LECTURE NOTES

Design of machine members-II

Bearings

The basic purpose of a bearing is to allow relative movement between

the components of machines whilst carrying a load as well as providing
some type of location between components. This section of the website
will focus on describing in more detail the various types of bearings
that are available today as well as selection procedures.

Bearing Types

Bearings are broadly categorised into two main groups; Sliding

Bearings and Rolling Contact Bearings. The picture below
highlights the main types of bearings and the categories that they fall
under :-

Bearing types

Sliding Bearings

Sliding bearings refers to bearings where two surfaces move relative to

each other without the benefit of rolling contact.

Usually a lubricant is used to allow the two surfaces to slide freely

(lubricant is denoted by the black layer in the above diagram) with
reduced friction contact and wear. A typical application of a sliding
bearing is to allow rotation of a load bearing shaft. The portion of the
shaft at the bearing is referred to as the 'journal', and the stationary
part which supports the load is called the bearing.

Journal Bearing

This is why sliding bearings are often referred to as journal bearings.

There are three main regimes of lubrication for sliding bearings:
1. Boundary Lubrication

2. Mixed film lubrication

3. Full film lubrication

1. Boundary Lubrication
This state occurs typically at low relative velocities between the journal
and bearing surfaces. Even though there is lubrication present between
the two surfaces, there is insufficient pressure as to keep the surfaces
from coming into contact and so frictional forces need to be
considered. As a result, this type of bearings are typically used for lowspeed applications such as bushes and linkages where simplicity and
compactness are desirable.
2. Mixed film Lubrication
Mixed film lubrication occurs when the relative motion between the twp
surfaces is sufficient as to create enough pressure to partially separate
the surfaces for periods of time. However, contact will still occur at
certain places and for certain amounts of time.
3. Full film Lubrication
This regime occurs at high velocities where the motion creates a high
enough pressure in the lubricant such that the two surfaces separate
and the gap created is filled with lubricant, thus eliminating frictional
forces that would be experienced had there been surface contact.

Rolling Bearings

The term rolling contact bearing encompasses the wide variety of

bearings that use spherical balls or some type of roller between the
stationary and moving elements.

The most common type of rolling bearings support a rotating shaft

whilst resisting a combination of radial and thrust loads. Some bearings
however are designed in such a way as that they carry radial or only
thrust forces. The animation below lists the most common types of
rolling bearings as well as giving a general description.

The remainder of this section will deal with the various equations that
are used in selecting a rolling bearing for a particular application.

A bearing is a mechanical device which provides relative motion between two or

more parts. Bearings are widely used in various industrial as well as in our day-today applications. Bearings permit four common types of motions like linear motion
(for eg. drawer), spherical motion (for e.g. ball and socket joint), axial motion (for
eg. shaft rotation) and hinge motion (for eg. door, elbow, knee). There are different
types of bearings used in mechanical devices. Using a suitable bearing in many
applications help in improving accuracy, efficiency, reliability, operation speed,
purchasing costs of operating machinery.
Types of Bearings
There are many types of bearings each used for different aplications and different

purposes. Bearings can be used either singularly or in combinations. Bearings are

classified broadly according to their motions, operating principle, load capacity and
speed and size they can handle. Accordingly, we find bearings of different shapes,
speed, lubrication, materials and so on. The most popular bearing types are given
below. Click on the following links to get a detailed description of different bearings
used in various industries and machines.

Tags:- Types Of Bearings, Types Of Industrial Bearings

Bearings

Needle Bearing

Cylindrical Bearing

Sleeve Bearing

Spherical Bearing

Linear Bearing

Roller Bearing

The Sommerfeld Number is typically defined by the following equation [1].

Where:
S is the Sommerfeld Number or bearing characteristic number
r is the shaft radius
c is the radial clearance
is the absolute viscosity of the lubricant
N is the speed of the rotating shaft in revs/s
P is the load per unit of projected bearing area

The Sommerfeld Number is typically defined by the following equation [1].

Where:
S is the Sommerfeld Number or bearing characteristic number
r is the shaft radius
c is the radial clearance
is the absolute viscosity of the lubricant
N is the speed of the rotating shaft in revs/s
P is the load per unit of projected bearing area
Bearing modulus is used in Journal Bearing Design.
Bearing Modulus,C= (Zn/p)
Z=oil viscosity
n=speed of rotation (rpm)
p=bearing pressure
For any given bearing, there is a value for indicated by C, for which the coefficient of
friction is minimum. The bearing should not be operated at this value of bearing
modulus, since a slight decrease in speed or a slight increase in pressure will make
the journal to operate in partial lubrication state resulting in high friction, heating
and wear.
To prevent this, average value of
Bearing modulus should be,
Zn/p >= 3C
for large fluctuations and heavy impact loads,
Zn/p = 15C (approx)
Normally bearing number is having 4 digits.
EX 1 : Bearing # is 6308
I st digit 6 is indicates type of bearing. 6 means single
row deep ball bearing.3 indicates applied loads depends
upon the application.The last two digits indicates diameter
of the shaft.As per above example 08 means shaft dia is 40
mm.The simple calculation is shaft dia divided by5 is last

two digits of bearing number.

EX 2: Bearing # is 6207, The shaft dia is 35 mm.
Bearing characteristic number=Z*N/p
Z--->viscosity N-s/m^2
N--->rotation of the bearing in rpm
p--->bearing pressure
Antifriction bearing
A machine element that permits free motion between moving and fixed parts.
Antifrictional bearings are essential to mechanized equipment; they hold or guide
moving machine parts and minimize friction and wear.
In its simplest form, a bearing consists of a cylindrical shaft, called a journal, and a
mating hole, serving as the bearing proper. Ancient bearings were made of such
materials as wood, stone, leather, or bone, and later of metal. It soon became
apparent for this type of bearing that a lubricant would reduce both friction and
wear and prolong the useful life of the bearing. Petroleum oils and greases are
generally used for lubricants, sometimes containing soap and solid lubricants such
as graphite or molybdenum disulfide, talc, and similar substances.
Materials
The greatest single advance in the development of improved bearing materials took
place in 1839, when I. Babbitt obtained a United States patent for a bearing metal
with a special alloy. This alloy, largely tin, contained small amounts of antimony,
copper, and lead. This and similar materials have made excellent bearings. They
have a silvery appearance and are generally described as white metals or as Babbitt
metals.
Wooden bearings are still used for limited applications in light-duty machinery and
are frequently made of hard maple which has been impregnated with a neutral oil.
Wooden bearings made of lignum vitae, the hardest and densest of all woods, are
still used.
Some of the most successful heavy-duty bearing metals are now made of several
distinct compositions combined in one bearing. This approach is based on the
widely accepted theory of friction, which is that the best possible bearing material
would be one which is fairly hard and resistant but which has an overlay of a soft
metal that is easily deformed. Figure 1 shows bearings in which graphite, carbon,
plastic, and rubber have been incorporated into a number of designs illustrating
some of the material combinations that are presently available.

Bearings with (a) graphite; (b) wood, plastic, and nylon

Rubber has proved to be a surprisingly good bearing material, especially under
circumstances in which abrasives may be present in the lubricant. The rubber used
is a tough resilient compound similar in texture to that in an automobile tire. Cast
iron is one of the oldest bearing materials. It is still used where the duty is relatively
light.
Porous metal bearings are frequently used when plain metal bearings are
impractical because of lack of space or inaccessibility for lubrication. These bearings
have voids of 1636% of the volume of the bearing. These voids are filled with a
lubricant by a vacuum technique. During operation they supply a limited amount of
lubricant to the sliding surface between the journal and the bearing. In general,
these bearings are satisfactory for light loads and moderate speeds.
Lubricants
The method of supplying the lubricant and the quantity of lubricant which is fed to
the bearing by the supplying device will often be the greatest factor in establishing
performance characteristics of the bearing. For example, if no lubricant is present,
the journal and bearing will rub against each other in the dry state. Both friction and
wear will be relatively high. The coefficient of friction of a steel shaft rubbing in a
bronze bearing, for example, may be about 0.3 for the dry state. If lubricant is
present even in small quantities, the surfaces hydrodynamic pressure in film
become contaminated by this material whether it be an oil or a fat, and depending
upon its chemical composition the coefficient of friction may be reduced to about
0.1. Now if an abundance of lubricant is fed to the bearing so that there is an excess
flowing out of the bearing, it is possible to develop a self-generating pressure film in
the clearance space as indicated in Fig. 2. These pressures can be sufficient to
sustain a considerable load and to keep the rubbing surfaces of the bearing
separated.

Hydrodynamic fluid-film pressures in a journal bearing

The types of oiling devices that usually result in insufficient feed to generate a
complete fluid film are, for example, oil cans, drop-feed oilers, waste-packed
bearings, and wick and felt feeders. Oiling schemes that provide an abundance of
lubrication are oil rings, bath lubrication, and forced-feed circulating supply
systems. The coefficient of friction for a bearing with a complete fluid film may be
as low as 0.001.
Fluid-film hydrodynamic bearings
If the bearing surfaces can be kept separated, the lubricant no longer needs an
oiliness agent. As a consequence, many extreme applications are presently found in
which fluid-film bearings operate with lubricants consisting of water, highly
corrosive acids, molten metals, gasoline, steam, liquid refrigerants, mercury, gases,
and so on. The self-generation of pressure in such a bearing takes place no matter
what lubricant is used, but the maximum pressure that is generated depends upon
the viscosity of the lubricant. Thus, for example, the maximum load-carrying
capacity of a gas-lubricated bearing is much lower than that of a liquid-lubricated
bearing. The ratio of capacities is in direct proportion to the viscosity. Gas is the only
presently known lubricant that can be used for operation at extreme temperatures.
Because the viscosity of gas is so low, the friction generated in the bearing is
correspondingly of a very low order. Thus gaslubricated machines can be operated
at extremely high speeds because there is no serious problem in keeping the
bearings cool.
The self-generating pressure principle is applied equally as well to thrust bearings
as it is to journal bearings. The tiltingpad type of thrust bearing (Fig. 3a) excels in
low friction and in reliability. A typical commercial tthrust bearing (Fig. 3b) is made
up of many tilting pads located in a circular position. One of the largest is on a
hydraulic turbine at the Grand Coulee Dam. There, a bearing 96 in. (2.4 m) in
diameter carries a load of 2,150,000 lb (9,560,000 newtons) with a coefficient of
friction of about 0.0009.

Fluid-film hydrostatic bearings

Sleeve bearings of the self-generating pressure type, after being brought up to
speed, operate with a high degree of efficiency and reliability. However, when the
rotational speed of the journal is too low to maintain a complete fluid film, or when
starting, stopping, or reversing, the oil film is ruptured, friction increases, and wear
of the bearing accelerates. This condition can be eliminated by introducing highpressure oil to the area between the bottom of the journal and the bearing itself, as
shown schematically in Fig. 4. If the pressure and quantity of flow are in the correct
proportions, the shaft will be raised and supported by an oil-film whether it is
rotating or not. Friction drag may drop to one-tenth of its original value or even less,
and in certain kinds of heavy rotational equipment in which available torque is low,
this may mean the difference between starting and not starting. This type of
lubrication is called hydrostatic lubrication and, as applied to a journal bearing in
the manner indicated, it is called an oil lift. Hydrostatic lubrication in the form of a
step bearing has also been used on various machines to carry thrust.

Fluid-film hydrostatic bearing

Large structures have been floated successfully on hydrostatic-type bearings. For
example, the Hale 200-in. (5-m) telescope on Palomar Mountain (California Institute
of Technology/Palomar Observatory) weighs about 1,000,000 lb (450,000 kg); yet
the coefficient of friction for the entire supporting system, because of the
hydrostatic-type bearing, is less than 0.000004. The power required is extremely
small and a 1/12-hp (62-W) clock motor rotates the telescope while observations are
being made.
Rolling-element bearings
Everyday experiences demonstrate that rolling resistance is much less than sliding
resistance. This principle is used in the rolling-element bearing which has found
wide use. In the development of the automobile, ball and roller bearings were found
to be ideal for many applications, and today they are widely used in almost every
kind of machinery.

These bearings are characterized by balls or cylinders confined between outer and
inner rings. The balls or rollers are usually spaced uniformly by a cage or separator.
The rolling elements are the most important because they transmit the loads from
the moving parts of the machine to the stationary supports. Balls are uniformly
spherical, but the rollers may be straight cylinders, or they may be barrel- or coneshaped or of other forms, depending upon the purpose of the design. The rings,
called the races, supply smooth, hard, accurate surfaces for the balls or rollers to
roll on. Some types of ball and roller bearings are made without separators. In other
types there is only the inner or the outer ring, and the rollers operate directly upon
a suitably hardened and ground shaft or housing. Figure 5 shows a typical deepgrooved ball bearing, with the parts that are generally used.

Deep-groove ball bearing

These bearings may be classified by function into three groups: radial, thrust, and
angular-contact bearings. Radial bearings are designed principally to carry a load in
a direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation. However, some radial bearings,
such as the deep-grooved bearings shown in Fig. 5, are also capable of carrying a
thrust load, that is, a load parallel to the axis of rotation and tending to push the
shaft in the axial direction. Some bearings, however, are designed to carry only
thrust loads. Angular-contact bearings are especially designed and manufactured to
carry heavy thrust loads and also radial loads.
A unique feature of rolling-element bearings is that their useful life is not
determined by wear but by fatigue of the operating surfaces under the repeated
stresses of normal use. Fatigue failure, which occurs as a progressive flaking or
sifting of the surfaces of the races and rolling elements, is accepted as the basic
reason for the termination of the useful life of such a bearing

BEARINGS
Rolling contact bearings
The terms rolling contact bearing, anti friction bearing and rolling element bearing
are used to describe that class of bearing in which the main load is transferred
through elements in rolling contact with each other. Friction in a rolling element
bearing is present, but it is negligible when compared to the starting friction of a
journal type bearing. The load, bearing speed and the viscosity of the lubrication all
affect the friction within the bearing. Although it is not technically
correct to refer to this type of bearing as anti friction, it is a name that
is in constant use.
Bearings reduce friction by providing smooth/polished metal balls or
rollers, and a smooth/polished inner and outer metal surface for the
balls to roll against. These balls or rollers carry the load, allowing the
device to rotate smoothly.
In general a rolling element bearing is a bearing which carries a load
by placing round elements between two surfaces. These surfaces are referred to as
the inner race and the outer race. The relative motion of the races causes the
bearing elements to roll, with little or no sliding. Bearings are normally selected on
the basis of a requirement to carry a given load for a given period of time. Rolling

contact bearings are designed to carry pure radial loads, pure axial loads or a
combination of the two.
The bearing designer is confronted with the problems of designing a group of
elements which make up a rolling element bearing. Parameters such as fatigue,
loading, heat, corrosion resistance and lubrication, to name but a few, must be
considered. There are many types of rolling element bearings, each designed to
carry a specific kind of load. Each of the different types of bearing contain either a
ball bearing, a roller bearing or a needle type bearing. A needle bearing is an
elongated roller bearing.

Rolling-element bearings may rotate at over 100,000 rpm. Maximum rolling element
bearing speeds may be specified in DN, which is the product of the diameter (in
mm) and the maximum revolutions per minute (rpm).
There are also many material issues for bearings. For example, a harder material
may be more durable against abrasion but more likely to suffer fatigue fracture.
Therefore, the material varies with the application, and whilst steel is the most
common for rolling element bearings, plastics and ceramics are also in use.

A bearing can last indefinitely; longer than the life of the machine, if it is kept clean,
lubricated, and operated within its load rating. Also, every effort needs to be made
during manufacture to make sure the bearing materials are sufficiently free of
microscopic defects. Note, that cooling, lubrication, and sealing are also important
parts of bearing design.
The operating environment and servicing needs must also be considered in bearing
design. Some bearing assemblies require routine addition of lubricants, while others
are factory sealed, requiring no further maintenance for the life of the bearing or
assembly. Although seals are appealing, they increase bearing friction, and a
permanently sealed bearing may have the lubricant contaminated by hard particles,
due to bearing wear, which will abrade the bearing.
The meaning of bearing life
Stephen J. Mraz
How long will a bearing last? Standardized life equations help to answer.

Relative effects of contamination and lubrication condition on bearing life with

different load levels.

Experience shows seemingly identical rolling bearings operated under identical

conditions may not last the same amount of time. In most cases, it is impractical to
test a statistically significant number of bearings, so engineers rely on standardized
bearing-life calculations to select and size bearings for a particular application.
These calculations continue to evolve and become more accurate over time,

reflecting the collective experience of the bearing industry, including recent

advances in manufacturing, tribology, materials, end-user condition monitoring, and
computation.
In February of this year, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
published a revised ISO 281:2007 Standard for the calculation of bearing ratings
and life. It builds on the previous Standard ISO 281:2000 to account for such factors
as internal stresses from mounting, residual stresses from hardening and other
manufacturing processes, and material cleanness. Also included are the effects of
solid contaminants with various lubricating systems, as well as bearing material
fatigue stress limits. Before going into further detail, it's probably a good time to
review the basics of bearing-life calculations, starting with the common definitions
of life.
Basic life or L10 as defined in ISO and ABMA standards is the life that 90% of a
sufficiently large group of apparently identical bearings can be expected to reach or
exceed. The median or average life, sometimes called Mean Time Between Failure
(MTBF), is about five times the calculated basic rating life. Service life is the life of a
bearing under actual operating conditions before it fails or needs to be replaced for
whatever reason. The so-called specification life is generally a requisite L10 basic
rating life and reflects a manufacturer's requirement based on experience with
similar applications.
CALCULATING LOADS
Engineers typically employ rolling-contact fatigue models that compare bearing load
ratings to applied dynamic and static loads as they impact service life and reliability.
The basic dynamic load rating covers dynamically stressed bearings that rotate
under load. This rating, defined in ISO 281, is the bearing load that results in a basic
rating life or L10 of 1 million revolutions. Dynamic loads should include a
representative duty cycle or spectrum of load conditions and any peak loads.
The basic static load rating applies to bearings that rotate at speeds less than 10
rpm, slowly oscillate, or remain stationary under load over certain periods. Be sure
to include loads of extremely short duration (shock) because they may plastically
deform contact surfaces and compromise bearing integrity.
Classical mechanics along with known or calculable external forces are used to
calculate the loads acting on a bearing. These external forces may include
resultants from power transmission, shaft or housing supports, or inertia. When
calculating loads on a single bearing, assume the shaft to be a beam resting on
rigid, moment-free supports.

Basic catalog or simplified calculations typically ignore elastic deformations in the

bearing, housing, or machine frame, as well as moments produced in the bearing by
shaft deflection. Such calculations may assume loads are constant in magnitude
and direction and act radially on a radial bearing, or axially and centrically on a
thrust bearing. Oftentimes, bearings in actual service see simultaneous radial and
axial loads. When the resultant of radial and axial loads is constant in magnitude
and direction, calculate an equivalent dynamic bearing load from:
P = XFr + YFa
where P = equivalent dynamic bearing load, lb; Fr = actual radial bearing load, lb; Fa
= actual axial bearing load, lb; X = radial load factor for the bearing; and Y = axial
load factor for the bearing.
For single-row radial bearings, axial load influences P only when the ratio Fa Fr
exceeds a certain limiting value. Conversely, even light axial loads are significant
for double-row radial bearings. The above equation also applies to spherical thrust
bearings and other thrust types that handle both axial and radial loads. Be sure to
consult manufacturer catalogs for axial-radial thrust bearings because designs can
vary widely. For thrust ball bearings and other types that carry pure axial loads, the
equation simplifies to P = Fa, provided the load acts centrically.
RATING LIFE EQUATIONS
The equation from ISO 281 or the American Bearing Manufacturers Association
(ABMA) Standards 9 and 11 figures basic, nonadjusted rating life by:
L10 = (C P)p in millions of revolutions
where C = basic dynamic load rating, lb; P = equivalent dynamic bearing load, lb; p
= life-equation exponent ( p = 3 for ball bearings; and p = 10/3 for roller bearings)
For bearings run at constant speed, it may be more convenient to express the basic
rating life in operating hours:
L10h = (1,000,000/60)nL10 where n = rotational speed, rpm
Predicted bearing life is a statistical quantity in that it refers to a bearing population
and a given degree of reliability. The basic rating life is associated with 90%
reliability of bearings built by modern manufacturing methods from high-quality
materials and operated under normal conditions. In practice, predicted life may
deviate significantly from actual service life, in some documented cases by nearly a
factor of five.
Service life represents bearing life in real-world conditions, where field failures can
result from root causes other than bearing fatigue. Examples of root causes include
contamination, wear, misalignment, corrosion, mounting damage, poor lubrication,
or faulty sealing systems.

Ongoing advances in bearing technology and manufacturing processes continue to

extend bearing life and reduce sensitivity to severe operating conditions. Standard
ISO 281 has developed in step with these advances to predict service life more
accurately. The latest version expands coverage to include bearing material fatigue
stress limits, and a factor for solid contamination effects on bearing life when using
various lubrication systems such as grease, circulating oil, and oil bath.
The equation calculates modified rating life at n% reliability Lnm in millions of
revolutions at constant speed by:
Lnm= a1aISOL10
where a1 = life-adjustment factor for reliability (1.0 for 90% reliability); and aISO =
manufacturer life modification factor according to ISO 281.
Finding aISO involves the use of a contamination factor that considers the lubrication
system type, cleanliness class, bearing size, and lubrication operating conditions as
defined in ISO 4406. This contamination factor, along with the ratio of the bearing
fatigue load limit to the bearing equivalent load limit, and the lubrication condition,
determine aISO. In general, better lubricant conditions and lower equivalent loads
lessen bearing life sensitivity to contamination levels. Conversely, high loads and
poor lubricant conditions raise bearing life sensitivity to contamination
Calculating machine reliability from bearing life
Paul Dvorak
Here's how to calculate machine reliability based on the collective life of several
bearings.

A Weibull bearing routine in Weibull-Ease software from Applications Research Inc.,

Golden Valley, Minn., allows considering all bearings in a system along with input
rpm, load, and basic dynamic capacity of the bearing. The routine calculates the
L10, L 95, L 99, median, and MTBF lives. The full version of Weibull-Ease can be
downloaded on a 30-day trial basis from applicationsresearch.com.

Selecting a set of bearings to withstand anticipated loads is a common design task

with power-transmission equipment. Another deals with finding a cumulative
component reliability that exceeds the standard 90% at a specified number of
cycles or hours.
A good way to begin a reliability study defines what constitutes failure. Then identify
the most significant failure modes for the machine.

A next step analyzes test data for each failure mode to establish the reliability of
each as a function of time, cycles, or some other quantifiable measurement. In
other words, at time t:
R1= f1(t),
R2= f2(t)
and so on. Then total system reliability becomes:
Rsystem= R1 R2R3
and so on at time t.
As a general rule, evaluate test data in terms of its Weibull distribution because it is
rare that any set of field or lab data will fall clearly into a particular standard
distribution, such as exponential, binomial, or normal. In addition, a particular
failure mode may not occur until something else has worn to a certain level. In other
words, a failure mode may be, at least partially, a secondary failure. These usually
show up as an unreasonably high Weibull slope number. It can generally be
corrected by applying Weibull's third parameter, or offset, from the origin. This is a
fairly straight-forward calculation for most any reasonably capable Weibull software
routine.
Bearings present a unique problem in that they are typically specified by the
manufacturer in terms of a dynamic load rating. For ball bearings, this is the load at
which about 10% of them fail when rotated to 1 million revolutions of the outer
race. Roller bearings are specified using a similar system, but the 10% failure
corresponds to 3,000 hr at 500 rpm, or 90 million revolutions. The machine's rpm
can then be converted to hours.
For example, consider an individual ball bearing with a Basic Dynamic Capacity, CBD,
rating of 3,000 lb. It is to carry an effective load, Pef, of 400 lb at 2,500 rpm. Since
wear damage varies as the cube of the load, the number of revolutions
corresponding to 10% (B10) failure will be

At 2,500 rpm, this corresponds to

Where L10h = bearing life, hr , and

= bearing speed, rpm

This is the first 10% failure point.

This is all well and good for finding one bearing's 10% failure hours (or revolutions).
However, designers should be interested in the complete system which probably
includes more than one bearing. The reliability of agricultural hardware or
equipment is typically specified by the marketing group as something like "No more
than 1% failure (99% reliability) through the first year and no more than 10% failure
(90% reliability) through the fifth year." Many consumer products are subject to
similar requirements, particularly in the first year.
To come up with a system that exceeds 99% reliability through the first year and
90% through the fifth, all critical-component reliabilities must exceed those figures
by a significant amount. Bearings are typically included in the category of critical
components.
One reliability indicator comes from Weibull plots. For example, several research
projects tend to show a range of variability in the value of Beta, the Weibull shape
(slope) factor for bearings. It is also reasonable to assume that the load level on the
bearing or perhaps even the ratio of the Basic Dynamic Capacity to the applied load
can affect the Weibull shape factor. For instance, a light load might produce a shape
factor close to 1.0. A heavy load might increase it to 4.0 or more.
So a reasonable starting value of Weibull Beta or shape factor for most agriculturalequipment (including lawn and garden) bearings is around 2.0. There are good
reasons for the assumptions but they are involved and beyond the scope of this
article.
To continue, recall that a straight line is defined either by two points, or one point
and the line's slope. For example, Weibull cumulative density function and its
linearized version are:

where F(t) = fraction of population failed, = characteristic life, and

shape factor. Taking the natural log of both sides gives:

the standard slope-intercept form for a straight line for which

= slope or

is the slope.

Referring back to the earlier example, we know one of the points to be

We also know that

= 2.0, so

and

Also, R(t) = 1-F(t)

so

Suppose the most significant failure modes for a particular mechanism involve four
bearings at critical locations. Using the method above, we've calculated the other
three bearing characteristic lives for this application. We have:

We want the reliability at 1,000 hr for all bearings considered as a single system.
Therefore:

Similarly, R2(1,000) = 97.30%, R3(1,000) = 98.23%, and R4(1,000) = 99.04%

Rsystem(1,000) = R1R2R3R4 =93.41%
Another way to accomplish the above is with statistical analysis software with
Weibull plot functions that include a Multiple Mode calculation routine
Piston

Piston Design
Its hard to believe the reciprocating piston engine has been around for 137 years.
Nicholaus August Otto invented the first such engine in 1866, one year after the
Civil War ended. Given that much time, youd think the pistons inside todays
engines would be radically different from those of their ancestors.
Piston materials and designs have evolved over the years and will continue to do so
until fuel cells, exotic batteries or something else makes the internal combustion
engine obsolete. But until that happens, pistons will continue to power the vehicles
we drive.
One thing that has not changed over the years is the basic function of a piston. The
piston forms the bottom half of the combustion chamber and transmits the force of
combustion through the wrist pin and connecting rod to the crankshaft. The basic
design of the piston is still pretty much the same, too. Its a round slug of metal that
slides up and down in a cylinder. Rings are still used to seal compression, minimize
blowby and control oil.
So what has changed? The operating environment. Todays engines run cleaner,
work harder and run hotter than ever before. At the same time, engines are
expected to last longer than ever before, too: up to 150,000 miles or more and
with minimal maintenance. Consequently, heat management is the key to survival
of the fittest.
"Piston design used to be a process of trial and error." says Kent Fullerton, an
engineer with Zollner Pistons. "Youd make and test a new design three or four times
before you got it right. Today, everything is modeled in 3D on a computer, then
evaluated with finite element analysis software before anything is made. That

speeds up the design and testing process, reduces the lead time to create new
piston designs, and produces a better product."
According to a book produced by Mahle Inc. called Pistons for Internal Combustion
Engines, engineers use two methods to evaluate new piston designs before they are
actually produced for engine dyno testing: finite analysis and photoelastic stress
analysis. The idea behind finite analysis is to divide a model piston into a fixed
(finite) number of elements. The resulting grid forms lines that intersect and
connect. Computer software generates equations for each individual element and
predicts the overall stiffness of the entire piston.
Analyzing the data shows how the piston will behave in a real engine and allow the
engineer to see where loads and temperatures will be greatest and how the piston
will react.
With photoelastic stress analysis, a 3D transparent resin model is cast of a piston.
When the model piston is subjected to loads, the refractive properties of the plastic
change causing polarized light passing through the piston to change colors. This
reveals how the piston deforms under load and the areas where it is experiencing
the greatest stress.
Hot Pistons
The most critical area for heat management is the top ring area. One of the "tricks"
engine designers came up with to reduce emissions was to move the top
compression ring up closer to the top of the piston. A decade ago, the land width
between the top ring groove and piston crown was typically 7.5 to 8.0 mm. Today
that distance has decreased to only 3.0 to 3.5 mm in many engines.
The little crevice around the top of the piston between the crown and top ring
creates a dead zone for the air/fuel mixture. When ignition occurs, this area often
does not burn completely leaving unburned fuel in the combustion chamber. The
amount isnt much, but when you multiply the residual fuel in each cylinder by the
number of cylinders in the engine times engine speed, it can add up to a significant
portion of the engines overall hydrocarbon (HC) emissions.
One of the consequences of relocating the top ring closer to the top of the piston is
that it exposes the ring and top ring groove to higher operating temperatures. The
top rings on many engines today run at close to 600 F, while the second ring sees
temperatures of 300 F or less. These extreme temperatures can soften the metal
and increase the danger of ring groove distortion, microwelding and pound-out
failure. The reduced thickness of the land area between the top of the piston and
top ring also increases the risk of cracking and land failure.

The evolutionary advances that enable todays pistons to handle this kind of
environment include changes in piston geometry, stronger alloys, anodizing the top
ring groove and using tougher ring materials. Ordinary cast iron top compression
rings that work great in a stock 350 Chevy V8 cant take the kind of heat thats
common in many late model engines. Thats why ductile iron or steel top rings are
used in some of these engines.
Anodizing has become a popular method of improving the durability of the top ring
groove and is now used in many late model engines. Anodizing reduces
microwelding between the ring and piston to significantly improve durability. But it
cant work miracles: an anodized piston can still fail if it gets too hot.
Anodizing is done by treating the ring groove with sulfuric acid. The acid reacts with
the metal to form a tough layer of aluminum oxide, which is very hard and wearresistant. Part of the layer is below the surface of the metal and part is above. On
average, the layer is about 20 microns (.001) thick so the piston manufacturer
compensates for the added thickness when the top ring groove is machined.
Another approach some piston manufacturers have used to improve top ring
durability is to weld nickel alloy into the top ring groove. This was the approach
used for the OEM pistons in Saturn 1.9L engines made from 1991 to 2001. The
2002-03 Saturn engine uses an anodized top ring groove.
Low Tension Rings
To further complicate the problem of heat management, rings have been getting
smaller. Starting in the 1980s, "low tension" piston rings began to appear in many
engines. Typical ring sizes today are 1.2 mm for the top compression ring, 1.5 mm
for the second ring, and 3.0 mm for the oil ring. Some are even thinner. A few
engines have top compression rings only 1.0 mm thick, and the current Buick 3800
V6 uses a narrow 2.0 mm thick oil ring.
The OEMs went to thinner, shallower rings to improve fuel economy because the
rings account for up to 40 percent of an engines internal friction losses. Thinner
rings produce less drag and friction against the cylinder walls. But the downside is
they also reduce heat transfer between the piston and cylinder because of the
smaller area of contact between the two. Consequently, pistons with low tension
rings run hotter than pistons with larger rings.
Low tension rings also present another problem. They are less able to handle bore
distortion. To maximize compression and minimize blowby, the cylinder must be as
round as possible. This often requires the use of a torque plate when honing to
simulate the bore distortion that is produced by the cylinder head.

Piston Geometry
Changes in piston geometry have also been made to improve their ability to survive
at higher temperatures. Russ Hayes, an engineer with Federal Mogul/Sealed Power,
said piston manufacturers used to grind most pistons with a straight taper profile.
When the piston got too hot, it would contact the cylinder along a narrow area
producing a thin "wear strip" pattern on the side of the piston. "Now we use CNC
machining to do a barrel profile on our pistons. The diameter of the piston in the
upper land area is smaller to allow for more thermal expansion and to spread any
wall contact over a larger area."
Pistons are getting shorter and lighter. In the 1970s, a typical 350 small block Chevy
piston and pin assembly weighed around 750 grams. The same parts in a late model
Chevy LS1 engine weigh only about 600 grams.
Part of the weight reduction has been achieved by reducing piston height and using
shorter skirts. The distance from center of the wrist pin to the top of the piston
(called "compression height") used to be 1.5 to 1.7 back in the 1970s, said Hayes.
Today, wrist pins are located higher up. On Ford 4.6L engines, the compression
height is 1.2, and its 1.3 on small block Chevys.
Moving the location of the wrist pin higher up on the piston also allows the use of
longer connecting rods, which improve torque and make life easier on the bearings
and rings.
Some aftermarket pistons are now available with wrist pins that have been
relocated upward slightly to compensate for resurfacing on the block and heads.
The other alternative is to shave the top of the piston if the block has been
resurfaced, but this reduces the depth of the valve reliefs which may increase the
risk of detonation and/or valve damage.
Pistons used to have long tail skirts (which sometimes cracked or broke off). Now
most pistons have mini-skirts. Instead of a 2.5 skirt length, the piston may only
have 1.5 skirt. Shorter skirts reduce weight but also require a tighter fit between
the piston and cylinder bore to minimize piston rocking and noise. Consequently,
todays piston clearances are much less than before (typically .001 to .0005 or
less). Some have a zero clearance fit or even a slight interference fit (made possible
by special low friction coatings).
Piston Materials
The alloy from which a piston is made not only determines its strength and wear
characteristics, but also its thermal expansion characteristics. Hotter engines
require more stable alloys to maintain close tolerances without scuffing.

Many pistons used to be made from "hypoeutectic" aluminum alloys like SAE 332
which contains 8-1/2 to 10-1/2 percent silicone. Today we see more "eutectic" alloy
pistons which have 11 to 12 percent silicone, and "hypereutectic" alloys that have
12-1/2 to over 16 percent silicone.
Silicone improves high heat strength and reduces the coefficient of expansion so
tighter tolerances can be held as temperatures change. Hypereutectic pistons have
a coefficient of thermal expansion that is about 15 percent less than that for
standard F-132 alloy pistons. Because of this, the pistons can be installed with a
much tighter fit up to .0005 less clearance may be needed depending on the
application.
Hypereutectic alloys are also slightly lighter (about 2 percent) than standard alloys.
But the castings are often made thinner because the alloy is stronger, resulting in a
net reduction of up to 10 percent in the pistons total weight.
Hypereutectic alloys are more difficult to cast because the silicon must be kept
evenly dispersed throughout the aluminum as the metal cools. Particle size must
also be carefully controlled so the piston does not become brittle or develop hard
spots making it difficult to machine. Some pistons also receive a special heat
treatment to further modify and improve the grain structure for added strength and
durability. A "T-6" heat treatment, which is often used on performance pistons,
increases strength up to 30 percent.
Machining hypereutectic pistons is also more difficult because of the harder alloy.
Consequently, hypereutectic pistons typically cost several dollars more than
standard alloy pistons. Thats why most OEMs (except Ford) have gone back to
eutectic alloy pistons in their late model engines. High copper eutectic alloys offer
most of the advantages of hypereutectic alloys without as much cost.
Piston Coatings
Survival of the fittest also requires a high degree of scuff resistance. Cold starts
without adequate lubrication can cause piston scuffing. The same thing can happen
if the engine overheats. Piston-to-cylinder clearances close up and the piston scuffs
against the bore. The initial start-up of a freshly built engine is also a risky time for
scuffing and is of special concern to engine builders because thats when many
warranty problems occur.
Applying a permanent low friction coating to the sides of the pistons provides a
layer of protection against scuffing. Many rebuilders have found that using coated
pistons has virtually eliminated warranty problems due to scuffing.
Many late model OEM engines including Ford 4.6L V8, Chrysler 3.2L, 3.5L, 3.8L and
4.0L, and GM 3.1L use pistons with graphite moly-disulfide coatings on the piston

skirt to improve scuff resistance. Most aftermarket piston manufacturers also offer
some type of coated replacement pistons to rebuilders who want them. Coatings
typically add about a buck to the price of a replacement piston, but the added scuff
protection and reduction in warranty claims more than offsets the higher cost say
many engine builders who use them.
"Thermal barrier" ceramic-metallic coatings for the tops of pistons are another type
of coating that have been used on some diesel pistons and performance pistons.
Improving heat retention in the combustion chamber improves thermal efficiency
and makes more power. It also helps the piston run cooler. But too much heat in the
combustion chamber also increases the risk of detonation and preignition, which is
not a problem with diesels but is with gasoline engines. So when a coating is used,
ignition timing must usually be retarded several degrees to reduce the risk of
detonation.
Piston Crowns
The shape and finish on the tops of pistons has also been changing. Flat top pistons
have been replaced by dished pistons, domed pistons and pistons with intricate
contours to swirl the fuel mixture and promote better fuel atomization.
Some piston crown designs can be very complex because they are designed to
produce the lowest possible emissions with the best overall fuel efficiency. The
shape of the crown controls the movement of air and fuel as the piston comes up on
the compression stroke. This, in turn, affects the burn rate and what happens inside
the combustion chamber. Replacement pistons for stock engines with complex
piston designs should be the same as the original to maintain the same emissions
and performance characteristics.
With performance pistons, designs can be even more specialized. Manufacturers
have developed special "fast burn" configurations that allow engines to safely
handle more compression without detonating.
John Erb of United Engine & Machine (Silvolite and KB Pistons) said an "AttenuatorGroove" is used on some KB pistons to enhance the valve reliefs. The groove
removes two potential hot spots in the combustion chamber and improves airflow
and wet flow atomization.
Another unique design feature, said Erb, is the "Mini-Grooves" machined into the
top ring land on KB performance pistons. If the piston gets too hot, the top of the
piston swells causing the Mini-Grooves to contact the cylinder. This momentary
contact helps cool the piston to reduce the danger of detonation and piston
destruction.

Piston Pins
Zollners Fullerton says piston pin holes have also been changing. "Rather than
being round and straight, pin bores are taking on new shapes. Some are oval and
some are trumpet-shaped, flaring out toward the inside edges of the pin bosses.
The reason for these shapes is to accommodate wrist pin bending and ovalization.
These variances from straight and round are quite small, measured in tenths of a
thousandth, but have proven to extend piston life."

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas

compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston
rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the
cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the
function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the
purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder. In some engines, the
piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall.

Piston
piston is a cylindrical engine component that slides back and forth in the cylinder
bore by forces produced during the combustion process. The piston acts as a
movable end of the combustion chamber. The stationary end of the combustion
chamber is the cylinder head. Pistons are commonly made of a cast aluminum alloy
for excellent and lightweight thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity is the ability
of a material to conduct and transfer heat. Aluminum expands when heated and
proper clearance must be provided to maintain free piston movement in the
cylinder bore. Insufficient clearance can cause the piston to seize in the cylinder.
Excessive clearance can cause a loss of compression and an increase in piston
noise. Piston features include the piston head, piston pin bore, piston pin, skirt, ring
grooves, ring lands, and piston rings. The piston head is the top surface (closest to

the cylinder head) of the piston which is subjected to tremendous forces and heat
during normal engine operation.
A piston pin bore is a through hole in the side of the piston perpendicular to piston
travel that receives the piston pin. A piston pin is a hollow shaft that connects the
small end of the connecting rod to the piston. The skirt of a piston is the portion of
the piston closest to the crankshaft that helps align the piston as it moves in the
cylinder bore. Some skirts have profiles cut into them to reduce piston mass and to
provide clearance for the rotating crankshaft counterweights.
A ring groove is a recessed area located around the perimeter of the piston that is
used to retain a piston ring. Ring lands are the two parallel surfaces of the ring
groove which function as the sealing surface for the piston ring. A piston ring is an
expandable split ring used to provide a seal between the piston and the cylinder
wall. Piston rings are commonly made from cast iron. Cast iron retains the integrity
of its original shape under heat, load, and other dynamic forces. Piston rings seal
the combustion chamber, conduct heat from the piston to the cylinder wall, and
return oil to the crankcase.
Piston rings commonly used include the compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. A
compression ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the piston
head. The compression ring seals the combustion chamber from any leakage during
the combustion process. When the air-fuel mixture is ignited, pressure from
combustion gases is applied to the piston head, forcing the piston toward the
crankshaft. The pressurized gases travel through the gap between the cylinder wall
and the piston and into the piston ring groove. Combustion gas pressure forces the
piston ring against the cylinder wall to form a seal. Pressure applied to the piston
ring is approximately proportional to the combustion gas pressure.
A wiper ring is the piston ring with a tapered face located in the ring groove
between the compression ring and the oil ring. The wiper ring is used to further seal

the combustion chamber and to wipe the cylinder wall clean of excess oil.
Combustion gases that pass by the compression ring are stopped by the wiper ring.
An oil ring is the piston ring located in the ring groove closest to the crankcase. The
oil ring is used to lubricate the cylinder wall during piston movement. Excess oil is
returned through ring openings to the oil reservoir in the engine block.

The connecting link or arm between the Piston and the Crankshaft. It converts the
up-and-down (Reciprocating) motion of the piston into the circular (rotary) motion of
the spinning Crankshaft. Often called con rod. It is an element which provides
connection between the piston and the crankshaft. It is made by drop forging
process, from the steel or duralumin. A lighter rod produces less vibration and
regulates power efficiently. Its usual length is kept twice the stroke.
Its small end which is connected to the piston may be of solid eye, split eye or
slotted type. The big end which is connected to the crankcase pin split type and h
as a separate cap. The cap is secured to the body of the rod by means of two or four
big end bolts. In some of the connecting rods, through hole or holes at the ends are
provided for lubricating process.

The detachable metal (Aluminum or iron) plate or cap that is bolted to the top of the
Cylinder block. It is used to Cover the tops of the cylinders, in many cases the
cylinder head contains the valves, it also forms part of the Combustion chamber. It
has water and oil passages for cooling and lubrication. It also holds the Spark plugs.
On most engines a Valve cover or Rocker arm cover is located on top of the cylinder
head. Some engines have just one cylinder head covering several cylinders, while
others have separate heads for each cylinder. In some Motorcycle engines and small
engines, the cylinder head is not detachable -- it is Cast with the cylinder which
forms a blind hole.

A metal, split ring installed in the Groove on the outside wall of the Piston. The ring
contacts the sides of the Ring groove and also rubs against the Cylinder wall thus
sealing the space between the piston and the wall. Poor rings can cause poor
Compression and severe Blowby. Often seen as blue smoke out the Exhaust pipe.
Functions of Piston rings:
Following are the main functions of Piston rings:

1.

To prevent the leakage of the compressed and expanding cases above the
piston into the crankcase.

2.

To control and provide the lubricating oil between the piston skirt and cylinder
walls.

3.

To prevent the entry of the lubricating oil from crank case to the combusion
chamber above the piston head.

4.

To scrap out the unnecessary and excessive lubricating oil from cylinder
walls.

5.

To prevent the deposit of carbon and other matters on the piston head
caused by burning of lubricant.

6.

To provide easy transmission of heat from piston to cylinder walls

7.

To balance the side tilting of the piston and to save its life to a certain limit

Piston ring Material:

A ring should have excellent heat, wear resisting and elastic qualities. Therefore fine
grained alloy cost iron has proved superior to any other material used for this
purpose. Rings of alloy steel with chromium or hard material plating have also been
used but they have not given the results upto the mark.
Types of piston rings:
A piston ring consists of a set of rings. There may be two, three or four numbers of
rings in a set. there are
(a)Compression or Gas rings
(b)Oil Regulated rings
(c) Spring expander piston rings

Crankshaft

Crankshaft is a main rotating shaft running the length of the engine. The crankshaft
is supported by Main bearings. Portions of the shaft are offset to form throws to
which the Connecting rods are attached. As the Pistons move up and down, the
Connecting rods move the crankshaft around. The turning motion of the crankshaft
is transmitted to the Transmission and eventually to the driving wheels..

The main parts of the crankshaft are crank pins, main journals, balance weights,
webs and flywheel flange. It also contains oil passages for lubrication purposes as
shown in the figure. It carries a starting pulley at the front and a flywheel at the rear
end. The crankshaft may be of single piece as well as built up type. In case of built
up type, pins and journals are bolted to the crank arms. The number of journals and
the positions of the pins in different planes depend upon the number of engine
cylinders and their arrangements. The material used for the crankshaft is generated
described as copper chromium with high carbon and some silicon. A thrust collar
provided on one of the main bearings so as to sustain the axial loads along the axis
of the crankshaft.

Belt &Pulley
A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to
a belt. This allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted
across axes and, if the pulleys are of differing diameters, a mechanical
advantage to be realized.
A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive, however a belt sheave may
be smooth (devoid of discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain
sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt) so that the mechanical advantage is given by
the ratio of the pitch diameter of the sheaves only (one is not able to count 'teeth'
to determine gear ratio).

Belt Drives
We supply belt drives for use as positive-locking or force-locking drive components.
An example of a well-known force-locking drive component is a V-belt and an
example of a positive-locking one is a timing belt.
Main characteristics of belt drives
Force-locking belt drives
Force-locking belt drives are characterised by the simple construction of the

entire belt transmission. Most drives work without the need for further drive
components such as couplings or torque limiters;
Belt drives offer a wide scope of application in terms of the power that can be

transmitted and reliable rotational speeds;

Belt drives require minimal maintenance and do not require lubrication;
Belt drives are easy to install;

 A maximum transmission ratio of up to 1:12 is possible. With ribbed belts,

ratios of up to 1:35 can be reached;

Unlike gear pairs, belt drives with two pulleys have the same sense of

rotation;
Multiple shaft drives, whether they have the same or opposite directions of

movement, can be dismantled cheaply and easily;

The power train is highly flexible thanks to the elasticity of the belts and the

force-locking transmission of the drive force. Flexible couplings are usually

unnecessary!
Positive-locking belt drives
Positive-locking, non-slip power transmission;
Thanks to the lack of slippage, transmission ratios are constant;
Generally speaking, belt drives require minimal maintenance and do not

require lubrication;
Transmission ratios of up to 1:10 are possible;
Power transmission without pre-stressing force and without additional load on

the bearing;
The lowest of circumferential speeds can be achieved with ease;
Simple design of entire belt transmission. Most drives work without the need

for further drive components such as couplings;

Unlike with gear pairs, the sense of rotation remains the same when belt

drives with two pulleys are used;

Multiple shaft drives, whether they have the same or opposite directions of

movement, can be dismantled cheaply and easily;

High circumferential speeds of up to 80 m/s as well as rotational speeds of up

to 20000 rpm are possible;

The power train is flexible thanks to the elasticity of the belts and the

spreading of the load over all the engaged teeth. Flexible couplings are
usually unnecessary!
An efficiency factor of up to 98% is possible.

Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may
not be axially aligned. Power transmission is achieved by specially designed
belts and pulleys. The demands on a belt drive transmission system are large
and this has led to many variations on the theme. They run smoothly and
with little noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes, albeit
with less strength than gears or chains. However, improvements in belt

engineering allow use of belts in systems that only formerly allowed chains or
gears.
Power transmitted between a belt and a pulley is expressed as the product of
difference of tension and belt velocity: [1]
where, T1 and T2 are tensions in the tight side and slack side of the belt
respectively. They are related as:

where, is the coefficient of friction, and is the angle subtended by contact

surface at the centre of the pulley.

Flat belts

The drive belt: used to transfer power from the engine's flywheel. Here shown
driving a threshing machine.
Flat belts were used early in line shafting to transmit power in factories.[2] They were
also used in countless farming, mining, and logging applications, such as bucksaws,
sawmills, threshers, silo blowers, conveyors for filling corn cribs or haylofts, balers,
water pumps (for wells, mines, or swampy farm fields), and electrical generators.
The flat belt is a simple system of power transmission that was well suited for its
day. It delivered high power for high speeds (500 hp for 10,000 ft/min), in cases of
wide belts and large pulleys. These drives are bulky, requiring high tension leading
to high loads, so vee belts have mainly replaced the flat-belts except when high
speed is needed over power. The Industrial Revolution soon demanded more from
the system, and flat belt pulleys needed to be carefully aligned to prevent the belt
from slipping off. Because flat belts tend to climb towards the higher side of the
pulley, pulleys were made with a slightly convex or "crowned" surface (rather than
flat) to keep the belts centered. Flat belts also tend to slip on the pulley face when
heavy loads are applied and many proprietary dressings were available that could
be applied to the belts to increase friction, and so power transmission. Grip was
better if the belt was assembled with the hair (i.e. outer) side of the leather against
the pulley although belts were also often given a half-twist before joining the ends

(forming a Mbius strip), so that wear was evenly distributed on both sides of the
belt (DB). Belts were joined by lacing the ends together with leather thonging, [3][4] or
later by steel comb fasteners.[5] A good modern use for a flat belt is with smaller
pulleys and large central distances. They can connect inside and outside pulleys,
and can come in both endless and jointed construction.
Round belts
Round belts are a circular cross section belt designed to run in a pulley with a 60
degree V-groove. Round grooves are only suitable for idler pulleys that guide the
belt, or when (soft) O-ring type belts are used. The V-groove transmits torque
through a wedging action, thus increasing friction. Nevertheless, round belts are for
use in relatively low torque situations only and may be purchased in various lengths
or cut to length and joined, either by a staple, a metallic connector (in the case of
hollow plastic), glueing or welding (in the case of polyurethane). Early sewing
machines utilized a leather belt, joined either by a metal staple or glued, to great
effect.
[edit] Vee belts

Belts on a Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine.

A multiple-V-belt drive on an air compressor.

Vee belts (also known as V-belt or wedge rope) solved the slippage and alignment
problem. It is now the basic belt for power transmission. They provide the best
combination of traction, speed of movement, load of the bearings, and long service
life. The V-belt was developed in 1917 by John Gates of the Gates Rubber Company.
They are generally endless, and their general cross-section shape is trapezoidal.
The "V" shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove in the pulley (or sheave), with
the result that the belt cannot slip off. The belt also tends to wedge into the groove
as the load increases the greater the load, the greater the wedging action
improving torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution, needing
less width and tension than flat belts. V-belts trump flat belts with their small center
distances and high reduction ratios. The preferred center distance is larger than the
largest pulley diameter, but less than three times the sum of both pulleys. Optimal
speed range is 10007000 ft/min. V-belts need larger pulleys for their larger
thickness than flat belts. They can be supplied at various fixed lengths or as a
segmented section, where the segments are linked (spliced) to form a belt of the
required length. For high-power requirements, two or more vee belts can be joined
side-by-side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on matching multi-groove
sheaves. The strength of these belts is obtained by reinforcements with fibers like
steel, polyester or aramid (e.g. Twaron or Kevlar). This is known as a multiple-V-belt
drive (or sometimes a "classical V-belt drive"). When an endless belt does not fit the
need, jointed and link V-belts may be employed. However they are weaker and only
usable at speeds up to 4000 ft/min. A link v-belt is a number of rubberized fabric
links held together by metal fasteners. They are length adjustable by disassembling
and removing links when needed.

Multi-groove belts
A multi-groove or polygroove belt[6] is made up of usually 5 or 6 "V" shapes along
side each other. This gives a thinner belt for the same drive surface, thus it is more
flexible, although often wider. The added flexibility offers an improved efficiency, as
less energy is wasted in the internal friction of continually bending the belt. In
practice this gain of efficiency causes a reduced heating effect on the belt and a
cooler-running belt lasts longer in service.
A further advantage of the polygroove belt, and the reason they have become so
popular, stems from the ability for them to be run over pulleys on the ungrooved
back of the belt. Although this is sometimes done with Vee belts with a single idler
pulley for tensioning, a polygroove belt may be wrapped around a pulley on its back
tightly enough to change its direction, or even to provide a light driving force. [7]
Any Vee belt's ability to drive pulleys depends on wrapping the belt around a
sufficient angle of the pulley to provide grip. Where a single-Vee belt is limited to a
simple convex shape, it can adequately wrap at most three or possibly four pulleys,
so can drive at most three accessories. Where more must be driven, such as for
modern cars with power steering and air conditioning, multiple belts are required.
As the polygroove belt can be bent into concave paths by external idlers, it can
wrap any number of driven pulleys, limited only by the power capacity of the belt. [7]
This ability to bend the belt at the designer's whim allows it to take a complex or
"serpentine" path. This can assist the design of a compact engine layout, where the
accessories are mounted more closely to the engine block and without the need to
provide movable tensioning adjustments. The entire belt may be tensioned by a
single idler pulley.
Ribbed belt
A ribbed belt is a power transmission belt featuring lengthwise grooves. It operates
from contact between the ribs of the belt and the grooves in the pulley. Its singlepiece structure is reported to offer an even distribution of tension across the width
of the pulley where the belt is in contact, a power range up to 600 kW, a high speed
ratio, serpentine drives (possibility to drive off the back of the belt), long life,
stability and homogeneity of the drive tension, and reduced vibration. The ribbed
belt may be fitted on various applications : compressors, fitness bikes, agricultural
machinery, food mixers, washing machines, lawn mowers, etc.
Film belts
Though often grouped with flat belts, they are actually a different kind. They consist
of a very thin belt (0.5-15 millimeters or 100-4000 micrometres) strip of plastic and
occasionally rubber. They are generally intended for low-power (10 hp or 7 kW),

high-speed uses, allowing high efficiency (up to 98%) and long life. These are seen
in business machines, printers, tape recorders, and other light-duty operations.
Timing belts

Timing belt

Belt-drive cog on a belt-driven bicycle

Timing belts, (also known as toothed, notch, cog, or synchronous belts) are a
positive transfer belt and can track relative movement. These belts have teeth that
fit into a matching toothed pulley. When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage,
run at constant speed, and are often used to transfer direct motion for indexing or
timing purposes (hence their name). They are often used in lieu of chains or gears,
so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is not necessary. Camshafts of
automobiles, miniature timing systems, and stepper motors often utilize these belts.
Timing belts need the least tension of all belts, and are among the most efficient.
They can bear up to 200 hp (150 kW) at speeds of 16,000 ft/min.

Timing belts with a helical offset tooth design are available. The helical offset tooth
design forms a chevron pattern and causes the teeth to engage progressively. The
chevron pattern design is self-aligning. The chevron pattern design does not make
the noise that some timing belts make at certain speeds, and is more efficient at
transferring power (up to 98%).
Disadvantages include a relatively high purchase cost, the need for specially
fabricated toothed pulleys, less protection from overloading and jamming, and the
lack of clutch action.
Specialty belts
Belts normally transmit power on the tension side of the loop. However, designs for
continuously variable transmissions exist that use belts that are a series of solid
metal blocks, linked together as in a chain, transmitting power on the compression
side of the loop.
Belt tension
Power transmission is a function of belt tension. However, also increasing with
tension is stress (load) on the belt and bearings. The ideal belt is that of the lowest
tension which does not slip in high loads. Belt tensions should also be adjusted to
belt type, size, speed, and pulley diameters. Belt tension is determined by
measuring the force to deflect the belt a given distance per inch of pulley. Timing
belts need only adequate tension to keep the belt in contact with the pulley.
Rope

Coils of rope used for long-line fishing

A rope is a length of fibres twisted or braided together to improve their neatness
and usability. Ropes have tensile strength and so can be used for dragging and
lifting, but are far too flexible to provide compressive strength. As a result, they
cannot be used for pushing or similar compressive applications. Rope is thicker and
stronger than similarly constructed cord, line, string, and twine.

Why use a chain drive?

Chain drives have characteristics which, in certain applications, are more favourable
than belt drives or gear drives for providing power transmission between two or
more shafts. Their major advantage over V-belt drives is that there is no-slip. A Vbelt can slip over the pulleys and hence a constant drive speed is not assured. The
positive action of the tooth and sprocket in a chain drive means that chain drive
assemblies will be more compact than belt drive assemblies.
Chain drives are often preferred to geared drives because they have less rigorous
design requirements. For example shaft alignment is less critical for a chain drive.
Often the centre distance between shafts is too long for geared drives so a chain
drive is used.
Types of Power Transmission Chain:
The most common form of chain drive is the roller chain drive found in applications
such as the push-bike, motor bike and car timing chain. Another common form is
the inverted tooth or silent chain. For specific information on transmission chains
refer to the MECHANICAL DESIGN DATA MANUAL.
Design requirements.
The most favourable position for a chain drive is with the sprocket centre lines in
the same horizontal plane or inclined at an angle up to 60 degrees. Vertical drives
should be avoided. Ideally the centre distance between sprockets should be
between 30 and 50 times the chain pitch.
30xPitch(P) * Distance between shaft centres (C) * 50xP
Chain drives are designed with centre to centre adjustment.
Wherever possible sprockets should have more than 17 teeth. This is because the
chain forms a polygon (not a circle) around the sprocket. If low teeth numbers are
used a cyclic drive speed variation will occur which is called cordal speed variation.
If this speed variation is not critical to design specification of the equipment then
lower teeth numbers may be used at low drive speeds (say less than 3 m/sec). At
higher speeds cordal speed variation will cause excessive sprocket wear. Sprockets

with 17 to 25 teeth running at speeds greater than 3 m/sec should be heat treated
to give a tough, wear-resistant surface with a Rockwell 'C' hardness 35 to 45.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
This design procedure complies with BS 228: 1970.
Chain drive design is done by following this procedure and referring to the DESIGN
DATA MANUAL page 77.
1. Calculate the drive ratio R
(velocity ratio) given the input
RPM and output RPM.

2. Select sprocket tooth numbers. In order to reduce costs standard sprockets are
used - (Chart 1 p77).
3. Determine the Service (selection) factor. The service factor takes into
consideration the conditions under which the chain drive will be working. Shock
loads created by the driving machinery and driven load require more robust design.
Using Chart 2 in the DESIGN DATA MANUAL determine the type (class) of the driven
machinery, then choose the correct column for the driving machinery and
determine the selection factor for the number of teeth on the smaller sprocket.
4. Calculate the Design (selection) power.

5. Select chain size from the power rating chart. The design power rating for
simplex, duplex and triplex chains are shown in the three columns on the left hand
side of the chart. Wherever possible simplex chains are used. The design power on
the vertical axis is referenced with the speed of the smaller sprocket on the
horizontal axis to obtain a chain size and lubrication requirements.

6. Check the maximum sprocket bores against the required shaft diameters if
known. List or tabulate details of stock numbers for chain, sprockets and bushes.
7. Determine a suitable centre distance if not given. As mentioned a centre
distance 30 to 50 times the chain pitch is recommended.
8. Determine the length of chain in number of pitches.
Round off answer to an even number of pitches.

As the chain must be made up of an even number of pitches, the actual centre
distance must be redetermined so that it corresponds to the chain length
calculated above.
9. Calculate the actual centre distance CA.

10. Determine the sprocket pitch diameters and other dimensions as required.
PCDsprocket = number of teeth in sprocket * PCD factor
or

WORKED EXAMPLE
Select a suitable chain drive to transmit 2.5kW from a geared electric motor running
at 200RPM to a rotary kiln running at 80RPM. Assume moderate (medium
impulsive) shock loads. Using a centre distance which is twice the pitch diameter of
the wheel sprocket, determine:

(a) the length of the chain in pitches,

(b) the actual centre distance.
Data:
Power transmitted (P) = 2.5kW
Prime mover - geared electric motor; RPM=200
Driven machine - rotary kiln (medium impulsive load); RPM=80
'Anticipated' centre distance (C) = 2*PCDwheel sprocket
Solution:
1. Calculate the drive ratio.

2. Select sprocket tooth numbers.

n=number of teeth in pinion
N=number of teeth in wheel (driven)
N=R*n
n

17

19

20

21

23

42.5

47.5

50

52.5

57.5

The first available combination is:

n=23,N=57
Exact Drive Ratio (R) =57/23= 2.478 which is within 1% of desired ratio
3. Determine the service factor.
Using the table on Chart 2; n=23
Medium impulsive load (class 2)
Steady electric motor input
Service factor=1.03
4. Calculate the design power.
P=Theoretical power*service factor
P=2.5kW*1.03
P=2.575kW

5. Select chain size.

Refer chart 19T pinions
Chain: simplex;RPM=200;P=2.575kW.
Chain can be:
15.875mm pitch, manual lubrication
19.05mm pitch, drip lubrication
6. List catalogue information.
Chain;Choose 5/8" (15.875mm)
lubrication: Class 1 (manual)
Reynold chain No 110056.
Pinion;n=23
Number with Plain bore: 213015
(14mm stock, 55mm max)
Number with taper bore 213015/9
(Bush No TB1610)
PCD=116.59mm
Wheel:N=57
Number with Plain bore: 213042
(24mm stock, 50mm max)
Number with taper bore: 213043/9
(Bush No TB2012)
7. Determine centre distance.
Given: C = 2*PCDwheel
= 2*288.19
= 576mm
8. Length of chain in pitches.

9. Actual centre distance (CA).

Gear Design

Gears have been around for hundreds of years and are as old as almost any
machinery ever invented by mankind. Gears were first used in various construction
jobs, water raising devices and for weapons like catapults.
Nowadays gears are used on a daily basis and can be found in most peoples
everyday life from clocks to cars rolling mills to marine engines. Gears are the most
common means of transmitting power in mechanical engineering.
Gears are used in almost all mechanical devices and they do several important jobs,
but most important, they provide a gear reduction. This is vital to ensure that even
though there is enough power there is also enough torque(is a movement of force).

Spur Gears
Spur gears are the most common type of gear they have straight teeth and are
mounted on parallel shafts. The main reason for the popularity of spur gears is their
simplicity in design, easy manufacturer and maintenance. However due to their
design spur gears create large stress on the gear teeth.
Spur gears are known as slow speed gears. Spur gears are seen as noisy due to
their design so if noise is not a problem spur gears can be used at almost any
speed. Spur gears are noisy because every time a gear tooth engages a tooth on
the other gear, the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise.
Spur gears can be found in applications like washing machines and electric
screwdrivers but due to the noise you will never find them in your car.

The notes below relate to spur gears. Notes specific to helical

gears are included on a separate pageHelical Gears
Introduction
Gears are machine elements used to transmit rotary motion
between two shafts, normally with a constant ratio. The pinion is
the smallest gear and the larger gear is called the gear wheel.. A
rack is a rectangular prism with gear teeth machined along one
side- it is in effect a gear wheel with an infinite pitch circle
diameter. In practice the action of gears in transmitting motion is a
cam action each pair of mating teeth acting as cams. Gear design
has evolved to such a level that throughout the motion of each
contacting pair of teeth the velocity ratio of the gears is maintained
fixed and the velocity ratio is still fixed as each subsequent pair of
teeth come into contact. When the teeth action is such that the
driving tooth moving at constant angular velocity produces a
proportional constant velocity of the driven tooth the action is
termed a conjugate action. The teeth shape universally selected
for the gear teeth is the involute profile.
Consider one end of a piece of string is fastened to the OD of one
cylinder and the other end of the string is fastened to the OD of
another cylinder parallel to the first and both cylinders are rotated in
the opposite directions to tension the string(see figure below). The
point on the string midway between the cylinder P is marked. As
the left hand cylinder rotates CCW the point moves towards this
cylinder as it wraps on . The point moves away from the right hand
cylinder as the string unwraps. The point traces the involute form of
the gear teeth.

The lines normal to the point of contact of the gears always

intersects the centre line joining the gear centres at one point called
the pitch point. For each gear the circle passing through the pitch
point is called the pitch circle. The gear ratio is proportional to the
diameters of the two pitch circles. For metric gears (as adopted by

most of the worlds nations) the gear proportions are based on the
module.
m = (Pitch Circle Diameter(mm)) / (Number of teeth on gear).
In the USA the module is not used and instead the Diametric Pitch d
pis used
d

= (Number of Teeth) / Diametrical Pitch (inches)

Profile of a standard 1mm module gear teeth for a gear with Infinite radius
(Rack ).
Other module teeth profiles are directly proportion . e.g. 2mm module teeth are
2 x this profile

Many gears trains are very low power applications with an object of
transmitting motion with minium torque e.g. watch and clock
mechanisms, instruments, toys, music boxes etc. These applications
do not require detailed strength calculations.

Standards

AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating factors

and Calculation Methods for involute Spur Gear and Helical Gear
Teeth

BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears.

Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to

corresponding flanks of gear teeth

BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears.

Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to radial
composite deviations and runout information

BS ISO 6336-1:1996 ..Calculation of load capacity of spur and

helical gears. Basic principles, introduction and general influence
factors

BS ISO 6336-2:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and

helical gears. Calculation of surface durability (pitting)

BS ISO 6336-3:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and

helical gears. Calculation of tooth bending strength

BS ISO 6336-5:2003..Calculation of load capacity of spur and

helical gears. Strength and quality of materials

If it is necessary to design a gearbox from scratch the design

process in selecting the gear size is not complicated - the various
design formulea have all been developed over time and are
available in the relevant standards. However significant effort,
judgement and expertise is required in designing the whole system
including the gears, shafts , bearings, gearbox, lubrication. For the
same duty many different gear options are available for the type of
gear , the materials and the quality. It is always preferable to
procure gearboxes from specialised gearbox manufacturers

Terminology - spur gears

Diametral pitch (d p )...... The number of teeth

per one inch of pitch circle diameter.

Module. (m) ...... The length, in mm, of the pitch

circle diameter per tooth.

Circular pitch (p)...... The distance between

adjacent teeth measured along the are at the
pitch circle diameter

Addendum ( h

)...... The height of the tooth

above the pitch circle diameter.

Centre distance (a)...... The distance between

the axes of two gears in mesh.

Circular tooth thickness (ctt)...... The width of a

tooth measured along the are at the pitch circle
diameter.

Dedendum ( h f )...... The depth of the tooth

below the pitch circle diameter.

Outside diameter ( D o )...... The outside

diameter of the gear.

Base Circle diameter ( D b ) ...... The diameter on

which the involute teeth profile is based.

Pitch circle dia ( p ) ...... The diameter of the

pitch circle.

Pitch point...... The point at which the pitch circle

diameters of two gears in mesh coincide.

Pitch to back...... The distance on a rack

between the pitch circle diameter line and the
rear face of the rack.

Pressure angle ...... The angle between the tooth

profile at the pitch circle diameter and a radial
line passing through the same point.

Whole depth...... The total depth of the space

between adjacent teeth.

Spur Gear Design

The spur gear is is simplest type of gear manufactured and is
generally used for transmission of rotary motion between parallel
shafts. The spur gear is the first choice option for gears except
when high speeds, loads, and ratios direct towards other
options. Other gear types may also be preferred to provide more
silent low-vibration operation. A single spur gear is generally
selected to have a ratio range of between 1:1 and 1:6 with a pitch
line velocity up to 25 m/s. The spur gear has an operating efficiency
of 98-99%. The pinion is made from a harder material than the
wheel. A gear pair should be selected to have the highest number
of teeth consistent with a suitable safety margin in strength and
wear. The minimum number of teeth on a gear with a normal
pressure angle of 20 desgrees is 18.

The preferred number of teeth are as follows

12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25 28 30
32 34 38 40 45 50 54 60
64 70 72 75 80 84 90 96 100 120 140
150 180 200 220 250

Materials used for gears

Mild steel is a poor material for gears as as it has poor resistance to
surface loading. The carbon content for unhardened gears is
generally 0.4%(min) with 0.55%(min) carbon for the
pinions. Dissimilar materials should be used for the meshing gears this particularly applies to alloy steels. Alloy steels have superior
fatigue properties compared to carbon steels for comparable
strengths. For extremely high gear loading case hardened steels
are used the surface hardening method employed should be such to
provide sufficient case depth for the final grinding process used.

Material

Notes

applications

Ferrous metals
Cast Iron

Low Cost easy to

machine with high
damping

Large moderate
power,
commercial
gears

Cast Steels

Low cost, reasonable

strength

Power gears with

medium rating
to commercial
quality

Plain-Carbon Steels

Good machining, can

be heat treated

Power gears with

medium rating
to
commercial/med
ium quality

Alloy Steels

Highest power
Heat Treatable to
requirement. For
provide highest
precision and
strength and durability
high precisiont

Good corrosion
Stainless Steels (Aust) resistance. Nonmagnetic

Corrosion
resistance with
low power
ratings. Up to
precision quality

Low to medium
Hardenable,
power ratings Up
Stainless Steels (Mart) Reasonable corrosion
to high precision
resistance, magnetic
levels of quality
Non-Ferrous metals
Light weight, noncorrosive and good
machinability

Light duty
instrument gears
up to high
precision quality

Brass alloys

Low cost, noncorrosive, excellent

machinability

low cost
commercial
quality gears.
Quality up to
medium
precision

Bronze alloys

Excellent
machinability, low
friction and good
compatability with
steel

For use with

steel power
gears. Quality up
to high precision

Magnesium alloys

Ligh weight low

load gears.
Light weight with poor
Quality up to
corrosion resistance
medium
precision

Nickel alloys

Low coefficient of
thermal expansion.
Poor machinability

Titanium alloys

Special light
High strength, for low weight high
weight, good corrosion strength gears
resistance
to medium
precision

Di-cast alloys

High production,
Low cost with low
low quality gears
precision and strength to commercial
quality

Aluminium alloys

Special gears for

thermal
applications to
commercial
quality

Sintered powder alloys Low cost, low quality, High production,

moderate strength

low quality to
moderate
commercial
quality

Non metals
Long life , low
load bearings to
commercial
quality

Acetal (Delrin

Wear resistant, low

water absorbtion

Phenolic laminates

High production,
low quality to
Low cost, low quality,
moderate
moderate strength
commercial
quality

Nylons

No lubrication, no
lubricant, absorbs
water

Long life at low

loads to
commercial
quality

Low friction and no

lubrication

Special low
friction gears to
commercial
quality

PTFE

Equations for basic gear relationships

It is acceptable to marginally modify these relationships e.g to
modify the addendum /dedendum to allow Centre Distance
adjustments. Any changes modifications will affect the gear
performance in good and bad ways...

Addendum
Base Circle
diameter
Centre distance
Circular pitch
Circular tooth
thickness
Dedendum
Module
Number of teeth
Outside diameter

h a = m = 0.3183 p
Db = d.cos
a = ( d g + d p) / 2
p = m.
ctt = p/2
h f = h - a = 1,25m = 0,3979 p
m = d /z
z=d/m
D o = (z + 2) x m

Pitch circle
d = z . m ... (d
diameter
Whole depth(min) h = 2.25 . m
Top land width(min) t o = 0,25 . m

= gear & d

= pinion )

Module (m)
The module is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of
teeth. The unit of the module is milli-metres.Below is a diagram
showing the relative size of teeth machined in a rack with module
ranging from module values of 0,5 mm to 6 mm

The preferred module values are

0,5

0,8

1,25

1,5

2,5
25

3
32

4
5
6
40
50

10 12

16

20

Normal Pressure angle

An important variable affecting the geometry of the gear teeth is
the normal pressure angle. This is generally standardised at
20o. Other pressure angles should be used only for special reasons
and using considered judgment. The following changes result from
increasing the pressure angle

Reduction in the danger of undercutting and interference

Reduction of slipping speeds

Increased loading capacity in contact, seizure and wear

Increased rigidity of the toothing

Increased noise and radial forces

Gears required to have low noise levels have pressure angles 15 o

to17.5o

Contact Ratio
The gear design is such that when in mesh the rotating gears have
more than one gear in contact and transferring the torque for some
of the time. This property is called the contact ratio. This is a ratio
of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch. The higher the
contact ratio the more the load is shared between teeth. It is good
practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under no
circumstances should the ratio drop below 1.1.
A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two
pairs of teeth are in contact and during the remaining time one pair
is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth
are always in contact. Such as high contact ratio generally is not
obtained with external spur gears, but can be developed in the
meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair or specially
designed non-standard external spur gears.
(Rgo2 - Rgb2 )1/2 + (Rpo2 - Rpb2 )1/2 - a sin
contact ratio m =
p cos
R go = D go / 2..Radius of Outside Dia of Gear
R gb = D gb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Gear
R po = D po / 2..Radius of Outside Dia of Pinion
R pb = D pb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Pinion
p = circular pitch.
a = ( d g+ d p )/2 = center distance.

Spur gear Forces, torques, velocities & Powers

F = tooth force between contacting teeth (at angle

pressure angle to pitch line tangent. (N)

F t = tangential component of tooth force (N)

F s = Separating component of tooth force

= Pressure angle

= Pitch Circle Dia -driving gear (m)

= Pitch Circle Dia -driven gear (m)

= Angular velocity of driver gear (Rads/s)

= Angular velocity of driven gear (Rads/s)

= Number of teeth on driver gear

= Number of teeth on driven gear

P = power transmitted (Watts)

M = torque (Nm)

= efficiency

Tangential force on gears F t = F cos

Separating force on gears F s = F t tan
Torque on driver gear T

=Ftd

/2

Torque on driver gear T

=Ftd

/2

Speed Ratio = 1 /
Input Power P

Output Power P

=d

= T1 .
2

=.T

/d

=z

/z

Spur gear Strength and durability calculations

Designing spur gears is normally done in accordance with standards
the two most popular series are listed under standards above:
The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating gear
strengths. The methods are really only useful for first
approximations and/or selection of stock gears (ref links below).
Detailed design of spur and helical gears is best completed using
the standards. Books are available providing the necessary
guidance. Software is also available making the process very
easy. A very reasonably priced and easy to use package is included
in the links below (Mitcalc.com)
The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required
torque for the desired operating life is completed by determining the
strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the durability i.e of
the teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The
equations below are based on methods used by Buckingham..

Bending
The basic bending stress for gear teeth is obtained by using the
Lewis formula
= Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

F t = Tangential force on tooth

= Tooth Bending stress (MPa)

b a = Face width (mm)

Y = Lewis Form Factor

m = Module (mm)
Note: The Lewis formula is often expressed as

 = Ft / ( ba. p. y )
Where y = Y/ and p = circular pitch
When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with
some degree of impact. To allow for this a velocity factor ( Kv ) is
introduced into the equation. This is given by the Barth equation...
V = the pitch line velocity = d./2 (m/s)

The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows

= K v.Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

Surface Durability
This calculation involves determining the contact stress
between the gear teeth and uses the Herz Formula

= 2.F / ( .b .l )

w = largest surface pressure

F = force pressing the two cylinders (gears) together
l = length of the cylinders (gear)
b = halfwidth =

,d

Are the diameters for the two contacting cylinders.

 1, 2 Poisson ratio for the two gear materials

E 1 ,E 2 Are the Young's Modulus Values for the two gears
To arrive at the formula used for gear calculations the following
changes are made
F is replaced by F t/ cos
d is replaced by 2.r
l is replaced by W
The velocity factor K v as described above is introduced.
Also an elastic constant Z E is created

When the value of E used is in MPa then the units of C p are

MPa = KPa The resulting formula for the compressive stress
developed is as shown below

The dynamic contact stress c developed by the transmitted

torque must be less than the allowable contact stress S e...
Note: Values for Allowable stress values Se and ZE for some
materials are provided at Gear Table
r1 = d1 sin /2
r2 = d2 sin /2
Important Note: The above equations do not take into
account the various factors which are integral to
calculations completed using the relevant standards.
These equations therefore yield results suitable for first
estimate design purposes only...
Design Process
To select gears from a stock gear catalogue or do a first approximation for a
gear design select the gear material and obtain a safe working stress e.g Yield
stress / Factor of Safety. /Safe fatigue stress

Determine the input speed, output speed, ratio, torque to be transmitted

Select materials for the gears (pinion is more highly loaded than gear)

Determine safe working stresses (uts /factor of safety or yield

stress/factor of safety or Fatigue strength / Factor of safety )

Determine Allowable endurance Stress Se

Select a module value and determine the resulting geometry of the gear

Use the lewis formula and the endurance formula to establish the
resulting face width

If the gear proportions are reasonable then - proceed to more detailed

evaluations

If the resulting face width is excessive - change the module or material

or both and start again

The gear face width should be selected in the range 9-15 x module or for
straight spur gears-up to 60% of the pinion diameter.

Internal Gears
Advantages:
1. Geometry ideal for epicyclic gear design
2. Allows compact design since the center distance is less than for external
gears.
3. A high contact ratio is possible.
4. Good surface endurance due to a convex profile surface working against
a concave surface.
Disadvantages:
1. Housing and bearing supports are more complicated, because the
external gear nests within the internal gear.
2. Low ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of
interferences.

3. Fabrication is limited to the shaper generating process, and usually

special tooling is required.

Lewis form factor.

Table of lewis form factors for different tooth forms and pressure angles
No
Teet
h

Load at Near Middle

of Teeth

Load Near Tip of Teeth

14 1/2
deg

20 deg FD

20 deg
Stub

25 deg

14 1/2
deg

20 deg FD

10

0,17 0,05 0,20 0,06 0,26 0,08 0,23 0,07

6
6
1
4
1
3
8
6

11

0,19 0,06 0,22 0,07 0,28 0,09 0,25 0,08

2
1
6
2
9
2
9
2

12

0,21 0,06 0,24 0,07 0,31 0,09 0,27 0,08 0,35 0,11 0,41 0,13

13

0,22 0,07 0,26 0,08 0,32 0,10 0,29 0,09 0,37

0,44 0,14
0,12
3
1
4
4
4
3
3
3
7
3
1

14

0,23 0,07 0,27 0,08 0,33 0,10 0,30 0,09 0,39 0,12 0,46 0,14
6
5
6
8
9
8
7
8
9
7
8
9

15

0,24 0,07 0,28 0,09 0,34 0,11

0,10 0,41 0,13
0,15
0,32
0,49
5
8
9
2
9
1
2
5
2
6

16

0,25 0,08 0,29 0,09

0,11 0,33 0,10
0,13 0,50
0,36
0,43
0,16
5
1
5
4
5
2
6
7
3

17

0,26 0,08 0,30 0,09 0,36 0,11 0,34 0,10 0,44 0,14 0,51 0,16
4
4
2
6
8
7
2
9
6
2
2
3

18

0,27

19

0,27 0,08 0,31

0,1
7
8
4

20

0,28
0,10 0,39 0,12 0,36 0,11 0,48 0,15 0,54 0,17
0,09 0,32
3
2
3
5
9
7
1
3
4
3

21

0,28 0,09 0,32 0,10 0,39 0,12 0,37

0,15 0,55 0,17
0,12 0,49
9
2
6
4
9
7
7
6
3
6

22

0,29 0,09
0,10 0,40 0,12 0,38 0,12 0,49 0,15 0,55 0,17
0,33
2
3
5
4
9
4
2
6
8
9
8

23

0,29 0,09 0,33 0,10 0,40

0,39 0,12 0,50
0,56
0,13
0,16
0,18
6
4
3
6
8
0
4
2
5

24

0,30 0,09 0,33 0,10 0,41 0,13 0,39 0,12 0,50 0,16 0,57 0,18
2
6
7
7
1
1
6
6
9
2
2
2

25

0,30 0,09
0,10 0,41 0,13 0,40 0,12 0,51 0,16
0,18
0,34
0,58
5
7
8
6
2
2
8
5
4
5

26

0,30 0,09 0,34 0,10 0,42 0,13 0,40

0,52 0,16 0,58 0,18
0,13
8
8
4
9
1
4
7
2
6
4
6

27

0,31 0,09 0,34 0,11 0,42 0,13 0,41 0,13 0,52 0,16 0,58 0,18
1
9
8
1
6
6
2
1
8
8
8
7

28

0,31
0,1
4

29

0,31 0,10 0,35 0,11 0,43 0,13 0,42 0,13 0,53 0,17 0,59 0,19
6
1
5
3
4
8
1
4
7
1
9
1

30

0,31 0,10 0,35 0,11 0,43 0,13 0,42 0,13

0,17 0,60 0,19
0,54
8
1
8
4
7
9
5
5
2
6
3

0,08 0,30 0,09 0,37

0,35 0,11 0,45 0,14 0,52 0,16
0,12
6
8
8
7
2
2
9
6
2
6
0,38 0,12 0,36 0,11 0,47
0,53
0,15
0,17
6
3
1
5
1
4

0,35 0,11
0,13 0,41 0,13 0,53
0,59 0,18
0,43
0,17
2
2
7
7
3
4
2
8

0,10 0,36 0,11

0,42 0,13 0,55 0,17 0,61 0,19
0,44 0,14
1
1
5
9
7
4
6
1
4

31

0,32

32

0,32 0,10 0,36 0,11 0,44 0,14 0,43 0,13 0,54 0,17 0,61 0,19
2
1
4
6
3
1
3
8
7
4
7
6

33

0,32 0,10 0,36 0,11 0,44 0,14 0,43 0,13

0,17 0,62 0,19
0,55
4
3
7
7
5
2
6
9
5
3
8

34

0,32 0,10 0,37 0,11 0,44 0,14

0,55 0,17 0,62
0,44 0,14
0,2
6
4
1
8
7
2
3
6
8

35

0,32 0,10 0,37 0,11 0,44 0,14 0,44 0,14 0,55 0,17 0,63 0,20
7
4
3
9
9
3
3
1
6
7
3
1

36

0,32 0,10 0,37

0,45 0,14 0,44 0,14 0,55 0,17 0,63 0,20
0,12
9
5
7
1
4
6
2
9
8
9
3

37

0,33

38

0,33 0,10 0,38 0,12 0,45 0,14 0,45 0,14 0,56

0,20
0,18 0,65
3
6
4
2
5
5
2
4
5
7

39

0,33 0,10 0,38 0,12 0,45 0,14 0,45 0,14 0,56 0,18 0,65 0,20
5
7
6
3
7
5
4
5
8
1
5
8

40

0,33 0,10 0,38 0,12 0,45 0,14 0,45 0,14

0,18 0,65
0,57
0,21
6
7
9
4
9
6
7
5
1
9

43

0,33 0,10 0,39 0,12 0,46 0,14 0,46 0,14 0,57 0,18 0,66 0,21
9
8
7
6
7
9
4
8
4
3
8
3

45

0,34

50

0,34
0,40
0,47 0,15 0,47 0,15 0,58 0,18 0,69 0,22
0,11
0,13
6
8
4
1
7
2
8
7
4
1

55

0,35 0,11 0,41 0,13

0,15 0,48 0,15 0,59
0,70 0,22
0,48
0,19
2
2
5
2
3
4
4
6
4
4

60

0,35 0,11 0,42 0,13 0,48 0,15 0,49 0,15 0,60 0,19 0,71 0,22
5
3
1
4
4
4
1
6
3
2
3
7

65

0,35 0,11 0,42 0,13 0,48 0,15 0,49 0,15 0,60 0,19 0,72
0,23
8
4
5
5
8
5
6
8
7
3
1

70

0,36

75

0,36 0,11 0,43 0,13 0,49 0,15 0,50 0,16 0,61 0,19 0,73 0,23
1
5
3
8
6
8
6
1
3
5
5
4

80

0,36 0,11 0,43 0,13 0,49 0,15 0,50 0,16 0,61 0,19 0,73 0,23
3
6
6
9
9
9
9
2
5
6
9
5

0,10
0,12 0,45 0,14 0,44 0,14 0,56 0,17 0,64 0,20
0,38
5
1
4
5
9
3
3
9
5
5

0,10 0,39 0,12 0,46 0,14 0,46 0,14 0,57 0,18 0,67 0,21
8
9
7
8
9
8
9
9
4
8
6

0,11 0,42 0,13 0,49 0,15 0,50 0,15

0,19 0,72 0,23
0,61
5
9
7
3
7
1
9
4
8
2

90

0,36 0,11 0,44 0,14 0,50

0,51 0,16 0,61 0,19 0,74 0,23
0,16
6
7
2
1
3
6
4
9
7
7
8

100

0,36 0,11 0,44 0,14 0,50 0,16 0,52 0,16 0,62 0,19 0,75
0,24
8
7
6
2
6
1
1
6
2
8
5

150

0,37 0,11 0,45 0,14 0,51 0,16 0,53 0,17 0,63 0,20 0,77 0,24
5
9
8
6
8
5
7
1
5
2
8
8

200

0,37
0,46 0,14 0,52 0,16 0,54 0,17
0,20 0,78 0,25
0,12
0,64
8
3
7
4
7
5
3
4
7
1

300

0,38

0,12 0,47
0,53
0,55 0,17
0,20 0,80 0,25
0,15
0,17
0,65
2
1
4
4
6
7
1
5

Rack

0,39

0,12 0,48 0,15

0,17 0,56
0,82 0,26
0,55
0,18 0,66 0,21
4
4
4
5
6
3
2

Gears
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively
engaging teeth. The gear teeth act like small levers.
7.1 Gear Classification
Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of revolution.
The axes may be
1. parallel,
2. intersecting,
3. neither parallel nor intersecting.
Here is a brief list of the common forms. We will discuss each in more detail later.

Gears for connecting parallel shafts

Gears for connecting intersecting shafts

Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts

Gears for connecting parallel shafts

1. Spur gears

The left pair of gears makes external contact, and the right pair of gears
makes internal contact
2. Parallel helical gears

3. Herringbone gears (or double-helical gears)

4. Rack and pinion (The rack is like a gear whose axis is at infinity.)

Gears for connecting intersecting shafts

1. Straight bevel gears

2. Spiral bevel gears

Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts
1. Crossed-helical gears

2. Hypoid gears
3. Worm and wormgear

7.2 Gear-Tooth Action

7.2.1 Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth Action
Figure 7-2 shows two mating gear teeth, in which

Tooth profile 1 drives tooth profile 2 by acting at the instantaneous contact

point K.

N1N2 is the common normal of the two profiles.

N1 is the foot of the perpendicular from O1 to N1N2

N2 is the foot of the perpendicular from O2 to N1N2.

Figure 7-2 Two gearing tooth profiles

Although the two profiles have different velocities V1 and V2 at point K, their
velocities along N1N2 are equal in both magnitude and direction. Otherwise the two
tooth profiles would separate from each other. Therefore, we have

(7-1)
or

(7-2)
We notice that the intersection of the tangency N1N2 and the line of center O1O2 is
point P, and

(7-3)
Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the
driven gear, or velocity ratio, of a pair of mating teeth is

(7-4)
Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it is called the pitch point. Pitch
point divides the line between the line of centers and its position decides the
velocity ratio of the two teeth. The above expression is the fundamental law of
gear-tooth action.
7.2.2 Constant Velocity Ratio
For a constant velocity ratio, the position of P should remain unchanged. In this
case, the motion transmission between two gears is equivalent to the motion
transmission between two imagined slipless cylinders with radius R1 and R2 or
diameter D1 and D2. We can get two circles whose centers are at O1 and O2, and
through pitch point P. These two circle are termed pitch circles. The velocity ratio
is equal to the inverse ratio of the diameters of pitch circles. This is the fundamental
law of gear-tooth action.
The fundamental law of gear-tooth action may now also be stated as follow (for
gears with fixed center distance) (Ham 58):
The common normal to the tooth profiles at the point of contact must always pass
through a fixed point (the pitch point) on the line of centers (to get a constant
velocity ration).
7.2.3 Conjugate Profiles
To obtain the expected velocity ratio of two tooth profiles, the normal line of their
profiles must pass through the corresponding pitch point, which is decided by the
velocity ratio. The two profiles which satisfy this requirement are called conjugate

profiles. Sometimes, we simply termed the tooth profiles which satisfy the
fundamental law of gear-tooth action the conjugate profiles.
Although many tooth shapes are possible for which a mating tooth could be
designed to satisfy the fundamental law, only two are in general use: the cycloidal
and involute profiles. The involute has important advantages -- it is easy to
manufacture and the center distance between a pair of involute gears can be varied
without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances between shaft locations
are not required when using the involute profile. The most commonly used
conjugate tooth curve is the involute curve (Erdman & Sandor 84).
7.3 Involute Curve
The following examples are involute spur gears. We use the word involute because
the contour of gear teeth curves inward. Gears have many terminologies,
parameters and principles. One of the important concepts is the velocity ratio,
which is the ratio of the rotary velocity of the driver gear to that of the driven gears.

The SimDesign file for these gears is simdesign/gear15.30.sim. The number of teeth
in these gears are 15 and 30, respectively. If the 15-tooth gear is the driving gear
and the 30-teeth gear is the driven gear, their velocity ratio is 2.
Other examples of gears are in simdesign/gear10.30.sim and
simdesign/gear20.30.sim
7.3.1 Generation of the Involute Curve

Figure 7-3 Involute curve

The curve most commonly used for gear-tooth profiles is the involute of a circle.
This involute curve is the path traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without
slipping on the circumference of a circle. It may also be defined as a path traced by
the end of a string which is originally wrapped on a circle when the string is
unwrapped from the circle. The circle from which the involute is derived is called the
base circle.
In Figure 7-3, let line MN roll in the counterclockwise direction on the circumference
of a circle without slipping. When the line has reached the position M'N', its original
point of tangent A has reached the position K, having traced the involute curve AK
during the motion. As the motion continues, the point A will trace the involute curve
AKC.
7.3.2 Properties of Involute Curves
1. The distance BK is equal to the arc AB, because link MN rolls without slipping
on the circle.
2. For any instant, the instantaneous center of the motion of the line is its point
of tangent with the circle.
Note: We have not defined the term instantaneous center previously. The
instantaneous center or instant center is defined in two ways (Bradford &
Guillet 43):
1. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is a
point on one body about which the other rotates at the instant
considered.
2. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is the
point at which the bodies are relatively at rest at the instant
considered.
3. The normal at any point of an involute is tangent to the base circle. Because
of the property (2) of the involute curve, the motion of the point that is
tracing the involute is perpendicular to the line at any instant, and hence the
curve traced will also be perpendicular to the line at any instant.
4. There is no involute curve within the base circle.
7.4 Terminology for Spur Gears
Figure 7-4 shows some of the terms for gears.

Figure 7-4 Spur Gear

In the following section, we define many of the terms used in the analysis of spur
gears. Some of the terminology has been defined previously but we include them
here for completeness. (See (Ham 58) for more details.)

Pitch surface : The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that
the toothed gear may be considered to replace.

Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.

Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section
of the gear.

Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the
teeth, in a right section of the gear.

Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum
circle.

Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.

Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the
addendum of the mating gear.

Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch
surface.

Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.

Circular thickness (also called the tooth thickness) : The thickness of the
tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the
length of a straight line.

Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch
circle.

Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the
tooth space of the mating gear.

Circular pitch p: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch
circle.

Diametral pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch
diameter. A toothed gear must have an integral number of teeth. The circular
pitch, therefore, equals the pitch circumference divided by the number of
teeth. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided by
the pitch diameter. That is,

(7-5)
and

(7-6)
Hence

(7-7)
where
p = circular pitch
P = diametral pitch
N = number of teeth
D = pitch diameter
That is, the product of the diametral pitch and the circular pitch equals .

Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is

usually specified in inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is
the inverse of diametral pitch.

Fillet : The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.

Pinion: The smaller of any pair of mating gears. The larger of the pair is
called simply the gear.

Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or
input) gear to the number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a
unit of time.

Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating
gears.

Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.

Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point
of contact.

Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth
profiles.

Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of
tooth contact and the common tangent to the pitch circles. It is also the angle
between the line of action and the common tangent.

Base circle :An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the
involutes that form the tooth profiles.

Table 7-1 lists the standard tooth system for spur gears. (Shigley & Uicker 80)

Table 7-1 Standard tooth systems for spur gears

Table 7-2 lists the commonly used diametral pitches.

Coarse pitch

2.25

2.5

10

12

16

Fine pitch

20

24

32

40

48

64

96

120

150

200

Table 7-2 Commonly used diametral pitches

Instead of using the theoretical pitch circle as an index of tooth size, the base circle,
which is a more fundamental circle, can be used. The result is called the base pitch
pb, and it is related to the circular pitch p by the equation

(7-8)
7.5 Condition for Correct Meshing
Figure 7-5 shows two meshing gears contacting at point K1 and K2.

Figure 7-5 Two meshing gears

To get a correct meshing, the distance of K1K2 on gear 1 should be the same as the
distance of K1K2 on gear 2. As K1K2 on both gears are equal to the base pitch of their
gears, respectively. Hence

(7-9)
Since

(7-10)
and

(7-11)
Thus

(7-12)
To satisfy the above equation, the pair of meshing gears must satisfy the following
condition:

(7-13)
7.6 Ordinary Gear Trains
Gear trains consist of two or more gears for the purpose of transmitting motion
from one axis to another. Ordinary gear trains have axes, relative to the frame,
for all gears comprising the train. Figure 7-6a shows a simple ordinary train in
which there is only one gear for each axis. In Figure 7-6b a compound ordinary
train is seen to be one in which two or more gears may rotate about a single axis.

Figure 7-6 Ordinary gear trains

7.6.1 Velocity Ratio
We know that the velocity ratio of a pair of gears is the inverse proportion of the
diameters of their pitch circle, and the diameter of the pitch circle equals to the
number of teeth divided by the diametral pitch. Also, we know that it is necessary
for the to mating gears to have the same diametral pitch so that to satisfy the
condition of correct meshing. Thus, we infer that the velocity ratio of a pair of
gears is the inverse ratio of their number of teeth.
For the ordinary gear trains in Figure 7-6a, we have

(7-14)
These equations can be combined to give the velocity ratio of the first gear in the
train to the last gear:

Helical gears

Introduction
Helical gears are similar to spur gears except that the gears teeth
are at an angle with the axis of the gears. A helical gear is termed
right handed or left handed as determined by the direction the teeth
slope away from the viewer looking at the top gear surface along
the axis of the gear. ( Alternatively if a gear rests on its face the
hand is in the direction of the slope of the teeth) . Meshing helical
gears must be of opposite hand. Meshed helical gears can be at an
angle to each other (up to 90o ). The helical gear provides a
smoother mesh and can be operated at greater speeds than a
straight spur gear. In operatation helical gears generate axial shaft
forces in addition to the radial shaft force generated by normal spur
gears.
In operation the initial tooth contact of a helical gear is a point
which develops into a full line contact as the gear rotates. This is a
smoother cycle than a spur which has an initial line contact. Spur
gears are generally not run at peripheral speed of more than 10m/s.
Helical gears can be run at speed exceeding 50m/s when accurately
machined and balanced.
Standards ... The same standards apply to helical gears as for spur gears

AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating

factors and Calculation Methods for involute Spur Gear
and Helical Gear Teeth

BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears.

Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant
to corresponding flanks of gear teeth

BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears.

Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant
to radial composite deviations and runout information

BS ISO 6336-1:1996 ..Calculation of load capacity of spur

and helical gears. Basic principles, introduction and
general influence factors

BS ISO 6336-2:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur

and helical gears. Calculation of surface durability
(pitting)

BS ISO 6336-3:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur

and helical gears. Calculation of tooth bending strength

BS ISO 6336-5:2003..Calculation of load capacity of spur

and helical gears. Strength and quality of materials

Helical gear parameters

A helical gear train with parallel axes is very similar to a spur gear
with the same tooth profile and proportions. The primary difference
is that the teeth are machined at an angle to the gear axis.

Helix Angle ..
The helix angle of helical gears is generally selected from the
range 6,8,10,12,15,20 degrees. The larger the angle the smoother
the motion and the higher speed possible however the thrust
loadings on the supporting bearings also increases. In case of a
double or herringbone gear values 25,30,35,40 degrees can also
be used. These large angles can be used because the side thrusts
on the two sets of teeth cancel each other allowing larger angles
with no penalty
Pitch /module ..
For helical gears the circular pitch is measured in two ways
The traverse circular pitch (p) is the same as for spur gears and is
measured along the pitch circle
The normal circular pitch p n is measured normal to the helix of the
gear.
The diametric pitch is the same as for spur gears
... P = z g /dg = z
p /d p ....d= pitch circle dia (inches).
The module is the same as for spur gears
... m = dg/z g = d p/z p....
d = pitch circle dia (mm).
Helical Gear geometrical proportions

p = Circular pitch = d g. / z

= Normal circular pitch = p .cos

=Normal diametrical pitch = P /cos

p x = Axial pitch = p c /tan

=Helix angle

= Pitch diameter gear = z g. m

= Pitch diameter pinion = z p. m

a =Center distance = ( z

a a = Addendum = m

a f =Dedendum = 1.25*m

b = Face width of narrowest gear

= d p. / z

=Normal module = m / cos

= Normal pressure angle = tan

+z

)* m

Herringbone / double crossed helical gears

Crossed Helical Gears

-1

( tan.cos )

/2 cos

When two helical gears are used to transmit power between non
parallel, non-intersecting shafts, they are generally called crossed
helical gears. These are simply normal helical gears with nonparallel shafts. For crossed helical gears to operate successfully
they must have the same pressure angle and the same normal
pitch. They need not have the same helix angle and they do not
need to be opposite hand. The contact is not a good line contact as
for parallel helical gears and is often little more than a point
contact. Running in crossed helical gears tend to marginally
improve the area of contact.
The relationship between the shaft angles and the helix angles
& 2 is as follows
= (Same Helix Angle)

......(Opposite Helix Angle)

For gears with a 90o crossed axis it is obvious that the gears must be the same
hand.
The centres distance (a) between crossed helical gears is calculated as follows
a = m * [(z

/ cos 1) + ( z

/ cos

)] / 2

The sliding velocity Vsof crossed helical gears is given by

Vs = (V1 / cos

) = (V

/ cos

Strength and Durability calculations for Helical Gear Teeth

Designing helical gears is normally done in accordance with
standards the two most popular series are listed under standards
above: The notes below relate to approximate methods for
estimating gear strengths. The methods are really only useful for
first approximations and/or selection of stock gears (ref links below).

 Detailed design of spur and helical gears should best be

completed using :
a) Standards.
b) Books are available providing the necessary guidance.
c) Software is also available making the process very easy. A very
reasonably priced and easy to use package is included in the links
below (Mitcalc.com)

The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required

torque for the desired operating life is completed by determining the
strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the durability i.e of
the teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The
equations below are based on methods used by Buckingham..
Bending
The Lewis formula for spur gears can be applied to helical gears
with minor adjustments to provide an initial conservative estimate
of gear strength in bending. This equation should only be used for
first estimates.
= Fb / ( ba. m. Y )

Fb = Normal force on tooth = Tangential Force Ft / cos

= Tooth Bending stress (MPa)

ba = Face width (mm)

Y = Lewis Form Factor

m = Module (mm)

When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with
some degree of impact. To allow for this a velocity factor is
introduced into the equation. This is given by the Barth equation
for milled profile gears.
K

= (6,1 + V ) / 6,1

V = the pitch line velocity = PCD./2

The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows
= K v.Fb / ba. m. Y
The Lewis form factor Y must be determined for the virtual number
of teeth z' = z /cos3 The bending stress resulting should be less
than the allowable bending stress Sb for the gear material under
consideration. Some sample values are provide on this page ef
Gear Strength Values
Surface Strength
The allowable gear force from surface durability considerations is
determined approximately using the simple equation as follows
Fw = K

Q K / cos2

Q = 2. dg /( dp + dp ) = 2.zg /( zp +zp )
Fw = The allowable gear load. (MPa)
K = Gear Wear Load Factor (MPa) obtained by look up ref Gear
Strength Values

Lewis Form factor for Teeth profile = 20o ,

addendum = m, dedendum = 1.25m
Num
Num
Num
Num
Num
ber
ber
ber
ber
ber
of
Y
of
Y
of
Y
of
Y
of
Y
teet
teet
teet
teet
teet
h
h
h
h
h
12

0.2
17
45

0.3
22
03

0.3
34
31

0.3
75
71

0.4
35

13

0.2
18
61

0.3
24
09

0.3
38
37

0.3
0.4
100
84
47

14

0.2
19
77

0.3
26
14

0.3
45
46

0.4
0.4
150
01
60

15

0.2
20
90

0.3
28
22

0.3
50
53

0.4
0.4
300
09
72

16

0.2
21
96

0.3
30
28

0.3
60
59

0.4 Rac 0.4

22 k
85

Bevel gear

Bevel Gears

Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a shaft's rotation needs to be changed.
They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees apart, but can be designed
to work at other angles as well.
A good working example of a bevel gear is the mechanism used in a hand drill. As
you turn the handle of the drill in a vertical direction, the bevel gears change the
rotation of the chuck to a horizontal rotation. The bevel gear also works to increase
the speed of the chuck so that its possible for the drill to work on a range of
surfaces.

There are four types of bevel gears:

Straight Bevel Gears: These gears have a conical pitch surface and straight teeth
tapering towards an apex.
Zero Bevel Gears: Are very similar to straight bevel gears except the teeth are
curved.
Spiral Bevel Gears: The teeth are curved at an angle which then allows the
contact to be gradual and smooth.
Hypoid Bevel Gears: These gears are similar to spiral bevel except that the pitch
surfaces are hyperboloids rather than cones and the gears can be anti backlash.

Introduction
There are four basic types of bevel gears.

Straight bevel gears.. These gears have a conical pitch

surface and straight teeth tapering towards an apex

Zerol bevel gears. These are similar to a bevel gears

except the teeth are curved. In essence, Zerol Bevel
Gears are Spiral Bevel Gears with a spiral angle of zero.

Spiral bevel gears. The teeth are curved teeth at an

angle allowing tooth contact to be gradual and smooth

Hypoid bevel gears..These gears are similar to spiral

bevel except that the pitch surfaces are hyperboloids
rather than cones. Pinion can be offset above, or
below,the gear centre, thus allowing larger pinion
diameter, and longer life and smoother mesh, with
additional ratios e.g 6:1, 8:1, 10:1

Specifications
BS 545:1982..Specification for bevel gears (machine cut)..
(Obsolescent)
BS ISO 10300-1:2001..Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears.
Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears. Introduction and general
influence factors
BS ISO 10300-2:2001..Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears.
Calculation of surface durability (pitting)
BS ISO 10300-3:2001..Calculation of load capacity of bevel gears.
Calculation of tooth root strength

Straight bevel gears

These are gears cut from conical blanks and connect intersecting
shaft axes. The connecting shafts are generally at 90o and
sometimes one shaft drives a bevel gear which is mounted on a
through shaft resulting in two output shafts. The point of
intersection of the shafts is called the apex and the teeth of the two
gears converge at the apex. The design of bevel gears results in
thrust forces away from the apex. With the bearing limitations the
gears have to be carefully designed to ensure that they are not
thrown out of alignment as they are loaded.
Straight bevel gears are used widely in machine drive systems to
effect 90o direction changes. and in differential drives They have
the same limitations as spur gears and they are therefore not used
on high duty high speed applications. Straight bevel gears are low
cost units supplied with ratios from 1:2 to 4:1.

Straight Bevel Gear Terminology

Straight Bevel Gear Force equations

Nomenclature
z p = Number of teeth on pinion
z g = Number of teeth on pinion
= Pressure Angle of Teeth.
p = Pitch Angle (pinion)....= tan -1 (z

/z

 g = Pitch Angle (gear)....= tan-1 (z g / z p )

P p = Power at Pinion shaft (kW)
n p = Rotational speed of pinion shaft (revs/min)
d p = Pinion Pitch Circle diameter (mm)
Mp = torque on pinion shaft (Nm)
Fs = Separating Force (N)
Fp = Pinion Thrust (N)
Fg = Gear Thrust (N)

Zerol Bevel Gears

The advantage of Zerol bevel gears compared to straight bevel
gears is that they operate with a smooth localised point contact as
opposed to a line contact enabling smoother operation with low
vibration levels and higher speeds. Because there is no spiral angle
and no additional developed thrust these gears can be used as
direct replacements for straight bevel gears. These gears normally
have a pressure angle of 20 o. The minimum number of teeth on the
pinion is 14. The design of Zerol gears is relatively specialised and
they are manufactured using special "Gleason" machine tools..

Spiral Bevel Gear

These are produced using a spiral gear form which results in a
smoother drive suitable for higher speed higher loaded
applications. Again satisfactory performance of this type of gear is

largely dependent upon the rigidity of the bearings and mountings.

n = Normal Pressure angle..

= pitch cone angle
= Helix angle
Pinion Thrust F

= F t [ (tan

sin / cos ) tan cos ]

Note: ( + ) if helix angle is as shown and ( -) if helix angle is

opposite to that shown

Hypoid Bevel Gear

Hypoid gears are best for the applications requiring large speed
reductions with non intersecting shafts and those applications
requiring smooth and quiet operation. Hypoid gears are generally
used for automotive applications. The minimum number of teeth for
speed ratios greater than 6 :1 is eight although 6 teeth pinions can
be used for ratios below 6:1. Hypoid gears have pressure angles
between 19 and 22o. The design of hypoid gears is relatively
specialised and they are manufactured using special "Gleason"
machine tools..

Straight Bevel Gear Strength and Durability Equations

Designing bevel gears is normally done in accordance with
standards as listed under specifications above: The notes below
relate to approximate methods for estimating gear strengths. The
methods are really only useful for first approximations and/or
selection of stock gears (ref links below). Detailed design of bevel
gears should only be completed using the relevant standards.
Books are available providing the necessary guidance. Software is
also available making the process very easy.
The equations are basically modified spur gears equations using a
spur gear equivalent number of teeth z e
Equivalent Number of teeth on gear = z eg = z g / cos g
Equivalent Number of teeth on pinion = z ep = z p / cos

Bending Strength Equations

The basic lewis formula for spur gear teeth is shown as follows
= F t / ( W. m. Y )

F t = Tangential force on tooth (N)

= Tooth Bending stress (MPa)

W = Face width (mm)

Y = Lewis Form Factor

m = Module (mm)

The Lewis formula is modified to provide the allowable tangential

force F b based on the allowable bending Stress S b
F a = S b.W. m. Y
It is clear that a bevel gear does not have a uniform section or a
uniform module and therefore it is necessary to start an analysis by
considering an element dx..

The Lewis formula applied to the element is as follows

To obtain the allowable torque (M) transmitted by the gears multiply

both sides by r xand integrate the resulting equations as shown
below

The module varies along the gear teeth in proportion to the radius
from the apex along the pitch cone.
Thus ..m / m x = L / x where m = module at x = L

A similar relationship holds for for r x. i.e for r x /r = x /L

Substituting these relationships into the integration equation
results..

d x varies from x = (L -b) to x = L the integration can be solved as

follows:

The face width is considered to be limited to 1/3 of the cone

distance when the factor b2 / (3.L2) = 1/27 is so small compared to
the other factors that it can be reasonably ignored . Then dividing
by r to arrive at the Lewis equation for the allowable bending load

The allowable bending load F b must be greater than the dynamic

load which is the actual bending load calculated from the
transmitted torque modified by the Barth formula as identified in the
notes on spur gears i.e
F

Ft/K

K v is given by the Barth equation for milled profile gears.

K

= 6,1 / (6,1 +V )

Note: This factor is different for different gear conditions i.e K

( 3.05 + V )/3.05 for cast iron, cast profile gears.
V =Average velocity of gear face = 0.0000524.n.d
d mean is the mean pitch circle diameter (mm)..

mean

n = Rotational speed of gear (rpm)

Surface Durability Equations
The gear durability equation is based on the Hertz contact stress
equation and its application to gears.
The allowable tangential wear load F w is calculated as follows
F

= d p. K. Q' / cos

d p = Pitch diameter measured at the back of tooth

Q' = 2 z eg /( z ep + z ep )
z eg & z ep are the equivalent number of teeth on the gear and pinion
as defined above
K = Wear Load Factor see table Gear table
The allowable load F w must be greater than the dynamic bending
load which is the actual load calculated from the transmitted torque
modified by the Barth formula as identified in the notes on spur
gears i.e
F

Worm Gear

Worm Gears

Ft/K

Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is common for
worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater.
Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the worm
can easily turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the
angle on the worm is so shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction
between the gear and the worm holds the worm in place.
This feature is useful for machines such as conveyor systems, in which the locking
feature can act as a brake for the conveyor when the motor is not turning. One
other very interesting usage of worm gears is in the Torsen differential, which is
used on some high-performance cars and trucks.

Introduction
A worm gear is used when a large speed reduction ratio is required
between crossed axis shafts which do not intersect. A basic helical gear

can be used but the power which can be transmitted is low. A worm
drive consists of a large diameter worm wheel with a worm screw
meshing with teeth on the periphery of the worm wheel. The worm is
similar to a screw and the worm wheel is similar to a section of a nut.
As the worm is rotated the wormwheel is caused to rotate due to the
screw like action of the worm. The size of the worm gearset is generally
based on the centre distance between the worm and the wormwheel.
If the worm gears are machined basically as crossed helical gears the
result is a highly stress point contact gear. However normally the
wormwheel is cut with a concave as opposed to a straight width. This is
called a single envelope worm gearset. If the worm is machined with a
concave profile to effectively wrap around the wormwheel the gearset is
called a double enveloping worm gearset and has the highest power
capacity for the size. Single enveloping gearsets require accurate
alignment of the worm-wheel to ensure full line tooth contact. Double
enveloping gearsets require accurate alignment of both the worm and
the wormwheel to obtain maximum face contact.

Diagram showing the different worm gear options available.

The double enveloping (double throat/double globoid ) option is the most

difficult to manufacture and set up.
However this option has the
highest load capacity, near zero backlash capability, highest accuracy
and extended life capability.

A more detailed view showing a cylinderical worm and an enveloping

gear. The worm is shown with the worm above the wormwheel. The
gearset can also be arranged with the worm below the wormwheel.
Other alignments are used less frequently.

Nomenclature
As can be seen in the above view a section through the axis of the worm
and the centre of the gear shows that , at this plane, the meshing teeth
and thread section is similar to a spur gear and has the same features
n = Normal pressure angle = 20o as standard
= Worm lead angle = (180 / ) tan-1 (z 1 / q)(deg) ..Note: for n=
20o should be less than 25o
b a = Effective face width of worm wheel. About 2.m (q +1) (mm)
b l = Length of worm wheel. About 14.m. (mm)
c = clearance c min = 0,2.m cos , c max = 0,25.m cos (mm)
d 1 = Ref dia of worm (Pitch dia of worm (m)) = q.m (mm)
d a.1 = Tip diameter of worm = d 1 + 2.h a.1 (mm)
d 2 = Ref dia of worm wheel (Pitch dia of wormwheel) =( p x.z/ ) = 2.a d 1 (mm)
d a.2 = Tip dia worm wheel (mm)
h a.1 = Worm Thread addendum = m (mm)
h f.1 = Worm Thread dedendum , min = m.(2,2 cos - 1 ) , max = m.
(2,25 cos - 1 )(mm)
m = Axial module = p x / (mm)
m n = Normal module = m cos (mm)
M 1 = Worm torque (Nm)

M 2 = Worm wheel torque (Nm)

n 1 = Rotational speed of worm (revs /min)
n 2 = Rotational speed of wormwheel (revs /min)
p x = Axial pitch of of worm threads and circular pitch of wheel teeth
..the pitch between adjacent threads = . m. (mm)
p n = Normal pitch of of worm threads and gear teeth (m)
q = diameter factor selected from (6 6,5 7 7,5 8 8,5 9 10 11
12 13 14 17 20 )
p z = Lead of worm = p x. z 1 (mm).. Distance the thread advances in one
rev'n of the worm. For a 2-start worm the lead = 2 . p x
R g = Reduction Ratio
q = Worm diameter factor = d 1 / m - (Allows module to be applied to
worm )
= coefficient of friction
= Efficiency
Vs = Worm-gear sliding velocity ( m/s)
z 1 = Number of threads (starts) on worm
z 2 = Number of teeth on wormwheel

Worm gear design parameters

Worm gears provide a normal single reduction range of 5:1 to 75-1. The
pitch line velocity is ideally up to 30 m/s. The efficiency of a worm gear
ranges from 98% for the lowest ratios to 20% for the highest ratios. As
the frictional heat generation is generally high the worm box is designed
disperse heat to the surroundings and lubrication is and essential

requirement. Worm gears are quiet in operation. Worm gears at the

higher ratios are inherently self locking - the worm can drive the gear but
the gear cannot drive the worm. A worm gear can provide a 50:1 speed
reduction but not a 1:50 speed increase....(In practice a worm should not
be used a braking device for safety linked systems e.g hoists. . Some
material and operating conditions can result in a wormgear backsliding )
The worm gear action is a sliding action which results in significant
frictional losses. The ideal combination of gear materials is for a case
hardened alloy steel worm (ground finished) with a phosphor bronze
gear. Other combinations are used for gears with comparatively light
loads.

Specifications
BS721 Pt2 1983 Specification for worm gearing Metric units.
This standard is current (2004) and provides information on tooth form,
dimensions of gearing, tolerances for four classes of gears according to
function and accuracy, calculation of load capacity and information to be
given on drawings.

Worm Gear Designation

Very simply a pair of worm gears can be defined by designation of the
number of threads in the worm ,the number of teeth on the wormwheel,
the diameter factor and the axial module i.e z1,z2, q, m .
This information together with the centre distance ( a ) is enough to
enable calculation of and any dimension of a worm gear using the
formulea available.

Worm teeth Profile

The sketch below shows the normal (not axial) worm tooth profile as
indicated in BS 721-2 for unit axial module (m = 1mm) other module
teeth are in proportion e.g. 2mm module teeth are 2 times larger

Typical axial modules values (m) used for worm gears are
0,5

0,6

0,8

1,0
1,25 1,6 2,0 2,5
12,5 16,0 20,0 25,0

3,15
32,0

4,0
40,0

5,0
50,0

6,3

8,0

Materials used for gears

Material

Notes

applications
Worm

Acetal /
Nylon

Low Cost, low duty

Toys, domestic
appliances, instruments

Cast Iron

Excellent machinability,
medium friction.

Used infrequently in
modern machinery

Carbon
Steel

Low cost, reasonable

strength

Power gears with medium

rating.

Hardened
Steel

High strength, good

durability

Power gears with high

rating for extended life

Wormwheel
Acetal
/Nylon

Low Cost, low duty

Reasonable strength, low

Phos Bronze friction and good
compatibility with steel
Cast Iron

Excellent machinability,
medium friction.

Toys, domestic
appliances, instruments
Normal material for worm
gears with reasonable
efficiency
Used infrequently in
modern machinery

10,0

Backlash / quality Grades

A worm gear set normally includes some backlash during normal
manufacture to allow for expansion of the gear wheel when operating at
elevated temperaturs.
The backlash is controlled by adusting the gear
wheel tooth thickness.
BS 721 includes a table of backlash limits related to the accuracy grade.
The standard lists 5 accuracy grades.
AGMA and DIN provide a similar grading system

Grade 1 relates to critical applications where minimum

backlash is required i.e instruments /metering

Grade 2 relates to precision drives such as machine tools

Grade 3,4,5 relates to industrial drives with working

temperatures of about 120o C

Design of a Worm Gear

The following notes relate to the principles in BS 721-2
Method associated with AGMA are shown below..
Initial sizing of worm gear.. (Mechanical)
1) Initial information generally Torque required (Nm), Input speed(rpm),
Output speed (rpm).
2) Select Materials for worm and wormwheel.
3) Calculate Ratio (R g)
4) Estimate a = Center distance (mm)
5) Set z 1 = Nearest number to (7 + 2,4 SQRT (a) ) /R g
6) Set z 2 = Next number < R g . z 1
7) Using the value of estimated centre distance (a) and No of gear teeth
( z 2 )obtain a value for q from the table below
8) d 1 = q.m (select) ..
9) d 2 = 2.a - d 1

10) Select a wormwheel face width b a (minimum =2*m*SQRT(q+1))

11) Calculate the permissible output torques for strength (M b_1 and wear
M c_1 )
12) Apply the relevent duty factors to the allowable torque and the
actual torque
13) Compare the actual values to the permissible values and repeat
process if necessary
14) Determine the friction coefficient and calculate the efficiency.
15) Calculate the Power out and the power in and the input torque
16) Complete design of gearbox including design of shafts, lubrication,
and casing ensuring sufficient heat transfer area to remove waste heat.

Initial sizing of worm gear.. (Thermal)

Worm gears are often limited not by the strength of the teeth but by the
heat generated by the low efficiency. It is necessary therefore to
determine the heat generated by the gears = (Input power - Output
power). The worm gearbox must have lubricant to remove the heat from
the teeth in contact and sufficient area on the external surfaces to
distibute the generated heat to the local environment. This requires
completing an approximate heat transfer calculation. If the heat lost to
the environment is insufficient then the gears should be adjusted (more
starts, larger gears) or the box geometry should be adjusted, or the
worm shaft could include a fan to induced forced air flow heat loss.

Formulae

The reduction ratio of a worm gear ( R

R

=z

/z

eg a 30 tooth wheel meshing with a 2 start worm has a reduction of 15

Tangential force on worm ( F
F

wt

Axial force on worm ( F

=F

wa

wt

ga

)= axial force on wormwheel

= 2.M

/d

) = Tangential force on gear

Output torque ( M 2 ) = Tangential force on wormwheel * Wormwheel

reference diameter /2
M

= F gt* d

/2

Relationship between the Worm Tangential Force F

Tangential force F gt

wt

and the Gear

Relationship between the output torque M 2and the input torque M

M

= ( M 1. d

/d

).[ (cos

- tan ) / (cos

. tan ( + ) ) ]

Separating Force on worm-gearwheel ( F s )

Sliding velocity ( V s )...(m/s)

V s (m/s ) = 0,00005236. d 1. n 1 sec
= 0,00005235.m.n (z 12 + q 2 ) 1/2

Peripheral velocity of wormwheel ( V p) (m/s)

V

= 0,00005236,d 2. n

Friction Coefficient
Cast Iron and Phosphor Bronze .. Table x 1,15
Cast Iron and Cast Iron.. Table x 1,33
Quenched Steel and Aluminum Alloy..Table x 1,33
Steel and Steel..Table x 2
Friction coefficients - For Case Hardened Steel Worm / Phos Bros Wheel
Sliding
Speed

Friction
Coefficien
t

Sliding
Speed

Friction
Coefficien
t

m/s

m/s

0,145

1,5

0,038

0,001

0,12

0,033

0,01

0,11

0,023

0,05

0,09

0,02

0,1

0,08

10

0,018

0,2

0,07

15

0,017

0,5

0,055

20

0,016

0,044

30

0,016

Efficiency of Worm Gear

The efficiency of the worm gear is determined by dividing the output
Torque M2 with friction = by the output torque with zero losses i.e =
0
First cancelling [( M 1. d 2 / d 1 ) / M 1. d 2 / d 1 ) ] = 1
Denominator = [(cos n / (cos n . tan ] = cot
= [(cos

- tan ) / (cos

. tan + ) ] / cot

= [(cos

- .tan ) / (cos

+ .cot )]

Graph showing worm gear efficiency related to gear lead angle ( )

Self Locking

Referring to the above graph , When the gear wheel is driving the curve
points intersecting the zero efficiency line identify when the worm drive
is self locking i.e the gear wheel cannot drive to worm. It is the
moment when gearing cannot be moved using even the highest possible
torque acting on the worm gear. The self-locking limit occurs when the
worm lead angle ( ) equals atan (). (2 o to 8o )
It is often considered that the static coefficient of friction is most relevant
as the gear cannot be started. However in practice it is safer to use
the, lower, dynamic coefficient of friction as this comes into play if the
gear set is subject to vibration.

Worm Design /Gear Wear / Strength Equations to BS721

Note: For designing worm gears to AGMA codes AGMA method of
Designing Worm Gears
The information below relates to BS721 Pt2 1983 Specification for worm
gearing Metric units. BS721 provides average design values reflecting
the experience of specialist gear manufacturers. The methods have
been refined by addition of various application and duty factors as
used. Generally wear is the critical factor..
Permissible Load for Strength
The permissible torque (M in Nm) on the gear teeth is obtained by use of
the equation
M

= 0,0018 X

b.2

bm.2

. m. l

f.2

. d 2.

( example 87,1 Nm = 0,0018 x 0,48 x 63 x 20 x 80 )

X b.2 = speed factor for bending (Worm wheel ).. See Below
bm.2 = Bending stress factor for Worm wheel.. See Table below
l f.2 = length of root of Worm Wheel tooth
d 2 = Reference diameter of worm wheel
m = axial module
= Lead angle
Permissible Torque for Wear
The permissible torque (M in Nm) on the gear teeth is obtained by use of
the equation
M c = 0,00191 X

c.2

cm.2

.Z. d

1,8

.m

( example 33,42 Nm = 0,00191 x 0,3234 x 6,7 x 1,5157 x 80 1,8 x 2 )

X c.2 = Speed factor for wear ( Worm wheel )
cm.2 = Surface stress factor for Worm wheel
Z = Zone factor.
Length of root of worm wheel tooth
Radius of the root = R r= d 1 /2 + h
R r= d 1 /2 + m(1 +0,25 cos)

ha,1

(= m) + c(= 0,25.m.cos )

l f.2 = 2.R r.sin-1 (2.R r / b a)

Note: angle from sin-1(function) is in radians...
Speed Factor for Bending
This is a metric conversion from an imperial formula..
X b.2 = speed factor for bending = 0,521(V) -0,2
V= Pitch circle velocity =0,00005236*d 2.n

(m/s)

The table below is derived from a graph in BS 721. I cannot see how this
works as a small worm has a smaller diameter compared to a large worm
and a lower speed which is not reflected in using the RPM.
Table of speed factors for bending
RPM (n2)

b.2

RPM (n2)

0,62

600

0,3

10

0,56

1000

0,27

20

0,52

2000

0,23

60

0,44

4000

0,18

100

0,42

6000

0,16

200

0,37

8000

0,14

400

0,33

10000

0,13

b.2

Additional factors
The formula for the acceptable torque for wear should be modified to
allow additional factors which affect the Allowable torque M c
M

c2

= M c. Z L. Z M.Z

/K

The torque on the wormwheel as calculated using the duty requirements

(M e) must be less than the acceptable torque M c2 for a duty of 27000

hours with uniform loading. For loading other than this then M
be modified as follows
M

e2

= M e. K S* K

should

Thus
uniform load < 27000 hours (10 years) M
Other conditions M e2 M c2

c2

Factors used in equations

Lubrication (Z L)..
Z L = 1 if correct oil with anti-scoring additive else a lower value should
be selected
Lubricant (Z M)..
Z L = 1 for Oil bath lubrication at V s < 10 m /s
Z L = 0,815 Oil bath lubrication at 10 m/s < V s < 14 m /s
Z L = 1 Forced circulation lubrication
Surface roughness (Z R ) ..
Z R = 1 if Worm Surface Texture < 3 m and Wormwheel < 12 m
else use less than 1
Tooth contact factor (K C
This relates to the quality and rigidity of gears . Use 1 for first estimate
K C = 1 For grade A gears with > 40% height and > 50% width contact
= 1,3 - 1,4 For grade A gears with > 30% height and > 35% width
contact
= 1,5-1,7 For grade A gears with > 20% height and > 20% width contact
Starting factor (K S) ..
K S =1 for < 2 Starts per hour
=1,07 for 2- 5 Starts per hour
=1,13 for 5-10 Starts per hour
=1,18 more than 10 Starts per hour
Time / Duty factor (K H) ..
K H for 27000 hours life (10 years) with uniform driver and driven loads
For other conditions see table below
Tables for use with BS 721 equations
Speed Factors
X c.2 = K V .K R
Note: This table is not based on the graph in BS 721-2 (figure 7) it is

based on another more easy to follow graph. At low values of sliding

velocity and RPM it agrees closely with BS 721. At higher speed
velocities it gives a lower value (e.g at 20m/s -600 RPM the value from
this table for X c.2 is about 80% of the value in BS 721-2
Table of Worm Gear Speed Factors
Note -sliding speed = Vs and Rotating speed = n2 (Wormwheel)
Sliding
speed

m/s

Rotating
Speed

rpm

0,5

0,98

0,1

0,75

0,96

0,2

0,68

0,92

0,5

0,6

10

0,8

0,55

20

0,73

0,5

50

0,63

0,42

100

0,55

10

0,34

200

0,46

20

0,24

500

0,35

30

0,16

600

0,33

Stress Factors
Table of Worm Gear Stress Factors
Other
metal
P.B.
(Worm
)

Metal
(Wormwheel)

C.I.

Bendin
g
(bm )

Wear (

MPa
Phosphor
Bronze
Centrifugal

69

C.Steel
0,4% 0,55%
C.Steel C.Steel Case.
H'd
cm

MPa
8,3

8,3

9,0

15,2

cast
Phosphor
Bronze
63
Sand Cast Chi
lled

6,2

6,2

6,9

12,4

Phosphor
Bronze
Sand Cast

49

4,6

4,6

5,3

10,3

Grey Cast
Iron

40

6,2

4,1

4,1

4,1

5,2

0,4% Carbon
138
steel

10,7

6,9

0,55%
173
Carbon steel

15,2

8,3

Carbon Steel
(Case
276
hardened)

48,3

30,3

15,2

Zone Factor (Z)

If b a < 2,3 (q +1)1/2 Then Z = (Basic Zone factor ) . b a /2 (q +1)1/2
If b a > 2,3 (q +1)1/2 Then Z = (Basic Zone factor ) .1,15
Table of Basic Zone Factors
q
z
6
1

6,5

7,5

8,5

9,5 10 11

12

13 14 17 20

1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,20 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5
45 48 52 65 84 07 28 37 43 6
2
6
18 02 08

0,9 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,1 1,1 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,2
1,3 1,3 1,4 1,5
1,28
91 28 55 99 44 83 14 23 31 5
2
6
47 75

0,8 0,8 0,9 1,1 1,2 1,2 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,3 1,39 1,4 1,4 1,5 1,6
22 9
89 09 09 6
05 33 5
65 3
22 42 32 74

0,8 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,2 1,7 1,3 1,4 1,4 1,4 1,51 1,5 1,5 1,6 1,7
26 3
81 98 04 01 8
28 6
9
5
45 7
66 98

0,9 0,9 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,63 1,6 1,6 1,7 1,8
47 91 5
22 16 15 17 9
5
1
2* 52 75 65 86

1,1 1,1 1,1 1,2 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,5 1,6 1,69 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9
31 45 72 2
87 5
38 21 88 25 4
14 33 18 28

1,3 1,3 1,3 1,4 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,72 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9
16 4
7
05 52 4
14 04 5
4
6
46 8

1,4 1,4
1,5 1,6 1,7 1,73 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9
1,5
37 62
57 23 15 8
53 78 68 6

157 1,6 1,6 1,7 1,74 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9

3
04 48 2
3
67 9
8
7

1
0

1,6 1,7 1,74 1,7 1,7 1,8 1,9

8
28 8
73 98 88 8

1
1

1,7 1,75 1,7 1,8 1,8 1,9

32 3
77 02 92 87

1
2

1,76

1
3

1,7 1,8 1,8 1,9

8
06 95 92
1,7 1,8 1,8 1,9
84 06 98 98

1
4

1,8
1,9 2
11

Duty Factor
Duty - time Factor K

K
Impact from Expected life
Prime mover
hours
Uniform
Load
Motor
Turbine
Hydraulic
motor

Impact From Load

Uniform
Load

Medium
Impact

Strong
impact

1500

0,8

0,9

5000

0,9

1,25

27000

1,25

1,5

60000

1,25

1,5

1,75

0,9

1,25

1,25

1,5

1,25

1,5

1,75

1,5

1,75

1500

1,25

1,5

5000

1,25

1,5

1,75

27000

1,5

1,75

1500
Light impact
5000
multicylinder 27000
engine
60000
Medium
Impact
Single

cylinder

60000

1,75

2,25

Worm q value selection

The table below allows selection of q value which provides a reasonably
efficient worm design. The recommended centre distance value "a"
(mm)is listed for each q value against a range of z 2 (teeth number
values). The table has been produced by reference to the relevant plot
in BS 721
Example
If the number of teeth on the gear is selected as 45 and the centre
distance is 300 mm then a q value for the worm would be about 7.5
Important note: This table provides reasonable values for all worm
speeds. However at worm speeds below 300 rpm a separate plot is
provided in BS721 which produces more accurate q values. At these
lower speeds the resulting q values are approximately 1.5 higher than
the values from this table. The above example at less than 300rpm
should be increased to about 9
Table for optimum q value selection
Number of Teeth On Worm Gear (z 2)
q

20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

6 150 250 380 520 700

6.5 100 150 250 350 480 660
7 70 110 170 250 350 470 620 700
7.5 50 80 120 180 240 330 420 550 670
8 25 50 80 120 180 230 300 380 470 570 700
8.5

28 90 130 130 180 220 280 350 420 500 600 700

40 70 100 130 170 220 280 330 400 450 520

9.5

25 50 70 100 120 150 200 230 300 350 400

10

26 55 80 100 130 160 200 230 270 320

11

25 28 55 75 100 130 150 180 220 250

12

28 45 52 80 100 130 150 100

13

27 45 52 75 90 105

AGMA method of Designing Worm Gears

The AGMA method is provided here because it is relatively easy to use
and convenient- AGMA is all imperial and so I have used conversion
values so all calculations can be completed in metric units..
Good proportions indicate that for a centre to centre distance = C the
mean worm dia d 1 is within the range
Imperial (inches)
(C

0,875

/3) d

0,875

/2) d

(C

0,875

/ 1,6 )

Metric ( mm)
(C

(C

The acceptable tangential load (W t)

(W t)

all

= C s. d

0,8
2

.b a .C

0,875

/ 1,07 )

all

.C v . (0,0132) (N)

The formula will result in a life of over 25000 hours with a case hardened
alloy steel worm and a phosphor bronze wheel
C s = Materials factor
b a = Effective face width of gearwheel = actual face width. but not to
exceed 0,67 . d 1
C m = Ratio factor
C v = Velocity factor

Modified Lewis equation for stress induced in worm gear teeth .

a = W t / ( p n. b a. y )(N)
W t = Worm gear tangential Force (N)
y = 0,125 for a normal pressure angle n = 20o

The friction force = W

W f = f.W t / (. cos

) (N)

 = worm lead angle at mean diameter

n = normal pressure angle

The sliding velocity = V

V s = .n 1. d

/ (60,000 )

d 1 = mean dia of worm (mm)

n 1 = rotational speed of worm (revs/min)

The torque generated at the worm gear = M

T

= W t .d

(Nm)

/ 2000

The required friction heat loss from the worm gearbox

H

loss

=P

in

(1-)

= gear efficiency as above.

values

C s = 270 + 0,0063(C )3... for C 76mm

....Else
C s (Sand cast gears ) = 1000 for d

C s (Chilled cast gears ) = 1000 for d

64 mm ...else... 1860 - 477 log (d

1

values

200 mm ...else ... 2052 -456 log (d

C s (Centrifugally cast gears ) = 1000 for d

1 )

635 mm ...else ... 1503 - 180 log (d

NG = Number of teeth on worm gear.

NW = Number of starts on worm gear.
mG = gear ration = NG /NW

values
C v (V s > 3,56 m/s ) = 0,659 exp (-0,2167 V s )
C v (3,56 m/s V s < 15,24 m/s ) = 0,652 (V s)
-0,571
)
C v (V s > 15,24 m/s ) = 1,098.( V s )

-0,774

f values
f (V s = 0) = 0,15
f (0 < V s 0,06 m/s ) = 0,124 exp (-2,234 ( V s )
0,645

f (V s > 0,06 m/s ) = 0,103 exp (-1,1855 ( V s ) )

) +0,012

0,450

Design of power screw

Introduction
Power Screws are used for providing linear motion in a smooth uniform
manner. They are linear actuators that transform rotary motion into
linear motion. Power screws are are generally based on Acme , Square,
and Buttress threads. Ball screws are a type of power screw.
Efficiencies of between 30% and 70% are obtained with conventional
power screws. Ball screws have efficiencies of above 90%.
Power Screws are used for the following three reasons

To obtain high mechanical advantage in order to move large

loads with minimum effort. e.g Screw Jack.

To generate large forces e.g A compactor press.

To obtain precise axial movements e.g. A machine tool lead

screw.

Square Form
This form is used for power/force transmission i.e. linear jacks,
clamps. The friction is low and there is no radial forces imposed on the
mating nuts. The square thread is the most efficient conventional power
screw form. It is the most difficult form to machine. It is not very
compatible for using split nuts-as used on certain machine tool system
for withdrawing the tool carriers

Acme Form

Used for power transmission i.e. lathe lead screws. Is easier to

manufacture compared to a square thread. It has superior root strength
characteristics compared to a square thread. The acme screw thread
has been developed for machine tool drives. They are easy to machine
and can be used with split nuts. The thread has an optimum efficiency of
about 70% for helix angles between 25o and 65o. Outside this range the
efficiency falls away.

Buttress Form
A strong low friction thread. However it is designed only to take large
loads in on direction. For a given size this is the strongest of the thread
forms. When taking heavy loads on the near vertical thread face this
thread is almost as efficient as a square thread form.

Recirculating Ball Screw

This type of power screw is used for high speed high efficiency duties.
The ball screw is used for more and more applications previously
completed by the conventional power screws.

The ball screw assembly is as shown below and includes a circular

shaped groove cut in a helix on the shaft. The ball nut also includes an
internal circular shaped groove which matches the shaft groove. The
nut is retained in position on the shaft by balls moving within the
groove. When the nut rotates relative to the shaft the balls move in one
direction along the groove supporting any axial load. When the balls
reach one end of the nut they are directed back to the other end via ball
guides. The balls are therefore being continuously recirculated.

The recirculated ball screw has the following advantages and

disadvantages to the conventional threaded power screws: Advantages

High Efficiency - Over 90%

Predictable life expectancy -

Precise and repeatable movement

No tendency for slip-stick

Minimum thermal effects

Easily preloaded to eliminate backlash-with minimum

friction penalty

Smoother movement over full travel range

Smaller size for same load

Disadvantages

Requires higher levels of lubrication

Tend to overhaul- Needs additional brakes if locking is

required

Susceptible to contamination

For the same capacity ball screws are not as rigid as

conventional power screw

A leadscrew (or lead screw), also known as a power screw[1] or translation

screw,[2] is a screw designed to translate turning motion into linear motion.
Common applications are Linear actuators, machine slides (such as in machine
tools), vises, presses, and jacks.[3]
Leadscrews are manufactured in the same way as other thread forms.
A lead screw can be used in conjunction with a split nut.

A screw jack is a mechanical device that can increase the magnitude of an effort
force.

The effort force for a screw jack when neglecting friction can be expressed as
F=Qp/2R

(1)

where
F = efort force at the end of the arm or handle (lb)
Q = weight or load (lb)
p = pitch distance or lead of thread in one turn (in)
r = pitch radius of screw (in)
R = lever-arm radius (in)

Example - Screw jack without friction

If the load on a screw jack is 200000 lb, the lever-arm is 20 inches and the pitch
equals 1/8 inches, the effort force can be estimated as
F = (200000 lb) (1/8 in) / 2 (20 in)
= 199 lb
Screw Jack with Friction
For motion in the same direction as the load (load assist the screw jack), the effort
force can expressed as
F = Q ( (2 r - p) / (2 r + p) ) (r/R)

(2)

where
= friction coefficient
For motion in the opposite direction as the load (load assist the screw jack), the
effort force can expressed as
F = Q ( (2 r + p) / (2 r - p) ) (r/R

Introduction
This page includes notes, figures and equations relevant to calculating
the torque required to operate powers screws when used as lifting or
moving machines.
Notation
= Thread angle ...(radians)
= Screw Efficiency
dm = Mean screw dia...(m)
dmc = Mean collar dia...(m)
c = coefficient of friction of the screw /thrust collar surfaces
s = coefficient of friction of the screw surfaces
F = Force to rotate thread (Torque /Mean Radius)-(N)
l = lead of thread = n.p...(m)
n = number of threads.
p = pitch between adjacent threads... (m)
= Helix /lead angle (radians) = tan-1 l/(.dm ).
rci = Collar inside radius (m)
rco = Collar outside radius (m)
rm = Mean radius of thread (m)
W = Vertical force generated by screw-(N)
rmc = Thrust collar mean radius = ( rci + rco ) / 2 ...(m)
TR = Torque to raise load ...(Nm)
TL = Torque to lower load ...(Nm)
To = Overhaul torque resulting from load ...(Nm)

Torque/ Efficiency equations for Power Screws

Torque equations for Power Screws

Consider a Force F applied at a mean radius r m which causes the load to

be raised. The nut is turning the screw is prevented from turning.

The sketch above identifies the reactive forces acting at point O on the
screw thread surface.
The reactive force Fn acting normal to the surface has the following
components in the plane of interest ABDO.

OD = Ff which is the friction force opposing movement up

the thread surface( Ff = s Fn )

OA = Is equal and opposite to the force being lifted. (W)

OB = Is the vector sum of OD and OA and forms an angle n

with vector (OB = Fn cos

The sketch below illustrates the horizontal and vertical forces acting at a
representative point at a radius r m in the plane normal to the radius.
For equilibrium the sum of all vertical forces = 0 and the sum of all
horizontal forces = 0

Summing the forces in the vertical direction results in.

Fn cos ncos = W + Ff sin
The coefficient of friction for the screw surface materials is s : Ff =
s.Fn and therefore.
Fn = W / ( cosncos - s.sin )..........Equation A
Summing the moment of the forces around the centerline of the screw
to obtain TR , the torque to raise the load W up the incline of the screw.
T

F.r

r m.(F f cos + F n cos nsin )

cos nsin )

= r m.(s.F n. cos + F

There is an additional friction torque resulting from the friction force on

the thrust collar see top sketch above. This friction force = c. W. ( c =
coefficient of friction between the screw thrust surface and the collar
surface.). This friction torque is assumed to be acting at the thrust
collar mean radius rmc
The total torque required to raise the load W is therefore equal to
T

= r m.( s.F

cos + F

cos nsin ) + rmc.c. W

Substituting for Fn.. see equation A above and replacing rm by dm/2 ..

( and rmc by dmc /2 )

dividing the first term numerator and denominator by cos results in..

.........Equation B
Tr = the torque in Nm to lift the load W (N)//

BC = AE = OA tan = (OB cos). tan ..therefore

tan n = BC/OB = cos . tan ..therefore
n = tan-1 [ cos . tan ]

For many applications the helix angle is small compared to the thread
angle and therefore cos is approximately equal to 1. e.g. For M20 2.5
pitch the value of cos = 0.999
Therefore it is reasonable to let tan n = tan and therefore n = . ..
[However for multi start screws or screws with a relatively
course lead (pitch) it is necessary to use n ]
For normal screws and fine pitch power screws the above equation for T R
can be written as :

The torque to lower the load is written as follows

These equations can be expressed in terms of the lead by substituting

the relationship tan = l / (.dm )

For applications where the thrust is taken on ball or roller thrust bearing
the value of c is sufficiently low that it can be taken as approximately 0
and therefore the second term can be ignored. The approximate
equations reduce to..

Overhauling
Overhauling occurs when the screw helix angle is such that the load W
would cause to screw to rotate when the rotating force F = zero i.e. the
Force is not only required to raise the load - it is also required to
statically support the load .
The overhauling torque To as calculated below will cause the screw to
overhaul when To is less than zero.

If the thrust collar torque is assumed to be near zero then the helix
angle which allows overhauling (To = < zero) can be solved.
tan = < s / cos n

Screw Efficiency
The efficiency of a screw thread can be defined as follows

 = Torque to raise load / Torque to raise load (zero friction)

Using equation B above the value of TR resulting when s = 0 =

Dividing this by equation B to provides an equation for the efficiency of

the power screw thread.

If the collar friction is very low compared to the screw friction the
equation reduces to

Values of s and c are found on the friction coefficients page of this

website Power screw friction factors