04 PDF
04 PDF
04 PDF
Induced emf Vemf (in volts), in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux linkage by the circuit
Negative sign ! induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it --Lenz's law
Electric fields considered so far are caused by electric charges; in such fields, the flux lines
begin and end on the charges
There are other kinds of electric fields not directly caused by electric charges. These are
emf-produced fields. Sources of emf include electric generators, batteries, thermocouples,
fuel cells, and photovoltaic cells, that convert nonelectrical energy into electrical energy.
For N = 1
The variation of flux with time, in above equation, may be caused in three ways:
1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field
2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field
3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field.
Recall that the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a magnetic field B is
When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the loop.
Equivalent to
No problem
So we must modify
Since, divergence of curl is always zero and from (ii) RHS is also zero
Electrodynamics
Before Maxwell
Maxwell's Equations
Taking divergence
The flaw was a purely theoretical one, and Maxwell fixed it by purely theoretical arguments
Apply integral form of Amperes law to the Amperian loop shown in the diagram
So we get the same answer for either surface, though in the first case it comes from
the genuine current and in the second from the displacement current
How the displacement current resolves the paradox of the charging capacitor?
Displacement Current
A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm has a voltage
50 sin 103t V applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming = 2 o.
Problem
Maxwell's equations tell you how charges produce fields; reciprocally, the force law
tells you how fields affect charges.
with the fields (E and B) on the left and the sources ( and J) on the right.
All EM fields are ultimately attributable to charges and currents.
(or)
What is a wave?
A disturbance of a continuous medium that propagates with a fixed
shape at constant velocity.
Electromagnetic Waves
absorbing the phase constant. The actual wave function is the real part of
where Re( ) denotes the real part of the complex number . We can now introduce
the complex wave function
Since .E = .B = 0
They constitute a set of coupled, first-order, partial differential equations for E and B.
They can be decoupled by applying the curl to (iii) and (iv):
Of course, this conclusion does not surprise anyone today, but imagine what a
revelation it was in Maxwell's time!
We now have separate equations for E and B, but they are of second order.
Without it, the wave equation would not emerge, and there would be no
electromagnetic theory of light.
nothing to do with light. And yet, according to Maxwell's theory you can calculate c
Remember how o and o came into the theory in the first place: they were constants in
Coulomb's law and the Biot-Savart law.
Every solution to Maxwell's equations (in empty space) must obey the wave equation,
the converse is not true
because the fields are uniform over every plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation
plane waves: waves are traveling in the z direction and have no x or y dependence;
Evidently, E and B are in phase and mutually perpendicular; their (real) amplitudes are
related by
more compactly
the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
In particular, since .E = .B = 0
This is the model for a monochromatic plane wave. The wave as a whole is said to be
polarized in the x-direction (by convention, we use the direction of E to specify the
polarization of an electromagnetic wave
Since, E is transverse
The notation is facilitated by the introduction of the propagation (or wave) vector, k,
pointing in the direction of propagation, whose magnitude is the wave number k. The
scalar product k r is the appropriate generalization of kz
There is nothing special about the z direction, of course-we can easily generalize to
monochromatic plane waves traveling in an arbitrary direction
The actual (real) electric and magnetic fields in a monochromatic plane wave with
propagation vector k and polarization are
Question: How much work, dW, is done by the electromagnetic forces acting on these
charges in the interval dt?
Consider some charge and current configuration which, at time t, produces fields E and B.
In the next instant, dt, the charges move around a bit.
E . J is the work done per unit time, per unit volume i.e. power delivered per unit volume.
We can express this quantity in terms of the fields alone.
Poynting's theorem says, then, that the work done on the charges by the
electromagnetic force is equal to the decrease in energy stored in the field, less the
energy that flowed out through the surface.
The first term represents the total energy stored in the fields, Uem.
The second term represents the rate at which energy is carried out of V, across its
boundary surface, by the electromagnetic fields.
Substitute this in
Poynting vector S represents the flow of energy in exactly the same way that J describes the
flow of charge
charge density is replaced by the energy density (mechanical plus electromagnetic), and
the current density is replaced by the Poynting vector.
Hence,
work W done on the charges will increase their mechanical energy (kinetic, potential, or
whatever)
Compact form
The energy per unit time, per unit area, transported by the fields is called the Poynting
vector
As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it. The energy flux density (energy
per unit area, per unit time) transported by the fields is given by the Poynting vector
Electromagnetic fields not only carry energy, they also carry momentum. The momentum
density stored in the fields is
S is the energy density (u) times the velocity of the waves (c z).
On a perfect reflector the pressure is twice as great, because the momentum switches
direction, instead of simply being absorbed
When light falls on a perfect absorber it delivers its momentum to the surface. In a
time t, the momentum transfer is
The average power per unit area transported by an electromagnetic wave is intensity: