CHAPTER 1

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
INTRODUCTION
Clause :
Independent clause:

Dependent clause:
Adjective clause:

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a

verb.
An independent clause is a complete sentence. It contains
the main subject and verb of a sentence (It is also called a
main clause).
A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause.
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a
noun. It describes, identifies, or gives further information
about a noun. (An adjective clause is also called a relative
clause.)

USING SUBJECT PRONOUNS: WHO, WHICH, THAT

I thanked the woman.
She helped me.

(a) I thanked the woman who helped me

(b) I thanked the woman that helped me.
In (a): I thanked the woman = an independent clause who helped me - an adjective
clause. The adjective clause modifies the noun woman.
In (a): who is the subject of the adjective clause.
In (b): that is the subject of the adjective clause.
(a) and (b) have the same meaning.
The book is mine.
It is on the table.

(c) The book which is on die table is mine.

(d) The book that is on the tableis mine.
Note: who= used for people
which= used for things
that=used for both people and things

USING OBJECT PRONOUNS: WHO(M), WHICH, THAT

PROUNOUN USED AS THE OBJECT OF A VERB
The adjective clause pronouns are placed at the beginning of the clause.
(General guideline: Place an adjective clause pronoun as close as possible to the
noun it modifies.)
The man was Mr. Jones.
I saw him.

(e) The man who(m) I saw Mr.Jones

(f) The man that
I saw Mr.Jones
(g) The man
I saw Mr.Jones
The movie wasn't very good.
We saw it last night.

(h) The movie wich

we saw last night
(i) The movie that
we saw last night
(j) The movie
we saw last night

wasn't very good.

wasn't very good
wasn't very good

In (e): who is usually used instead of whom, especially in speaking.Whom is

generally used only in very formal English.
In (g) and (j): An object pronoun is often omitted from an adjective clause. (A
subject pronoun, however, may not be omitted.)
who(m)= used for people
which= used for things
that = used for both people and things
PRONOUN USED AS THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
She is the woman.
I told,you about her.

(k) She is the woman about whom

(1) She is the woman who(m)
(m) She is the woman that
(n) She is the woman

I told you about.

I told you about.
I told yen about.
I told you about.

The music was good,

We listened to it last night.

(o) Themusic to which we listened

(p) Themusic which
we listened
(q) The music that
we listened
(r) The musc
we listened

last night
last night
last night
last night

was good
was good
was good
was good

In very formal English, the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective
clause, as in (k) and (o). Usually however, in everyday usage., the preposition
comes after the subject and verb of the adjective clause, as in the other example.
Note: If the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, only
whom or which may be used. A preposition is never immediately followed by
that orwho.

USING WHOSE
I know the man.
His bicycle was stolen.

(s) I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.

The student writes well.
I read her composition.

(t) The student whose composition I read writes well.

Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other possessive
pronouns used as adjectives: his, fer, its, and their. Like his, her, its, and their,
whose is connected to a noun: his bicyclewhose bicycle
her composition whose composition
Both whose and the noun it is connected to are placed at the beginning of the adjective clause. Whose cannot be omitted.
Mr. Catt has a painting. Its value is inestimable,

(u) Mr. Catt has a painting whose value is inestimable.

Whose usually modifies "people," but it may also be used to modify "things," as
in(u).

USING WHERE
The building is very old.
He lives there (in that building).
(a) The building where
he lives
(b) The building in which he lives
The building which
he lives in
The building that
he lives in
The building
he lives in

is very old.
is very old.
is very old.
is very old.
is very old.

Where is used m an adjective clause to modify a place (city, countrys room,

house, etc). If where is used, a preposition is not included in the adjective clause.
It when is not used, the preposition rnusi be included.

USING WHEN
Ill never forget the day
I met you then (on that day)
(c) I'll never forget the day when
I met you.
(d) I'll never forget the day on which I met you.
(e) I'll never forget the day that
I met you.
(f) Ill never forget the day
I met you.
When is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time (year> day, time?
century, etc.)
The use of a preposition in an adjective-clause that modifies a noun of time is
somewhat different from that in other adjective clauses: A preposition is used
preceding which, as in (d). Otherwise, the preposition is omitted.

USING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO MODIFY PRONOUNS

Adjective clauses can modify indefinite proi (e.g., someone, everybody). Object
pronouns whoni, which) are usually omitted in the adjective clause.
(a) There is someone (whom) I want you to meet.
(b) Everything he said was pure nonsense.
(c) Anybody who wants to come is welcome.

Adjective clauses can modify the one(s) and those.*

(d) Paula was the only one I knew at the party.
(e) Scholarships are available for those who need financial assistance.
Adjective clauses rarely modify personal nouns.
(f) It is I who arn responsible.
(g) He who laughs last laughs best.
In example (f) is very formal and uncommon. (g) is well-known saying in which
"he" is used as definite pronoun (meaning "anyone," "an person").
*An adjective clause with which can also be used to modify the pronoun that.
For example: We sometimes fear that which we do not understand. The bread my
mother makes is much better than that which you can buy at a store.

PUNCTUATION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

General guidelines for the punctuation of adjective clauses:
DO NOT USE COMMAS IF the adjective clause is necessary to identify
the noun it modifies.*
USE COMMAS IF the adjective clause simply gives additional
information and is not necessary to identify the noun it modifies.**
(a) The professor who leaches Chemistry 101 is an excellent lecturer.
(b) Professor Wilson who teaches Chemistry 101 is an excellent lecturer.
In (a): No commas are used. The adjective clause is necessary to identify which
professor is meant. In (b): Commas are used. The adjective clause is not necessary
to identify who Professor Wilson is. We already know who he is: he has a name.
The adjective clause simply gives additional information.
(c) Hawaii which consists of eight principal islands is a favorite vacation spot.
(d) Mrs. Smith who is a retired teacher does volunteer work at the hospital.
Guideline: Use commas, as in (b), (c), and (d), if an adjective clause modifies a
proper noun. (A proper noun begins with a capital letter, not a small letter.) Note:
A comma reflects a pause in speech.
who(m)
(e) The man that / nurueaches chemistry.

(f) Mr. Lee whom I met yesterday teaches chemistry.

In (e): If no commas are used, any possible pronoun may be used in the adjective
clause. Object pronouns may be omitted. In (f): When commas are necessary, the
pronoun that may not be used (only who, whom, which, whose, where, and when

may be used), and object pronouns cannot be omitted.

Compare the meaning
(g) We took some children on a picnic. The children who wanted to play soccer
ran to an open field as soon as we arrived at the park.
(h) We took some children on a picnic. The children who wanted to play soccer
ran to an open field as soon as we arrived at the park. The others played a
different game
In (g): The use of commas means that all of the children wanted to play soccer
and all of the chil-dren ran to an open field. The adjective clause is used only to
give additional information about the children.
In (h): The lack of commas means that only some of the children wanted to play
soccer. The adjective clause is used to identify which children ran to the open
field.

USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

An adjective clause may contain an expression of quantity with of: some
of, many of, most of, none of, two of, half of, both of, neither of, each of, all of,
several of, a few of, little of, a number of, etc.
The expression of quantity precedes the pronoun. Only whom, which, and
whose are used in this pattern.
Adjective clauses that begin with an expression of quantity are more
common in writing than speaking. Commas are used.
In my class there are 20 students.
Most of them are from the Far East.
(a) In my class there are 20 students, most of whom are from the Far East.
He gave several reasons.
Only a few of them were valid,
(b) He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.
The teachers discussed Jim.
One of his problems was poor study habits.
(c) The teachers discussed Jim, one of whose problems was poor study habits.

USING NOUN + OF WHICH

We have an antique table.
The top of it has jade inlay.
We have an antique table, the top of which has jade inlay.
An adjective clause may include a noun + of which (e.g., the top of
which). This pattern carries the meaning of whose (e.g., We have an antique table
whose top has jade inlay.).
This pattern is used in an adjective clause that modifies a "thing" and
occurs primarily in formal written English. Commas are used.

USING WHICH TO MODIFY A WHOLE SENTENCE

(a) Tom was late. (b) That surprised me. )
(c) Tom was late, which surprised me.
(d) Televator is out of order. (e) This too bad.
(f) The elevator is out of order, which is too bad.
The pronouns that and this can refer to the idea of a whole sentence which comes
before. In (b): The word that refers to the whole sentence "Tom was late."
Similarly, an adjective clause with which may modify the idea of a whole
sentence. In (c): The word which, refers to the whole sentence "Tom was late."*
*Using which to modify a whole sentence is informal and occurs most frequently
in spoken English. This structure is generally not appropriate in formal writing.
Whenever it is written, however, it is preceded by a comma to reflect a pause in
speech.

REDUCTION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES TO ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Clause: A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a verb.
Phrase: A phrase is a group of related words that-does not contain a subject and a
verb.
(a) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: The girl who is sitting next to me is Mary.
(b) ADJECTIVE PHRASE: The girl sitting next to me is Mary.
An adjective phrase is a reduction of an adjective clause. It modifies a noun. It
does not contain a subject and a verb. The adjective clause in (a) can be reduced to
the adjective phrase in (b). (a) and (b) have the same meaning.
(c) CLAUSE: The boy who is playing the piano is Ben.
(d) PHRASE: Theboy playing the piano is Ben.
(c) CLAUSE: The boy (whom) I saw was Tom.

(f) PHRASE: (none)

Only adjective clauses that have a subject pronounwho, which, or thatare reduced to modifying adjective phrases. The adjective clause in (e) cannot be reduced to an adjective phrase.

CHANGING AN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO AN ADJECTIVE PHRASE

There are two ways in which an adjective clause is changed to an adjective
phrase:
(1) The subject pronoun is omitted AND the be form of the verb is omitted.
(a) CLAUSE: The man who is talking to John is from Korea.
PHRASE: The man talking to John is from Korea.
(b) CLAUSE: The ideas which are presented in that book are interesting.
PHRASE: The ideas presented in that book are interesting.
(c) CLAUSE: Ann is the woman who is responsible for preparing the budget.
PHRASE: Ann is the woman responsible for preparing the budget.
(d) CLAUSE: The books that are on that shelf art mine.
PHRASE: The books on that shelf are mine.
(2) If there is no be form of a verb in the adjective clause, it is sometimes possible
to omit the subject pronoun and change the verb to its -ing form.
(c) CLAUSE: English has an alphabet that consists of 26 letters.
PHRASE: English has an alphabet consisting of 26 letters.
(d) CLAUSE: Anyone who wants to come with us is welcome.
PHRASE: Anyone wanting to come with us is welcome.
(g) George Washington who was the first president of the United States was a
wealthy colonist and a general in the army.
(h) George Washington the first president of the United States was a wealthy
colonist and a general in the army.
If the adjective clause requires commas, as in (g), the adjective phrase also
requires commas, as in (h).

CHAPTER 2
NOUN CLAUSE
INTRODUCTION
A noun is used as a subject or an object. A noun clause is used as a subject or an
object. In other words, a noun clause is used in the same ways as a noun.
(a) His story
was interesting,
(b) What he said was interesting.
In (a): story is a noun. It is used as the subject of the sentence. In (b): what he
said is a noun clause. It is used as the subject of the sentence. The noun clause has
its own subject (he) and verb (said).
(c) I heard his story.
(d) I heard what he said.
In (c): story is a noun. It is used as the object of the verb heard. In (d): what he
said is a noun clause. It is used as the object of the verb heard.
WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE NOUN CLAUSES
(1) question words:*
(2) whether
when
who
if
where
whom
why
what
how
which
whose

(3) that

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGIN WITH A QUESTION WORD

QUESTION
NOUN CLAUSE
Where does she live?
(a) I don't know where she lives.
What did he say?
(b) I couldn't hear what he said.
When do they arrive?
(c) Do you know when they arrive?
In (a): where she lives is the object of the verb know. Do not use question word
order in a noun clause. In a noun clause, the subject precedes the verb.
Notice: does, did, and do are used in questions but not in noun clauses.
S V
S V
Who lives there?
(d) I don't know who lives there.
What happened?
(e) Please tell me what happened.
Who is at the door? (f) I wonder who is at the door.
In (d): The word order is the same in both the question and the noun clause

because who is the subject in both.

V S
S V
Who is she?
(g) I don't know who she is.
Who are those men?
(h) I don't know who those men are.
Whose house is that?
(i) I wonder whose house that is.
In (g): she is the subject of the question, so it is placed in front of the verb be in
the noun clause.*
What did she say?
( j) What she said surprised me.
What should they do? (k) What they should do is obvious.
In (j): what she said is the subject of the sentence. Notice in (k): A noun clause
subject takes a singular verb (e.g., is).

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGIN WITH WHETHER OR IF

When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, whether or if is used to introduce the clause. (Note: whether is more acceptable in formal English, but if is
quite commonly used, especially in speaking.)
YES/NO QUESTION
NOUN CLAUSE
Will she come?
(a) I don't know whether she will come.
I don't know if she will come.
Does he need help? (b) I wonder whether he needs help.
I wonder if he needs help.
(c) I wonder whether or not she will come.
(d) I wonder whether she will come or not.
(e) I wonder if she will come or not.
In (c), (d), and (e): Notice the patterns when or not is used.
(f) Whether she comes or not is unimportant to me.
In (f): Notice that the noun clause is in the subject position.

QUESTION WORDS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

Question words (when, where, how, who, whom, wlwse, what, which) and
whether may be followed by an infinitive.
(a) I don't know what I should do.
(b) I don't know what to do.
(c) Pam can't decide whether she should go or stay home.
(d) Pam can't decide whether, to go or (to) stay home.

(e) Please tell me how I can get to the bus station.

(f) Please tell me how to get to the bus station.
(g) Jim told us where we could find it.
(h) Jim told us where to find it.
Each pair of sentences in the examples has the same meaning. Notice that the
meaning expressed by the infinitive is either should or can/could.

NOUN CLAUSES WHICH BEGIN WITH THAT

STATEMENT
NOUN CLAUSE
(Expression of an idea or fact)
He is a good actor.
(a) 1 think that he is a good actor.
(b) I think he is a good actor.
The world is round.

(c) We know (that) the world is round.

She doesn't understand

spoken English.

(d) That she doesn 't understand spoken

english is obvious.
(e) It is obvious (that) she doesn't
understand spoken English.

The world is round.

(f) That the world is round is a fact,

(g) It is a fact that the world is round.
In (a); that he is a good actor is a noun clause. It is .used as the object of the verb
think. The word that, when it introduces a noun clause, has no meaning in itself.
It simply marks the beginning of the clause. Frequently it is omitted, as in (b),
especially in speaking. (If used in speaking, it is unstressed.)
In (d): The noun clause (That she doesn't understand spoken English) is used as
the subject of the sentence. The word that is not omitted when it introduces a
noun clause used as the subject of a sentence, as in (d) and (f). More commonly,
the word it functions as the subject, and the noun clause is placed at the end of the
sentence, as in (e) and (g).

QUOTED SPEECH*

Quoted speech refers to reproducing words exactly as they were originally

spoken. Quotation marks (". . .") are used.**
QUOTING ONE SENTENCE :
(a) She said, "My brother is a student."
(b) "My brother is a student," she said.
(c) "My brother," she said, "is a student."
In (a): Use a comma after she said. Capitalize the first word of the quoted
sentence. Put the final quotation marks outside of the period at the end of the
sentence.
In (b): Use a comma, not a period, at the end of the quoted sentence when it
precedes she said.
In (c): If the quoted sentence is divided by she said, use a comma after the first
part of the quote. Do not capitalize the first word of the second half of the quoted
sentence.
QUOTING MORE THAN ONE SENTENCE :
(d) "My brother is a student. He is attending a university," she said.
In(d): Quotation marks are placed at the beginning and end of the complete quote.
Notice: There are no quotation marks after student.
QUOTING A QUESTION OR AN EXCLAMATION :
(e) She asked, "When will you be here?"
(f) "When will you be here?" she asked.
(g) She said, "Watch out!"
In(e): The question mark is inside the quotation marks.
In(f): If a question mark is used, no comma is used before she asked.
In(g): The exclamation point is inside the quotation marks.

REPORTED SPEECH AND THE FORMAL SEQUENCE OF TENSES IN

NOUN CLAUSE
Reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said.
No quotation marks are used. Notice the changes in the verb forms from quoted
speech to reported speech in the following examples.
QUOTED SPEECH
(a) She said, "I watch TV everyday."
(b) She said,' 'I am watching TV.''
(c) She said, "I have watched TV"
(d) She said, "I watched TV.''
(e) She said, "I will watch TV."
(f) She said, "Im going to watch TV.''
(g) She said, "I can watch TV''
(h) She said, "I may watch TV.''
(i) She said, "I might watch TV."
(j) She said, "I must watch TV."
( k) She said, "I have to watch TV."
( l) She said, "I should watch TV."
(m) She said, "I ought to watch TV."
(n) She said, "Watch TV."
(o) She said, "Do you watch TV?"

REPORTED SPEECH
She said (that) she watched TV everyday.
She said she was watching TV.
She said she had watched TV.
She said she had watched TV.
She said she would watch TV.
She said she was going to watch TV.
She said she could watch TV.
She said she might watch TV.
She said she might watch TV.
She said she had to watch TV.
She said she had to watch TV.
She said she should watch TV.
She said she ought to watch TV.
She told me to watch TV*
She asked (me) if I watched TV.

GENERAL GUIDELINES ON TENSE USAGE IN A NOUN CLAUSE

(1) If the reporting verb (the main verb of the sentence, e.g., said) is in the past,
the verb in the noun clause will usually also be in a past form.
(2) This formal sequence of tenses in noun clauses is used in both speaking and
writing. However, sometimes in spoken English, no change is made in the
noun clause verb, especially if the speaker is reporting something
immediately or soon after it was said.
Immediate reporting: A: What, did the teacher just say? I didn 't hear him.
B: He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.
Later reporting: A: I didn't go to class yesterday. DidMr. Jones make
any assignments?
B: Yes. He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.
(3) Also, sometimes the present tense is retained even in formal English when the
reported sentence deals with a general truth: She said that the world is round.

(4) When the reporting verb is simple present, present perfect, or future, the noun

clause verb is not changed.

She says, "I watch TV every day,"
She has said, "I watch TV every day."
She will say, "I watch TV every day."

She says she watches TV every day.

She has said that she watches TV
every day.
She will say that she watches TV
every day.

USING THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN NOUN CLAUSES

(a) The teacher demands that we be on time.
(b) I insisted that he pay me the money.
(c) I recommended that she not go to the concert.
(d) It is important that they be told the truth.
In (a): be is a subjunctive verb. The subjunctive is used in a noun clause that
follows certain verbs and expressions. The sentences generally stress importance.
In these sentences, the subjunctive verb is used only in its simple form. It does not
have present, past, or future form; it is neither singular nor plural. Negative: not +
simple form, as in (c). Passive: simple form of be + past participle, as in (d).
(e) I suggested that she see a doctor.
(f) I suggested that she should see a doctor.
Should is also possible after suggest and recommend*
COMMON VERBS AND EXPRESSIONS FOLLOWED BY THE
SUBJUNCTIVE IN A NOUN CLAUSE :
demand (that)
suggest (that)
it is important (that)
insist (that)
recommend (that)
it is necessary (that)
request (that)
advise (that)
it is essential (that)
ask (that)
propose (that)
it is vital (that)
it is imperative (that)
The subjunctive is more common in American English than British
English. In British English, should + simple form is more usual than the
subjunctive: e.g., The teacher insists that we should be on time.

USING EVER WORDS

The following ever words give the idea of any. Each pair of sentences in the
examples has the same meaning.
Whoever
(a) Whoever wants to come is welcome.
Who(m)ever (b) He makes friends easily with who(m)ever he meets.*

He makes friends easily with anyone who(m)he meets.

Whatever
(c) He always says whatever comes into his mind.
He always says anything that comes into his mind.
Whichever
(d) There are four good programs on TV at eight oclock.
We can watch whichever program (whichever one) you prefer.
We can watch any of the four programs that you prefer.
Whenever
(e) You may leave whenever you wish.
You may leave at any time that you wish.
Wherever
(f) She can go wherever she wants to go.
She can go anyplace that she wants to go.
However
(g) The students may dress however they please.
The students may dress in any way that they please.
In (b) : Whomever is the object of the verb meets. In American English,
whomever is rare and very formal. In British English, whoever (not whomever) is
used as the object form: He makes friends easily with whoever he meets.

CHAPTER 3

SHOWING RELAIONSHIPS BETWEEN IDEAS

PART I
PARALEL STRUCTURE
One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same
grammatical function in a sentence. This use of conjunctions is called parallel
structure. Te conjunctions used in this pattern are: and, but, or, nor.
(a) Steve and his friend are coming to dinner.
(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers.
(c) He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at us.
(d) These shoes are old but comfortable.
(e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some music.
In (a) : noun + and + noun
In (b) : verb + and + verb
In (c) : verb + and + verb (The second auxiliary may be omitted if it is the same as
the first auxiliary.)
In (d) : adjective + but + adjective
In (e) : infinitive + or + infinitive (The second to may be omitted.)
(f) Steve, joe and Alice are coming to dinner.
(g) Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and asked a question.
(h) The colors in that fabric are red, gold, black, and green.
A parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a series, commas are used
to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the conjunction is optional
but is customarily used. (No commas are used if there are only two parts to a
parallel structure.)

USING PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS : BOTH... AND ;

NOT ONLY... BUT ALSO ; EITHER... OR ; NEITHER... NOR*
(a) Both my mother and my sister are here.
(b) Not only my mother but also my sister is here.
(c) Not only my sister but also my parents are here.
(d) Neither my mother nor my sister is here.
(e) Neither my mother nor my parents are here.
The two subjects connected by both... and take a plural verb.
When two subjects are connected by not only... but also, either... or, neither... nor,
the subjects that is closer to verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural.

(f) The research project will take both time and money.
(g) Yesterday it not only rained but (also) snowed.
(h) Ill take either chemistry or physics next quarter.
(i) That book is neither interesting nor accurate.
Notice te parallel structure in the examples. The same grammatical form should
follow each word of the pair.
In (f) : both + noun + and + noun
In (g) : not only + verb + but also + verb
In (h) : either + noun + or + noun
In (i) : neither + adjective + nor + adjective

COMBINING INDEPENDENT CLAUES WITH CONJUNCTIONS

(a) It was raining hard. There was strong wind.
(b) INCORRECT PUNCTUATION :
It was raining hard, there was a strong wind.
Example (a) contain two independent clauses (i.e., two complete sentences).
Notice the punctuation. A period, *NOT A COMMA, is used to separate two
independent clauses. The punctuation in (b) is not correct ; the error in (b) is
called a run-on sentence.
(c) It was raining hard, and there was a strong wind.
(d) It was raining hard and there was a strong wind.
(e) It was raining hard. And there was a strong wind.
Conjunction may be used to connect two independent clauses.
Punctuation :
In (c) : Usually a comma immediately precedes the conjunction.
In (d) : Sometimes in short sentences the comma is omitted.
In (e) : Sometimes in informal writing a conjunction may begin a sentence.
(f) He was tired, so he went to bed.
(g) The child hid behind his mothers skirt, for he was afraid of the dog.
(h) He did not study, yet he passed the exam.
In addition to and, but, or, and nor, other conjunctions are used to connect two
independent clauses :
So (meaning therefore, as a result)
For (meaning because)
Yet (meaning but, nevertheless)
A comma almost always precedes so, for, and yet when they are used as
conjunctions.**

ADVERB CLAUSES
(a) When we were in New York, we saw several plays.
(b) We saw several plays when we were in New York.
When we were in New York is an adverb clause. It is a dependent clause. It cannot
stand alone as a sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause.
Punctuation : when an adverb clause precedes an independent clause, as in (a), a
comma is used to seprate the clause. When the adverb clause follows, as in (b),
usually no comma is used.
(c) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.
(d) He went to bed because he was sleepy.
Like when, because introduces an adverb clause. Because he was sleepy is an
adverb clause.
SUMMARY LIST OF WORDS USED TO INTRODUCE ADVERB CLAUSES*
Time
Cause & Effect
Opposition Condition
after
because
eventhough if
before
since
although
unless
when
now that
though
only if
while
as
whether or not
as
as/so long as
even if
by the time (that)
inasmuch
whereas
providing (that)
since
while
provided (that)
until
in case (that)
as soon as
so (that)
in the event (that)
once
in order that
as/so long as
whenever
every time (that)
the first time (that)
the last time (that)
the next time (that)

USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW TIME RELATIONSHIPS

After, Afterwards & Before
(a) After she graduates, she will get a job.
After she (had) graduated, she got a job.
She got a job after she (had) graduated.

(b) I ate dinner. Afterwards, I took a walk.

I ate dinner. I took a walk afterwards.
(c) I will leave before he comes.
(d) I (had) left before he come.
After can be used to introduce an adverb clause. Afterwards* is adverb meaning
later, after. (Afterwards can also be spelled without s : afterward.
A present tense not a future tense, is used in adverb clause of time.
When
(e) When I arrived, he was talking on the phone.
(f) When I got there, he had already left.
(g) When it began to rain, I stood under a tree.
(h) When I was in chicago, I visited the museums.
(i) When I see him tomorrow, I will ask him.
When = at that time (Notice the different time relationships exressed by the
tenses.
(j) While I was walking home, it began to rain.
(k) As I was walking home, it began to rain.
While, as = during that time.
By the time
(l) By the time he arrived, we had already left.
(m)By the time he comes, we will already have left.
By the time = one events is completed before another event. (Notice the use of the
past perfect and future perfect in the main clause.)
Since
(n) I havent seen him since he left this morning.
Since = from that time to present (Notice : The present perfect tense is used in the
main clause.)
Until & till
(o) We stayed there until we finished our work.
(p) We stayed there till we finished our work.
Until, till = to that time and then no longer (Till is used primarily in speaking
rather than writing.)
As soon as & once
(q) As soon as it stops raining, we will leave.
(r) Once it stops raining, we wil leave.
As soon as, once = when one event happens, another event happens soon
afterwards.

As long as & so long as

(s) I will never speak to him again as long as I live.
(t) I will never speak to him again so long as I live.
As long as, so long as = during all that time, from beginning to end.
Whenever & everytime
(u) Whenever I see her, I say hello.
(v) Everytime I see her, I say hello.
Whenever = everytime
The first time, the last time, & the next time
(w) The first time I went to New York, I went to an opera.
(x) I saw two plays the last time I went to New York.
(y) The next time I go to New York, Im going to see a ballet.
Adverb clauses cn be introduced by the following :
The {first/second/third/last/next} time.

USING ADVERB CLAUSES TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT

RELATIONSHIPS
Because
(a) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.
(b) He went to bed because he was sleepy.
An adverb clause may precede or follow the independent clause. Notice the
punctuation in (a) and (b).
Since
(c) Since hes not interested in classical music, he decided not to go to the
concert.
In (c) : since means because.
Now that
(d) Now that the semester is finished, Im going to rest a few days and then
take a trip.
In (d) : now that means because now. Now that is used for present and future
situations.
As
(e) As she had nothing in particular to do, she called up a friend and asked her
if she wanted to take in a movie.

In (e) : as means because.

As /so long as
(f) As long as (So long as) youre not busy, could you help me with this
work?
In (f) : as long as means because.
Inasmuch as
(g) Inasmuch as the two goverment leders could not reach an agreement, the
possibilities for peace are still remote.
In (g) : inasmuch as means because. Inasmuch as is usually found only in
formal writing and speech.

USING PREPOSITIONS TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT :

BECAUSE OF & DUE TO
(a) Because the weather was cold, we stayed home.
(b) Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.
(c) Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.
Because introduces an adverb clause ; it is followed by a subject and verb.
Because of and due to are prepositions ; they are followed by a noun object.
(d) Due to the fact that the weather was cold, we stayed home.
Sometimes, usually in more formal writing, due to is followed by a noun clause
introduced by the fact.
(e) We stayed home because of the cold weather.
Like adverb clauses, these phrases can also follow the main clause, as in (e).

USING TRANSITIONS TO SHOW CAUSE AND EFFECT :

THEREFORE & CONSEQUENTLY
(a) Al failed the test because he didnt study.
(b) Al didnt study. Therefore, he failed the test.
(c) Al didnt study. Consequently, he failed the test.
(a), (b), and (c) have the same meaning. Therefore and consequently mean as a
result. In grammar, they are called transitions (or conjunctive adverbs).
Transitions connect the ideas between two sentences.
(d) Al didnt study. Therefore, he failed the test.
(e) Al didnt study. He, therefore, he faile the test.

(f) Al didnt study. He failed the test, therefore.

Positions of transition :
Transition + S + V (+ rest of sentence)
S + transition + V (+ rest of sentence)
S + V (+rest of sentence) + transition
A transition occurs in the second of two related sentences. Notice the patterns and
punctuation in the examples. A period (NOT a comma) is used at the end of the
first sentence. The transition has several possible positions in the second sentence.
The transition is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.
(g) Al didnt study, so he failed the test.
Compare : A transition (e.g., therefore) has different possible positions within the
second sentence of a pair. A conjunction (e.g., so) has only one possible position :
between the two sentences. So cannot move around in the second sentence as
therefore can.

SUMMARY OF PATTERNS AND PUNCTUATION

Adverb Clause
(a) Because it was hot, we went swimming.
(b) We went swimming because it was hot.
An adverb clause may precede or follow an independent clause.
Punctuation : A comma is used if the adverb clause comes first.
Preposition
(c) Because of the hot weather, we went swimming.
(d) We went swimming because of the hot weather.
A preposition is followed by a noun object, not by a subject and verb.
Punctuation : A comma is usually used if the prepositional phrase precedes the
subject and verb of the independent clause.
Transition
(e) It was hot. Therefore, we went swimming.
(f) It was hot. We, therefore, went swimming.
(g) It was hot. We went swimming, therefore.
A transition is used with the second sentence of a pair. It shows the relationship of
the second idea to the first idea. A transition is moveable within the second
sentence.
Punctuation : A period is used between the two independent clauses.* A comma
may not be used to separate the clauses. Commas are usually used to set the
transition off from the rest of the sentence.
Conjunction

(h) It was hot, so we went swimming.

A conjunction comes between two independent clauses.
Punctuation : Usually a comma is used immediately in front of a conjunction.

OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT :

SUCH... THAT & SO... THAT
(a) Because the weather was nice, we went to the zoo.
(b) It was such nice weather that we went to the zoo.
(c) The weather was so nice that we went to the zoo.
Exmples (a), (b), and (c) have the same meaning.
(d) It was such good coffee that I had another cup.
(e) It was such a foggy day that we couldnt see the road.
Such... that encloses a modified noun : such + adjective + noun + that
(f) The coffee is so hot that I cant drink it.
(g) Im so hungry that I could eat a horse.
(h) She speaks so fast that I cant understand her.
(i) He walked so quickly that I couldnt keep up with him.
So... that encloses an adjective or adverb : so + {adjective/or/adverb} + that
(j) She mad so many mistakes that she failed the exam.
(k) He has so few friends that he is always lonely.
(l) She has so much money that she can buy whatever she wants.
(m)He had solittle trouble with the test that he left twenty minutes early.
So... that is used with many, few, much, and little.
(n) It was such a good book (that) I couldnt put it down.
(o) I was so hungry (that) I didnt wait for dinner to eat something.
Sometimes, primarily in speaking, that is omitted.

EXPRESSING PURPOSE : USING SO THAT

(a) I turned off the TV in order to enable my roomate to study in peace and
quiet.
(b) I turned off the TV so (that) my roomate could study in peace and quiet.
In order to expresses purpose. In (a): I turned off the TV for a purpose. The
purpose was to make it possible for my roomate to study in peace and quiet.
So that also expresses purpose.* It expresses the same meaning as in order to. The
word that is often omitted, especially in speaking.

So that + Can or Could

(c) Im going to cash a check so that I can buy my testbooks.
(d) I cashed a check so that I could buy my texbooks.
So that is often used instead of in order to when the idea of ability is being
expressed. Can used in the adverb clause for a present/future meaning. In (c): so
that I can buy = in order to be able to buy.
Could is used after so that in past sentences.**
So that + Will/Simple Present or Would
(e) Ill take my umbrella so that I wont get wet.
(f) Ill take my umbrella so that I dont get wet.
(g) Yesterday I took my umbrella so that I wouldnt get wet.
In (e): so that I wont get wet = in order to make sure that I wont get wet.
In (f): It is sometimes possible to use the simple present after so that in place of
will; the simple present expresses a future meaning. Would is used in past
sentences.

REDUCTION OF ADVERB CLAUSES TO MODIFYING PHRASES

Some adverb clauses may also be changed to modifying phrases, and the ways in
which the changes are made are the same:
Omit the subject of the dependent clause and the be form of the verb.
(a) Adverb clause:
While I was walking to class, I ran into an old friend.
(b) Modifying phrase: While walking to class, I ran into an old friend.

Or, if there is no be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to ing.
(c) Adverb clause:
Before I left for work, I ate breakfast.
(d) Modifying phrase: Before leaving for work, I ate breakfast.
An adverb clause can be changed to a modifying phrase only when the subject of
the adverb clause and the subject of the main clause are the same. A modifying
phrase that is the reduction of an adverb clause modifes the subject of the main
clause. No change is possible if the subjectsnof the adverb clause and the main
clause are different.
(e) Change possible: Whie I was sitting in class, I fell sleep.
While sitting class, I fell sleep.
(f) Change possible: While Ann was sitting in class, she fell sleep.
While sitting in class, Ann fell sleep.
(g) No change possible: While the teacher was lecturing to the class, I fell
asleep.*

(h) No change possible: While we were walking home, a frog hopped across
the road in front of us.

CHANGING TIME CLAUSES TO MODIFYING PHRASES

Adverb clauses beginning with after, before, while, and since can be change to
modifying phrases.
(a) Clause: Since Mary come to this country, she has made many friends.
(b) Phrase: Since coming to this country, Mary has made many friends.
(c) Clause: After he (had) finished his homework, he went to bed.
(d) Phrase: After finishing his homework, he went to bed.
(e) Phrase: After having finished his homework, he went to bed.
In (c): There is no difference in meaning between After he finished and After he
had finished.
In (d) and (e): There is no difference in meaning between After finishing and After
having finished.
(f) Phrase: He went to bed after finishing his homework.
A modifying phrase may follow the main clause, as in (f).

EXPRESSING THE IDEA OF DURING THE SAME TIME

IN MODIFYING PHRASE
(a) While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old friend.
(b) While walking down the street, I ran into an old friend.
(c) Walking down the street, I ran into an old friend.
(d) Hiking trough the woods yesterday, we saw a bear.
(e) Pointing to the sentence on the board, the teacher explain the meaning of
modifying phrases.
Sometimes while is omitted but the ing phrase at the beginning of the sentence
gives the same meaning (i.e., during the same time). (a), (b), and (c) have the
same meaning.

EXPRESSING CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS

IN MODIFYING PHRASES
(a) Because she needed some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.
(b) Needing some money to buy a book, Sue cashed a check.

(c) Because he lacked the necessary qualifications, he was not considered for
the job.
(d) Lacking the necessary qualifications, he was not considered for the job.
Often an ing phrase at the beginning of a sentence gives the meaning of
because. (a) and (b) have the same meaning.
Because is not used in a modifying phrase. It is omitted, but the resulting phrase
expresses a cause and effect relationship.
(e) Having seen that movie before, I dont want to go again.
(f) Having seen that movie before, I didnt want to go again.
Having + past participle gives the meaning not only of because but also of
before.
(g) Because she was unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
(h) Being unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
(i) Unable to afford a car, she bought a bicycle.
A form of be in the adverb clause is often changed to being. The use of being
makes the cause and effect relationship clear.

USING UPON + -ING IN MODIFYING PHRASES

(a) Upon reaching the age of 21, I received my inheritance.
(b) When I reached the age of 21, I received my inheritance.
Modifying phrases beginning with upon + -ing usually have the same meaning as
adverb clauses introduced by when. (a) and (b) have the same meaning.
(c) On reaching the age of 21, I received my inheritance
Upon can be shortened to on. (a), (b), and (c) all have the same meaning.

CHAPTER 4
SHOWING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN IDEAS
PART II
EXPRESSING UNEXPECTED RESULT:
USING EVENT THOUGH
(a) Because the weather was cold, I didnt go swimming.
(b) Even though the weather was cold, I went swimming.
Because is used to express expected results. Even though is used to express
unexpected results.
(c) Because I wasnt tired, I didnt go to bed.
(d) Even though I wasnt tired, I went to bed.
Like because, even thogh introduce an adverb clause.

SHOWING OPPOSITION (UNEXPECTED RESULT)

Adverb clauses
(a) Even though it was cold, I went swimming.
(b) Although it was cold, I went swimming.
(c) Though it was cold, I went swimming.
Conjunctions
(d) It was cold, but I went swimming anyway.
(e) It was cold, but I still went swimming.
(f) It was cold, yet I still went swimming.
Transitions
(g) It was cold. Nevertheless, I went swimming.
(h) It was cold. Nonetheless, I went swimming.
(i) It was cold. However, I still went swimming.
Prepositions
(j) I went swimming despite the cold weather.
(k) I went swimming in spite of the cold weather.
(All of the example sentences have the same meaning).
SHOWING DIRECT OPPOSITION
Adverb clauses
(a) Mari is rich, whereas John is poor.
(b) Mary Is rich, while John is poor.
(c) John is poor, while Mary is rich.
(d) Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor.
Whereas and while are used to show direct opposition: this is exactly the
opposite of that. Whereas and while may be used with the idea of either clause
with no difference in meaning. (Note: A comma is usually used even if the adverb
clause come second).
Conjunctions
(e) Mary is rich, but John is poor.
(f) John is poor, but Mary is risch.
Transitions
(g) Mary is rich; however, John is poor.
(h) John is poor; however, Mary s rich.
(i) Mary is rich. John, on other hand, is poor
(j) John is poor. Mary, on other hand, is rich.

In (e) through (j): As with whereas and while, it does not make any difference
with idea comes first and which ideas comes second. The two ideas are directly
opposite.

EXPRESSING CONDITIONS IN ADVERB CLAUSES:

IF CLAUSES
If clauses (also called adverb clauses of condition) present possible conditions.
The main clause express results.
(a) If it rains, the streets get wet.
In (a): Possible condition = it rains ; Result = the streets get wet
(b) If it rains tomorrow, I will take my umbrella.
A present tense, not a future tense, is used in an if clause even though the verb
in the if clause may refer to a future events or situation, as in (b).*

ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONDITION:

USING WHETHER OR NOT AND EVEN IF
(a) Im going to go swimming tomorrow whether or not it is cold.
(Or : wheteher it is col or not)
Whether or not expresses the idea that neither this condition nor that condition
matters; the result will be the same. In (a): If it is cold, Im going swimming. If it
is not cold, Im going swimming. I dont care about the temperature. It doesnt
matter.
(b) I have decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the weather is cold, Im
going to go swimming.
Sentences with even if are close in meaning to those with whether or not. Even if
gives the idea that a particular condition doesnt matter. The result will not
change.
Compare:
(c) If Ann studies hard, she will pass the exam.
(d) Even if Mary studies hard, she wont pas the exam.
if clauses are followed by expeted results, as in (c).
Condition : Ann studies
Expected result : she passed the exam
Even if clauses are followed buy unexpected results, as in (d).

Condition : Mary studies

Unexpected result : she doesnt pass the exam

ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION:

USING IN CASE (THAT) & IN THE EVENT (THAT)
(a) Ill be at my uncles house in case you (should) need to reach me.
(b) In the event that you (should) need to reach me, Ill be at my uncle house.
In case that and in the event that express the idea that something probably wont
happen, but it might.*
In case/in event that = if by any change this should happen (Notes: In the event
that is more formal than in case). Yhe use of should in the adverb clause
emphasizes the speakers uncertainly that something will happen.

ADVERB CLAUSE OF CONDITION:

USING UNLESS
(a) Ill go swimming tomorrow unless its cold.
(b) Ill go swimming tomorrow unless it isnt cold.
Unless = if... not. In (a): unless its cold = if it isnt cold ; (a) and (b) have the
same meaning.

ADVERB CLAUSES OF CONDITION:

USING ONLY IF & PROVIDING/PROVIDED THAT
(a) The picnic will be cancelled only if it rains.
If its windy, well go on the picnic.
If its cold, well go on the picnic.
If its damp and foggy, well go on the picnic.
If its unbearably hot, well gon on the picnic.
Only if expresses the idea that there is only one condition that will cause a
particular result.
(b) Only if it rains will the picnic be cancelled.

When only if begins a sentence, the subject and verb of the main clause are
inverted, as in (b).
(c) Providing/provided (that) no one has any further questions, the meeting
will be adjourned.
Providing that and provided that = if or only if.

EXPRESSING CONDITIONS:
USING OTHERWISE AND OR (ELSE)
(a) I always eat breakfast. Otherwise, I get hungry during class.
(b) Youd better hurry. Otherwise, youll be late.
Otherwise expresses the idea if the opposite is true, then there will be a certain
result.
In (a): otherwise = if I dont eat breakfast
In (b): otherwise = if you dont hurry
(c) I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get hungry during class.
(d) Youd better hurry, or (else) youll be late.
Or else and otherwise have the same meaning.
Otherwise is a transition ; or (else) is a conjunction.