Week 3: Introduction to Sensors Science and Technology

3.1
>> Welcome to class number three, session number one. In this session, we
will learn about the basic principles that makes our senses able to sense.
[BLANK_AUDIO] Thanks to our senses, we see how to grab an object like a
hammer. We can also see and smell a fire from far away. We can taste if the
food is ripe and ready to eat. Also, by our senses, we hear a car coming and
feel when it's cold. These are our five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and
taste. As humans, we use a lot of products like cars, phones and computers.
These products have senses that we call sensors, including temperature
sensors, pressure sensors, and light sensors. That's the way a product like an
automatic door know when you want to pass through out it. But, wouldn't it be
great if these products could really know what we want to do. For example, let's
assume that a phone that know you are in meeting and silence itself
automatically. Or, let's imagine that a car that's help you look for a big enough
parking spot, or a computer that knows exactly what you want to do and help
you to do that and just that. To do all of these applications, these products need
a range of sensors and very clever designs. More and more very clever design
products use a range of sensors to know what we want to do and become
better products for it. For example, let's assume that we have cars that see
people and stop automatically if you don't do it on time. Or let's assume that
there are again, consoles that know how you want to hit the ball in a virtual
game of tennis and have measuring devices that alarm inductor when it's
needed. A broadly acceptable definition of a sense would be the following. A
system that consist of a group of sensory cell types that responds to a specific
physical or chemical phenomena, and that corresponds to a particular group of
regions within the brain, where the signals are received and interpreted. The
senses can be roughly divided into two main groups. On one hand, senses that
respond to chemicals, like smelling and response to organic molecules, and on
the other hand, senses that respond to physical phenomena, like hearing and
response to sound waves. Following is a short video that demonstrates how
does the vision works. Enjoy it. >> In order for one to see, a light source is
required. Without light, everything is black. The light emits particles called
photons, which bounce off solid objects in all directions before eventually
reaching the eye. In order to see well, the tissue that they go through must be
transparent. First, the cornea. Located at the front of the eye. Then the
crystalline lens behind the pupil. Then, the vitreous body in the middle of the
eye. Finally, they reach the retina, the eye's photographic plate. Stopping at
the retinal pigment epithelium where they set off nerve pulses. These pulses
are directed towards the optic nerve. And then the optic pathways, before
arriving at the occipital brain where the image is formed. [BLANK_AUDIO] This

process is what enables us to take in the world around us. >> Now, in this
slide, I will present a short video that demonstrate the principles of the hearing
sense. Enjoy. >> Your ear consists of three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear
and the inner ear. These all work together to pass sound through your ear and
to your brain. The pinna acts like a funnel to collect the sound waves. These
sound waves pass through your ear canal. Here we show the sound waves
entering the ear. The sound waves reach the eardrum and cause it to vibrate.
The higher the pitch or frequency of the sound, the faster the eardrum will
vibrate. These vibrations are then passed on to the middle ear. The middle ear
contains three tiny bones, called the ossicles. These are joined together and to
the eardrum. They amplify the sound wave, and pass it on to the inner ear.
Here, we show the ossicles moving in response to the sound waves. The
vibrations from the ossicles pass through a small window and into a part of the
inner ear called the cochlea. Sound waves travel through the fluid of the
cochlea and make the tiny hairs move. Here, we show the hairs moving. When
the hairs in the cochlea move, they cause an electrical signal to travel through
the auditory nerve and to your brain. This electrical signal varies depending on
the pitch of the sound and how loud it is. Your brain makes sense of this signal.
And so you hear the sound. Here we show the electrical signal moving through
the auditory nerve. >> Now and final for this session, I will present an example
for chemical senses and present accordingly a short video that demonstrates
the principles of the smelling and tasting sense. Enjoy. [MUSIC] >> The nasal
cavity that detects smell is just beneath the eyes and is lined with a sticky,
mucus fluid. This mucus membrane measures just 600th of a millimeter thick.
Specialized olfactory nerve cells are another part of the smelling system. The
basic task of these cells is to take messages from smell molecules and take
them to the olfactory bulbs. A smell cell is formed by three main parts: the
cell's body in the middle, and then on one end, tiny hairs called cilia, and on
the other, nerve extensions called axons. At this point, astonishing things
happen at the axons on the other end of the smell cell. The axons, whose
number ranges between 10 and 100, work together in order to transport the
signal in the cell to the olfactory bulb inside the brain. They do this by forming
a bundle in order to reach the olfactory bulb, and as a group pass through a
porous, paper-thin piece of bone called the cribriform plate. It would be no
exaggeration to call the special design of the cribriform plate a miracle. This
bone has pores in it which allow the passage of the olfactory neurons. Had the
bone not been designed in just this way, it would have been impossible for the
nerves to connect to each other. And so would have made smelling utterly
impossible, even if all the other pieces of the system were right in place. By
virtue of this perfect planning behind all the details of our smell system,
communication in the smell cells goes off without any hitches. The olfactory
bulb is another important part of the olfactory, or smell system. The olfactory
bulb lies on the front side of the brain, on top of the nasal cavity, concealed
upon the brain case. There are two olfactory lobes in the brain, just as the nose

has two nasal cavities. Each of these lobes is about as big as a pea. The
olfactory lobes work like a news room at a TV station or newspaper. All the
signals coming in from the olfactory receptors first gather in this center.
Millions of pieces of information are reorganized here. Later, they are sent to
the related spots in the brain through smell nerves in order to be reassessed.
>> The olfactory membrane is a thick yellow-brown structure about 1 inch
square, located in the upper part of each nasal cavity. It consists of about 100
million smell receptor cells, which are surrounded by supporting cells. The
smell receptor cells have an olfactory vesicle bearing cilia which project into
the mucous that covers the smell membrane. Chemicals in the air react with
the cilia and stimulate the receptor cells. The smell information is passed by
the receptor cell axons which lead the membrane as the first cranial nerve and
which relay with mitral cell axons to the olfactory cortex. The supporting
sustentacular cells contain a pigment that colors the membrane yellow. The
membrane also contains Bowman's glands, which secrete mucus. Their
function is to keep the membrane moist so that chemicals can dissolve and
stimulate the cilia. >> If you can't smell, you probably can't taste very well,
either. They are closely related functions. Receptor cells for taste and smell are
located in the mouth and nose, respectively. As the receptor cells are
stimulated, they send impulses from these organs to the brain's smelling and
tasting centers in the cortices. For taste, impulses stimulated by the chemical
compounds in food are sent to the gustatory cortex. For smells, impulses
stimulated by chemical compounds in odors are sent to the olfactory cortex. As
new compounds stimulate the receptors, the brain forms an odor memory
bank. So that it can recall the odors the next time they are present. [MUSIC]
>> With this video we come now to the end of class number three, session
number one. Thank you.

3.2
Welcome to class number three, session number two. During this session, we
will learn about the main components of a sensor and different ways to classify
the sensors. A sensor is a transducer that converts the measurement Namely,
a quantity or a parameter into signals that carries the information. Chemical
sensors usually contain two basic components connected in series. The first
component is a chemical, or molecular recognition. Which we call usually a
receptor, and the second part is a physiochemical transducer. In the majority of
chemical sensors, the receptor interacts with the analyte, and as a result the
physical properties are changed. In such a way that the appending tr-,
transducer can gain an electrical signal. In some cases, one and the same
physical object acts as a receptor and also as a transducer. Sensors can be
analog to the human senses. In both cases, signals are provided from the
environment and converted into signal by sensory receptors in humans. Or by

receptor and transducer systems in sensor. In the application and deprocessing

stage the sensor in nerve system is comparable to an analog circuit. The
processing stage so far. Which is obviously in the brain for humans will be
performed by a computer in the case of sensor system. A modern definition of
the sensors includes several features. The first feature is that the sensor have
to be in direct contact with the investigated subject. The second feature is that
the sensor have to transform an electric information to electric signals. The
third feature is that the sensor has to respond quickly. And also operate
continuously at least on repeated cycles. The other features is that the sensors
has to be small and also inexpensive. The main components of sensor may
include the following parts. The first part is a receptor. Receptor is an agent
that is able to interact selectively with particular substances, or mixture of
substances. Catalyze reactions selectively, or participate in chemical
equilibrium together with the anolyte. Typical for biosensors is is that molecules
are recognized by their size of dimension. Namely, by the so-called steric
recognition. The second part of the chemical sensors is called transducer. This
part is the device that transforms actual concentration value. Or non-electric
quantity into an electric quantity. Such as voltage, current, or resistance. There
are several types of transducers and the two main representative bonds are
the following. Energy conversion transducer, where the principal of the energy
conversion means that the electrical energy is produced by the sensor. None of
these kinds of sensors are able to operate without any external supply of
voltage. The second part of representative transducers is called resistive
transducer. A transducer that transform environmental properties, conductivity,
or on the other hand, resistivity of electrically conducting materials Is a
transducer that answers this property. Sensors or chemical sensors can be
divided into various categories, according to their operation mode. In the
following slides I will make a brief explanation on part of these categories. One
by one. The first category of these sensors are the chemical sensors, namely,
devices that transform chemical information like the concentration of a specific
sample component into an ala, analytically useful signal. As mentioned in the
previous slides, chemical sensors contain two basic fundamental units. A
receptor and a transducer. In the receptor part of a sensor, the chemical
information is transformed into a form of energy which made be measured by a
transducer. Based on that, electrochemical sensors are a type of a chemical
sensor. Indeed, in continuation to the chemical sensor, I will define right now
the second category of the sensors, which are the electrochemical sensors.
These sensors are the largest group of chemical sensors. They can be used to
detect the majority of common toxic gases in a wide variety of safety
applications. Electrochemical sensors operate by reacting With the gas or
anolyte of interest. And by producing an electrical signal that is proportional to
the anolyte concentration. A typical electrochemical sensor consists of a
sensing electrode, or we call it, usually, working electrode. And on the other
hand, a counter electrode that is separated by a thin layer of electrode. This

electrode light composition and the sensing electrode material is selected

based on the chemical reactivity of the target. Electrochemical sensors are
compact. Require very little power. Also, they exhibit excellent linearity and
compatibility, and generally have a long lifespan, typically one to three years.
More details on these sensors will be learned in the upcoming classes. The third
category of the sensors are the so called biosensors. Namely devices for the
detection of an analyte that combines a biological component with a physical
chemical detector component. As an example of biosensors. I present here on
the slide the results from the research that is taken and obtained by a team of
researches with the United States Department of Energy at Berkeley. Who has
invented a technique in which DNA or RNA assays can be read and evaluated
without the need to elaborate chemical labeling or sophisticated
instrumentation. This biosensing approach is based on the electrostatic
repulsion in which objects with the same electrical charge to build one other.
One of the most amazing things about the electrostatic detection method is
that it requires nothing more than the naked eye to read out results that
currently require chemical leveling and con focal laser scanner. The first
category of sensors is the optical sensors. This category of sensors can be
categories into two main subgroups. The first subgroup is called proximity
sensors, which are designed for use in detecting the presence of an up Object
or motion detection in various industrial, mobile, electronic applications and
retail automations. Examples of proximity sensor usage include detecting an
out-of-paper conditions in a printer, or a mobile phone screen that dims To save
battery life when placed near a phase. The second subcategory of the optical
sensors is called ambient light sensors, which will provide precise light
detection for a wide range of ambient brightness and are commonly used in
LCD backlight control. In mobile phones, LCD TVs or panels, and notebook
applications. One way to convert the optical signal is by using electro-optical
sensors that are electronic detectors that convert light Or a change in light into
an electrical signal. Light have many components that can be sensed, like the
wavelength, the intensity, the polarization, and the phase. The interaction of
the light with the matter can be measured by means of absorbance,
reflectance, luminescence, and more. More details about the sensors will be
given in the next classes. The fifth category of the sensors is the so-called
mass-sensitive sensors. These sensors can detect unalike molecules by sensing
its mass. There are several kinds of mass sensitive sensors. This, the first
subcategory of mass sensitive sensors is the cantilever sensors. In this
subcategory the displacement of the beam on a cantilever surface is related to
the applied force and length of a beam. The surface of the cantilever can be
modified allowing a differential stress to propagate as an analyte of interest is
bond to its target on the modified surface. The 2nd sub category of mass
sensitive sensors, is the so called quartz crystal micro balance, or briefly, QCM.
QCM is an ultra-sensitive mass sensor that relies on a quartz crystal that
oscillates at its resonance frequency due to the piezoelectric effect. Upon

addition or removal of small masses, or molecules from the surface, there

resonance of the quartz crystal is disrupted Thus leading to the change in the
measured frequency. The prop changes in the frequency are then transformed
throughout a physical relationship to changes in mass. The third subcategory of
mass-sensitive sensors is called surface acoustic wave or, briefly, SAW. A
sensor acoustic wave Is an acoustic wave traveling along the surface of the
material exhibiting elasticity. With amplitude that typically decays
exponentially with a dip into the substrate. As the acoustic wave propagates
throughout the surface of the material and it changes to the characteristics of
the propagation [INAUDIBLE]. Affect the velocity or the amplitude of the wave.
Changes in velocity can be monitored by measuring the frequency or fast
characteristics of the sensor and can then be correlated to the corresponding
physical quantity that is being measured. In summary, There is a large variety
of sensors, but the basic analysis and parameters that characterize the sensors
are common to all sensors, as we will learn in the next session. This is now the
end of class number three, session number two. Thank you.

3.3
Welcome to class number three, session number three. This session will focus
on the different parameters that characterize a sensor. Validation of sensing
results is fulfilled by characterizing one, or combination of the following
parameters. The first parameter is the accuracy. Accuracy is how close a
measured value is to the actual, or true value. In the analog of an arrow that is
shot towards a target, accuracy means how close the arrow is, to the target's
center. The second parameter that is important for the validation of the
sensing, is the precision. Precision means how scattered are the results around
an average value. As seen in the analogue of an arrow that is shot towards a
target, the results can not be accurate. In this case it is acceptable to take the
average deviation of the arrows location on the target relative to this center of
the target. For sensors to be accurate and precise, the measurements result
should be close to the real value, and also collected together. As seen and
demonstrated in the right image on the screen. The sensor sensitivity indicates
how much the sensor's output changes when the metered quantity changes.
Sensors that meter a very small changes must have very high sensitivity. The
sensitivity of the sensor is so far defined as the slope of the output
characteristic curve as demonstrated on the plot on the screen. Every device
has some amount of noise at its output. The question is, how much is too
much? If a signal level is very small, even a very low noise level can have an
adverse effect. Therefore, signal-to-noise ratio is a way to appreciate if the
signal is high enough in comparison to the noise. This requires actually two
level measurements, followed by a simple calculation. The first step is
measuring the output level of the device and their test with no input signal. On

the other hand, the second step is to apply a signal to the device, and to take
another level of measurements. The deviation of the two results will output the
signal to noise ratio. The lowest concentration value that can be detected by
the sensor is defined the signal to noise ratio. And it's usually equal to the
number 3. This concentration will be the so-called detection limit. In this
context, I would like to clarify and to warn, to make a clear differentiation
between the detection limit and sensitivities, as many mistakes has been done
in this endeavor so far. [BLANK_AUDIO] The dynamic range, of the sensor, is
the maximum and minimum values of applied parameter that can be
measured. Every sensor is designed to work over a specified range. The design
ranges are usually fixed, and if exceeded, result in permanent damage, or to
destruction of the sensor. It is customary to use transducing elements over only
the part of the range where they provide predictable performance, and often
enhanced linearity. We will move now to the definition of selectivity. Selectivity
refers to characteristics that determine whether a sensor can respond
selectively to a group of analytes, or events specifically to single analyte. For
example, when an EDL selective sensor is exposed to a mixture of molecules, it
interacts with those for which the sensor is selective, and rejects the other
intervening molecules. [BLANK_AUDIO] The other feature which we will define
right now is the so-called linearity. Linearity is the relative deviation of sensing
behavior from ideal straight line. Ideal sensors are designed to be linear, or
linear to some simple mathematical function of the measurement, typically
logarithmic. In practice, the relationship between the measured and the output
of most transducers is not perfectly linear. And it is therefore necessarily, to
find a way of using this devices to achieve the most accurate overall results.
This can be achieved by constructing what is known as the best fit straight line.
Other features of the sensors is code resolution. This specification is the
smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal. Often in a digital display, the least significant
digit will fluctuate, indicating that changes of that magnitude are only just
resolved. Response time. The response time is the time taken by a sensor to
approach it's true output, when subjected to a step input. And this is again, is
called as response time. Usually, response time is specified, as time to raise to
90% of the final value measured from the onset of step input change in
measured variable. Hysteresis. Hysteresis refers to the characteristic that a
transducer has in being unable to repeat faithfully in the opposite direction of
operation. And in this case the data that have been recording in one direction is
different than that, that has been recorded in the other direction. Hysteresis is
a major problem for sending application as two signals. Might be obtained for
the same concentration. For example, depending on the directionality of the
concentration. Life cycle. Life cycle is the period of time over which the sensor
will continuously operate. With this feature, we come now to the conclusions.
For conclusion we got to know some sensor characteristics that have to be

taken into account when planning our sensors. With this we come now to the
end of class number three session number three. Thank you.
3.4
Welcome to class number three, session number four. This session will give an
introduction for an important sensing approach that is called sensors' array or
electronic nodes. The introduction will give a brief information on the hardware
and software parts of this sophisticated sensing approach. So far, the strategies
for sensing analytes can be divided into two main techniques. Selective sensing
on the one hand and cross-reactive sensing on the other hand. In the selective
sensing concept, a highly selective receptor or detector is designed to
specifically bind or detect the analyte of interest. Please refer to the upper part
of the presented schematics for more details on this sensing approach. This
approach is suitable for detecting a well-defined target analyte in the presence
of interfering species or background. While most selective sensing techniques
for detection are aimed for non-volatile compounds, there are a number of welldefined sensors that target specific analsyte of well characterized applications.
An emerging strategy that is complimentary to the selective sensing approach
is the so called Cross-Reactive Sensors array as demonstrated in the bottom
part of the presented schematics. Bioinspired. This approach performs
detection throughout use of an array of broadly cross-reactive sensors in
conjugation with pattern recognition methods. In contrast to the selective
sensing approach, each sensor in the cross-reactive array is broadly responsive
to an array of anolytes. In the S architecture, each anolyte produces a distinct
fingerprint from the array of the broadly cross-reactive sensor. This allows to
considerably widen variety of compounds to which a given matrix is sensitive.
To increase the degree of component identification. And in specific cases, to
perform an analysis of individual components in complex multicomponent
biochemical media. Meta recognition algorithms can then be used to obtain
information on the identity, properties, and concentration of the anolyte expose
to the sensor's array. In continuation to the concept presented in the previous
slide, array of multiple sensors can be used when multi component gas analysis
is required. For instance if you want to distinguish a good wine from a bad wine
based on their aromas only. This approach mimics the olfaction mechanism of a
human, dogs and other animals, and it's therefore known as machine olfaction
or simply electronic nose. Applications of electronic nose ranges from food
industry, medical industry, and environmental monitoring and process control,
and many, many more. As an example of the electronic nose concept. I present
here in this slide the so-called optoelectronic nose. This device looks a bit like a
computer chip covered with neat rows of dots. Each dot contains a chemical
dye. And some of these dyes are made of materials that change color to show
how acidic or basic a chemical is. If you have ever used the litmus paper, you
know how this approach works. This paper contains a dye that turns red for an
acid, such as lemon juice. Or blue for a base, such as baking soda. In the

presented example of the Optoelectronic Nose on the side, the resulting color
pattern is like a chemical fingerprint. Each pattern is unique to a single odor or
mixture of odors. For example, exposing the five by five sensors array seen on
the screen to hexylamine vapor, produces colors in different places over the
array. Therefore, the produced combination of colors and their constituent
places in the array, will serve as the signature of the hexylamine. On the other
hand, exposing the same sensors array to pyridine showed different
combination of colors that is different from the one of the hexylamine.
Similarly, other types of analytes, such as those presented on the slide, show
different color or optical signature on the same array of sensors. And therefore,
for each analyte it has its own fingerprint of colors or optical signals. Many
types of sensors can be used for electronic applications. Metal oxide sensors
are considered as one of the standard sensors. Other sensors are based on
surface or bulk acoustic waves. Field effect transistors are conducting polymer
sensors. Optical sensor systems is also an interesting option, as seen in the
previous slide. Indeed, instead of having transduction principles based on
electrical signals potential ore frequency, the modulation of flight properties is
measured in this approach. Mass spectrometers are often applied for lab
analytics. Or as stand alone devices for the identification of pure chemicals.
The disadvantage of all types of mass spectrometers is that their operation
requires a vacuum, and therefore, they are not as convenient as the solid state
sensors array. With this in mind the most common chemo resistive nano
material based films, are based usually on conductive and or genetic nano
materials. Such as metal nano particles, single wall carbonite tubes, carbon
blake, that are capped with, or in organic functionality. More details about each
of these sensors and their combination with the nano-materials will be the
topics of the next classes in the current course. After the sensors of an
electronic nose are in place, an algorithm must analyze the responses of the
sensors. As the first step an electronic nose needs to be trained with qualified
samples so as to build a database of reference. Then the instrument can
recognize new samples by comparing volatile or nonvolatile compounds
fingerprint deduce contain in its database. Thus, we can perform qualitative or
quantitative analysis. This however may also provide a problem, as many
others are made of multiple, different molecules. In this case, the device, as it
will register them, as different compounds. And will result in incorrect, or
inaccurate results, depending on the primary function of the nodes. Machine
learning primarily concerned with the design, and development of algorithms
that allow computers to learn and recognize complex patterns based on the
data. And this is of course, one of the main parts of the electronic nose, as we
will detail in the next few slides. The main approaches for machine learning
are: Supervised Learning and it's actually a classification that is seen as
supervised learning. And in other words the data are labeled with predefined
classes. In this case, the test data are classified into these classes. The second
subcategory of machine learning is called the unsupervised learning or

clustering. Class levels of the data are known in this approach. However, given
a set of data, the task is to establish the existence of classes, or clusters, in the
data. A common unsupervised machine learning, that has found applications in
the fields like face recognition and image comparison is called principal
component analysis or briefly PCA. It is a common method for finding patterns
in data of high dimensions. The end is to achieve lower dimensional
representation and visualization of the collective data in terms of scores on
uncorrelated principle components so called score plot. This method enables us
to interpret a large set of data, by using a smaller number of components.
Since patterns in data can be hard to find in high dimensional data. And there
is no ability to represent this data graphically. PCA is a powerful tool for data
analysis. A simple way to understand PCA is how to take a picture of a teapot to
capture the most information about it. [SOUND] You can take a picture in
several directions, but how you will know which direction contains the most
information. Also, what about the information that is lost? Well, the front side of
the teapot contain the most visual information. The way to find, this visual
information is by rotating the pot around its center till the longest axis is
revealed. The next step, is to find the second longest axis that is orthogonal to
the first one. The two axis found are the first and the second principle
component in this case. The tea pot that had many dimensions now have only
two main dimensions that contain most of their information. [BLANK_AUDIO]
Supervised learning, or the so-called machine learning. Takes a known set of
input data and known responses to the data, and seeks to build predictor
model that generates reasonable predictions for the response to new data. In
order to solve a given problem of supervised learning, one has to perform the
followings steps. The first step is to determine the type of training examples.
Before doing anything else, the user should decide what kind of data is to be
used as a training set. In the case of handwriting analysis. For example, this
might be a single handwritten character an entire handwritten world or an
entire line of handwriting. The second step is to gather a trending set. The
trending set needs to be representative of the real-world views of the function.
Thus, a set of input objects is gathered and corresponding outputs are also
gathered, either from human experts or from measurements. The third step is
to determine the input feature representation of the learned function. The
[INAUDIBLE] of the learned function depends strongly on how the input object
is represented. Typically, the input object is transformed into a feature vector
which contains a number of features that are descriptive of the object. The
number of the features shouldn't be too large because of the curse of
dimensionality. But of course it should contain enough information to
accurately predict the output. The fourth step is to determine the structure of
the learned functions and the corresponding learning algorithm. Now we will
move to the fifth step. And indeed the fifth step is to complete the design.
Namely to run the learning algorithm on the gathered training set. In this case,
some supervised learning algorithms require the user to determine certain

control parameters. These parameters may be adjusted by optimizing

performance on a subset which we call, usually, validation set of the training
set. Or through our, the so called cross validation process. The last step in this
approach is to evaluate the accuracy of the learned function. After barometer
adjustment and learning, the performance of the resulting function should be
measured on a test set that is separate from the clinic set. A wide range of
supervised learning algorithms is available. Each with its pros and cons. There
is nothing a learning algorithm that works best on all supervised learning
problems. Therefore, one has to tailor the algorithms according to the targeted
application of interest. In conclusion, the electronic nose system, similar to the
human nose, contains hardware and software parts. This field is under
extensive research and provide opportunities in the fields like food industry,
medical industry, and environmental monitoring. We come now to the end of
class number three, session number four. Thank you.