God

arguments for and against the existence of God.[2]

This article is about the concept God in the context of

monotheism and henotheism. For the general concept of
a god, see Deity. For God in specic religions, see an
index of pages beginning in God in. For discussion of
the existence of God, see Existence of God. For other
uses, see God (disambiguation).

There are many names for God, and dierent names are
attached to dierent cultural ideas about Gods identity
and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism,
possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this
deity was called Aten,[3] premised on being the one true
Supreme Being and Creator of the Universe.[4] In the
Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, "I Am that I
Am", and the tetragrammaton YHWH are used as names
of God, while Yahweh, and Jehovah are sometimes used
in Christianity as vocalizations of YHWH. In Judaism, it
is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or
Adonai, the latter of which is believed by some scholars to
descend from the Egyptian Aten.[5][6][7][8][9] In Islam, the
name Allah, Al-El, or Al-Elah (the God) is used,
while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names
for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a
monistic deity.[10] Other religions have names for God,
for instance, Baha in the Bah' Faith,[11] Waheguru in
Sikhism,[12] and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.[13]
The many dierent conceptions of God, and competing claims as to Gods characteristics, aims, and actions,
have led to the development of ideas of omnitheism,
pandeism,[14][15] or a perennial philosophy, which postulates that there is one underlying theological truth, of
which all religions express a partial understanding, and as
to which the devout in the various great world religions
are in fact worshipping that one God, but through dierent, overlapping concepts or mental images of him.[16]

God the Father by Ludovico Mazzolino (1480 c. 1528)

1 Etymology and usage

In monotheism and henotheism, God is conceived as

the Supreme Being and principal object of faith.[1] The
concept of God as described by theologians commonly
includes the attributes of omniscience (innite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence
(present everywhere), omnibenevolence (perfect goodness), divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the
universe, while in deism, God is the creator, but not the
sustainer, of the universe. Monotheism is the belief in
the existence of one God or in the oneness of God. In
pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is
purported not to exist, while God is deemed unknown or
unknowable within the context of agnosticism. God has
also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a
personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the
greatest conceivable existent.[1] Many notable medieval
philosophers and modern philosophers have developed

Main article: God (word)

The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized[17] ) comes from the 6thcentury Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word
itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * uan. The
reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * hu-t-m was
likely based on the root * hau()-, which meant either to call or to invoke.[18] The Germanic words for
God were originally neuterapplying to both genders
but during the process of the Christianization of the
Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the words became a masculine syntactic form.[19]
In the English language, the capitalized form of God
continues to represent a distinction between monotheis1

2 GENERAL CONCEPTIONS
denition of God in Judaism, the trinitarian view of
Christians, and the Islamic concept of God. The dharmic
religions dier in their view of the divine: views of God
in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from
monotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic. Divinity was
recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly akra
and Brahma. However, other sentient beings, including
gods, can at best only play a supportive role in ones personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more
prominent place to notions of the divine.

2.1 Oneness
Main articles: Monotheism and Henotheism
Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may

Detail of Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by

Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction
of God the Father in Western art

tic God and gods in polytheism.[20][21] The English

word God and its counterparts in other languages are
normally used for any and all conceptions and, in spite
of signicant dierences between religions, the term remains an English translation common to all. The same
holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given
a proper name, the tetragrammaton YHWH, in origin
the name of an Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In
many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is
in all capitals, it signies that the word represents the
tetragrammaton.[22] Allh (Arabic: ) is the Arabic term
with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking
Christians and Jews meaning The God (with a capital
G), while "ilh" (Arabic: )is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[23][24][25] God may also be given a
proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which
emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or
later Vishnu and Hari.[26]

The Trinity is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in

three persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the
Holy Spirit

claim that the one true god is worshiped in dierent religions under dierent names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not,
is especially emphasized in Hinduism[28] and Sikhism.[29]
In Christianity, the doctrine of the Trinity describes God
as one God in three persons. The Trinity is composed of
God the Father, God the Son (Jesus), and God the Holy
Spirit.[30]

Islam's most fundamental concept is tawhid (meaning

oneness or uniqueness). God is described in the
Quran as: Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah,
the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.[31][32] Muslims
2 General conceptions
repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism. In Islam, God is
Main article: Conceptions of God
beyond all comprehension or equal and does not resemble any of his creations in any way. Thus, Muslims are
[33]
[27]
There is no clear consensus on the nature of God. The not iconodules, and are not expected to visualize God.
Abrahamic conceptions of God include the monotheistic Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while

2.3

Other concepts

accepting the existence or possible existence of other 2.3 Other concepts

deities.[34]
Dystheism, which is related to theodicy, is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is
fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil.
2.2 Theism, deism and pantheism
One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on
Main articles: Theism, Deism and Pantheism
the grounds that he allows children to suer.[43] Another
example would be Theistic Satanism.
Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human thought; that God In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been
created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent developed, such as process theology and open theism.
and eternal; and that God is personal and interacting The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry
with the universe through, for example, religious expe- has however proposed a phenomenological approach
rience and the prayers of humans.[35] Theism holds that and denition of God as phenomenological essence of
[44]
God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is si- Life.
multaneously innite and in some way present in the af- God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (imfairs of the world.[36] Not all theists subscribe to all the material), a personal being, the source of all moral obliabove propositions, but they usually subscribe to one or gation, and the greatest conceivable existent.[1] These
more of them (see, by way of comparison, family resem- attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the
blance).[35] Catholic theology holds that God is innitely early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philososimple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most the- phers, including Maimonides,[45] Augustine of Hippo,[45]
ists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benev- and Al-Ghazali,[2] respectively.
olent, although this belief raises questions about Gods responsibility for evil and suering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. Open 3 Non-theistic views of God
Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of
time, Gods omniscience does not mean the deity can pre- See also:
Evolutionary origin of religions and
dict the future. Theism is sometimes used to refer in gen- Evolutionary psychology of religion
eral to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or
polytheism.[37][38]
Nontheism holds that the universe can be explained withDeism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what
was necessary to create it.[36] In this view, God is not
anthropomorphic and does not literally answer prayers or
cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief
that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be
aware of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs discussed below.[15][39][40] Pandeism is proposed to explain as to Deism why God would create a
universe and then abandon it,[41] and as to Pantheism, the
origin and purpose of the universe.[41][42]
Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe. It is also the
view of the Liberal Catholic Church; Theosophy; some
views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism, which believes in
panentheism; Sikhism; some divisions of Neopaganism
and Taoism, along with many varying denominations
and individuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of
Godwhich has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism,
particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tovbut
only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god,
not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits
persona to God.

out any reference to the supernatural, or to a supernatural being. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God,
whilst accepting that it is signicant to many; other nontheists understand God as a symbol of human values
and aspirations. The nineteenth-century English atheist
Charles Bradlaugh declared that he refused to say There
is no God, because the word 'God' is to me a sound
conveying no clear or distinct armation";[46] he said
more specically that he disbelieved in the Christian
god. Stephen Jay Gould proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "nonoverlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this view, questions
of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence
and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper
domain of theology. The methods of science should then
be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this
view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from
the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events
makes science the sole player in the natural world.[47]
Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the
existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds
that a universe with a god would be a completely dierent kind of universe from one without, and it would be a
scientic dierence.[48] Carl Sagan argued that the doc-

trine of a Creator of the Universe was dicult to prove or

disprove and that the only conceivable scientic discovery that could disprove the existence of a Creator would
be the discovery that the universe is innitely old.[49]
Stephen Hawking and co-author Leonard Mlodinow state
in their book, The Grand Design, that it is reasonable to
ask who or what created the universe, but if the answer
is God, then the question has merely been deected to
that of who created God. Both authors claim however,
that it is possible to answer these questions purely within
the realm of science, and without invoking any divine
beings.[50]

3.1

Anthropomorphism

EXISTENCE OF GOD

makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud

also suggested that god concepts are projections of ones
father.[53]
Likewise, mile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life
to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning,
psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans
began living in larger groups, they may have created gods
as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However, it is much harder to enforce morality
using social forces in much larger groups. Rossano indicates that by including ever-watchful gods and spirits,
humans discovered an eective strategy for restraining
selshness and building more cooperative groups.[54]

4 Existence of God
Main article: Existence of God
Countless arguments have been proposed in attempt

Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, Latin America

Main article: Anthropomorphism

Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of
supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people.
The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one
of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples
from Greek mythology, which is, in his opinion, more
like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[51]
Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate
through formalization that Boyers explanatory model
matches physics epistemology in positing not directly
observable entities as intermediaries.[52] Anthropologist
Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it

St. Thomas Aquinas summarized ve arguments which he believed were proof for the existence of God

to prove the existence of God.[55] Some of the most

notable arguments are the Five Ways of Aquinas, the
Argument from Desire proposed by C.S. Lewis, and the
Ontological Argument formulated both by St. Anselm
and Descartes.[56] Even among theists, these proofs are

5.2

Gender

debated, and some, such as the Ontological Argument,

are highly controversial. Aquinas spends a section of his
treatise on God refuting St. Anselms proof.[57]
St. Anselms approach was to dene God as, that than
which nothing greater can be conceived. Famed pantheist philosopher Baruch Spinoza would later carry this
idea to its extreme: By God I understand a being absolutely innite, i.e., a substance consisting of innite attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and innite essence. For Spinoza, the whole of the natural universe is made of one substance, God, or its equivalent,
Nature.[58] His proof for the existence of God was a variation of the Ontological argument.[59]
Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian The 99 Names of God in Islam, engraved into the ceiling of the
A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God is not Grand Mosque of Kuwait
a question that can be answered using the scientic
method.[60][61] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that
science and religion are not in conict and do not
one is El Shaddai, meaning God Almighty.[65] A third
overlap.[62]
notable name is El Elyon, which means The Most High
There are many philosophical issues concerning the exis- God.[66]
tence of God. Some denitions of God are nonspecic,
God is described and referred in the Quran and hadith
while others can be self-contradictory. Arguments for the
by certain names or attributes, the most common beexistence of God typically include metaphysical, empiriing Al-Rahman, meaning Most Compassionate and Alcal, inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve
Rahim, meaning Most Merciful (See Names of God in
around the order and complexity in the world and perIslam).[67]
ceived holes in evolutionary theory.
Vaishnavism, a tradition in Hinduism, has list of titles and
Arguments against the existence of God typically include
names of Krishna.
empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Conclusions
reached include views that: God does not exist (strong
atheism); God almost certainly does not exist[48] (de
facto atheism[63] ); no one knows whether God exists
(agnosticism[64] ); God exists, but this cannot be proven 5.2 Gender
or disproven (weak theism); and that God exists and
this can be proven (strong theism). There are numerous Main article: Gender of God
variations on these positions.

Specic attributes

Dierent religious traditions assign diering (though often similar) attributes and characteristics to God, including expansive powers and abilities, psychological characteristics, gender characteristics, and preferred nomenclature. The assignment of these attributes often differs according to the conceptions of God in the culture
from which they arise. For example, attributes of God in
Christianity, attributes of God in Islam, and the Thirteen
Attributes of Mercy in Judaism share certain similarities
arising from their common roots.

The gender of God can be viewed as a literal or as an

allegorical aspect of a deity who, in Classical western philosophy, transcends bodily form.[68][69] In polytheistic religions, the gods are more likely to have literal sexual genders, allowing them to interact with each other and with
humans in a sexual way. In most monotheistic religions,
there is no comparable being for God to relate to in a literal gender-based way. Thus, in Classical western philosophy the gender of this one-and-only deity is most likely
to be an analogical statement of how humans and God address, and relate to, each other. Namely, God is seen as
begetter of the world and revelation which corresponds
to the active (as opposed to feminine receptive) role in
sexual intercourse.[70]

God is usually characterised as male in Biblical sources,

except: female in Genesis 1:26-27,[71][72] Psalm 123:25.1 Names
3, and Luke 15:8-10; a mother in Hosea 11:3-4,
Deuteronomy 32:18, Isaiah 66:13, Isaiah 49:15, Isaiah
Main article: Names of God
42:14, Psalm 131:2; a mother eagle in Deuteronomy
Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bibles there are 32:11-12; and a mother hen in Matthew 23:37 and Luke
many names for God. One of them is Elohim. Another 13:34.

5.3

6 THEOLOGICAL APPROACHES

Relationship with creation

with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do

not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typSee also: Creator deity, Prayer and Worship
ically believes that his religion is the right one, but does
Prayer plays a signicant role among many believ- not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example
of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e.,
the belief that ones religion is the fulllment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism,
where everybody is seen as equally right; an example being universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually
available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism,
mixing dierent elements from dierent religions. An
example of syncretism is the New Age movement.

6 Theological approaches

God the Father by Cima da Conegliano, c. 1515

A face-shaped cloud photograph that was taken on July 4th,

2006 in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The man who took the photo rmly
believes and claims that it was a miracle of God.

ers. Muslims believe that the purpose of existence is

to worship God.[73][74] He is viewed as a personal God
and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact
God. Prayer often also includes supplication and asking
forgiveness. God is often believed to be forgiving. For
example, a hadith states God would replace a sinless people with one who sinned but still asked repentance.[75]
Christian theologian Alister McGrath writes that there
are good reasons to suggest that a personal god is integral to the Christian outlook, but that one has to understand it is an analogy. To say that God is like a person
is to arm the divine ability and willingness to relate to
others. This does not imply that God is human, or located
at a specic point in the universe.[76]
Adherents of dierent religions generally disagree as to
how to best worship God and what is Gods plan for
mankind, if there is one. There are dierent approaches
to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic
religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe
they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to
absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter

Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of

attributes to God, including omniscience, omnipotence,
omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity, and
eternal and necessary existence. God has been described
as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all moral
obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[1]
These attributes were all claimed to varying degrees by
the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including St Augustine,[45] Al-Ghazali,[77] and Maimonides.[45]
Many medieval philosophers developed arguments for
the existence of God,[2] while attempting to comprehend
the precise implications of Gods attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generated important philosophical problems and debates. For example, Gods omniscience may seem to imply that God knows how free
agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their apparent free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge does
not imply predestination; and if God does not know it,
God may not be omniscient.[78]
However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the eect of its will can never be perfectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and
knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to that will, combined with perfect-innite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if
omniscience is dened as knowledge or understanding of
all that is.
The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for Gods existence raised
by such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and
Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument from
morality was valid. The theist response has been either to
contend, like Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic"; or to take, like Richard Swinburne, the evidentialist
position.[79] Some theists agree that none of the arguments for Gods existence are compelling, but argue that
faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There
would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for Gods
existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position
summed up by Pascal as: The heart has reasons which

7
reason knows not of.[80]

God the Father in Western art

Most major religions hold God not as a metaphor, but

a being that inuences our day-to-day existences. Many
believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels,
saints, jinns, demons, and devas.[81][82][83][84][85]

List of deities

Distribution of belief in God

Pantheon (gods)
Science and God

9 References
[1] Swinburne, R.G. God in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press,
1995.
[2] Platinga, Alvin. God, Arguments for the Existence of,
Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.
[3] Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies,
Stanford University Press 2005, p.59
[4] M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, Vol.2, 1980,
p.96
[5] Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays.
[6] Gunther Siegmund Stent, Paradoxes of Free Will.
American Philosophical Society, DIANE, 2002. 284
pages. Pages 34 - 38. ISBN 0-87169-926-5

The percentage of population in European countries who responded in a 2005 survey that they believe there is a God.

Main articles: List of religious populations and Irreligion

by country

[7] Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt

in Western Monotheism. Harvard University Press, 1997.
288 pages. ISBN 0-674-58739-1
[8] N. Shupak, The Monotheism of Moses and the Monotheism
of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995.
[9] William F. Albright, From the Patriarchs to Moses II.
Moses out of Egypt. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 36,
No. 2 (May, 1973), pp. 48-76. doi 10.2307/3211050

See also

[10] Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity - Page 136,

Michael P. Levine - 2002

God (male deity)

[11] A Feast for the Soul: Meditations on the Attributes of God

: ... - Page x, Bahullh, Joyce Watanabe - 2006

God in Buddhism
God in Christianity
God in Gnosticism
God in Hinduism
God in Islam
God in Jainism
God in Judaism
God in Sikhism
God in the Baha'i Faith
God in Caodaism
God the Father

[12] Philosophy and Faith of Sikhism - Page ix, Kartar Singh

Duggal - 1988
[13] The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam condently with the cultured class, David S. Kidder, Noah D. Oppenheim, page
364
[14] Raphael Lataster (2013). There was no Jesus, there is no
God: A Scholarly Examination of the Scientic, Historical,
and Philosophical Evidence & Arguments for Monotheism.
p. 165. ISBN 1492234419. This one god could be of
the deistic or pantheistic sort. Deism might be superior
in explaining why God has seemingly left us to our own
devices and pantheism could be the more logical option
as it ts well with the ontological arguments 'maximallygreat entity' and doesn't rely on unproven concepts about
'nothing' (as in 'creation out of nothing'). A mixture of
the two, pandeism, could be the most likely God-concept
of all.

[15] Alan H. Dawe (2011). The God Franchise: A Theory of

Everything. p. 48. ISBN 0473201143. Pandeism: This is
the belief that God created the universe, is now one with
it, and so, is no longer a separate conscious entity. This is
a combination of pantheism (God is identical to the universe) and deism (God created the universe and then withdrew Himself).
[16] Christianity and Other Religions, by John Hick and Brian
Hebblethwaite. 1980. Page 178.
[17] "'God' in Merriam-Webster (online)". Merriam-Webster,
Inc. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
[18] The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the
unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue,
the OTeut. ghuba implies as its preTeut-type either
"*ghodho-m or "*ghodto-m. The former does not appear to admit of explanation; but the latter would represent the neut. pple. of a root gheu-". There are two
Aryan roots of the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal
aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr. hu) the
other 'to pour, to oer sacrice' (Skr hu, Gr. i;,
OE geotn Yete v). OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267
[19] Barnhart, Robert K (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English
Words, page 323. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-270084-7
[20] Websters New World Dictionary; God n. ME < OE,
akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * hau-, to
call out to, invoke > Sans havat, (he) calls upon; 1. any
of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and aairs of
people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity:
typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that
is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deied or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as
eternal, innite, all-powerful, and all-knowing; Supreme
Being; the Almighty
[21] Dictionary.com; God /gd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme
Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the
Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular
attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a
male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly aairs.
4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some
particular conception: the God of mercy. 5. Christian
Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth,
Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deied person
or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the
upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part
of the balcony.
[22] Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic Origins: Social
and Religious. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1-4286-1575X.
[23] God. Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-1218.
[24] Islam and Christianity, Encyclopedia of Christianity
(2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer
to God as Allh.

REFERENCES

[25] L. Gardet. Allah. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

[26] Hastings 2003, p. 540
[27] Froese, Paul; Christopher Bader (FallWinter 2004).
Does God Matter? A Social-Science Critique. Harvard
Divinity Bulletin. 4 32.
[28] See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism
(Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-884852-04-1
[29] Sri Guru Granth Sahib. Sri Granth. Retrieved 201106-30.
[30] What Is the Trinity?".
[31] Quran 112:14
[32] D. Gimaret. Allah, Tawhid. Encyclopaedia Britannica
Online.
[33] Robyn Lebron (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity...Can
There Be Common Ground?. p. 117. ISBN 1-4627-12622.
[34] Mller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Origin and Growth of
Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. London:
Longmans, Green and Co.
[35] Smart, Jack; John Haldane (2003). Atheism and Theism.
Blackwell Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 0-631-23259-1.
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[39] Sean F. Johnston (2009). The History of Science: A Beginners Guide. p. 90. ISBN 1-85168-681-9. In its most
abstract form, deism may not attempt to describe the characteristics of such a non-interventionist creator, or even
that the universe is identical with God (a variant known
as pandeism).
[40] Paul Bradley (2011). This Strange Eventful History: A
Philosophy of Meaning. p. 156. ISBN 0875868762. Pandeism combines the concepts of Deism and Pantheism
with a god who creates the universe and then becomes it.
[41] Allan R. Fuller (2010). Thought: The Only Reality. p. 79.
ISBN 1608445909. Pandeism is another belief that states
that God is identical to the universe, but God no longer
exists in a way where He can be contacted; therefore, this
theory can only be proven to exist by reason. Pandeism
views the entire universe as being from God and now the
universe is the entirety of God, but the universe at some
point in time will fold back into one single being which is
God Himself that created all. Pandeism raises the question as to why would God create a universe and then abandon it? As this relates to pantheism, it raises the question
of how did the universe come about what is its aim and
purpose?

[42] Peter C. Rogers (2009). Ultimate Truth, Book 1. p. 121.

ISBN 1438979681. As with Panentheism, Pantheism is
derived from the Greek: 'pan'= all and 'theos = God, it literally means God is All and All is God. Pantheist purports that everything is part of an all-inclusive, indwelling,
intangible God; or that the Universe, or nature, and God
are the same. Further review helps to accentuate the idea
that natural law, existence, and the Universe which is the
sum total of all that is, was, and shall be, is represented in
the theological principle of an abstract 'god' rather than an
individual, creative Divine Being or Beings of any kind.
This is the key element which distinguishes them from
Panentheists and Pandeists. As such, although many religions may claim to hold Pantheistic elements, they are
more commonly Panentheistic or Pandeistic in nature.
[43] The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Brothers Karamazov
by Fyodor Dostoyevsky pp259-261
[44] Henry, Michel (2003). I am the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity. Translated by Susan Emanuel. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3780-0.
[45] Edwards, Paul. God and the philosophers in Honderich,
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[46] A Plea for Atheism. By 'Iconoclast'", London, Austin &
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[47] Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Great
Britain: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-618-68000-4.
[48] Dawkins, Richard (2006-10-23). Why There Almost
Certainly Is No God. The Hungton Post. Retrieved
2007-01-10.
[49] Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon Haunted World p.278.
New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-40946-9.
[50] Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2010). The Grand
Design. Bantam Books. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-553-805376.
[51] Boyer, Pascal (2001). Religion Explained,. New York:
Basic Books. pp. 142243. ISBN 0-465-00696-5.
[52] du Castel, Bertrand; Jurgensen, Timothy M. (2008).
Computer Theology,. Austin, Texas: Midori Press. pp.
221222. ISBN 0-9801821-1-5.

[58] Curley, Edwin M. (1985). The Collected Works of

Spinoza. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-69107222-7.
[59] Baruch Spinoza.
[60] Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins God: genes, memes,
and the meaning of life. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-14051-2539-0.
[61] Floyd H. Barackman (2001). Practical Christian Theology: Examining the Great Doctrines of the Faith. Kregel
Academic. ISBN 978-0-8254-2380-2.
[62] Gould, Stephen J. (1998). Leonardos Mountain of Clams
and the Diet of Worms. Jonathan Cape. p. 274. ISBN
0-224-05043-5.
[63] The word atheism originated from the Greek
(atheos), meaning without god(s)".
[64] Thomas Henry Huxley, an English biologist, was the rst
to come up with the word agnostic in 1869 Dixon, Thomas
(2008). Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19929551-7. However, earlier authors and published works
have promoted an agnostic points of view. They include
Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher. The
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Protagoras (c. 490
- c. 420 BCE)". Archived from the original on 2008-1014. Retrieved 2008-10-06. While the pious might wish
to look to the gods to provide absolute moral guidance in
the relativistic universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment,
that certainty also was cast into doubt by philosophic and
sophistic thinkers, who pointed out the absurdity and immorality of the conventional epic accounts of the gods.
Protagoras prose treatise about the gods began 'Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they
exist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things prevent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and
the brevity of human life.'
[65] Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2
[66] Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25
[67] Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful
Names for God for All the People of the Book. William
Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
[68] Aquinas, Thomas (1274). Summa Theologica. Part 1,
Question 3, Article 1.

[53] Barrett, Justin (1996). Conceptualizing a Nonnatural Entity: Anthropomorphism in God Concepts (PDF).

[69] Augustine of Hippo (397). Confessions. Book 7.

[54] Rossano, Matt (2007). Supernaturalizing Social Life:

Religion and the Evolution of Human Cooperation
(PDF). Retrieved 2009-06-25.

[70] Lang, David; Kreeft, Peter (2002). Why Matter Matters:

Philosophical and Scriptural Reections on the Sacraments.
Chapter Five: Why Male Priests?: Our Sunday Visitor.
ISBN 978-1931709347.

[55] Aquinas, Thomas (1990). Kreeft, Peter, ed. Summa of

the Summa. Ignatius Press. p. 63.
[56] Aquinas, Thomas (1990). Kreeft, Peter, ed. Summa of
the Summa. Ignatius Press. pp. 6569.
[57] Aquinas, Thomas (1274). Summa Theologica. Part 1,
Question 2, Article 3.

[71] Elaine H. Pagels What Became of God the Mother?

Conicting Images of God in Early Christianity Signs,
Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1976), pp. 293-303
[72] Coogan, Michael (October 2010). 6. Fire in Divine
Loins: Gods Wives in Myth and Metaphor. God and
Sex. What the Bible Really Says (1st ed.). New York,
Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 175. ISBN

10

11

978-0-446-54525-9. Retrieved 2011-05-05. humans are

modeled on elohim, specically in their sexual dierences.
[73] Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence.
Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
[74] Quran 51:56
[75] Allah would replace you with a people who sin. islamtoday.net. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
[76] McGrath, Alister (2006). Christian Theology: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing. p. 205. ISBN 1-40515360-1.
[77] Plantinga, Alvin. God, Arguments for the Existence of,
Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000.

Hastings, James Rodney (19252003) [190826].

Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. John A Selbie (Volume 4 of 24 ( Behistun (continued) to Bunyan.) ed.). Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC.
p. 476. ISBN 0-7661-3673-6. The encyclopedia
will contain articles on all the religions of the world
and on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at
containing articles on every religious belief or custom, and on every ethical movement, every philosophical idea, every moral practice.

11 External links
Concept of God in Christianity

[78] Wierenga, Edward R. Divine foreknowledge in Audi,

The Cambridge Companion to Philosophy.
Robert.
Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Concept of God in Islam

[79] Beaty, Michael (1991). God Among the Philosophers.

The Christian Century. Retrieved 2007-02-20.

Hindu Concept of God

[80] Pascal, Blaise. Penses, 1669.

[81] Tuesday, December 8, 2009 (December 8, 2009). More
Americans Believe in Angels than Global Warming.
Outsidethebeltway.com. Retrieved 2012-12-04.
[82] Van, David (2008-09-18). Guardian Angels Are Here,
Say Most Americans. TIME. Retrieved 2012-12-04.
[83] December 23, 2011, 8:25 AM (December 23, 2011).
Poll: Nearly 8 in 10 Americans believe in angels. CBS
News. Retrieved 2012-12-04.
[84] Salmon, Jacqueline L. Most Americans Believe in Higher
Power, Poll Finds. washingtonpost.com. Retrieved
2012-12-04.
[85] Qurn 15:27

10

Further reading

Pickover, Cli, The Paradox of God and the Science

of Omniscience, Palgrave/St Martins Press, 2001.
ISBN 1-4039-6457-2
Collins, Francis, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief, Free Press, 2006.
ISBN 0-7432-8639-1
Miles, Jack, God: A Biography, Vintage, 1996.
ISBN 0-679-74368-5
Armstrong, Karen, A History of God: The 4,000Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Ballantine Books, 1994. ISBN 0-434-02456-2
Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1 (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1951). ISBN 0-22680337-6

EXTERNAL LINKS

God Christian perspective

Jewish Literacy
Mystical view of God
Relation of God to the Universe

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ual, RibotBOT, Mitrowicz, Bandishbhoir, Eugene-elgato, RavShimon, Ardara, Jungty, Smoshisbetterthannigahiga, Jsorr, Spanishbeast69,
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File:Sound-icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License:

Derivative work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set

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1435circa 1495)
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0