10 How Lead Acid Batteries Work
10 How Lead Acid Batteries Work
10 How Lead Acid Batteries Work
life span, all things being equal. Battery weight is a simple indicator for the thickness of the
lead plates used in a battery. The heavier a battery for a given group size, the thicker the
plates, and the better the battery will tolerate deep discharges.
Some "Marine" batteries are sold as dual-purpose batteries for starter and deep cycle
applications. However, the thin plates required for starting purposes inherently compromise
deep-cycle performance. Thus, such batteries should not be cycled deeply and should be
avoided for deep-cycle applications unless space/weight constraints dictate otherwise.
Regular versus Valve-Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA) Batteries
Battery Containers come in several different configurations. Flooded Batteries can be either the
sealed or open variety.
Sealed Flooded Cells are frequently found as starter batteries in cars. Their electrolyte
cannot be replenished. When enough electrolyte has evaporated due to charging, age, or just
ambient heat, the battery has to be replaced.
Deep-Cycle Flooded cells usually have removable caps that allow you to replace any
electrolyte that has evaporated over time. Take care not to contaminate the electrolyte wipe the exterior container while rinsing the towel frequently.
VRLA batteries remain under constant pressure of 1-4 psi. This pressure helps the recombination
process under which 99+% of the Hydrogen and Oxygen generated during charging are turned
back into water. The two most common VRLA batteries used today are the Gel and Absorbed
Glass Mat (AGM) variety.
Gel batteries feature an electrolyte that has been immobilized using a gelling agent like
fumed silica.
AGM batteries feature a thin fiberglass felt that holds the electrolyte in place like a sponge.
Neither AGM or Gel cells will leak if inverted, pierced, etc. and will continue to operate even
under water.
Battery Cells
Battery Cells are the most basic individual component of a battery. They consist of a container in
which the electrolyte and the lead plates can interact. Each lead-acid cell fluctuates in voltage from
about 2.12 Volts when full to about 1.75 volts when empty. Note the small voltage difference
between a full and an empty cell (another advantage of lead-acid batteries over rival chemistries).
Battery Voltage
The nominal voltage of a lead-acid battery depends on the number of cells that have been wired in
series. As mentioned above, each battery cell contributes a nominal voltage of 2 Volts, so a 12
Volt battery usually consists of 6 cells wired in series.
State of Charge
The State of Charge describes how full a battery is. The exact voltage to battery charge correlation
is dependent on the temperature of the battery. Cold batteries will show a lower voltage when full
than hot batteries. This is one of the reasons why quality alternator regulators or high-powered
charging systems use temperature probes on batteries.
Depth of Discharge (DOD)
The Depth of Discharge (DOD) is a measure of how deeply a battery is discharged. When a battery
is 100% full, then the DOD is 0%. Conversely, when a battery is 100% empty, the DOD is 100%.
The deeper batteries are discharged on average, the shorter their so-called cycle life.
Peukerts Equation: I n x T = C
where
As you can see, the available current is dependent on the rate of discharge and the Peukert
exponent for the battery. The closer the exponent is to 1 (one), the less the available capacity of a
battery will be affected by fast discharges. Peukerts numbers are derived empirically and are
usually available from manufacturers. They range from about 2 for some flooded batteries down to
1.05 for some AGM cells. The average peukerts exponent is 1.2 though the exact number depends
on the battery construction and chemistry.
In the above picture, note how the low exponent battery (topmost curve) has more than four times the
available capacity over a high-exponent battery (lowest curve). This chart uses a linear scale.
When the time comes to charge a battery, the Peukerts effect also comes into play. The capacity of a
battery to absorb a charge during the bulk phase is also dependent on it's Peukerts number. This is one of
the reasons why AGM cells can be bulk charged at much higher rates than either Gel or Flooded cells.
Reserve Minutes
Reserve Minutes are a measure of how long your battery can sustain a load before it's available
capacity has been completely used up. This measure is especially useful for folks who want to run
inverters, fridges, and other large loads. The following chart has a logarithmic time scale (minutes)
- hence, the non-linear nature of the Peukert effect is smoothed out quite a bit.
log scale
Note how batteries that have a high Peukerts Exponent will quickly run out of capacity with high loads.
Here, the low-exponent battery will last over 100 minutes with a 50 ampere load, while the high-exponent
battery will last about 20 minutes. Thus, anytime you deal with large loads relative to the battery capacity
available, chose a low-exponent battery. This is why many wheel-chairs and other electrically motorized
vehicles use AGMs.
This chart answers why starter batteries are built to have a low Peukerts exponent. Otherwise, they'd
simply not be able to crank an engine for more than a few seconds. However, the thin plates that allow
flooded cells to work as starter batteries also make them too fragile for deep-cycle use.
Conversion Efficiency
The conversion efficiency denotes how well a battery converts an electrical charge into chemical
energy and back again. The higher this factor, the less energy is converted into heat and the faster a
battery can be charged without overheating (all other things being equal). The lower the internal
resistance of a battery, the better its conversion efficiency.
One of the main reasons why lead-acid batteries dominate the energy storage markets is that the
conversion efficiency of lead-acid cells at 85%-95% is much higher than Nickel-Cadmium (a.k.a.
NiCad) at 65%, Alkaline (a.k.a. NiFe) at 60%, or other inexpensive battery technologies.
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Battery Life
Battery manufacturers define the end-of-life of a battery when it can no longer hold a proper
charge (for example, a cell has shorted) or when the available battery capacity is 80% or less than
what the battery was rated for. The life of Lead Acid batteries is usually limited by several factors:
Cycle Life is a measure of how many charge and discharge cycles a battery can take before
its lead-plate grids/plates are expected to collapse and short out. The greater the average
depth-of-discharge, the shorter the cycle life.
Age also affects batteries as the chemistry inside them attacks the lead plates. The healthier
the "living conditions" of the batteries, the longer they will serve you. Lead-Acid batteries
like to be kept at a full charge in a cool place. Only buy recently manufactured batteries, so
learn to decipher the date code stamped on every battery... (inquire w/manufacturer). The
longer the battery has sat in a store, the less time it will serve you! Since lead-acid batteries
will not freeze if fully charged, you can store them in the cold during winter to maximize
their life.
Construction has a big role in battery life too, some designs are better at preserving
batteries than others and the suitability of a design for a given application plays a role also.
For example, flooded lead-acid cells will typically fare worse than their VRLA bretheren in
operations that involve a lot of jerky motion - the immobilized plates in VRLA cells will be
stressed less than suspended plates in cheap flooded cells.
Plate Thickness helps - the thicker the plates, the more abuse, charge and discharge cycles
they can take. Thicker plates will also survive any equalization treatments for sulphation
better. The heavier the battery for a given group size, the thicker the plates are, so you can
use weight as one guide to buying lead-acid batteries.
Sulphation is a constant threat to batteries that are not fully re-charged. A layer of lead
sulphate can form in these cells and inhibit the electro-chemical reaction that allows you to
charge/discharge batteries. Many batteries can be saved from the recycling heap if they are
Equalized In closing, the design life of a battery depends in part on its construction, its type,
the thickness of the plates, its charging profiles, etc. All these factors come together to
determine just how long your battery may ultimately serve you.
Equalization
Sulphation layers form barrier coats on the lead plates in batteries that inhibit their ability to store
and dispense energy. The equalization step is a last resort to break up the Sulphate layers using a
controlled overcharge. The process will cause the battery electrolyte to boil and gas, so it should be
only done under strict supervision and with the proper precautions.
It is much more tricky to equalize a VRLA battery than a flooded battery with removable caps.
However it apparently can be done as described at the Ample Power web site. Since I do not have
the space here to describe the Equalization process in detail, I'd consult some of the links on the
index page instead.
Gassing
Batteries start to gas when you attempt to charge them faster than they can absorb the energy. The
excess energy is turned into heat, which then causes the electrolyte to boil and evaporate. The
evaporated electrolyte can be replenished in batteries with removable caps such as most flooded
deep-cycle batteries. Many car batteries are sealed and thus need to be replaced when their
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Since AGM and Gel cells are always sealed, it is very important to guarantee they are not
overcharged. The only way to ensure this is to use a temperature-compensated charging system.
Such chargers use a temperature probe on the battery to ensure that the battery does not get too hot.
As the battery heats up, the charging current is reduced to prevent thermal runaway, a very
dangerous condition.
Thermal Runaway
This is a very dangerous condition that can occur if batteries are charged too fast. One of the
byproducts of Gassing are Oxygen and Hydrogen. As the battery heats up, the gassing rate
increases as well and it becomes increasingly likely that the Hydrogen around it will explode. The
danger posed by high Hydrogen concentrations is one of the reasons that the American Boat and
Yachting Council (ABYC) requires that batteries be installed in separate, well-ventilated areas.
Self-Discharge
The self-discharge rate is a measure of how much batteries discharge on their own. The SelfDischarge rate is governed by the construction of the battery and the metallurgy of the lead used
inside.
For instance, flooded cells typically use lead alloyed with Antimony to increase their mechanical
strength. However, the Antimony also increases the self-discharge rate to 8-40% per month. This is
why flooded lead-acid batteries should be in use often or left on a trickle-charger.
The lead found in Gel and AGM batteries does not require a lot of mechanical strength since it is
immobilized by the gel or fiberglass. Thus, it is typically alloyed with Calcium to reduce Gassing
and Self-Discharge. The self-discharge of Gel and AGM batteries is only 2-10% per month and
thus these batteries need less maintenance to keep them happy.
Battery Group Size
To further complicate matters, manufacturers for marine batteries make them in all sorts of sizes
and voltages. Battery case sizes are typically denoted by a "Group Size" which has nothing to do
with the actual size of the battery. For example, Group 8D batteries are much larger than Group 31
batteries. Here are some examples:
Table of Battery Group Sizes, Voltages, and Approximate Exterior Dimensions:
Battery Group
Units
21
24
27
30H 31
4D
8D
T105 GPL4C L16
Voltage 12
12
12
12
12
12
12
6
6
6
Volts
Length 8.19 10.25 12.06 13.5 13
20.75 20.62 10.38 10.35
11.62 inches
Width 6.81 6.81 6.81 6.81 6.72 8.75 10.95 7.13 7.06
7
inches
Height 8.75 8.87 8.75 9.25 9.44 9.88 10.17 11.2 11.57
17.56 inches
Note: Dimensions are approximate and vary by manufacturer. Consult manufacturer data sheets
for exact dimension of container, location and type of terminals, etc.
The group size will merely indicate the approximate exterior dimensions (including terminals) and
voltage of the battery in question. However, the exact dimensions can only be directly obtained
from each manufacturer.
Nickel-Cadmium Cells
Several people have inquired about NiCad cells for Marine environments. I am not a great fan of
them due to their toxicity and their low power conversion efficiency. See my NiCad info page for
more information about the pros and cons of NiCad technology for marine applications.
Now that we understand the lingo, let's move on to the differences between the various types of lead-acid
batteries.