transparent monocrystalline
photovoltaic cells. The benefit of the glass-integrated photovoltaic cells is that the waste heat can be
used in the solar garden as thermal energy and thus is not lost. On the other hand, the energy input into
the fully glazed winter garden is reduced by the shading effect of the solar cells, what counteracts an
overheating. By the photovoltaic generated electrical energy will be preferably used to ensure the
electro mobility. The overhang can be used in the building or fed into the grid. Therefore will be used
a flywheel energy storage as storage device. The thermal effect of the energy garden is that the losses
of the south wall of the residential area are significantly reduced. In this connection at a suitable
temperature level the generated heat can directly be used over the hypocaust floor slabs of the building.
Depending on the temperature level, the thermal energy can directly be fed into the bivalent hot water
tank or the seasonal designed ice-storage. From here the required heat can be supplied by means of
heat pump. The main advantages of brine-ice storage as latent heat storage, especially compared with
the near-surface geothermal energy, for example, is the high heat storage capacity in the phase change
of the storage medium. This amount of heat equivalent to that, which is required for heating of water
by 80 K. Due to the low temperature level just below 0C the storage works without losses even in
wintry outside conditions. It is also possible to dimension it so, that the heat supply of the building
considering seasonal requirements is also ensured in the long term. Furthermore the use of geothermal
energy may provide additional environmental loads which are a risk for the safety of soil and
groundwater. A disadvantage of the ice-storage is that the power supply only works with the help of a
heat pump. But this can also be supplied with the generated solar power.
e
M
ffentliches
Netz
Figure 5 shows the energy generators and consumers in the building. The photovoltaic system
generates electrical energy, the building and the residents consume electrical energy. As a primary
electrical energy storage is used a flywheel energy storage system. This system has the function to
save energy in case of an energy surplus and to release energy in the case of an energy need. The
electric vehicle consumes in the charging process energy, but also supports the flywheel energy
storage system and release electrical energy at certain times of the day.
The overall goal of the electrical energy concept is to achieve the largest possible consumption of selfgenerated electricity and not to burden the public grid. Of particular interest is the interaction of
individual components in the overall system. The components have to be sized and matched in a way
that on the one hand, the energy losses are minimized and on the other hand a commercial use is
possible.
-5-
The envelope construction of the energy garden is formed by single glazing system with integrated
photovoltaic cells. Transparent all-glass folding walls offer generous opening opportunities into the
garden and allow the access of cars. A specially modified interlayer in the glass that does not block
solar radiation in the photosynthetic active range allows plant growth in the solar garden (Kleuderlein,
Schneider, [1]). The glazing is supported by a slim post and beam construction. Motor-driven opening
elements allow the controlled ventilation of the energy garden in combination with the large folding
walls. The semi-transparent glass-glass photovoltaic modules have different degrees of transparency
and combine electric power generation with a balanced degree of shading and a warming of the air
layer next to the faade. The inner wall between the living area and the solar garden is built by a
highly insulating triple glazing faade to experience the solar garden even in the opaque part of the
building. Several opening elements on the ground floor and first floor allow an air change with the
energy garden.
To use the described self-sufficient energy supply of the building by the energy garden, different
simulations were done. On the one hand an adequate energy supply has to be ensured, on the other
hand, the basic function of the solar garden had to be proven as a qualitative extension of living space,
even in extreme winter and summer outdoor climates. For this purpose the behavior of the building
was analyzed under the prevailing climatic conditions in Berlin. Interesting hereby were the daily and
yearly temperature curves in the In-between space as well as the heat fluxes of the building envelope
to determine the required heating and cooling loads. By thermal-dynamic building simulation with the
software IDA Indoor Climate and Energy (IDA [2], CD adapco [3]) could be detected, that the
temperature of the air even on very cold winter days is always 5 to 10 K above the ambient air
temperature. In addition it arises a significant air warming, depending on the radiation supply in the
course of the day, especially on sunny days (for comparable studies see Klein, Garrecht, [4]). The
temperature conditions in winter also shows that a constant heat extraction by the heat exchanger is
possible even on the cold and sunless winter days.
To analyze the temperature and air flow conditions in the energy garden for the cases of warm, sunny
summer day and cold, sunless winter day, computational fluid dynamic simulations were done . Figure
7 shows the temperature and airflow distribution in the winter garden for the winter load case. Here
can be seen that with the heat exchanger in the roof area, even at worst weather conditions, a constant
heat extraction of more than 500 watts is possible, without compromising the use of the solar garden
as a buffer space. For the summer case, it is shown by the CFD-simulation that by opening the
longitudinally arranged doors, the garage entrance and the over windows in the roof area, there is no
excessive thermal overload in the energy garden during very warm and sunny days, even without heat
extraction.
-6-
The monolithic design is increasingly being replaced by composite structures in which various
materials are used in different functional layers. Many clients, however, often wish to have an external
wall of purely mineral construction. Also advantages of monolithic systems such as material
compliance, ecologic compatibility of deconstruction, uniform hygric behavior and good bond of
congeneric materials often are not considered anymore.
Figure 8: Vertical building section and vertical and horizontal section of the proposed wall system
The outer massive wall construction for the Energy-Plus-Houses is supposed to be a triple layer wall
fabricated but using only concrete building materials. The inner U-shaped base course of the design
consists of 4 cm thick ultra high performance concrete, which is also the support of the ceiling. The
compressive strength of this UHPC is about 100 N/mm (see Kuntsche [5]). The outer skin is ought to
be 2 cm thick and made of UHPC too (Figure 8). In a horizontal production mineralized protein foam
is to be inserted between the shells. With finely tuned mix between binder, protein foam and additive
could realize heat transfer values under 0.06 W / (m K) (Gilka-Btzow, [6]). The foam mortar has a
-7-
minimum compressive strength of 0.4 N/mm and a density about 200 kg / m. The proposed elements
are characterized by a purely mineral structure and are capable modular precast concrete elements,
which also ensure material compliance in terms of sustainability. The purely mineral composition
furthermore ensures non-combustibility (Garrecht, Gilka-Btzow [7]).
The conceptual Design of an Energy-Plus-House and its faades on the one hand is a fascinating
technological challenge. On the other hand, it requires a comprehensive cost-benefit-analysis which
includes next to the (financial) costs also the ecological and social impacts of the project.
Concerning the financial costs, very often architects as well as building owners mainly regard the
investment costs. These costs can partly be retrieved from construction cost databases. Those data
bases consider material, labor and indirect costs for constructing customary buildings. However,
concerning the more innovative parts of an Energy-Plus-House, like the sandwich construction of the
opaque faade structure, the costs are much more difficult to calculate. As far as possible, they will be
estimated relying on similar projects.
However, the investment costs build only a part of the whole life cycle costs. Additionally, the sum of
present values of all future costs has to be identified. This includes on the one hand costs emerging
during the utilization phase, for example energy and maintenance costs. On the other hand, costs
emerging in the End-of-Life-Stage, such as disposal costs, have to be considered.
In order to evaluate the whole Energy-Plus-House, the main building elements are in a first step
analyzed separately. Some first results concerning the life cycle costs of the kinetic energy store can
be found in Ahsen et al. [8]. In a next step similar analyses on the life cycle costs of the different
faades are needed. Finally, an overall picture of the project can be drawn. Thereby, also the impact of
the expected lifetime of the building as well as the different components has to be considered. Most
economic values are uncertain, some examples being the yearly real growth rate for constructing costs
and for energy costs. Furthermore, the costs of the innovative elements can only be estimated. Thus, a
sensitivity analysis is essential.
So far, only financial (internal) costs have been regarded. However, the design of Energy-Plus-Houses
and their faades should consider multiple, and very often conflicting, objectives such as energy
consumption optimization, financial costs reduction and decrease of environmental impacts.
Concerning the environmental impacts, a major advantage of the opaque faade compared to
conventional faades is the considerably improved possibility of deconstruction. Additionally, the
transparent solar panels that are integrated in the glass faades are supposed to offer a very high
quality of the living space, as described above. Thus, also social aspects should be regarded.
As a consequence, multi-objective optimization techniques can be applied (Diakaki et al. [9],
Fesanghary et al. [10]). However, ideally, the environmental and social consequences of the EnergyPlus-House should be expressed in monetary values, referred to as externalities (Pearce et al. [11]).
Externalities are generated when activities of one group of persons affect another group and the impact
is not fully compensated for by the first group (European Commission [12]). Certainly, the estimation
of external costs proves to be extremely difficult. One option here is to evaluate the preferences of
individuals. The preferences can be measured by a willingness to pay (WTP) for a benefit and a
willingness to accept compensation (WTA compensation) for a cost (Pearce et al. [11]). The
usefulness of this approach has been shown for example in a project striving for an environmental and
economic optimization of the floor on grade in residential buildings (Allacker [13]).
Based on this approach as well as multi-criteria-decision-tools we plan an in-depth evaluation of the
faades of the Energy-Plus-House.
-8-
Energy-Plus-houses generate more energy than their residents need from external sources. But the
building should not be understood as a simple technical power station, but its integral design should
also focus on living space quality and on resource efficiency.
Thus, the proposed building concept is divided clearly into an energetically passive and an active part.
Half of the building, the passive part, is built from elements of concrete which are fully recyclable.
The monolithic design consists of a triple layer wall fabricated which combines ultra high performance
concrete with mineralized protein foam.
It is complemented by a volume which is defined by a transparent skin covered by solar panelling. Allglass folding walls offer generous opening opportunities and allow controlled ventilation. The concept
assumes that solar radiation can be used to provide the required amounts of electricity and thermal
energy. The so called solar garden transforms the monofunctional areas which surround conventional
family dwellings into a multifunctional space that serves energy collecting purposes and supplements
the actual living rooms.
In the evaluation of Energy-Plus-Houses and innovative constructions investment costs only consist of
a part of the whole life cycle costs. Additionally, the sum of present values of all future costs has to be
identified. This includes costs of the utilization phase, as well as costs emerging in the End-of-LifeStage. Finally, the environmental and social consequences of the Energy-Plus-House should be
expressed by monetary values in the holistic evaluation of Energy-Plus-Houses.
Especially when dealing with complex constructions like the introduced energy-positive facades,
practical experience is essential. The interdisciplinary planning team of the Technische Universitt
Darmstadt is in the process of realizing the concept on a typical dwelling house. Only the use of the
building will turn out whether innovative concepts that influence the usage habits of the residents are
successful in practice.
-9-
References
[1] Kleuderlein, J., Schneider, J.: Laminiert, geklebt oder ultraschallgeschweisst. In: db Deutsche Bauzeitung,
Jahrgang. 144, Nr.11, 2010, Seite 68-73.
[2] IDA Indoor Climate and Energy 4.0, EQUA Simulation AB, September 2009, Manual version: 4.0,
Copyright EQUA Simulation AB 2009.
[3] CD-adapco (2011): User Guide, STAR-CCM+, Version 7.02.008.
[4] Klein, M.; Garrecht, H.: CFD-Strmungssimulation zur Sicherstellung eines behaglichen und
energieeffizienten Schwimmbadbetriebs. BauSIM 2010: Building performance simulation in a changing
environment. Proceedings of the third German-Austrian IBPSA Conference Vienna University of
Technology, 2010, pp. 316-323.
[5] Kuntsche, J.: Untersuchung der Tragfhigkeit von Rahmenecken aus mikrobewerten Hochleistungsbeton.
Vertieferarbeit am Institut fr Werkstoffe und Mechanik (IWMB), Technische Universitt Darmstadt. 2010.
[6] Gilka-Btzow, A.: Mineralisierter Schaum. In: Beitrge zum 51. DAfStb Forschungskolloquium 2 (2010)
pp. 709-720.
[7] Garrecht, H., Gilka-Btzow, A.: Precast wall panels of lightweight concrete Will the solid wall
construction method still be possible with the EnEV 2009? In: BFT International (2010) pp. 112-115.
[8] Ahsen, A. v., Schaede, H., Schneider, M., Rinderknecht, S.: Bewertung innovativer Energiespeicher im
Smart-Grid mittels der Lebenszyklusrechnung, in: Zeitschrift fr Controlling & Management 55 (2011), pp.
361-366.
[9] Diakaki, C., Grigoroudis, E., Kolokotsa, D.: Towards a multi-objective optimization approach for
improving energy efficiency in buildings, in: Energy and Buildings 40 (2008), issue 9, pp. 1747-1754.
[10] Fesanghary, M., Asadi, S., Geem, Z. W.: Design of low-emission and energy-efficient residential buildings
using a multi-objective optimization algorithm, in: Energy and Building 49 (2012), pp. 245250.
[11] Pearce, D., Atkinson, G., Mourato, S.: Cost-Benefit Analysis, and the Environment. Recent Developments,
OECD, 2006.
[12] European Commission: External Costs. Research results on socio-environmental damages due to electricity
and transport, Brssel 2003.
[13] Allacker, K.: Environmental and economic optimisation of the floor on grade in residential buildings, in:
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 17 (2012) issue 3.
- 10 -
Dynamic Facades
Ernst Giselbrecht, Architect
Ernst Giselbrecht+Partner architektur zt gmbh, Austria, office@giselbrecht.at /
www.giselbrecht.at
Summary
Kiefer Technic needed a showroom which clearly represented their innovative and high-quality
product range. Alongside the aim to communicate the capability and spirit of the company, the
flagship building would also have to be both energy efficient and flexible, in order to reduce costs
and provide comfort for its employees.
Therefore, it was predestined that the Kiefer Technic showroom would have to be somewhat
pioneering - and the solution is displayed in its dynamic faade.
Introduction
The faades of our structures have always been a vastly discussed part of architecture in general.
While in the past it were the subtle forms of expression through plaster and stone which
communicated the esteem or position of the owner, recent times have shown a change in faades.
Grid-like perforated faade systems showed industrial fabrication and were replaced by mesh, net or
perforated constructions, which function as cladding while still negating the life behind the faade.
-1-
In fairly recent times there were defined specifications for the number of axes that should be provided
for a director or a simple employee, but through the introduction of ribbon glazing, these hierarchies
were abandoned. Today it is possible to realise a completely transparent faade. This particular
transparency expresses modernity and openness - attributes which are often desired in business
philosophy, and thus also frequently expressed in office architecture. Simultaneously, the individual
requirements for employees are met and should be brought to desired comfort in consistency.
The faade obtains a new impact; it becomes the interface between the public and the private realm,
with the possibility to communicate. This is the reason why we engage in dynamic faades, which not
only respond to physical restraints such as temperature and sun, but also can be regulated individually
and thereby communicate an ever-changing faade image.
This new dynamic faade developed from the desire to reduce energy consumption and express
sustainability, but is also an architectural response to the strong position of the individual in todays
society, something that is expressed in almost every aspect of this building.
This new faade was first realised for the project Kiefer technic showroom. The Kiefer technic
company is known for its premium high-tech products, predominantly in the hospital domain. For this
reason it was predestined that their showroom should display this faade and thereby effectively
express the competence of the company.
We can assume that the buildings in the near future will communicate among themselves, akin to the
programmes that were developed by the vehicle industry to improve road safety.
Thereby, our urban room will receive a new dynamic component which not only demonstrates the 4th
dimension, but also fills it with excitement and constitutes it permanently.
For the opening we created a choreography for this faade, which can be viewed on YOUTUBE
(http://de.youtube.com/watch?v=rAn4ldWjw2w).
-2-
-4-
Hartenaugasse office building states an example of profound dynamics in building skins with a strong
effect on both appearance and use.
For the headquarters of Energie Steiermark the main objective was to increase energy efficiency and
this was most effectively done through sensitive design of the faade.
A zoning of the surface was created: glazed areas with folding shutters for shade, that work with
specially shaped elements in the skylight area for adjusted daylight use. Through this, a light
deflection occurs due to reflection, which allows the daylight deep into the rooms and thereby
minimises the need for artificial lighting. Windows can be opened for natural ventilation and this
automatically causes the heating/cooling system to shut down.
-6-
Summary
A blast resistant faade requires different numerical design methods and different structural
components than a normal faade. The impulsive load requires a dynamic analysis with
consideration of mass and inertia. To withstand an extreme blast load a faade should be flexible
and able to absorb energy in properly designed and analyzed crash zones. These zones are the
laminated glass and additional elasto-plastic connections along the load path to the sub structure.
Keywords: Blast, load, faade, design, element, connection, cable, curtain wall
Introduction
In the last decade the topic civil safety was becoming a key objective in our multicultural world. All
efforts to decrease the risks of assassinations by higher control of passengers in the public
transportation are limited to a certain extent and are counteracting our request for fast und unrestricted
mobility. The protection of buildings and especially facades against bomb blast attacks became
therefore a more relevant topic in all design stages of potential targets itself and the surrounding
buildings.
The dynamic behavior of facades under shock waves with short time durations but high impulse loads
requires different design strategies, specialized analysis tools, and specialized connections between the
faade elements itself as well as the connections to the primary building structure. The design
philosophy is primarily to save lives and prevent injuries, and secondarily to protect buildings,
functions, and assets. The design criteria take a balanced approach to safety, considering cost
effectiveness and acknowledging acceptance to some risks.
For cable net facades as lightweight and transparent structures particularly at the podium or entry
levels of buildings the connections from the glass panels to their fittings, from the fittings to the cables,
and the cable end connections must be well designed and in most cases, in order to minimize their size,
are designed to the limits. For curtain walls facades the load path from the glazing to the mullions and
transoms into the brackets has to be blast enhanced designed and calculated. For both faade types
cable facades and curtain walls new energy dissipative connectors with residual strength capacity
were recently developed as well as design rules and new appropriated software packages. The
intensive research was initiated, financed, and operated by Gartner Steel and Glass and the
Permasteelisa R&D Group.
-1-
Explosion Loads
The determination of the complete reflected pressure time history is essential for the structural analysis,
because this affects the structure and its components. Using only the reflected peak pressure is
insufficient. The specification of quasi static loads is not possible without the consideration of the
system-dependent reaction. For explosion loads, a (usually nonlinear) dynamic calculation is thus
necessary in any case. Above all the effective mass of explosive material, its height above the ground
and the distance to the building affects the reflected pressure time history of an explosion. The mass of
the explosive material is usually defined as the TNT equivalent mass (TNT= trinitrotoluene,
commonly used military explosive). Other parameters are possible obstacles, such as protective walls
or upstream buildings, as well as the type and geometry of the building itself. For light and flexible
membrane structures and large-area cable net facades, the reflected pressure time history is affected
additionally by the fluid-structure interaction and the aerodynamic damping [2].
-2-
t d ,lin
2ir
p r 0
The influence of the negative phase is neglected in these standardized approaches. This is justified in
the dynamic calculation of rigid or heavy structures (e.g. reinforced concrete structures), because the
negative phase hardly affects the structural response in these cases. On the other hand the negative
phase can affect significantly the structural response of lighter and more flexible systems with lower
natural frequencies [2, 6]. Despite this influence, which is present in cable net facades, only
standardized explosion load scenarios in accordance with US or ISO standard are specified in most
cases. It is assumed that the failure of the faade to the internal side is the critical design intent.
Therefore the impact on people in the Interior of the building should be minimized. A failure of the
system to the outside due to the negative phase is accepted.
In table 1 and 2 the essential design loads are grouped according to the US GSA/ISC standard and
according to the international ISO standard. The specified quantities of explosives (TNT equivalent
mass) and stand-off specify which explosives would create these loads in a ground detonation in front
of a large faade. In an experimental attempt to detect the faade performance not the whole facade,
but a mockup facade of 3.05 m x 3.05 m (GSA/ISC) and 3.15 m x 3.15 m (ISO) is usually tested. Due
to clearing effects at relatively small mockups the mass of the explosive material and the stand-off
must be adapted to create the same pressure and impulse values as for a large faade. The denotations
of the ISO scenarios (e.g. EXV 45) consider this phenomenon. EXV xx means that the specified peak
overpressure and impulse values are achieved with a typical test mockup of 3.15 m x 3.15 m with an
explosion of 100 kg TNT at a distance of xx m (see table 2). This corresponds to an equivalent
explosion scenario in front of a large facade (see table 2 and Annex C. 1 ISO 16933) [4]).
Table 1: Explosion scenarios of the US General Services Administration (GSA/ISC) [3]
scenario
mass TNT
stand-off
[kg]
[m]
14,0
47,5
30
19,6
340
34
p r 0
ir
td ,lin
[kPa]
[kPa ms]
[ms]
GSA C
27,58
193,06
GSA D
68,95
675,71
-3-
Table 2: Explosion scenarios (vehicles bombs) of the ISO 16933, Annex C1 [4]
Class
EXV 45
EXV 33
EXV 25
EXV 19
EXV 15
EXV 12
EXV 10
Peak
reflected
overpressure
Reflected
Impulse
p r 0
ir
[kPa]
30
50
80
140
250
450
800
[Pa s]
180
250
380
600
850
1200
1600
Length of
Stand-off 100 kg
overpressure TNT in front of
phase (linear) small mockup
(3,15m x 3,15m)
Stand-off
td ,lin
[m]
[ms]
12
45
10
33
9,5
25
8,6
19
6,8
15
5,3
12
5,0
10
Equivalent explosion
scenario in front of
large facade
TNT
[kg]
30
30
40
64
80
100
125
Even slight pressure wave generated by small bombs or large bombs at a great distance (e.g. in a
neighboring street), can lead to major damage if the facade is not properly constructed. To protect
persons behind the facade from major injuries, an explosion-resistant function of the facade is
frequently specified. Most specifications refer to a classification of the performance condition
according to the US GSA standard [7]. The GSA method classifies facades into six protection and risk
classes (protection and hazard levels, Figure 2). For the highest protection class 1 the glass must not
break. In the other protection classes it is defined how far glass splinters are allowed to fly into a
standardized test box. Most commonly the protection class 3B is specified in which the splitters may
fly in maximum 10 ft. (3.05 m) into the test box.
The GSA protection classes are developed for window glazing spanning in maximum from floor to
ceiling. The direct use of the GSA protection classes would therefore be inappropriate for multi-story
high cable net facades. The key factors for the protection of individuals are: firstly, that the pressure
wave is considerably damped to protect ears and lungs and, secondly, that glass splinters do not act as
projectiles that cause heavy injuries. Therefore, a definition of the permitted flight distance of glass
splinters in relation to the height of the glazing would be more logical and could be used for all types
of facades. For numerical evidence, the speed of the glass splinters at the moment when the breaking
strength of the glass is reached could be defined as a protection class. For this method it needs to be
considered that the fracture stress significantly depends on the glass product and the load duration due
to the effects of the surface pre stress and the crack growth of flaws in the glass surface. For very short
impact loads, such as under explosions, much higher breakage strength is known compared to the
breakage strength for wind loads.
-4-
Protection
Level
Hazard
Level
Safe
None
Very High
None
3a
High
3b
High
Very
Low
Low
Medium
Medium
Low
High
For type 1 is to bear in mind that a straight cable needs to be deformed into a significant curvature
before it can carry loads orthogonal to the cable line. The required curvature can be reduced by a pre
stress in the cable. Additional cables (length l2) with an angle to the primary cables (length l1) could be
used to stabilize the primary cables as well as to carry unevenly distributed loads. Unless the lengths in
both directions do not significantly differ (approx.l2/l1 < 1.5), both directions can be considered for
-5-
evenly distributed loads. However, the deformations of straight cables are significantly larger than
deformations of elements with bending resistance.
The limit of the allowable deformation of a facade perpendicular to its surface depends on different
factors:
Obstacles in front of and behind the facade (e.g. building columns behind the facade, see
Figure 3)
Maximum permissible tension and compression of the glass joints
Required glass support
Permissible warping of the glazing in the transition areas to rigid connectors (edge of the
facade, door frame). Forced twists may constitute a crucial boundary condition, in particular
for insulating glass, which allow only a limited deformation of the spacer.
With suitably careful planning, deformations are possible up to 1/40 of the facade span.
For type 2 the positive and the negative wind loads are carried by two separated cables which are
already shaped into a corresponding polygonal line. The pre stress in the cables can be much lower
than in type 1 facades. To force a pre stressed cable into a polygonal line additional orthogonal forces,
acting at the nodes of the polygon, are required. Compression struts between the two cables are usually
used for this purpose, causing the typical fish-shaped cable networks.
4.2 Cable-End-Connectors
In addition to the allowable deformation of the facade, also the sustainability and the stiffness of the
sub-structure can be a determining factor for the type of cable network. Often, the necessary high pre
stressing forces for straight cables cannot be anchored. Balance springs at the cable end connections
can be used to control the cable pre stress into a low range even under temperature changes and
deformations of the sub-structure.
4.3 Glass Fitting
Spiders with drilled holes in the glazing (figure 4, 5) are the so far most frequently used form of glass
fittings in cable facades. In the last years there was a clear trend to clamped connections (figure 3, 6,
8). Holes in the glazing are not required.
Figure 7: Explosion resistant cable net faade, Court square project, long Iceland, United States (Gartner)
Figure 8: Explosion resistant entrance facade of World Trade Center Tower 7, New York (Gartner)
While a pressure wave acts on a facade, two main phases can be defined, in which various connectors
are acting with their function of blast enhancement. A definition of phases is shown in Figure 9 [9].
In phase 1, the pressure wave hits the glazing of the faade and the load is transferred by the glass
clamp-cable connectors (see chapter 5.3). Already, through the use of plasticizers in these connectors,
explosive energy can be absorbed at this stage. This results into lower surface tensile stresses in the
glass and lower cable forces as with rigid couplings between the glass and the cables.
-7-
In phase 2, the stresses in the glass, as well as the cable forces rise. In case the glass breaks, the glass
clamp connector described in chapter 5.4 provides residual strength and positioning. The cable end
connectors described in chapter 5.5 can contribute to targeted energy dissipation at this stage and limit
the maximum anchor forces at the main bearing structure.
Figure 9: Load and response phases in explosion protected cable net facades. Gartner / Permasteelisa
crash absorber
plastic deformation
glass clamp
before triggering
after triggering
Figure 10: Patented glass clamp-cable connector before and after plastic deformation [10]
-8-
carbon plate
Kevlar twines
cone
after triggering
(Point P2)
force-deformation-graph
connection to
frame construction
crash absorber
elastic
plastic
hardening
of crashmaterial
plastic
compression
energy dissipation
triggering device
cable force S
Figure 12: Patented cable-end-connector before and after fuse breakage [12]
In the crash absorber a yield force Fc ("crash force") is activated that is smaller than the activation
force FA. Crash materials show a hardening under increasing crash deformations. The challenge is to
find the best force displacement function for the explicit facade and to realize this function with the
belonging crash absorber (defined by the crash material, cross section and initial crash absorber
length). A too slow hardening of the crash material requires a too long deformation length until the
required amount of energy is dissipated (defined by the integral of the crash force over the crash
-9-
deformation). A too fast hardening limits the possible dissipation energy before the cable strength is
reached.
Two significant effects are achieved by the new cable end connector:
In the development of appropriate cable end connectors the following aspects were considered:
a low increase of the trigger load under high strain rates as they occur under blast loads
a small scattering of the activation force FA,
a small scattering of crash force Fc, and
a choice of crash materials with different hardening behavior
The newly developed cable end connectors were tested quasi-static, as well as with realistic
deformation speeds as they occur under explosion loads (1 m/s up to 5 m/s).
5.6 Development of an Assessment Tool
The structural behavior of explosion-resistant cable net facades is extremely complex. This is
particularly true if the non-linear behavior of dissipative cable end connectors should be considered. In
a joint project of the Department of structural analysis of the University of Armed Forces Munich and
Gartner Steel and Glass GmbH in Wrzburg, the dependencies of the different parameters were
examined among themselves with a standardized load of explosion [13]. The results were
implemented in a design tool, developed with Microsoft Excel, which is used for preliminary design
and parametric studies [14].
As the load scenario the GSA-D level (table 1) was chosen. In the United States this is a common level
for buildings with higher security requirements.The examined parameter combinations are
summarized in table 3. Five idealized force displacement curves for the cable-end-connectors (SEV
types) were defined (figure 13). The ratio of activation force to crash force is 60% for all cable-endconnectors (FA/ F(c) = 0.6). This ensures that under consideration of the scatter of both forces the
activation force is always higher than the crash force.
The five SEV types differ in the plastic hardening area (Figure 13). For SEV 1 it is twice as large as
for SEV 2 and SEV 3 has an ideal plastic plateau without hardening. SEV 1, 2a, and 3a are unlimited
in their plastic deformation. For SEV 2b and 3b the plastic deformation is limited to 200 mm. After
this deformation they harden again to a linear elastic behavior with high rigidity. This behavior
considers that the length of the crash absorber and therefore the energy that could be absorbed by
plastic deformation is limited. The variations of SEV 1, 2a and 3a are suitable to determine the
required plastic deformation length and to design related crash absorbers. The assessment tool can be
used to design cable-end-connectors with "tailor-made" capacity of energy absorption.
Figure 13: Idealized force-deflection curves of five cable end connectors (SEV) [13]
- 10 -
Figure 14: Screenshot of the developed design tool with Excel [14]
In the last years Permasteelisa has developed its own software for the design of linear supported
glazing under blast wave loads. This software simulates blast waves and the dynamic reaction of the
faade [8].
The software makes it possible to perform two different types of analyses: single analysis and
isodamage curve analysis. With the single analysis type, verification is performed on a faade panel
governed by a blast law that simulates the wave derived from the explosion. Analysis of the
isodamage curves, which can only be performed on faade panel with rigid supports, makes it possible
to launch iterative (and automatic) single analyses. The final purpose of such analyses is to find pairs
of points on the diagram (maximum pressure-impulse) that determine an equivalent condition in
terms of displacement and failure over the dynamic behaviour of the panel.
Figure 15 shows the key steps involved in writing and solving a dynamic equilibrium equation for a
system with a single degree of freedom. The concentrated parameters must be provided according to
the characteristics of the system (in this case the faade panel) and, together with definition of the
forces, they determine the unambiguity of the solution to the dynamic problem. This solution is
evaluated through the choice of a specific stepped integration method for which the user can modify
the parameters in order to counteract problems related to divergence of the solution. Once the outputs
have been obtained, they are studied to ensure their conformity with the set objectives.
- 11 -
a) System inputs
b) Load inputs
c) Integration
method
m u c u k u F (t )
d) Outputs
Figure 15: Structure of a dynamic equilibrium equation for a system with one dof [15]
One mayor aspect of the software is the realistic consideration of the resistant function of laminated
glass, as shown in figure 16. Here four different components can be identified:
1)
2)
3-e)
3-p)
During the first phase, the resistance function shows a nearly linear trend, guided by the
fragile performance of the glass
Then, with the failure of the first slab of glass, the resistance collapses suddenly and the
second phase takes over in which the second slab of glass effectively determines the overall
resistance
When the second slab of glass breaks, the package deformation of the layers of PVB ensues.
First of all, the resistance offered acts within the elastic field with a nearly linear branch
Finally, once the yield strain has been reached, we enter the field of large-scale membrane
deformation, i.e. the area where most of the blast wave energy must be dissipated.
The further development of the software allows now the analysis of complex faade systems with
double or triple glazing (including laminated glass), plastic hinges in mullions and transoms, and
- 12 -
elasto-plastic deformations of the brackets. Figure 17 shows exemplary brackets that can be trigger to
the appropriate force-deflection function for a specific blast load scenario.
Figure 17: Patented elasto-plastic bracket plates for curtain wall systems [16]
Acknowledgments
This paper gives a short overview of design methods and structural components that were developed
by Gartner Steel and Glass and the Permasteelisa R&D Group in the last years special thanks Marc
Zobec and Guido Lori. Financed by Gartner / Permasteelisa several tests and calculations were done at
external institutes - special thanks to BAM in Berlin and the Universities of Applied Science and
Armed Forces in Munich.
References
[1] Gebbeken, N. und T. Dge: Der Reflexionsfaktor bei der senkrechten Reflexion von Luftstowellen an
starren und an nachgiebigen Materialien. Bauingenieur, 81(11):496503, 2006
[2] Teich, M. und Gebbeken, N., The Influence of the Underpressure Phase on the Dynamic Response of
Structures Subjected to Blast Loads, International Journal of Protective Structures, 1(2):219233, 2010
[3] US General Services Administration: Security Design Criteria. General Services Administration (GSA),
Interagency Security Committee (ISC) (for official use only). 2001
[4] International Organization for Standardization: ISO 16933:2007: Glass in building Explosion-resistant
security glazing Test and classification for arena air-blast loading, 2007
[5] Johnson, N. F.: International Standards for Blast Resistant Glazing, Journal of ASTM International, 3(4):1
16, April 2006
[6] Krauthammer, T. und A. Altenberg: Negative phase blast effects on glass panels. Intenational Journal of
Impact Engineering, 24(1):117, Januar 2000
[7] US General Services Administration: GSA-TS01-2003: Standard Test Method for Glazing and Window
Systems, Subject to Dynamic Overpressure Loadings, 2003
[8] Wellershoff, F.: Blast enhanced facades for the new World Trade Centre Towers NY, Challenging Glass
Conference Proceedings, page 643 653, 2008
[9] Wellershoff, F.: Blast enhanced cable facades, Proceedings of Glass Processing Days 2011, page 525 529
[10] Gartner Steel and Glass GmbH: Haltevorrichtung fr Flchenelemente, Patenting documents
[11] Gartner Steel and Glass GmbH: Composite pane and retaining structure with at least one composite pane of
this type, Patenting documents
[12] Gartner Steel and Glass GmbH: Cable End Anchorage with Overload Protection, Patenting documents
[13] Wellershoff, F., Teich, M.; Nehring, G.: Gebbeken, N.: Konstruktion und Berechnung von
explosionshemmenden Seilnetzfassaden, Stahlbau 81 (2012), Heft 1, Seite 13-25
[14] Nehring, G.: Zur Bemessung explosionssicherer Seilnetzfassaden, Diplomarbeit, Universitt der
Bundeswehr Mnchen, Lehrstuhl fr Baustatik, 2010
[15] Lori, G., Zobec, M., Franceschet, A., Manara; G.: The Behaviour of Facades due to Blast Loads A Single
Degree of Freedom Performance Evaluation Approach, Presentation at Glass Processing Days 2009
[16] Josef Gartner GmbH, Befestigungsanker und Verfahren zum Befestigen einer Fassade, Patenting
documents.
- 13 -
Summary
For a number of years now, Thomas Lorenz ZT GmbH has been heavily involved in national and
international projects in structural engineering for steel and glass constructions and faades. By
taking the leading role through the drafting process with these projects, the author has gained large
amounts of first-hand experience in this field. This paper will introduce the most recent projects,
explain the details, and describe the design process covering the calculation of the geometry to the
creation of the calculation models and the detailed planning of the glass, junctions and supporting
points. Special particularities and creative solutions are described as well. The topics covered
range from complete glass shells where the glass has the primary load-bearing function, to glass
used as free-formed grid shells for steel and glass constructions, as well as modern faade
constructions.
Introduction
As a transparent building material that can be used to define spatial boundaries, glass is becoming
increasingly significant. It is being used more and more for self-supporting roof constructions on the
one hand, and as panelised faades on high-ride buildings on the other. This brings new challenges,
especially for structural support engineers who have been tasked with combining a functional
supporting structure with the bold visual forms of modern architecture.
The realisation of demanding structures made of glass and steel can only work when there is close
cooperation between architects, structural support engineers and the construction managers. It is often
the case today that the basis of a construction tender is only a sketch of the structural support or central
construction objects. In such cases, the complete detailed planning and development of the details,
including any assisted prototyping occurs only after the awarding of the tender. While this way of
doing things has established itself, it ultimately leads to difficulties in the calculations and eventually
can impact the construction timelines of the structure.
In recent years Thomas Lorenz ZT GmbH has been engaged multiple times by leading companies as
structural support planners and have been required to provide system and detailed development as well
assisted prototyping within a short time frame. Thomas Lorenz GmbH were able to meet these
challenges to the satisfaction of all involved and were able to gain a wide range of experience in doing
so.
-1-
The covering of the Mnzhof (Coin Courtyard) for the Federal Department of Finance of
the Republic of Austria in Vienna with a barrel formed, cable-tensioned pure glass roof (20092010)
The new station buildings for the Funicular Railway in the inner city of Baku / Azerbaijan
(2011-2012)
The covering of the shopping mall in the central area of the Flame Towers in Baku /
Azerbaijan (2011-2012)
The faade construction of the multifunctional building complex built above the Vienna train
station Wien-Mitte/Central Vienna (2010-2012)
The faade construction for the currently being built DC-Tower in Vienna with 220 meters,
this will be the tallest building in Austria (2010-2012)
Projects
2.1 Roofing of the Mnzhof (Coin Courtyard) / Federal Department of Finance Building
In the course of the general renovation of the Federal Department of Finance building in the inner city
of Vienna, one of the courtyards, the so-called Mnzhof (Coin courtyard), was to be covered. A
glass shell construction was planned as the roof for the courtyard that covers 120 m. In the tender
document, a sketch of a shell structure in the form of a barrel was provided that consisted primarily of
load-bearing, rectangular single pieces of glass and a round steel frame as the roof edging.
A particular challenge for the structural support planners was the relatively short time period in which
to perform the calculations and component prototyping. The greatest difficulty lay in the development
of the details, the building of the model and the research into the behaviour of the structural support.
To report on the limits of the load-bearing capacity of the roof, load combination and failure cases
were defined beforehand. The complete load-bearing capacity was then investigated using a 3D
calculations model using around 2,000 struts. In order to calibrate the calculations and to verify these
results, prototyping of a single glass panel as well as a 1:1 model were conducted in parallel. The
central, key element was to develop a joining node that functioned to transfer the load from not only
those glass panels in parallel but also those normal to the plane. Particular attention was placed on
storing the glass sections in a tension free environment as well as the clean application of load to the
glass. The joining nodes were in the form of steel shoes that were glued to the corners of the glass and
then keyed to the central steel core. In order to stabilise the roof construction against wind suction and
skewing, as well as to ensure that enough stability can be guaranteed in the event of damage to the
individual glass panels, the barrel roof was supported with a network of steel cables that was fixed to
each joining node.
-2-
An additional challenge lay in the investigation of the required pre-tension force in the cable, in
conjunction with the assembly sequence and the structural conditions. That the roof had to be
assembled approximately 35m above the ground also meant that equipment had to be planned and
manufactured. After some initial difficulties, after the release of the barrel roof, the project was
completed to the satisfaction of all involved and since then features prominently in the Vienna roof
landscape.
Technical data:
Length
Width
Arch length
Glass surface
Glass format
Glass structure
Tubular steel for frame
approx. 20 m
approx. 12 m
approx. 15 m
approx. 250 m
approx. 815 x 1,065 mm
2 x 12 mm TVG with 1,52 mm PVB - foil
FR 193.7 x 10 mm, S355
-3-
Figure 5: Assembly
2.2
The construction of the existing Funicular Railway in Baku dates back to the 1960s. It is currently in
the process of being completely renewed. Next to a new track, the existing top and valley stations will
be demolished and replaced with a new steelglass grid-shell structure to be constructed by the Upper
Austrian company GIG. The valley station is not far from the site of the event complex that will host
the Eurovision Song Contest 2012. The valley station connects the Boulevard with the elevated ground
that is the site where the so called Flame Towers are to be built.
-4-
The challenge in this project lay in the development and planning of wide-spanning, self-supporting
shell structures. After determining the form, the next step was to determine the profile dimensions and
then to agree on an optimum solution after considering the economic and business perspectives. Due
to manufacturing reasons, the central connecting elements of the skeleton structure were solid steel
nodes.
With specialised software (Rhino), the basis for the finishing of the nodes, glass sections and steel
construction planning could be performed. As the Funicular Railway lies directly on the coast of Baku
which is well known for its strong winds, a wind assessment needed to be completed beforehand. The
engineering as well as the construction were all completed in Austria. The entire construction was
disassembled into containers and then reassembled and then transported by truck to Baku. A particular
hurdle turned out to be the interface between the substructure calculations onsite and those planned.
-5-
Language barrier, local attitude and high inaccuracies in construction were additional challenges in
this project that is now in its completion phase.
Technical data (Top- und Valley station):
Total enveloping surface
Glass
Number solid steel nodes
Total tonnage steel
approx. 1,400 m
approx. 1,900 pieces
approx. 900 pieces
approx. 200 t
-6-
The faade of the tower will be constructed by the company Strabag. Thomas Lorenz ZT Gmbh was
entrusted by Strabag with the responsibility to provide the detailed structural design planning. Due to
the high market pressure, a most cost-effective construction was required. Particular attention was paid
to the development of brackets. Numerous variations were designed and calculated, with the final
decision being made on an economically and assembly perfect aluminium construction that has now
been built 15,000 times.
Technical data:
Maximum height
Faade surface
approx. 220 m
approx. 45,000 m
-7-
As structural support planner on behalf of leading steel and glass construction companies and under time and
cost pressures, to be able to plan and calculate in detail remains one of the largest challenges. With a good
cooperation between construction managers, architects, structural support planners and leading management,
demanding projects can be realised within budget, time schedule and to the satisfaction of all involved as this
contribution proves.
-8-
Summary
A facade is the interface between building and environment, between indoor and outdoor;
therefore it has a functional quality. The facade is also the first component to be seen of any
building; therefore it has an aesthetic quality that it needs to achieve. Currently, advanced facade
materials are dichotomized in two categories: heavy and transparent materials (glass), requiring
significant structural material usage; or lightweight and opaque materials, depriving the interior of
natural light. This has brought about the development of Tensiwall, an innovative exterior wall
system based on a textile facade. By combining the properties of various tensioned membranes, an
advanced and highly aesthetic multi-layered textile building skin can function as a cost-effective,
lightweight, light-transmissive, and highly insulative facade system.
Facades are constructed of various materials, and the properties of these materials create very different
facade systems. This section discusses todays materials, and how their inherent properties influence
their use. The studied material groups are stone, metal, glass, brick, concrete, wood, plastic, textile,
and composite. Most material groups are self-explanatory by name however it is to be noted that the
textile group is not a material one but rather a compositional shape group. The two textiles researched
in this group are made of one of the previously mentioned material groups, but constructed in an
innovative way to produce new material application properties. The final group, composite, is once
again a group of elements constructed using other material groups, creating one performative material.
Figure 1 gives a visual illustration of the groupings of these different materials. As the basis for
comparison, these material groups must be compared relative to their inherent properties (Figure 2).
PC
FOIL
TEX
TILE
SS F
IBER
FABR
P TF E
IC
FIBE
R FA
COM BRIC
POS
IT E
GF R
P
CFRP
ETFE
GL A
STO
NE
LIME
STON
E
M AR
B LE
GRA
NITE
MET
STAI
AL
NL E
SS ST
E EL
AL U
MIN
UM
C OP
PER
ZINC
TITA
NI UM
GLA
SS
POIN
I GU
T-SU
P P OR
TED
MAS
O NR
Y
BRIC
K
CO N
CRE
CAS
TE
T-INP L AC
PREC
E
AST
PAN
EL
WO O
D
LUM
PRO
BE
C ES S
ED W R
O OD
PL A
STIC
PMM
A
TRANSPARENCY
66.6
EFFECTIVENESS: %
100
33.3
Textiles are applicable in many areas and in fact out-perform all other materials in some of them.
Primarily, textiles offer the benefit of light penetration (something that only a few materials can do),
and it should be understood that they also diffuse the light so as to reduce glare and provide an even
interior lighting situation. In addition, textiles offer safety during failure (unique to fabrics), virtually
eliminating hazards for interior occupants or pedestrians below during failure. Last of all to be noted is
the lightweight characteristic that is inherent to textiles. Of all material groups, fabrics are the lightest
because of their geometry as very thin membranes. The area in which textiles are lacking, however, is
transparency. While light can penetrate the fabric, one cannot actually see through it. It is in this area
that another material suitable for this purpose must be introduced into the textile facade system.
ETFE
PC
FOIL
TEX
GLA
TILE
SS F
IBER
FABR
PTFE
IC
FIBE
R FA
COM BRIC
PO S
I TE
GFRP
CFRP
SYSTEM THINNESS
RECOVERABILITY
RECYCLABILITY
REUSABILITY
REPURPOSABILITY
STO
NE
LIME
STON
E
MAR
BLE
GRA
NITE
MET
STAI
AL
NLE
SS ST
EEL
ALU
MIN
UM
COP
PER
ZINC
TITA
NIUM
GLA
SS
POIN
IGU
T-SU
PPOR
TED
MAS
ONR
Y
BRIC
K
CON
CRE
CAS
TE
T-INPLAC
PREC
E
AST
PAN
EL
WOO
D
LUM
PROC
BER
ESSE
D WO
OD
PL A
STIC
PMM
A
66.6
EFFECTIVENESS: %
33.3
100
Figure 3: Materials Facade Applied Properties Comparison Matrix [1] [2] [3]
-2-
The advanced facade should be one that fulfills all of the requirements of a typical facade, but also
looks ahead and functions in the context of the future market. We are confronted with a world that is
affected more and more by a global awareness of energy consumption, material resourcefulness,
sustainability, and recyclability. This means that the future advanced facade needs to adjust and
conform its design to these ideas. The technological advances are also a major part of our society
today, and along with the major advances in technology should also come a highly advanced facade
design. Energy efficiency, maximum user comfort, minimal use of material resources, and
recoverability are some of the characteristics that an advanced facade should consider. First, a general
comparison between the material groups as they are applied to facades is illustrated in Figure 3.
Materials have inherent properties, but these properties may change as the materials are applied to
facades today. This means that, for example, metals are lightweight since they are applied in thin
sheets, and glass is not recyclable due to the coatings and seals applied to them. As can be seen,
textiles still provide benefits in many areas even as they would be applied to facades. In this section,
these characteristics are discussed relative to a comparison between the textile facade and the current
facade materials.
2.1 Energy Efficiency
The energy consumption for every building can be broken down into three parts: the beginning-of-life
energy consumption (embodied energy), the operation energy consumption, and the end-of-life energy
consumption.
The beginning-of-life energy is the amount of energy required to extract, process, and fabricate
materials; transport them; and put them together to construct the facade. Although relatively small, the
amount of energy put into the beginning-of-life can still be reduced with careful detailing. Even more
so, this amount of energy can be reduced with careful planning for its end-of-life deconstruction.
Consuming 70-85% of the energy put into a typical building, the operation energy is the amount of
energy needed for the building to function properly. This means that the efficiency of the facade plays
a big part in reducing this amount of energy. By producing a thermally efficient and light penetrating
skin, the cost to heat, cool, and light the building can be drastically reduced. This energy need is
addressed in the performance of the system discussed later.
The end-of-life energy is the energy needed to deconstruct the facade and separate its components.
There is very little information on this type of energy as it is not considered in todays architecture.
However, as architects we should not neglect this phase of the buildings life. Designing a facade
system that comes apart quickly and easily can keep at a minimum the amount of energy that is put
into the deconstruction. The materials should then be transported to the recycling plant (if recycled)
and then on to the new site where a new building can be constructed. The goal is to design a facade so
as to allow for easy deconstruction, easy separation of materials, and high recyclability. The end-oflife energy consumption of a typical building is at 1-3%, but this figure only considers the demolition
of the building. With a careful deconstruction, transportation, and recycling of materials, the
percentage of the end-of-life energy input will rise; but the end product will be a recycled and ready to
use set of materials, greatly reducing the beginning-of-life energy input of a new building. Textiles
offer a benefit here because they are generally constructed in dry systems, allowing for all of the parts
to come apart in a very clean manner. Tensiwall is designed with this idea in mind, providing a system
that can be easily deconstructed at the end of its life, for easy recyclability and reuse of all components.
2.2 Maximum User Comfort
The future facade is something that should not only reduce the amount of energy required to construct,
operate, and deconstruct it, but it should do all of these without the sacrifice of comfort. In order to
better understand how the facade will affect this area, we should look at the conditions required for a
comfortable space. There are in fact a few components to be considered when providing a highly
useable space, two of which are discussed in this section: thermal and visual comfort.
-3-
Regarding thermal comfort, the interior air temperature is a function of how efficiently the facade
performs. A better performing facade will prevent heat from dissipating through the wall whether from
outside to inside or vice versa. A key factor in the design of the facade systems in this research is the
efficiency of the system itself. Additionally, the use of transparent insulation can further boost a textile
facades performance. While adjusting the walls insulative capabilities, this type of insulation can
also allow natural light to penetrate through. Different types of transparent insulation allow different
amounts of light through and perform differently with respect to U-value. Tensiwall utilizes these
ideas to create a thermally efficient skin, providing maximum thermal comfort for the user. This then,
greatly assists in the lowering of the operation energy required for the building.
The visual comfort at hand is regarding the amount of natural light that is allowed into the interior for
optimum lighting conditions. The light quality is extremely important as it provides a visual source of
information for the interior inhabitants in order that they can accomplish their work. A properly lit
user space (through the use of natural light) can once again drastically reduce the amount of energy
put into the operation of the building. Another item to look out for, however, is the glare produced
from too much natural light. In order to reduce the discomfort that light can bring into a space, one
must design the interior space so as to keep away from these light intensive areas, or some sort of
shading or diffusing device must be utilized. This can be in the form of shades applied to the exterior
wall, or in the case of textiles, the fabric itself. Since textiles cannot be completely transparent, and
their surface is rough compared to that of a smooth sheet of glass, fabrics have the advantage of being
able to diffuse light and largely reduce the amount of glare introduced to the interior.
2.3 Minimal Use of Material Resources
At only a fraction of the density of glass, textiles fabrics can provide a tremendous amount of
reduction in the materials utilized on the project. This means that the frame used to carry the loads of
the facade material can potentially be reduced as well. Further, the sizes and amount of structural
materials used can be lowered due to the drastically reduced dead load of the facade materials.
Yet another characteristic to consider is the applicable thickness of a material. For example, a typical
glass sheet is manufactured at a thickness of about 5 mm; and then, multiple sheets are needed to
conform to the efficiency and possible safety requirements. By the end, a typical glass facade is
composed of two or three layers of glass (maybe more), totaling a material thickness of about 10-15
mm. When compared to a textile facade, one can begin to see the tremendous amount of weight
difference. Even with a four-layered textile system, the total thickness of fabric material adds up to
about 2-3 mm (maybe even less). Figure 4 illustrates the densities of various facade materials, as well
as the possible thicknesses for application to facades.
5,000
TITANIUM
DENSITY: kg/m3
4,000
3,000
ALUMINUM
GRANITE
GLASS
2,000
LIMESTONE
PLASTIC
GLAZING
GFRP
1,000
MARBLE
BRICK
CFRP
PLASTIC CLADDING
WOOD
PTFE FIBER FABRIC
ETFE FOIL
0
3
TYPICAL USABLE THICKNESS: cm
Furthermore, the frame size capable to carry a glass facade unit is multiple times smaller than the
potential textile facade panel. While glass units are typically limited to approximately 1-3 m x 3-5 m
(3-10 ft x 10-16 ft), a textile unit is limited by the transportation requirements, allowing spans of even
4.5 m x 10-13 m (15 ft x 32-42 ft) for unitized or off-site tensioning systems, and more for stick-built
or on-site tensioning systems. In addition to reducing the number of panels at installation, a larger
panel size means fewer framing members applied the facade, further reducing material usage.
The last item for consideration in the reduction of resource consumption is a minimization of profile
material. If the framing member section can be reduced to a minimum, a large amount of material can
be saved when applied over large surfaces. This is embodied in the careful detailing and engineering
of the profile (discussed later).
2.4 Recoverability
The recoverability of the materials used in the facade is another important aspect of the advanced
facade. Recoverability can be broken into three different types recyclability, reusability, and
repurposability. Recyclability is the capability of a used material to be applied once more with its
original properties and function, while requiring less energy input in its remanufacturing process than
its original manufacturing. Reusability is the capacity of a used material to be applied in the same way
or material state as before, while requiring cleaning and/or physical modification or cutting in order to
remove unwanted matter. Repurposability is the capacity of a material to be remanufactured with little
energy input in order to form a material with a different purpose and material state than its original one.
See Figure 5 for a visual understanding of these three definitions; notice that not all materials are
recyclable or reusable; however, all are repurposable.
MATERIAL
STONE
METAL
GLASS
NONTAINTED
NON-TAINTED
OR WITHOUT
COATING
BRICK
CONCRETE
WOOD
PLASTIC
TEXTILE
COMPOSITE
NONTAINTED
WITHOUT
COATING OR
WITH SIMILAR
COATING
MATERIAL
RECOVERABILITY
MATERIAL
RECYCLE
REUSE
BROKEN
FOR USE AS
GABBIONS
LOWMONOLITHIC PREVIOUSLY
AESTHETIC
OR LOWUSED
QUALITY
QUALITY
WITH LIME
APPLICATION APPLICATION
MORTAR
SHORTER
LOWLENGTH
QUALITY
APPLICATION APPLICATION
CHOPPED STRAND
(LOW OR NONSTRUCTURAL
APPLICATION)
REPURPOSE
CRUSHED
FOR USE AS
AGGREGATE
LOWQUALITY
METAL
CRUSHED
CRUSHED
CRUSHED
WOODCHIPS
FOR USE IN FOR USE AS FOR USE AS
OR
GLASSPHAULT AGGREGATE AGGREGATE COMPOSITES
OR MELTED
FOR USE AS
INSULATION
PLASTIC
BOTTLES,
BAGS,
ETC.
GRINDED
POWDER
FOR USE IN
CEMENT
GRINDED
POWDER
FOR USE IN
CEMENT
Metals, as well as plastics and glass, are completely recyclable in theory, but there must be no
contamination of the material. As applied to facades today, glass is not recyclable - the coatings
-5-
applied to the surface of the glass and even the sealants coming in contact with it take away its
recyclability. Textiles, however, can be 100% recycled depending on the base material and the coating
that it receives.
The reusability of a material is largely affected by the durability of the material and the ability to
remove unwanted components. Glass, for example, can be reused as long as the other components of
the system can still function. It, like clear plastics, can be used in greenhouse applications where
aesthetics may not be a concern. Textiles have not been around long enough to find many options for
reuse, but there may be possibilities in outdoor applications where aesthetics are not an item of
concern. As long as the fabric has not been damaged, reuse is likely to be possible in similar lowquality applications.
All materials as applied to facades are repurposable in some way. Even textiles can be repurposed
through grinding down for use in other applications. Typically a material is better recovered as a
recycled material and even a reused one; therefore, Tensiwall is designed to recycle the majority of its
components and reuse what remains.
Design of Tensiwall
The exterior layer of fabric is breathable so as to prevent any water from penetrating, yet still allow
water vapor to pass through. This is required in order to allow water that has entered into the first
cavity to evaporate back out. The interior two layers are composed of fully transparent plastic ETFE
foils so as to allow maximum light penetration. These two layers function as a retainer for the
insulation while also performing as a vapor barrier. The distance between the two inner layers can be
adjusted to provide more or less space for insulation, depending on the performance requirements.
Between the two inner layers is a transparent insulation, capable of providing high insulation values
while also allowing natural light through the system. This layer of insulation is kept at a minimum in
order to keep the light penetration levels as needed without sacrificing much thermal performance.
The interior-most layer of fabric is once again a breathable one, in this case allowing any water that
has condensed within the system to evaporate out.
3.2 Specific System Design
Tensiwall is characterized by easy replacement of the membrane in case of failure or at the end of its
life, minimal use of materials, very thin profiles, minimization of thermal weak points, and high
recyclability. All of these qualities have been carefully designed into this specific Tensiwall system,
allowing it to excel above other advanced facade systems of today. In order to maximize the thermal
performance of this system, the length of the panel is in the vertical direction; in order to further
advance the lightweight aspect of the design, Tensiwall uses the lightest materials possible throughout;
and in order to push the recyclability of the system, only 100% recyclable materials are used (other
than glass).
In order to achieve the thin profiles, this system is designed to function in different configurations for
the various stages of installation. Once installed, each panel is attached to the adjacent ones,
essentially equalizing lateral forces that the stretched membrane exerts on the frame. Since movement
of the panels must happen at the head and sill conditions due to dead and live loads, this idea of force
equalization happens only at the jamb conditions. A thinner profile at these conditions means a
reduction of one of the weakest thermal points in the system. Therefore the panel is oriented in its
vertical position in order to take advantage of the thin profiles, minimize the weaker points in the
system (the head and sill conditions), and maximize the thermal performance. The frame, however,
must also be stable during transportation when it is not engaged with the adjacent ones; therefore, the
concept of Tensiwall is that the frame at the jamb conditions are allowed to rotate. This allows the
depth of the jamb to be optimized whether the textile panel is in transport or installed.
As a result, the frame vertical mullions are always aligned to distribute the forces in the most efficient
manner. During transportation, the member is aligned with the tension force of the fabric layers. Once
installed on the building, the mullions engage each other, allowing the textiles to equalize the forces
running through themselves. With this strategy, a very thin framing member can be achieved while
still providing enough stability to resist the lateral forces of the tensioned fabric. See Figure 7 for an
illustration of the design concept behind Tensiwall.
TRANSPORTATION
INSTALLATION
-7-
Comparison
As demonstrated in this work, textiles have the ability to offer an extremely lightweight alternative
facade solution. In addition, the textile facade can provide natural light to the interior, while at the
same time reduce glare and, through the use of transparent insulation, thermally insulate the interior
spaces. Next, textiles offer the possibility of very large panel sizes, reducing the installation time
required. And lastly, textiles can provide us with a fully recyclable material. Tensiwall was
theoretically applied to a number of buildings across the world and compared in many performance
and visual categories (see Figure 9 for a visual application of Tensiwall to an existing building).
Because the Tensiwall system previously discussed (Section 3) was designed for use in high-rise
applications, this section compares it to a typical advanced high-rise facade. The comparison discussed
is between another existing building facade in the United States, while the Tensiwall facade system
was hypothetically applied to the building structure. Table 1 provides a detailed evaluation of the two
systems, comparing various performance information as applied to 1 m2 of facade area.
Table 1: Existing Curtainwall and Tensiwall System Analysis (per 1 m2) [3] [4] [5] [6]
Facade Characteristic
Existing Curtainwall
Tensiwall
Membranes: 476
Insulation: Included
Insulation: 184
871
660
58
45
Glass: 375
Weight (kg)
Aluminum: 25
Insulation: Included
Glare Reduction: 25
Membranes: 6
Glass: 94
Aluminum: 12
Insulation: 11
Glare Reduction: Included
425
123
Number of Panels
0.16
0.03
Recyclability (%)
Glass: 0
Reusability (%)
Glass: 100
100
Repurposability (%)
Glass: 100
100
Membranes: 100
Glass: 0
75
Membranes: 100
Glass: 100
100
Membranes: 100
Glass: 100
100
Looking at a very rough materials cost only, the two systems are somewhat comparable, with
Tensiwall costing less than the existing one. In fact, the cost can be reduced even further, depending
on the type of textile used. This estimate is based solely on the cost of the materials, as the fabric
exterior wall system has never been built. However, it does provide a general and informative
-8-
comparison point between the cost of the two systems. Not only does the fabric facade materials cost
less than what is currently standard in the glass curtainwall industry, it also provides more
performance due to the insulation that is included. The amount of insulation within the Tensiwall
panel can be selected depending on the performance requirements, allowing the price of the system to
be customized in order to meet various needs.
Based on research data and multiple thermal simulations, Tensiwall seems to outperform many of the
considered advanced facades in the present exterior wall industry. Although there are currently no
proven methods to analyze exactly how fabrics perform thermally as a building skin, we have
rigorously studied them with the methods available. Current results indicate that Tensiwall has a much
higher performance at the vulnerable frame conditions and greatly minimizes the chance of
condensation occurrence on the interior surface of the system (Figure 8). Additionally, due to the fact
that the fabric facade panels are much larger than the existing ones, Tensiwall contains approximately
50% of the linear feet of aluminum compared to the existing curtainwall. This means that even the
amount of thermally weak areas within the facade system is reduced by 50%, causing the overall
performance to be higher.
21.1
70
16.3
61.4
11.6
52.9
6.9
44.5
2.3
36.1
-2.4
27.7
-7.1
19.2
-11.8
10.8
-11.9
EXISTING FACADE
PLAN DETAIL
TENSIWALL
PLAN DETAIL
Comparing the light transmission of the two facade systems, this is the one area where the existing
skin seems to achieve better results. However, given the amount of natural light made available for use,
this set back is not very significant. It is a small price to pay for the total amount of weight removed
and the money saved from all other performance areas.
Tensiwall provides an extremely lightweight alternative to the existing facade. Since each layer of the
textile facade is under 1 mm thick and has a density which is many times lower than that of glass, a
large amount of weight is eliminated. Compared to the existing facade, Tensiwall provides a weight
reduction of over 70%. This also means a reduction in the structural elements supporting the facade,
resulting in an even greater minimization of material resources.
A larger panel size also means that there are fewer panels to install. In addition, a cleaner facade is
achieved, one with fewer seams. And since fabrics are not fully transparent, and the aluminum framing
members are much less visible. The existing facade contains exposed aluminum components; this is
not the case with the textile facade. Not only does Tensiwall have no visible framing components, it
also has much smaller seams between the different panels.
Finally, consideration was given to the recoverability of the two systems. Aluminum is not included in
this comparison as the amount varies per system; the comparison taking place considers the facade
surface materials only. Since the existing facade utilizes glass for the full building skin surface, it has
no potential for recyclability. Tensiwall is fully recyclable with the exception of the glass. Both
systems, however, are fully reusable and of course, repurposable.
-9-
Conclusion
Textiles provide us with an extremely versatile material, one that allows for superior performance in
an ever more demanding market. Currently, their use is limited to temporary applications and largescale enclosures; however, with the further development of the use of fabrics and their associated
technologies, architecture may begin to see a shift in material processes and construction methods.
Utilizing this material for its strengths and designing for its limitations, the textile can become the next
innovative material for use in facades.
Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without the assistance and partnership of Curtainwall Design
& Consulting, with whom I am currently developing this work. I would also like to thank Professor
Werner Sobek, for his guidance throughout the previous stages of research and design.
References
[1] Herzog, T., Krippner, R., & Lang, W.: Facade Construction Manual, Birkhuser, Basel, 2004.
[2] Hegger, M., Fuchs, M., Stark, T., & Zeumer, M.: Energy manual: Sustainable Architecture, Birkhuser,
Basel, 2008.
[3] Ashby, M. F.: Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2005.
[4] Koch, K.-M., Habermann, K. J., & Forster, B.: Membrane Structures: Innovative Building with Film and
Fabric, Prestel, Munich, 2004.
[5] Addis, W., Schouten, J., & Association CIRIA: Principles of Design for Deconstruction to Facilitate Reuse
and Recycling: Summary, CIRIA, London, 2004.
[6] Engineering, R. S. M.: Building Construction Cost Data, RSMeans, Kingston, 2009.
- 10 -
Summary
Nature educates us about the advantages of flexibility. Allowing larger deflexions can reduce as
well the impact of external forces as the development of internal forces. This way of using
dynamic behaviour is not common in the building industry. At the Faculty of Building and
Architecture at the Eindhoven University of Technology a research group is studying the dynamic
behaviour of nature and how we can use flexibility in innovative structural design. We are
questioning ourselves: how can we use flexibility as an advantage instead of a disadvantage?
The research includes the study of form-active lightweight second skins faades. This paper
describes research projects in which the second skin faade is supported by the main building by a
spring / damper system, and design projects where the faade structural is detached from the inner
building.
Introduction
Nature developed over billions of years and, by the theory of Darwin, only the fittest organisms
survived. This is probably the main reason to study nature in every part of science.
Loads are varying constantly. The wind speed and its direction changes and turbulence occur. There
will be rain, snow or even hurricanes and even then a lot of organisms survive with minimum of
damage. This is amazing if you think about the lightweight of these structures. Important for their
resistance is their flexibility and compliance.
Nature has countless examples of these structures, they are often very complicated. We must and
cannot copy nature, we have other demands regarding deflections, isolation and other building
properties. But by abstracting the main principles of the use of flexibility we should come to better,
lighter and more efficient designs solutions.
Facades and roofs can play an important role in the study of flexibility. They form the barrier between
the internal space and the outside climate. In this role of building physics, second skin faades are
designed to make use of the natural energy sources as wind- and solar energy, but they do not fulfil a
main structural roll.
At the Eindhoven University of Technology several studies are done in which the second skin faade
has an influence on the main structural system or is even part of it. In this paper we discuss:
Faades connected by controlled spring/damper systems that, by its flexibility, influence the
load transfer to the main structure of the building. The combination of spring and dampers
make it also possible to absorb wind energy.
-1-
Faades as disconnected main structural elements embracing and protecting the inner building.
The disconnection allows (structurally) larger deformations making it possible to use formactive lightweight faade structures that reshape under different load patterns.
After classifying the phenomena of flexibility, the first issue above will be described followed by two
projects with a disconnected form-active lightweight second skin faade.
The total field of flexibility through deformation we divide in three main principles with in total six
typologies.
a) Principle 1: avoiding load impact.
This principle is about hiding, forming and smoothing. Three types can be mentioned:
activation of material
configuration of material
When we look at a three in a strong wind, the above given classification can be seen. Large
deformations to reduce the load impact (a), change in angle to decrease the bending and increase the
axial internal forces (b) and the dynamic behaviour under wind gusts (c).
-2-
Dynamic Behaviour
Wind is often calculated as a static load. In reality it is a dynamic wind spectrum acting on a structure.
This raises the questions How is the dynamic load transferred to a structure?, Can we optimize and
control this interaction when also the structure is acting in a dynamic way?.
When a constant force (static) is pushing against a fully encastre mast, the properties of the mast does
not influence the internal forces and the foundation forces. When a dynamic loading is acting on the
mast the properties of the mast does make a difference. A more flexible mast will reduce the internal
loading and therefore the foundation forces. You can take grass moving in the wind as a reference. It
would break if reality would be static.
Beneath we compare the internal forces, the foundation forces and the deformation of a 10m high mast
with different properties. At the top of the mast an impact of a mass of 15 kg with a speed of 10m/s is
modelled. The following results are found.
Table 1: A comparison impact on two different mast profiles.
Model
Mast A
Mast B
Mast length
10 m
10 m
Mast profile
Section area
2277 mm2
3848 mm2
Moment of Inertia
600 cm4
2900 cm4
Displacement top by 1 kN
271 mm
56 mm
Spring stiffness
3690 N/m
17860 N/mm
750 J
750 J
Frequency
2,5 Hz
5,49 Hz
640 mm
290 mm
2,35 kN
5,18 kN
23,5 kNm
51,8 kNm
294 N/mm2
224 N/mm2
179 kg
302 kg
23,5 kNm
51,8 kNm
-3-
The deformation of model A is larger, allowing to transfer the kinetic energy of the mass in a longer
period to the mast, resulting in a lower force impact, a lower internal bending moments, lower steel
usage and lower foundation forces.
Flexibility could result in a lower structural internal force and reaction force, but wind is not one gust
but a constant varying loading. The question is how a structure behaves then.
Mass-Spring-Damper
When short strong gusts act on the structure the structure will react as described above. When a
constant wind is acting over a longer period the structure will act more static. But in reality wind is not
a single impact but a constant impact varying in time and directions also causing turbulence. The
shape of this wind spectrum will influence the behaviour of the movement and therefore the
development of forces in the structure. When the wind is a more periodic fluctuation, vibrations will
occur that can even accelerate to a high level of deformation and reaction forces. Just lowering the
stiffness of a structure by means to limit the internal forces only looking at short impact forces is
therefore a risky and not the correct approach.
Also the movement caused by wind loading will directly influence the loading itself and creates an
iterative process. This so called fluid-structure interaction is more and more used for flexible
structures.
k
m
F(t)
c
Figure 4: Mass-spring-damper system.
Situation 1: maximum harmonic wind load of 1,2 kN/m2. The spring stiffness k = 700 N/m
and the damper coefficient c = 1210 Ns/m
Situation 2: maximum harmonic wind load of 0,6 kN/m2. The spring stiffness k = 700 N/m
and the damper coefficient c = 1210 Ns/m
Situation 3: maximum harmonic wind load of 0,6 kN/m2. The spring stiffness k = 700 N/m
and the damper coefficient c = 160 Ns/m
Table 2: Results variation wind loading and damping coefficient on a mass-spring-damper system.
u;max
v;max
a;max
Fk;max
Fc;max
Fr;max
[m]
[m/s]
[m/s2]
[N]
[N]
[N]
[J]
Situation 1
1,01
0,78
1,68
708
946
1222
1719
Situation 2
0,5
0,39
0,842
354
473
611
429
Situation 3
1,01
1,82
5,7
706
300
804
2431
Figure 5: Results of mass-spring-damper calculation with varying loading and damper coefficient
The results of the research in general show that a harmonic loading will limit the possibility of
reducing the internal forces unlike with a short impact force shown before. But interesting in these
results is the use of structural capacity to increase the energy absorption by the damper. In situation 2
only half of the maximum deflection and half of the maximum internal forces of situation 1 occur. By
reducing the c-value in situation 3 the deflection and the internal force increases within limits but the
energy absorption is increased by 560%. This means by making the c value an active value we could
optimize the structure to absorb energy.
The graph in figure 6 shows that reducing the c-value would first increase and then decrease the
amount of energy absorption. The minimum amount of c= 160 Ns/m is taken limited by the chosen
amount of allowable deformation.
-5-
In this case the k-value is chosen so that resonance occurs. In case the frequency of the loading is
different the values in table 2 will be lower. Making also k an active and controllable value will give
us a better opportunity to optimize for minimum displacement and force and/or maximum energy
absorption.
E [J]
c [Ns/m]
k [N/m]
The unused structural capacity is large for lower wind speeds. When we multiply this with the
occurrence percentage of the wind it is clear that almost during the full lifetime of a building a large
unused structural capacity can be allocated to absorb energy.
Used structural capacity %
unused structural
capacity
Buildings are mainly static structures hardly moving in the wind. This is because movement of floors
can create unpleasant horizontal acceleration that a person can feel. This restriction in movement can
have a high impact on the sizing of the stabilizing structure. In the previous part of this paper,
reduction of building forces where discussed by connecting a second skin faade by spring-damper
connectors to the building. But would it be a good alternative to design a form-active faade as an
independent structure protecting the inner building? The structural independence allows larger
deflections in the second skin faade, making it possible to increase the efficient use of materials. In
this way the independent faade embraces the internal space, and prevents horizontal wind forces to
act on the internal structure reducing unwanted acceleration. This design approach asks for a new way
of looking at the overall stability of structures.
-6-
In 1971, a feasibility study called City in Antarctica showed us an air-supported building over a city.
The building, a climatic shell spanning 2km, protected the buildings underneath from rain snow and
wind. At the same time, it also functioned as a first physical facade.
Figure 9: City in Antarctica; study of Frei Otto, Kenzo Tange en Ove Arup & Partners [4]
Although this is a futuristic design, imagine a building placed within a protected space, embraced by a
structural independent skin. The scale is reduced, but the principle stays the same.
The protection against external influences will reduce the structural requirements of the building
within, and increase both the efficiency in use and the architectural freedom. Part of the structural
requirements have moved towards the embracing structure. Because of the structural independency
between the building and the embracing skin, the horizontal movement of the embracing structure is
not limited by the value of acceleration that is acceptable to people. Consequently, the allowable
deflections and accelerations in the embracing structure can be higher. This opens a whole new field
of structural possibilities, especially within the field of using lightweight structures.
Two of the authors design projects based on this principle are presented beneath.
5.1 Project 1 Hyperbolic Office Tower
A 150m high hyperbolic office tower is embraced with a structural second faade, that protects the
building in a structurally independent way. The second faade is made from a hyperbolic cable net
structure with a central mast, clad with pneumatic membrane elements.
The cable-net structure is a form-active structure that will deform when loaded by wind. This
deformation will limit the impact of wind gusts. Internal forces are axial forces only. Together with the
high material strength of the cables slender elements are used giving a more transparent faade.
Figure 10 shows impressions of the design of the building. Columns are only located along the inner
floor edge, although the main stability structure is located in the faade.
The internal space within the cable-net can be used freely for the design of the independent internal
building.
The cable net structure is prestressed to prevent cables to go slack and to reduce the deformation. In
figure 11 the deformation is calculated to be maximum about 900mm. Between the second skin faade
and the building flexible connections are made capable of bridging these differences in movement, but
to control the air movement within the cleft.
single glass
transparent ETFE
cushions
mechanical
ventilation
Together with the basement and foundation structure the cable net is designed as a structurally closed
system. The tension forces in the cable net balance the compression forces in the pylon by connecting
them in the basement. This excludes pre-stress forces on the foundation. Figure 13 shows that the
internal forces balance in a 3-dimensional way.
Figure 13: Structurally closed system of the embracing hyperbolic cable net skin structure [3]
The 1800m long Natrix has the shape of a snake, built-up with an inner and outer skin. The inner skin
consists of pneumatic air arches spacing 6m with in between PVC-coated polyester membrane. On top
of the inner membrane water tubes with a diameter of 28mm are placed side by side for sound
absorption and as medium to store and transport sun energy.
The outer skin exists of transparent foil called ETFE strengthened by a cable net and stabilized by an
overpressure between the ETFE-foil and the PVC-coated polyester membrane.
The inner and outer skin are fully disconnected from each other. By the application of the two layers, a
cleft is created that acts as an insulation layer. Also the overpressure is only between the outer and
inner skin, meaning the inside area is not under overpressure and available for all functions.
Figure 17: Testing the screen of water tubes in the sound lab [1]
The pneumatic build-up of the structure will result in an external membrane that will deform by wind
loading, while the internal membrane hardly moves. This is because the outer and inner skins are
structurally not connected and deformation differences will be absorbed by air movement in the cleft.
Studies at the Eindhoven University of Technology confirm this behaviour.
-9-
Because the people inside do not experience the deformation of the outer skin, there is no need for low
deformation limitations. This results in a higher efficiency of material governed by strength.
Because of the independent behaviour of the external and internal skin and the air movement in the
cleft the varying external loading has limited influence on the loading of the internal skin. The
pneumatic arches, supporting the internal skin, therefore are mostly loaded with permanent equal
divided loading: self weight, internal skin, the water tubes and the air pressure in the cleft. When the
differentiation of the loading pattern on an arch structure is limited, the arch can be designed as an
optimum compression arch with limited bending moments. This will make it possible to design
slender and mostly axial loaded pneumatic arches.
Conclusion
The faade can play an important role in building physics, but also structurally on how a building
reacts on a wind loading.
A second skin faade is discussed that is flexible connected to the building, symbolised as a massspring-damper system. Flexible structures reduce the internal forces and reaction forces in case of a
short impact. But with a harmonic loading they can increase to a level higher than in a static situation.
Wind is a constant changing dynamic load with both gusts and harmonic fluctuations. The active
control of the spring and damper stiffness connecting the faade to the building, can give us better
control over the force development but can also give us the possibility to optimize wind energy
absorption.
To further reduce the loading on a building two designs are shown in which the second skin is fully
independent of the main building. Between a fully fixed second skin faade and the fully independent
faade a large variety of interactive design options between the faade and the building are possible
optimizing forces and energy absorption.
References
[1] Habraken, A.P.H.W., Natrix barrier of silence. Competition entry: Creating a Sound Barrier for
Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, 2008.
[2] Schiphol brochure design contest: Create a Barrier of silence, 2008
[3] Habraken, A.P.H.W., De Constructieve Tweedehuid, TU/e Eindhoven University of Technology, 10-072003
[4] Picture: City In Antarctica, website www.loop.ph
[5] Picture: Frequency of Wind Speed Occurrence , website www.windenergy.nl
[6] C.W. Newberry Alit. IVnd Kjeaton, Windloading Handbook; Building Research Establishment Report
[7] Stellingwerff, D.A. and Hajji, B., Tweede huidfacade Scheiding van dynamische belasting tussen gevel
en binnenconstructie, masterproject Eindhoven University of Technology, Faculty of Building and
Architecture, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 2012
[8] Bosma, S., Flexibility in structural design inspired by compliance in nature, masterproject Eindhoven
University of Technology, Faculty of Building and Architecture, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 2012
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Summary
Architectural design is mainly driven by the available budget. So for the designers intentions and
ideas to be realized, it is crucial to have knowledge about the expected costs and the economic
influence of various design parameters already at the very beginning of a project.
A software tool that gives the designer an instant cost estimation of the current design could
provide valuable knowledge about how to optimize the costs and bring the original design
intention into reality. Surveying and quantifying the parameters within the designers sphere of
influence was the basis to create an interactive tool integrated into the Formfinder software
package a design software for form-active structures [1].
Introduction
In the context of membrane architecture, engineering and design are two disciplines which are
complementary to equal parts. In engineering, design is a component of the engineering process.
Engineering on the other hand assists design, with emphasis on function and the utilization of
mathematics and science.
The American Heritage Dictionary defines design as: "To conceive or fashion in the mind; To invent,"
and "To formulate a plan" [2], and defines engineering as: "The application of scientific and
mathematical principles to practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient
and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems." [3]. Both are forms of problem-solving
with a defined distinction being the application of "scientific and mathematical principles". Scientists
at Xerox PARC [4], however, made the distinction of design versus engineering at "moving minds"
versus "moving atoms". [5]
These definitions are the base for understanding the importance of design and for making all parties of
a design team being aware of the integrated process of design at a membrane project. The foundations
for successful projects are designers with extensive knowledge in as many of the important disciplines
for realizing tensile structures as possible, such as design, engineering, installation, and costing.
Due to the fact cost estimation is often neglected in the design stage, time and money are spent
although the realization of a building project is not finally decided at this stage. In many cases
economic aspects are reason for cancelation of projects. Architectural design is often influenced by the
available budget. Therefore the knowledge about the parameters for cost optimization is beneficial for
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designers. Rigid structures may excuse unfavorable design through local strengthening measures. The
sensibility of non-rigid, flexible, form-active structures in contrary is one of the main cost driving
factors. Small adjustments and modifications on the design may significantly influence the total costs
of the whole project.
The more accuracy is required from cost estimations the higher its level of complexity gets. The
number of parameters to be considered increases potentially. Every single factors potential cost
impact has to be evaluated.
At this point two types of parameters need to be distinguished; parameters able to be determined and
such which only can be valued either by chance or by experience.
Figure 1: Examples for determinable and indeterminable parameters for cost optimization
Indeterminable architectural perception and requirements that are not part of the design
concept
(individual design philosophy of architect/designer)
Special design intents
(use of new materials or techniques, first of a kind-project)
Feasibility of the structural concept
Building site and infrastructure
(construction site, accessibility of site, infrastructure, soil conditions)
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As a consequence designers are able to influence the material and production costs of a membrane
project the most. Not determinable parameters, however, are not directly in the sphere of influence of
the designer but still can be controlled up to a certain extent at the very beginning, right after the
project idea. So the designs impact on delivery costs, installation costs, and overhead costs on the
other hand is minor as they strongly depend on the parties (companies) involved but are not to be
neglected.
Within the group of determinable factors substituting parameters can be defined. This subgroup
contains alternative (design) solutions which can be chosen for geometric or even economic reasons
without having an impact on the overall design intention.
Anticlastic surfaces with a homogeneous and well-proportionate curvature k (k = (1/r1) * (1/r2)) give
higher mechanical stiffness to the membrane and further to the whole structure. As a consequence the
weave needs less pretension and the deformations due to external loading are less. This results in
smaller internal stresses and the material fatigues slower. Furthermore due to lower stresses and
therefore smaller reaction forces in the fixation points, optimization of the adjacent structural elements
and wider spans of the membrane are possible.
In general higher strain and therefore higher stresses in the membrane may require stronger material.
More tensile strength is always directly related to more weight per surface area and bigger fabric
thickness. Both factors have an impact on fabrication as well as on installation.
The settings of the welding machines e.g. strongly depend on the thickness of the material. The thicker
the fabric the more power is needed respectively the longer it takes for achieving full load bearing
capacity of the seam. The increase of the internal stresses result as well in wider seams which certainly
influences the welding process in the same way.
The classification of membrane material in different Types according to their tensile strength allows as
well a differentiation by the surface weight. A Type 5 material is about twice as heavy as a Type 1.
From this follows that stronger fabrics may be more bulky at handling. Furthermore different fabrics
require different care in general. PVC/polyester is way more flexible and less sensitive to folding than
e.g. PTFE/glass fabrics.
This can result in more man needed to move the membrane, in packing in bigger pieces for the same
membrane area, or the sail needs to be split into smaller bits. The more elements have to be joined on
site the more time and manpower is needed. From an economical point of view the highest aim should
be to prepare installation in the workshop as far as possible. The impact on transportation and
installation costs is evident.
As advantageous as a big curvature is on the whole structure, more curvature means as well more time
and effort in fabrication. To avoid wrinkles and to achieve uniform surfaces with less polygonal
appearance, strongly curved geometries need to be assembled of membrane stripes with smaller width.
The same applies to edge cables with very small radii. Welding of strongly curved cable pockets
requires special care at fabrication. For avoiding wrinkles the stress-strain behavior needs to be as
homogenous as possible. Therefore big variations of the warp and weft directions, meaning big
differential angles of the weave of two adjacent membrane pieces, are to be avoided. For most
homogenous orientation of the membrane material, the pocket needs to be assembled of small parts
welded together.
When tangential forces become large in edge cables, the caused radial stress in the fabric could
become critical. In this case it could be better offsetting the cable from the membranes edge and
linking it at intervals by a sequence of straps and clamp plates. This option is used mainly for
PTFE/glass fabric but also for PVC/polyester where edge spans are larger than 20m. [6]
Foundations have to be considered in the cost calculation but potentially bear high vagueness as often
the final soil situation is not known before the detail design. Especially on extensive projects various
foundation concepts may be required, as the local soil configuration may differ at the individual
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anchor points. For this reason minimizing the reaction forces always has to be the main aim. Whether
a tensile roof is anchored in an already existing structure or in the ground no matter the foundation
concept, high forces result in additional costs at all times.
Therefore the arrangement of struts and their guying cables is a very critical issue. The smaller the
angle between the compression and tension elements is, the higher the internal forces in these
construction components get. In case the available space is limited, maximization of the structures
covered area becomes a main goal. For the corners to be the closest possible to the boarders of the
construction site, the angle between struts and guying cables will end up being minimized. For
avoiding difficulties with high anchor forces, restraint columns could be a considerable alternative.
But one has to be aware, the lightweight characteristics of membrane structures will end at soil level.
Moment bearing foundations are by all means heavy-weight.
But to give an additional input on architectural design, restraint columns do not need to have structural
purpose only. They could as well be part of the overall design concept. Besides the engineering
requirements, it is up to the designer to transform a restraint column into (e.g.) a sculpture and make it
part of a story (about the architectural intent).
Figure 2: Different arrangements of struts and guying cables and the corresponding triangles of forces
To reduce anchor forces sometimes it may be an option to amend the design and add additional anchor
points while keeping the overall appearance similar and knowing more foundations are needed.
The Tool
Goal of this tool is to visualize cost factors and to support designers to keep their own design by
providing a set of positive arguments to convince the decision makers of the design intention and the
design concept.
In general the process of designing consists of two steps: quantification (more ideas) and qualification
(reduction of ideas) [7]. Following this approach it is necessary to decide over the final design up to a
certain depth before first cost calculations can be performed. Precise cost estimation is a highly timeconsuming and complex task. For conventional rigid constructions a detailed structural analysis under
consideration of various aspects such as aesthetics, shape, materials, legal restrictions and
requirements, etc. is needed. For non-rigid structures this complexity maximizes, since additional
factors induced by the flexible nature of the membrane and its components occur; factors like
additional restrictions at selecting materials, more complex aerodynamic characteristics, or influence
of dominating weather conditions.
Therefore this task calls for knowledge of a domain specialist capable of handling all of these cost
parameters. This however decouples the designer from the process chain. Consequently the lack of this
valuable information often leads to initial designs being distorted significantly. In the past many
projects failed due to this simple fact known in many engineering domains; the later design mistakes
are detected in the process chain, the more expensive it may get to correct them eventually.
Our cost estimation tool is addressed in particular to designers. Surveys have shown most designers
consider estimation deviations of 30-40 % to the final project costs to be acceptable. This tool allows a
significant simplification of the calculation process. Reduced complexity in return increases the
understanding of the cost-driving factors and the designer will find the optimum shape and design
faster.
Our software program is an intelligent, self-learning tool based on databases and algorithms found on
basis of theoretical design studies and of comparisons of pre- and post-cost calculations of real
projects considering factors like shape, size, curvature, and material among others.
The given values, respectively the costs, are transferred into absolute values [ / m2 / year] directly
usable for cost estimations or into a dimensionless factor [%] for studying and teaching purposes.
Nevertheless the user has to be aware of the limitations of this cost estimation tool. According to the
parameters mentioned above the value given just reflects the production and material costs of a
membrane structure. Factors like the foundations, accessibility of the building site, legal requirements,
installation and geographical location only can be measured up to certain extent. Anyway the designer
has to be aware of the influence of these factors.
Materials are very likely to vary strongly between different materials and products. The variation of
the market prices for certain materials is also not to be neglected. Production costs on the other hand
depend highly on the construction details used and the fabricators knowledge and technical
capabilities. This is why the database is designed to be open for amendments and adjustments by the
user.
In this context, also the time factor is important for evaluating the costs as for temporary/single-use
roofs the time of usage differs from permanent roofs significantly. The latter remain installed over the
whole material life expectancy. Therefore in terms of accounting the amortization of the whole
structure runs over a longer period of time. So if a temporary construction is considered to be reusable
(i.e. consideration of different load scenarios or adjustability to variations in the foundation concept)
and this thought is reflected in the detail design, costs can get reduced significantly.
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In a first step our model will be applicable to the four base shapes:
four-point sail
high-point sail
beam supported sail
ridge-valley sail
By default this cost estimation tool only allows for a low accuracy of the actual value. These settings
reflect the most common design parameters of the reference projects used for finding the calculation
algorithms. It is up to the user to narrow down the degree of detailing in the project specifications.
Additional information on the design can be added. The more data is provided the more accurate the
estimation gets.
In our (unreleased) software package a control panel is located on the right hand side of the screen. It
contains various sliders which can be used to adjust the importance of individual factors.
On basis of a product database design parameters and material properties can be preset; involving
decisions on the membrane material, whether cables or belts are used at the edges or corner details are
made of standard products or individual design solutions.
Based on the geographical location and the Eurocodes the wind and snow loads for certain countries
and roof types can be added automatically. In a first step loading can be generated for simple standard
shapes only.
Besides the steadily growing database of integrated codes and standards, products and materials,
individual calculations outside these pre-settings are allowed for.
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Conclusion
We gave a brief overview of how costs are influenced by the design and have presented a cost
estimation assistant that targets designers of form-active structures. It can be used either as a pure
calculation tool for first estimations or if desired expose educational facets to submit better
understanding of the involved cost factors and dependencies to the designer. Even while kept simple,
we believe the estimation mechanism to be powerful enough to present estimations within a range of
accuracy of 20-30 %. Due to its ability to extract knowledge from existing/finished projects and to
feed this knowledge back to the project database we further believe estimations to become gradually
more accurate, when more projects are calculated and so more data of cost estimations and their
corresponding real project costs is available.
References
[1] Engeld, H.: Tragsysteme / Structural Systems. 2nd Edition, Hatje Cantz Verlag, 1967/1997
[2] Design. The American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved February 09, 2012.
URL: http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=design
[3] Engineering. The American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved February 09, 2012.
URL: http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=engineering.
[4] Formerly Xerox PARC, nowadays PARC (Palo Alto Research Center Incorporated) is a research and
development company in Palo Alto, California, USA.
[5] Design. Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Retrieved February 09, 2012.
URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design#Design_and_engineering.
[6] Forster B. and Molleart M., 2004. European Design Guide for Tensile Surface Structures.
[7] Hller R., 1999. Formfindung - Architektonische Grundlagen fr den Entwurf von mechanisch
vorgespannten Membranen. Mhringen: Balistier.
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