Effi~iency Analysis ofPackaging Lines

F.L. Hrte

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MACHINE
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Heinekeri

WBBM Report Series 33

Delft University Press

Efficiency Analysis of Packaging Lines

libliotheek TU Delft

IIIII I IIII III III II IIIII I I1II IIII II

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2414
511

WBBM Report Series

WBBM
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
Delft Universityof Technology
Room ET 05.040
Mekelweg 4
2628 CD Delft , The Netherlands
Phone +31 15 278 16 35
Fax +31 15 278 72 55

33

Efficiency Analysis of Packaging Lines

F.L. Hrte

Delft University Press, 1997

The WBBM Report Series is published by:

Delft University Press
Mekelweg 4
2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
Phone +31 15 278 32 54
Fax +31 15 278 16 61

Editors:
Roger M. Cooke
Hans van Maaren
Michiel A. Odijk
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
Delft University of Technology

CIP-GEGEVENS KONINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK DEN HAAG

Hrte, F.L.
Efficiency Analysis of Packaging Lines / F.L. Hrte - Delft: Delft University Press.
- Ill. - (WBBM Report Series 33)
ISBN 90-407-1459-2
NUG! 841
Trefw.: Empirical model building, Performance analysis, Product ion lines
Copyright @1997 by WBBM, Delft University of Technology
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by print, photoprint, microfilm or
any other means, without written permission from the publisher: Delft University Press,
Mekelweg 4, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

1. 1 Heineken Zoeterwoude . .
1.2 Problem definition ..
1.3 Research definition
IA Efficiency analysis ..
1.5 Report outline ...

CHAPTER

..1

. .... 1
...... ............. ..... 2
..... 2
. .. ..... ... .. . ..... 3

2 PACKAGING LINES

2.1 Machinery .... ....... ..... ...... ...

... .... ........ ....... ..... ... ... ..... ...............5

.. .. .... ... .......... ..... 5

2.1.1 Boltlc fitting line

2.1.2 Can fitting line .... . .. .................... .

. .. ... ... .. ... ... . . .... 6

2.2 Bringing the machinery together ........... .... ... ............. .

2.2. 1 Design principle and buffer st ratcgy

CHAPTER

DEFINITIONS

3. I Efficiency ............... .
3. 2 Line parameters ................ .
3.3 Machine parameters ....... . . . .
3.3. 1 Machine states ............. ......... .... .
3.3.2 Machine failurc behaviour
3.3.3 Machine efficiency ..
3.3. 4 Machine production rates ...

3A Buffer parameters ..
3.4. 1 Dynamic accumulation
3.4.2 Statie accumulation ...

3.5 Setting the line parameters

CHAPTER 4 DATA
4 . 1 Registration
4. l.l Statie data
4. 1.2 Dynamic data .. .

.. ...... .. ... ..... .

..9
. .. ..... ..... .. ......... ..... ..... .. ...... 9

11
..... 11
... ..... 13
..... .. 14
. ... .. 14
..... 15
..15
. .. 16

... 17
..... ... ... 17
. ... ...... 23

...... 24

25
...... 25
.. .. ....... 25
. .. 26

4.2 Database ... ....... . .

4.3 Visualisation .. .
4A Line parameter estimation
4.5 Machine parameters ............. .

. .. 27
...... 27
.. 27
. ..... 27

4.5.1 Machine state ..

4.5.2 Machine failure behaviour
4.5.3 Machine efficiency ..
4.5.4 Machine production rate .

.... 27
..28
.... ... .29
. .. 29

4.6 Buffer parameters ................. .. ......

4.7 Organisational aspects .. ... . .. ..... ..... .

. .. .30
.... 31

CHAPTER

33

ANALYSIS

.. ... ............... .. ... .. ... ... 33

5.1 Efficiency limits and buffer strategy performance .
. ...... .. .. .. .. ..... ......... 36
5.2 Machine event summary and Machine efficiency analysis ..
5.3 Accumulation ratelRecovery rate and Buffer efficiency analysis ..... ... .. ... .. ...... ..... ....... 38
54 V-graph analysis .............. .....................
.............
.... ......... ... ....... .. .. .. 43
5.5 Statistical analysis : Histograms
... ....... ..... ..... 47
5.6 Event list and Event patterns ... ........ .... .. .. .. .... ... .... .... ....
.. ........ ..... ... .. ... .. ...... 48
5.7 Efficiency Loss Allocation algorithm.. .. ...... .. ...... ... ...
.... .. .. .. ..... ................ 50

CHAPTER

57

6 SIMULATION

... ............ ...

..... 57
. .. ..... ....... ..... ...... 59

6.1 Mathematical models

6.2 Packaging line modeis ...... .
6.2. 1 Analytical models
6.2.2 Simulalion models .......... ................... .
6.2.3 Simulalion modelling proccss
6.2.4 Packaging line simulalion lISC

.. ..... ...... .... ..................... ..... .. .. ............... 59

. .. ... ....... ... .. .. .. ........ 59
................... ....... .. ..... 61
.......... .............................. 62

CHAPTER

7 RESUL TS

63

CHAPTER

8 CONCLUSION S

65

REFERENCES

.... ...... .... .. ... .. ... ..... ... ............. ....... .... ....... ... .... ...... ... ... .......... ... .. .. ..... ...... ... ..... 67

SUMMARY

.. ... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. ..... ..... ..

SAMENV A'ITING

. ... .. .. .... .. ... ..... .. ...... .... ... .. ..... .... .... .... .... .. .. ..... ...... 69
.... .70

ApPENDIX A: LINE LOGIC .............................. .................................................. 71

ApPENDIX B: BASIS REGISTRATION ................................................................. 73
ApPENDIX

C: SIMULATION USING UNICORN .................................................... 75

Cl Unicorn .............. ......... .. .. ..... .... ......... .. ..... ..... ... .. ... ... ... ..... ... ... .. .... .... .. .. .. ... .. ... . ..... 75
.... .75
C2 Mathematical model
.... .78
C3 Example ........................ .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report is the conclusion of my final project of the two-year post MSc program on
management engineering called 'Wiskundige Beheers- en BeleidsModellen' from the Statistics,
Stochastics and Operations Research Unit of the Department of Mathematics and Computer
Science ofthe Delft University of Technology.
During the second year of this course, I worked on the topic of process registration and
efficiency analysis of packaging lines at the Heineken Brewery in Zoeterwoude. My tasks were
mainly concentrated around two projects: the VP-IN project (VerPakken INformatisering) for
the co-ordination of the information technology activities in the packaging department and the
' 2 good 2 bee true ' project for the improvement ofpackaging line 2.
The examination board was formed by prof dr. RM. Cooke (Delft University of
Technology), dr. ir. LE. Meester (Delft University of Technology), ir. AC. Bosma (Hein eken
Technical Services), ing. Al. van den Broek (Heineken Nederland), and ir. GP.E. Vos
(SCULPO/Sch) .
At Heineken I would like to thank Atze Bosma, Gijs Vos and Menno Antal for their
guidance and help, and for making my project at Heineken a true leaming experience. Also I
would like to thank Arjan van den Broek for his enthusiasm and our 'co-oPOOHration'. In
addition, I would like to thank my ot her colleagues at Heineken, and Vincent Schakel and John
van den IJssel from TH Rijswijk
At Delft University of Technology I would like to thank Roger Cooke for his help and
his interest in this project and my colJeagues, especially Nicole van EIst, Jaap Karelse and
Bemd Kraan for all of our collective activities, all 'strictly business ' of course.

Frank L Hrte
March 1997

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

This chapter briejly describes (he packaging department of the Heineken Brewery in
Zoeterwoude. The problem definition and research definition are discussed Also the idea of
efficiency analysis is explained and (he outline of this report is given.

1.1

Heineken Zoeterwoude

The Heineken Brewery in Zoeterwoude has a yearly capacity of around 8 million hectolitres of
beer. At the packaging department this beer is put into beer containers on 7 packaging lines,
which package beer in boules, cans (or kegs), put the boules or cans in crates, trays or
cart ons, and then on pallets. A packaging line is a sequence of high-speed machines. Each
machine performs a task of the packaging process. The machines are connected by conveyors
which also serve as buffers.
The efficiency of a packaging line is the percentage of the actual number of fi.lled beer
containers versus the possible number of filled beer containers, for a given period of time. The
efficiency of most packaging lines is (too) low because of the occurrence of various machine
failures. The average line efficiency is between 60% and 90%. The total production costs of
beer consist mainly of packaging costs.
The research project of this report concentrated on packaging line 2, which was
installed in the spring of 1996 and is divided in two so-called streets, that can both pro duce
40.000 boUles per hour. On line 2 four different types of boules are filled with several types of
beer for the export markets. Production continues almost seven days per week and 24 hours
per day. Each day consists of three shifts of 8 hours and every shift the line is run by a team of
operators. It is a high-tech line with modern machinery, using information technology.

1.2

Problem definition

In order to design and improve packaging lines, it is necessary to have some means of
predicting and explaining their performance and identifying the influence of the key line
parameters (e.g. machine capacities, failure behaviour, conveyor speed, buffer capacities, etc.).
Traditionally packaging line practice relied on extrapolation of past experience or on
the use of simple rules of thumb . The recent developments in information technology within
the packaging process enable the use of analysis methods to assess the efficiency of packaging
lines. For the design of packaging lines these methods can help to avoid that the line fails to
perform as originally expected, after it has been installed. For already installed packaging these
methods can help to identify the sources ofloss of productivity.
The design of new packaging lines is likely to be based on (successful) existing
packaging lines, therefore the efficiency analysis of installed lines does not only serve to
improve the efficiency of existing lines but also the design of new lines.
Improving the efficiency of packaging lines leads to lower packaging costs per unit by
either increased output or lower personnel costs and/or lower equipment and material costs. It
also improves the delivery reliability. Knowing the effect of the line parameters on the
efficiency can help in making cost/benefit analysis of packaging lines. Finally, an awareness of
the effect of the line parameters on the efficiency might influence the production practice.

1.3

Research definition

The research underlying this report concerns the efficiency analysis of packaging lines. The
goals of this research were to increase the knowledge of and insight into packaging lines, to
explain the efficiency of packaging lines, and to help improve the efficiency of packaging lines.
This is achieved by creating a framework for efficiency analysis of packaging lines using
mathematics and information technology. The analysis methods can be applied on both process
data of existing lines as weil as in simulation studies. Note that efficiency analysis can only
detect the ' symptoms', the analysis results have to be interpreted to arrive at a ' diagnosis' and
a possible 'cure' or corrective measures to improve the efficiency (figure 1).

MEASURES

Efficiency
Analysis:
INT ERPRETATION

DATAGATH ERING

DATA REPRESENTATION

rlgure 1:

1.4

~lficiency

analysis alld improvemellt cycle

Efficiency analysis

Efficiency analysis of a packaging line (newor installed) is the actlvlty of gathering the
appropriate data, representing these data in a comprehensible manner, caJculating the relevant
performance indicators and interpreting these figures . The main goal is to understand or
explain the (loss ot) production. Often this will lead to corrective measures on the packaging
line and feedback about the effectiveness of these measures.
The efficiency analysis of a packaging line should be a multi-disciplinary activity of the
data analyst, the technical manager/mechanics or the designer, the quality manager, the
production manager and operators, and the administrator ofthe packaging line.
The data analyst is responsible for the data gathering. The raw data is collected (in a
database) manually and/or automatically from the line monitor system. The data analyst
corrects these data for errors and noise, and filters out irrelevant data. For existing packaging
lines the operators supply data either by writing events on a list or by pushing buttons on the
line monitor system, the production manager provides the production schedules (including
stops and change-over), and the administrator gives information about all costs. For new
packaging lines data from comparable existing lines can be used or data can be generated by
simulation; a sensitivity analysis ofthe efficiency analysis for these data can be performed.
The data analyst transforms the edited data into information by combining these data
and th en constructing comprehensible graphs and calculating performance indicators. It is
his/her job to translate questions on the packaging line into the correct corresponding queries.
This will normally lead to a number of standard reports created each time period (shift, week,
etc.). These reports should ideally focus on different aspects and together give a complete
view. The database should be flexible, meaning that ad hoc queries can easily be made.
2

The technical manager or designer, quality manager and production manager or operators
interpret these (standard) reports (possibly helped by an interpretation ofthe data analyst) and,
if necessary, ask for more information or take corrective measures. The administrator gives the
interpretations a ftnancial dimension, allowing cost-beneftt analyses. On existing packaging
lines the operators should also be informed on their working areas.
The interpretation is based on norm values (determined by the objective and history of
the packaging line), historical comparison and comparison among packaging lines. The data
should be analysed over different production shift teams, different time periods, different
product types, and different packaging lines .
By creating standard and gene rally applicable methods, the efficiency analysis of
packaging lines is made easier, more familiar and comparable. This report mainly focuses on
the tasks of the data analyst. Other aspects like technical, quality, and human aspects are not
taken into consideration here, but obviously play a important role in interpreting and improving
the performance of packaging lines. The aim of this report is to create a framework for
efficiency analysis of packaging lines using mathematical methods.
Throughout this report a general view is taken, i.e. all methods can be applied on an
arbitrary packaging line. Most examples however apply to packaging line 2 of Heineken
Zoeterwoude, although no real data is revealed in this report.

1.5

Report outline

This report presents a framework for the efficiency analysis of packaging lines. In chapter 2
the packaging process and the design principle of packaging lines are described. Then chapter
3 defines the efficiency of a packaging line, and lists the line parameters that influence the line
efficiency. These line parameters are formed by the machine and buffer parameters. In chapter
4 the data acquisition process is discussed . Chapter 5 introduces various mathematical methods
for efficiency analysis, consisting of graphs and performance indicators. For each method a
description is given, the objective and use of the method are presented, the required data are
defined, the calculations of the method are explained, and an example is given. Chapter 6
compares analytical and simulation modeis, and discusses the possibilities of using simulation
to analyse the efficiency of packaging lines. Results are listed in chapter 7. Finally, in chapter 8
some conc1usions and recommendations are presented The appendices describe the line logic,
basis registration and an example of a simple simulation model.

CHAPTER

P ACKAGING LINES

In this chapter the packaging process and the equipment of a packagillg /ine are described
and the design principle ofpackaging fines is discussed.
A packaging line is defined as 'the aggregate of distinct machines working together in a
sequence to fill beverage containers (botties, cans, or kegs *), including the preceding and
succeeding machines and equipment; usually from the input of packaged and mostly palletised
empty goods until the output ofpackaged and palletised full goods' [lOl
In other words: a packaging line is a series system of the stages of the packaging
process. For each stage one or more (parallel) machines are used. These machines frequently
have to deal with failures. The machines are put in a sequence and connected by conveyors,
which can also serve as buffers.
There are many different types of packaging lines, all having their own design
characteristcs. Some lines are designed for short and flexible production runs (i.e. they can
handle different product sizes and product packages), other lines are designed for mass
production (i.e. they are dedicated to just one product). Some lines have many parallel
machines and/or large buffers, ot her lines are strictly series and/or have small buffers. Also,
designs have to meet space and capital constraints. However, most bottle and can filling lines
have similar machinery for the different stages and follow a similar design rule for bringing the
machinery together.
For aspecific packaging line decisions are made regarding the individual machines,
conveyors and other line equipment. The selected equipment is configured in the line layout
and the controls are chosen. Each of these factors affects the overall design of the line, and
thus the performance of the line. It is important to keep the objective and history of a
packaging line in mind when the its performance is being analysed, because the inherent
limitations ofthe line determine the maximum line efficiency.

2.1

~achinery

The packaging process starts with the input of empty bottles or canst . Then these bottles or
cans are washed or rinsed, filled with beer, closed, pasteurised, and labelled (botties only).
Finally the bottles or cans are put into their final packaging (boxes, six-packs, etc.) and
gathered on pallets. At several points on the packaging line inspection machines are used. The
function ofthe most important machines ofbottle and can filling lines are described below.
2.1.1 Bottle filliog lioe
Basically, there are two types of bottle filling lines: bottle filling lines for one-way bottles and
bottIe filling lines for returnabie bottles. Some filling lines can handle both types of bottles and
are called multi-purpose lines.

Keg filling line are not considered in this report, but can be approached in a similar way.
The main flow of a packaging line is fornled by the beer: unpackaged beer is the input and packaged beer is
the output. In this view, the flow of empty bottles before the filler can be considered as coming from the 'glass
streel' (similar to the carton street at the packing machine).
t

One-way bottle filling fine

For non-retumable or so-called one-way bottles, there are several packaging options: carton
boxes with six-packs, or with an interior partition, trays, etc. One-way bottIe filling lines
produce mainly for export. Packaging line 2 is an example of a non-retumable-bottle filling
line. Figure 2 shows the layout ofline 2 and describes its most important machines.
First, pallets with new bottles are placed on the line. The protective foil is removed
from the pallet by the defoil machine and the bottles are removed from the pallets by the
depalletiser. The bottles are transported to the rinse machine by a bottIe conveyor. There the
bottles are rinsed with water, and go on to the filling machine. At the filling machine the bottles
are filled with beer, closed with a crown and then moved to the pasteuriser. The pasteuriser
pasteurises the full bottles to make the beer keep longer. Then the bottles are transported to
the labelling machine, which applies the labels onto the bottles. Next the bottles are transported
to the packing machine where they are put into the final packaging. The packing machine is
supplied with the packaging material by the carton street. This is a series of machines that
unfold and glue cart on boxes, trays, interiors, six-packs and combine these into the final
packaging. The full cart ons/trays are transported by a case/tray conveyor to the palletiser,
which gathers the case/trays on pallets. A protective foil is applied around the full pallets and
finally the pallets are taken from the line and dispatched to the warehouse.
Returnable-bottle filling fine
Usually retumable bottles are filled and packed in crates. Retumable bottle filling lines pro duce
mainly for the domestic market.
First, pallets with crates of empty retumed bottles are placed on the line. The crates are
taken from the pallets by the depalletiser and the botties are taken out of the crates by the
decrate machine; the bottles are transported to the bottle washing machine by a bottie
conveyor, and the crates are transported to crate washing machine by a crate conveyor. There
the crates and bottles are washed. The bottles go on to the filling machine and the crates go to
the crate store. At the filling machine the bottles are filled with beer, closed with a crown and
then moved to the pasteuriser. The pasteuriser pasteurises the full bottles to make the beer
keep longer. Then the bottles are transported to label machine, which applies the labels onto
the bottles. Next the bottles are transported to the recrater, where they are put back into the
crates from the crate store. The full crates are transported by a crate conveyor to the palletiser,
which gathers the crates on pallets. Finally the pallets are taken from the line and dispatched to
the warehouse.

2.1.2 Cao filIiog lioe

For cans, there are also several packaging options: carton boxes, six-packs, trays, etc.
First, pallets with empty cans are placed on the line. The cans are removed from the
pallets by the depalletiser and transported to the rinse machine by a can conveyor. There the
cans are rinsed with water, the cans go on to the filling machine. At the filling machine the cans
are filled with beer, closed with a lid and then moved to the pasteuriser. The pasteuriser
pasteurises the full cans to make the beer keep longer. Next the cans are coded by the laser
code machine, inspected and transported to the packing machine, where they are put into the
final packaging. The cans are often collated using some shrink-wrap material. The full
cartons/trays are transported by a case/tray conveyor to the palletiser, which gathers the
cases/trays on pallets. A protective foil is applied around the full pallets and finally the pallets
are taken from the line and dispatched to the warehouse.
6

Bulk glass defoil machine

Pallets with empty new bottles are supplied [rom the warehouse. The defoil machine removes the foil that
protects these pallets. The pallets are transporlcd to the depalletiser.
Bulk glass depalletiser
The depalletiser removes the empty bottles from tlle pallets layer by layer onto a conveyor to the rinse machine.
Rinse machine
The rinse machine (or rinser) rinses the bottles with water or air before filling.
Fi/ling machine
The filling machine (or filler) puts the beer into lhe empty boUles and closes the bottIe with a crown. The
bottles are transported to tlJe tunnel pasteuriser. Before filling the bottles are inspected for being empty; after
tlJe fill process the bottles are inspected for being filled correctiy. Bottles that do not pass these inspections are
removed from the line.
Pasteuriser
In the tunnel pasteuriser the bottles are pasleurised for 45-60 minutes 10 make the beer keep longer (product
stability). The bottles are transported 10 the labelling machine.
Labelling machine
The labelling machine (or labelIer) applies labels on filled bottles: front label, back label, neck label and/or
wraparound. Again lhe boules are inspected and, if necessary, removed from the line. The bottles are
transported to lhe packing machine.
Packing machine
The packing machine puts the filled bottles in lhe final packaging. The packaging is supplied by a so-called
carton sIreeI, a series of machine lhal erecl boxcs, unfold six-packs and interiors etc. The full cartons/trays are
closed, weighted for inspection, coded and lhen lransported 10 the palletiser.
Palleliser
The palletiser puts the carton/trays with ful! boUles on the pallels. The pallets are transported to the shrink-foil
installation.
Shrink-foil insta/lalion
The shrink-foil inslallation shrinks a proleclive foil around lhe full pallels. The pallels are then dispatched to
lhe warehouse.
Bottle conveyors
Bottle conveyors transport the boUles from one machine to the other and consists of segments of chains. Most
conveyor also servc as buffers, because of some extra chains.
Case conveyors
Case conveyors transport cartons or trays from one machine 10 the olher. The buffer function of these conveyors
is created by the distance between the cases.

Figure 2A: Machine description ofpackaging fine 2

7

Boxes

Shrinkjoil
Installation

lnteriors

Six-packs

Palletiser

Packing
machine

Pasteuriser

Labellillg
machine

Figure 2B: Layout ofpackaging fine 2

2.2

Bringing the machinery together

Historically the filling machine has been the most important machine, because the filling
machine is the most quality critical element of the line and because the filling machine
performs the primary function of the packaging line, actually putting the product into the
container.
Therefore, on most packaging Iines the filling machine' is cal led the ('ur{' lI1uchil1{, and
the rest of the hne is designed around it [15]. Usually the line efficiency is based on the
capacity ofthe filling machine and other equipment is sized to ensure, as far as possible, that
the filler does not stop because of failures on the other equipment. This is done tor both
efficiency and quahty reasons.

2.2.1

Design principle and buffer strategy

The design principle for packaging Iines amounts to a hut/ slmle}!,y, which mak es sure that
the buffers before the core machine are almost full and the buffers after the core machine are
partly empty. This allows the core machine to continue in the case of a failure somewhere
else on the hne. In other words the core machine shou ld have produets at the infeed and space
at the discharge.

Hut/ sImIe}!,)'
This buffer strateb'Y consists of two complementary elements. The first element is formed by
the buffers which provide accumulation. Statie accumulation is achieved by putting a real
buffer between machines (e.g. an accumulation table or a crate store J. Dynamic accumulation
is accomplished by the conveyors bet ween the machines.
t\ilachil1~

,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-,

CO/JOC;I.' ,

160'';(,
140%

100%

Machin~

60%
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Sometimes the pasteuriser is taken as the core machine. In the tuture o ne of the other machines may become
dominant (for instance the packing machine becau se of the growing diversit y of packaging options and
promotional packaging). Or the V-shape may even become (more) flat , as the reliability ofthe machines improves,
making buftrs obsolete

The second element is formed by production speeds of the machines. The machines on either
side of the core machine have extra capacity or overcapacity. This overcapacity ensures that
the core machine has products at the infeed and space at the discharge. This enables these
machines to catch up after a failure has occurred. After a machine has had a failure and (a part
of) the accumulation is used, then the overcapacity ofthe machine is used to restore the system
back to the situation before the failure. The machine before and after the core machine have
extra capacity with respect to the core machine. The machines upstream of the core machine
each have extra capacity with respect to the next machine, and the machines downstream of
the core machine each have extra capacity with respect to the previous machine. This results in
the 'V' -shaped capacity graph for the line stages, with the filling machine at the lowest point.
Figure 3 shows the machine capacity graph (or V-graph) of a typical non-returnable bottle
filling line.
V-graph
The V -graph plays a central role in the buffer strategy of a packaging line. Essentially the Vgraph of a packaging line is a graph of the machine (group) capacities in the sequence of the
packaging line. In keeping with the packaging line design principle the machines on either side
of the core machine have extra capacity. This resuIts in the V-shape of the machine capacity
graph with the core stage at the base point (which explains the name V-graph), as shown in see
figure 3.
The speed of the machines and the conveyors is adapted on the basis of sensor signaIs, which
indicate whether a conveyor segment (i.e. a buffer) is full or empty. Most machines have
several speeds. Often parallel machines are used for a stage, where each machine has extra
capacity, so if one of more ofthe parallel machines fail the ot her machine(s) can run at a higher
speed to compensate for the failed machine(s).

10

CHAPTER 3

DEFINITIONS

In this chapter the efficiency of a packaging fine is defined and the fine parameters that
injluence the line efficiency are described. These fine parameters are divided in machine
parameters and buffer parameters.

3.1

Efficiency

The efficiency of a packaging line is the percentage ofthe actual production versus the possible
production, for a given period of time. This is the number of filled bottIes or cans versus the
possible number offilled bottles or cans in a specified time period. It can also be defined as the
percentage of the time that is theoretically needed to produce the actual output (=net
production time) versus the actual production time. The time definitions for packaging lines are
shown in figure 4.

Line Efficiency
The line efficiency 1]line is a measure of the efficiency of the packaging line during the period
specified, and is ca\culated as follows :

1J:

hne

net production time

x 100%
actual production time
net production time
.
.
x 100%
net productlOn ttme + internal unplanned downtime

External unplanned downtime is excluded because this downtime is not caused by the
operation of the packaging line itself; taking external unplanned downtime into account would
result in an indicator for the efficiency of the organisation instead of just the packaging line .
Also extemal unplanned downtime is hard to rneasure
As the net production time is equal to the output in production units divided by the nominal
line capacity, the Line Efficiency specified in production units is:
. =
1]lme

output in production units

x 100%
actual production time x nominalline capacity

where the actual production timet on the core machine (group) is taken as the actual
production time and the nominal line capacity is the nominal capacity of the core machine
(group).

In the Brewery Comparison System (BCS) [2] efficiency is defined as the percentage of the net production
time versus the available production time. In this report, however the fine efficiency is considered.
t The actual production time is usually the measured time (per production run) between the first bonle into the
filler and the last bottle out of the filler minus time lost due to disturbances not under control by direct shift
employees, e.g. electricity breakdown, no beer. etc.

11

TOTAL TIME

GROSS AVIALABLE TIME

AVAILABLE PRODUCTION TIME

..

NET PRODUCTION TIME

:.:. :,, ;;:;:::::::::::::::::::::.::"::::

DQWNTiME

....

internal external
ACTUAL PRODUCTION TIME

Figure 4: Time definitions of a packaging fine

Total time
The total time is the duration of the period specified.
Unused time
The unused time is the time that the packaging line has not been utilised for either actual production, planned
or unplanned downtime during the period specified. This includes holidays, strikes, time not worked according
to work schedule (e.g. Sundays), and no shifts planned according to production plan.
Gross available time
The gross time available (or manned time) is the total time minus the unused time, i.e. the total time that the
line is with personnel.
Planned downtime
The planned downtime is the time used by the packaging line without producing, according to the standards
used in the production plan. This includes start and finish time periods, cleaning, maintenance/overhaul,
changeover time periods, test runs, and idle time (shift available, no work).
Available production time
The available production time is the manned time minus the planned downtime. This is the time which is
intended for production.
Unplanned down time
The unplanned downtime is the time that the packaging line has been occupied with unplanned stops during
the period specified. The total unplanned down time is divided in intemal and extemal unplanned downtime.
Internal unplanned downtime
The intemal unplanned downtime is the total unplanned downtime caused by the packaging line functioning in
the time period specified. This includes time loss because the average speed is different to nominal speed,
additional maintenance (extra to planned), registered and non-registered stops.
External unplanned downfime
The extemal unplanned downtime is the unplanned downtime not caused by the packaging line functioning in
the time period specified. This includes time loss because there are no empties, no beer, no electricity, or no
transport available, non-planned changeovers, planning mistakes.
Net production time
The net production time is the time that the packaging line has been occupied with production during the
period specified calculated as actual output divided by the line capacity. This is also called the theoretical
production time, because it is the time in which the actuaI output could have been produced given the line
capacity.

12

If the filler is the core machine, th en the filler determines the line efficiency except for a time
difference between the time of production at the filler and the time of output at the end of the
line (which inc\udes the pasteurisation time of 4S-60min) and the rejects and breakage aft er the
filler (which is usually less than 1%). Therefore, in the efficiency analysis ofpackaging lines the
focus is on the loss of production time of the filler (or co re machine), which is almost equal to
the difference between the actual production time and the net production time (i.e. the intemal
unplanned downtime). Note that loss ofproduction on the core machine cannot be recovered,
so the production time ofthe core machine determines the (maximum) output ofthe line.
Although the line efficiency is the main performance indicator for packaging lines, the
utilization (defined as the net production time versus the total time), and the effectivily
(defined as the available production time versus the manned time), are also important in
analysing the performance of a packaging line. In other words whereas efficiency analysis
focuses on the reduction of intemal unplanned downtime, the reduction of unused time,
planned downtime, and external unplanned downtime, can obviously also improve the line
performance. In this report quality is not considered, nevertheless this is of course an important
performance indicator. Finally, the output of a packaging line is a very important, simple and
useful performance indicator.

3.2

Line parameters

A packaging line consists of the different stages of the packaging process, and for each stage
one or more (parallel) machine are used. In other words a packaging line is a series system,
with the machines or machine groups as components, and these machines are connected by
conveyors/buffers. This is depicted in tigure 5, in which the buffers upstream of the core
machine are full and the buffers downstream are partly empty.
The line efficiency is then determined by the line parameters, which are formed by the
machine parameters and the bl!l!er parameters'.

buffer
machine

buffer
machine

buffer
core
machine

buffer
machine

machine

Figure 5: Packaging line as series system

The mfluence of other aspects (mcludll1g some aspects that are hard to quantIty, hke the weather, the
experience of the operator, the quality of the material etc.) is not considercd separately but assumed to be
incorporated in the failure behaviour of the machines (which therefore varies).

I
I

l-"nrr-,,,- - - - , - - r - - , - - - -

13

3.3

Machine parameters

The machine parameters are the machine states, the failure behaviour, the machine efficiency
and the machine product ion rates.

3.3.1 Machine states

Each machine can be in one of six states:
Running
A machine is running when it is producing, this can be different speeds and with different reject rates.
Planned down
A machine is planned down in the case the machine is stopped for planned mainlenance, changeovers, nol in
use, elc.
Machine in/emailai/ure
A machine has an interna! failure when the machine stop is caused by a machine inherent failure. There are
often many different fai!ures causes depending on the complexity of the machine.

Machine exlernal failure

A machine has an exlemal failure when the machine stop is caused by extemal faclors, either caused by
another part ofthe organisation (e.g. no supply of empties, no beer, no electricity, etc.)!, or by the operator(s) of
the line (e.g. lack ofmaterial such as labels, cartons, glue, etc.) and waiting time.
Slarved
A machine is starved (or idle) when the machine stop is due to a lack of canslbott!es or cases. The machine has
no input, i.e. the conveyor preceding the machine is empty, because of a reason upstream on the !ine. Note that
some machines can be starved for more than one reasons, e.g. a packer can be starved for bottles and for boxes.
Blocked
A machine is blocked when the machine stop is due 10 a backup of canslbottles or cases. The machine has no
room for output, i.e. the conveyor succeeding the machine is full , because of a reason downstream on the !ine.
Nole thaI some machines can be blocked for more than one reason, e.g. a depalletiser can be blocked by pallets
and by crates.

Hence, a machine is either running, or a machine is not running for one of five reasons. The
state 'planned down' and part of the state 'machine external failure ' are not included in the
calculation. Therefore the loss of production time on the co re machine (i.e. the internal
unplanned downtime) consists of the tot al time the core machine has an internal failure or an
external failure due to the operation of the packaging line, and the tot al time the core machine
is starved or blocked. This means that efficiency loss can be caused in three ways: either stops
(of lower speed) due to the core machine itself, or due to stops upstream of the core machine,
or due to stops downstream of the co re machine.

Sometimes it is hard to differentiate belween machine intemal failures and machine external failure (e.g. poor
qua!ity materiai), or between machine extemal failures and starvationlbackup (e.g. material). The above
definitions are based on the assumption that failures are due to the machine (i.e. machine intemal failures),
related to the machine (machine extemal failures) or due to other machines of the line (starved and blocked).
t This results in extemal unplanned downtime.

14

3.3.2

Machine failure behaviour

The intemal failure behaviour of a machine is usually described by the means of two
(unknown) probability distribution functions': a distribution function for the internal failure or
repair times and a distribution function for the running timest. The expectation of the failure or
repair time distribution is called Mean Time To Repair (MTTR). The expectation of the
running time is called Mean Time Between Failures (MTBFl These are defined as follows for
the period specified:
total time intemal failures
MTTR = Mean Time To Repair = - -- - - -- -number of internal failures
total running time
MTBF = Mean Time Between Failures = - - - - - - - - ' = ' - - - - number of intemal failures
The total time of intemal failures is simply the sum of the intern al failures during the period
specified, and the running time is the total time the machine is in the state 'running'.
3.3.3

Machine efficiency

The machine efficiency 1]machine is a measure for the availability of the machine. It is defined as
the percentage of time that the machine is ready to operate, for the period specified:
. =
1]mac hme

total running time

x 100%
total running time + total time internal failures

The machine efficiency is the time the machine produced versus the time the machine could
have produced. Obviously, the total planned downtime, external failure time, starved time and
blocked time are not taken into account for measuring the machines availability. Also the
machine speed is not considered. The machine efficiency is equal to:
n

'I machme

MTBF
MTBF + MTTR

100%

The efficiency of a group of parallel machines is the sum of the machine efficiencies of the
machines group, weighted with the proportion of the group capacity formed by the machine
capacity .

Often these distribution functions are assumed to be exponential distribution functions.

t Alternatively the failure rate can be specified in terms of numbers per million, e.g. 200 stoppages per one
million produced bottles or cans. This means that no matter how fast the machine is running the failure rate
will be the same. This might be more in kceping with the quality specifications of the material which is also in
units per million (or rather a percentage), and it miglll also explain why machines often show more failures at
higher speeds (i.e. because of the constant failure rate the mean time between failures is shorter at higher
speeds). On the other side, however, al higher speeds also the circumstances (e.g. temperature, trembling, etc.)
are often different.
t The MTBF is based on running time and not on clock time. Implicitly this assumes that a machine cannot fail
while being forced down (e.g. starved of blocked).

15

3.3.4 Machine production rates

The production rates ofa machine (group) are defined as follows:

Machine speed (VmacJ

The machine speed is the number of products the machine produces per unit of time. Machines
can have fixed , pre-selected, or continuously variabIe speeds. Usually machines have an
overspeed, a low speed and one or more speeds around the nominal machine capacity.
Machines can have different speeds for different product types.
Machine capacity (CmaclJ
The machine capacity is the maximum machine speed as set in the machine contro\. Machines
can have different machine capacities for different product types'.
Group capacity (Cgroup)
The group capacity is the total maximum production speed of the parallel machines that form
the group, as set in the contro!. This can be lower than the sum ofthe machine capacities.
Nomina/ machine capacity (Cno"J
The nominal machine capacity is the speed of the machine for which the group to which the
machine belongs runs at the same speed as the co re machine (group); it is determined by the
nominalline capacity divided by the number of machines ofthe group.
Machine overcapacity (Omach=Cmach - C"o"J
The machine overcapacity is the difference between the machine capacity and the nominal
machine capacity.
Group overcapacity (Ogroup=Cgroup- Cu".)
The group overcapacity is the group capacity minus the nominalline capacity.
Core machine (group)
One of the machines (or groups) of a line will be the core machine (group) or critical machine
(group). The co re machine (group) is defined as the machine (group) on which all the line
equipment and conveying system parameters are dimensioned. The capacity of the core
machine (group) determines the maximum output of the line. Therefore the nominal line
capacity is equal to the capacity ofthe core machine (group).
Nomina/line capacity (CUn .)
The nominalline capacity is the smallest machine (group) capacity for the specific product, i.e.
the capacity of the core machine (group) for the specific product. From this follows that a
packaging line can have different line capacities .

The technical maximum machine speed can be higher than the (control) machine capacity, the difference is
called the unused capacity.

16

3.4

Buffer parameters

The goal of the buffer strategy is to mini mise the influence of the different machines on each
other and especially on the core machine (most often the filler), by accumulating additional
supply before the core machine and creating space after the core machine. In other words the
buffers for bottleslcans and crates/cases/trays' between the machines provide accumulation.
There are two types of accumulation: dynamic accumulation and static accumulation.
Dynamic accumulation is accomplished by the conveyors between the machines. Static
accumu!ation is achieved by putting a rea! buffer between machines.
Buffers which are used to avoid starvation of the preceding machine, are called antistarve buffers (these are found upstream ofthe core machine); buffers which are used to avoid
backup of the succeeding machine, are called anti-block buffers (these are found downstream
ofthe co re machine) .
Accumulation
Accumulation is referred to as the time a machine is allowed to stop without disturbing the
operation of the machines around it. There are two types of accumulation: dynamic and static
accumulation.
3.4.1 Dynamic accumulation
Dynamic accumulation is accomplished by the conveyors between the machines. For bottles
and cans these conveyors consist of parallel chains, of which some chains are used for
transport, and the other chains are used for accumulation. For cases, crates and trays these
conveyors are usually one unit wide and the accumulation is achieved by the spacing of the
units. The functioning of dynamic accumulation differs for anti-starve and anti-blo ck buffers.
Anti-starve buffers
The purpose of anti-starve buffers is to prevent that the machine following the buffer becomes
starved when the machine before the buffer has stopped. These buffers are therefore found
upstream of the core machine. In figure 6 the functioning of this type of buffer is shown.
Theoretically the ideal state is wh en the buffer is full. For bottlelcan conveyor this means that
both the buffer and transport chains are full; for case/crate/tray conveyors this means that there
is no space between the units.
Anti-b/ock buffers
The purpose of anti-bloek buffers is to prevent that the machine before the buffer beeomes
blocked wh en the machine after the buffer has stopped. These buffers are therefore found
downstream of the core machine. In figure 7 the functioning of this type of buffer is shown.
Theoretically the ideal state is when the buffer is empty. For bottlelcan conveyor this means
that the buffer chains are empty and the transport chains are full; for case/crate/tray conveyors
this means that th ere is space between the units .

Pallet buffers (full or empty) are not considered here, but can be approached in a similar way

17

Anti-starve buffers
Tbe purpose of anti-starve buffers is to prevent that the machine after the buffer becomes starved when
the machine before the buffer has stopped. Tbese buffers are therefore found upstream of the core
machine. Tbe idea1 state is when the buffer is full, the machine after the buffer is constantly supplied
with containers. When before the buffer a failure occurs, the machine after the buffer can continue to
run and drains the accumulated containers from the buffer. This lasts for a certain period of time, the
so-called accumulation time. At the end of this time period the machine that stopped, has to start
running again, otherwise the machine after the buffer stops because it is starved. Because of the
overcapacities the ideal state is recovered.
State 1:
Tbe buffer is fully filled and working. Tbc
machines MI and M2 are both running. Tbis
situation is called the ideal state.
State 2:
Machine MI has a failure or is starved by a
failure further upstream. The buffer content is
decreased by M2 with speed Sb. A gap is
created in the bottle or can flow, because MI is
no longer producing.

State 4 and 5:
Tbe overtaking flow approaches the end of the
production flow, because of the speed
difference. Tbe production flow disappears with
the machine production speed and the
overtaking flow draws near with the speed of
the conveyor.

Pstarve

MI _ _ M2
State 2:

MI

E3II. .IIM2

. :.

State 3:

MI
State 3:
Tbe bottle/can flow reaches the 'critical point'
Peri!' by the critical time Tcrit=Lbulre/SC. No later
than this point MI has to start running, such
that with speed Sc the overtaking container
flow can fill up the created space, before it
reached the starve point Pstarve of machine M2
(i.e. the sensor that signals the lack of bottles
and stops machine M2).

: Perit

State 1:

~==- M2

State 4:

MI

~
.. .._=-----_ .. -

State 5:

Sc

I. . . . .

>................................ ... .................

State 7:

M2

Sb :

State 6:

MI

=3II
: ..

Ili

M2

MI _ _ M2

Statc 6:
Tbe overtaking flow reaches thc production
flow, before it has reached the starve point. M2
can continue running, without noticing the
failure of machine MI .

Time-Length diagram

T
Teritl -

State 7:
Because M2 runs at a lower speed than MI (i.e.
MI has overcapacity with respect to M2), the
buffer has filled up again. Tbe ideal state is
recovered.

T,"l

:Perit
L erit

Figure 6: Anti-starve buffers

18

Anti-block buffers
Tbe purpose of anti-block buffers is to prevent that the machine before the buffer becomes blocked
when the machine after the buffer has stopped. These buffers are therefore found downstream of the
core machine. The ideal state is when the buffer is empty, i.e. only the part of the conveyor used for
transport is full. When after the buffer a failure occurs, the machine before the buffer can continue
running and fiUs the buffer with containers. This lasts for a certain period of time, the so-called
accumulation time. At the end of this time period the machine that stopped, has to start running again,
otherwise the machine before the buffer stops because it is blocked. Because of the overcapacities the
ideal state is recovered.
State I:
Tbe transport part of the conveyor is filled, the
buffer part of the conveyor is empty. Machine
M2 is running. This situation is called the ideal
state.
State 2 and 3:
Machine M2 has a failure or is blocked by a
failure further downstream. Tbe backup of
containers builds in the direction of machine
MI.
State 4:
The backup reaches the 'critical point', M2 has
to start running now, otherwise MIgets
blocked (i.e. the sensor that signals the backup
ofbottles stops machine MI).

State I:

: Pblock

State 2:

MI
State 3:

MI

---

~_M2

____ M2

State 4:

MI

State 5 and 6:
Machine M2 has started running again.
Because of the overcapacity of M2 with respect
to MI the container flow decreases. The buffer
part ofthe conveyor is drained .

State 5:

State 7:
The ideal state is recovered.

MI

MI

~_M2

State 6:

State 7:

---

Time-Length diagram

Figure 7: Anti-block buffers

L
19

Bottle aDd cao cODveyors

Figure 8: Bottle or can conveyor

For a given bottIe or can conveyor+:

w
o

width (in mm)

bottle or can diameter (in mm)
line capacity (in bottles/min or cans/min)
number ofrows ofbottles or cans standing on the width ofthe conveyor

ROUND[ 0W
-0 + 1]
cos300
Nm
Sb

Sc
Lbufler

1000
number ofbottles or cans per meter of conveyor = Nb x - -

speed ofbottles in translation (in mlrnin) when the conveyor is filled with
botdes on its whole width
Nm
chain speed ofthe conveyor
length ofthe buffer, taken as the distance between the block and the starve
sensors.
population ofbottles or cans on buffer chains ofthe conveyor over the length
of the buffer as a percentage ofthe maximum number ofbottles on the buffer
chains ofthe conveyor over the length ofthe buffer

Of course the machine failure need not occur when the buffer is ful! or empty, this means
that an optimal accumulation is only possible when the buffer is full or empty. This leads
to two buffer times, a nominal accumulation, i.e. the accumulation in the ideal state and
the (actuaI) accumulation, that depends on the present population of the buffer, i.e. the
fillievei.
<p
<pnom

fillievel of conveyor as the percentage ofthe number ofthe containers on

the buffer versus the possible number of containers on the conveyor.
nominal fill level, defined as the fil! level of the conveyor in the ideal state
as set in the co nt rolt .

If a conveyor consists of different segments, with either different widths andlor different speeds, the
accumulation is calculated for each segment separately and these are then added together.
t The maximum number of containers on the buffer can be even higher, but because of machine control
and quality reasons (bottle/can damage, label damage, etc.) extra space between the container is
achieved in the control. This is called the unusedbuffer capacity.

20

Nominal accumulation
The nominal accumulation is the accumulation when the buffer is in the ideal or nomina!
state, i.e. the state when the line is producing without failures . The nomina! accumulation
is equal to :

(1 Ij

nom -L
Tace
- buffer . Sb- -S

For anti-starve buffers this means that the nominal accumulation is equal to the time it
takes to empty the full conveyor over the length of the buffer minus the time is takes for
bottles to travel the length ofthe buffer (see also figure 6).
For anti-block buffer this means that the nominal accumulation is equal to the time
is takes to fil! the conveyor over the length of the buffer minus the time is takes to fil! the
transportation part ofthe buffer (see also figure 7).

Actual accumulation
The actual accumulation is the accumulation that the buffer provides when the conveyor
is an a given state. The state is described by the population ofbottles on the length ofthe
buffer.
p
T -L
. -I
- )
ace - buffer ( Sb Sc

(I-P 1)

Tace -L
- bulTer . - Sb- - -Sc

for anti-starve buffers

for anti-block buffers

For anti-starve buffers this means that the actual accumulation is equal to the time it takes
to empty the conveyor over the filled length of the buffer minus the time is takes for
bottles to travel the length of the buffer (see also figure 5). For anti-block buffer this
means that the actual accumulation is equal to the time is takes to fil! the conveyor over
the free length of the buffer minus the time is takes to fill the transportation part of the
buffer (see also figure 6).
From this fol!ows that the nominal population of anti-starve buffer is 100% and
of anti-block buffers 0%. This does not mean that the whole conveyor is filled or empty,
just the conveyor over the length of the buffer. The nominal jill level of the conveyor is
then around 90% of the maximum nu mb er of bottles on the conveyor for anti-starve
buffers and around 50% for anti-block buffers.
When the chains and bottles are moving at the same speed (Sb=Sc), there is no
accumulation (Tacc=O), because there is no possibility to catch up a gap in the flow in
accumulation sections upstream of the core machine, or to empty the overfil!ed
accumulation sections downstream of the co re machine. When the chain speed goes to
infinity (Sc~CXl) the accumulation goes to the quantity ofbottles the conveyor can accept
(=Lbuffe/Sb), so the higher the chain speed, the higher the accumulation (tending towards
the maximum).

21

Because the line capacity is used in ca1culating the accumulation, these accumulations can
be added to get the tota! accumulation of each machine with respect to the core machine
(filIer); in rea!ity, however a machine may be forced down in a shorter time than the
accumulation, because of the machine overcapacity, or in a longer time than the
accumulation, because of the machine low speed. The accumulation should therefore be
regarded as the effective accumulation, with respect to the line capacity, i.e. the core
machine.
After the accumulation has been used the buffer has to be restored to its nomina! state,
this is achieved by the speed difference between the machine before the buffer and the
machine after the buffer.
accumulation to be regenerated, i.e. the duration of machine stop (in min)
capacity of the machine that has had a stop

T,top
CM

Nominal recovery time

The nomina! recovery time is the time needed to regenerate the nominal accumulation, in
other words the time needed to restore the buffer to its nomina! state after a machine stop
as long as the nominal accumulation.
T nom

ree

Toom
ace

hne

C M - Cline

This means that the number of bottles or cans that were removed from or put on the
conveyor during the nominal accumulation (=the numerator) is recovered with the speed
difference between the machine that has had a stop (and now running at its maximum
speed) and the line capacity (= denominator).
Ac/ual recovery time
The actual recovery time is the time needed to regenerate the accumulation that has been
used by the machine stop(s). Stated differently it is the time the machine that has had a
stop, has to run at its maximum speed.

This means that the number of bottles or cans that were removed from or put on the
conveyor during the stop (=the numerator) is recovered with the speed difference
between the machine that has had a stop (and now running at its maximum speed) and the
line capacity.
Again, because the line capacity is used in ca1culating the recovery time, these
times can be added to get the total recovery time of each machine with respect to the
core machine; in reality, the recovery time of a buffer may be shorter because of a bigger
speed difference or longer because of a smaller speed difference. The recovery time
should therefore be regarded as the effective recovery time, with respect to the line
capacity, i.e. the core machine.
The bigger the speed difference (or how steeper the V-shape of the V-graph) the
faster machine stops can be recovered.

22

Case, era te and tray eonveyors

For case/crate/tray conveyors the accumulation is generated by the space between the
cases. For a given case/crate/tray conveyor:
Cline

Lc
Sb
Sc

N
Lbuffer
p

line capacity (in bottles/min or cans/min)

length of a case (short side leading) or width of a case (long side leading).
speed of cases in translation (in mlmin), with either a case population p or a
di stance d between two consecutive cases
chain speed of the conveyor
Chne X Lc
C line X (Lc + d)
number ofbottles or cans in a case = ---"""----- or
N xp
N
length ofthe buffer, taken as the di stance between the block and the starve
sensors
population of cases on the conveyor over the length of the buffer as a
percentage of the maximum number of cases on the conveyor over the
length of the buffer

Otherwise the formulas for bottle and can conveyors apply

3.4.2 Statie aeeumulation
Static accumulation is accomplished by accumulation tables between the machines. Such
a table (or stack) is placed next to the conveyor and is often called an ebb and flow tabie.
When the conveyor is full the table start to fill, when the conveyor is no longer full the
table starts to empty as shown in figure 9.

Figure 9: Accumulation tab Ie

For a given tabie:
W
L
Cline

table width (in mm)

table length (in mm)
bottIe or can diameter (in mm)
line capacity (in bottles/min or cans/min)

possible number of bottles or cans on the table = ROUND[ 0

possible number of cases, crates or trays on the table

population standing on the table as percentage ofN

23

~c:s~oo x ~ ]

Nominal accumulation
The nominal accumulation is the accumulation when the buffer is in the ideal or nominal
state, i.e. the state when the line is producing without failures. The nominaI accumulation
is equaI to:
N
T nom = - ace

Cline

Actual Accumulation
The actuaI accumulation is the accumulation that the buffer provides when the conveyor
is an a given state. The state is described by the population ofbottIes on the length ofthe
buffer.
pxN
Tacc =
for anti-starve buffers

-c-line

Tacc

(!-p)xN
C

for anti-block buffers

hoe

The formulas for recovery are the same as those for dynamic accumulation.

3.5

Setting the line parameters

Some line parameters can be changed (e.g. the machine speeds, the conveyor speeds, the
location of the sensors), other parameters vary (e.g. the failure behaviour of the
machines). Most line parameters are limited by the line design: the machine capacity, the
length ofthe conveyor. Within these limits there is some room to tune the line parameters
to improve the line efficiency.
Ideally, in the line design the slope of the V-graph and the buffer capacities
between the machines are determined by the failure behaviour of the machines. The
accumulation is adjusted to the MTTR and the recovery time is adjusted to the MTBF.
However the exact failure behaviour of the machine is of course not known in advance.
So, data of comparable machines must be used and a sensitivity analysis should be done.
Once the line is installed, a true value of the line parameters becomes known.
Then efficiency analysis should give an indication which line parameters should be
changed to improve the line efficiency.

24

CHAPTER

DATA

In this ehapter the data aequisition proeess is diseussed. The fine monitor system is
deseribed and the methads to determine or estimate the fine parameters are explained.
Process registration is not a goal by itself, but should help to improve the performance of
the packaging line or department (e.g. by increasing efficiency or decreasing losses) [25].
In keeping with this principle it should be determined what process data is collected and
with what level of detail. This normally is a leaming process, during which experience on
other packaging lines or even ot her industries can be helpfuI. Naturally the costs and
benefits ofregistration should be considered, although this is not easy.
The base for good data acquisition is a set of sound definitions of what is to be
recorded. For a registration system to succeed the purpose and use of the registration
have to be dear. The organisational and technical possibilities and constraints have to be
considered.
Data acquisition can be done manually, automatically or both. Manually recorded
data is of course less accurate, less detailed, and more subjective than automatic recorded
data. However, although the amount of collected data manually is smalI, it is often more
relevant and often has an interpretation, because only incidents or exceptions are reported
and an explanation is added. Automatic or electronic data acquisition gives much more
data, because every event is recorded, and the data is ' objective' , meaning recorded as
defined, but often events need to be explained or additional information is needed.
Therefore in practice manual and automatic data registration are combined. Both
electronically and manually recorded data are entered into a database. Ideally this
database is easy to use, i.e. aggregation, graphs etc. can be made quickly with user
fiiendly tools.
Registration can be continuous, e.g. a line monitor system (automatic registration)
or a shift event list (manual registration), or registration can be temporarily, e.g. during
the installation or upgrading of a packaging line, in which case extra equipment and
personne\ is used .

4.1

Registration

The data of a packaging line can be divided in statie and dynamic data.
4.1.1 Statie data
The static data of a packaging does not change during production and determines the
configuration of the packaging line, e.g. the machine capacities, machine contro\, the
configured machine speeds, and the conveyor width, length and speed. Most static data
can be easily collected by measurement. An important tooi in ascertaining these data is
the so-called fine logic.

Line logie
The line logic is a description of the conditions of the states of the machines and buffers
of a line. It can be shown as a set of figures of each machine and its surrounding
conveyors and a logical table ofthe state conditions, or the state conditions are depicted .
Basically it is a description ofthe contral ofthe machines by the signals ofthe sensors on
the preceding and succeeding conveyors (see also appendix A).
25

--

ft

4.1.2 Dynamic data

The dynamic data of a packaging line consists of data that is changing. This type of data
consists of all line events (or production events), e.g. machine state changes, machine
speed changes, number of units produced, buffer fill grade, production planning etc. The
line event data can be collected automatically and manually.

Automatic data collection

The layers ofthe line monitor system for automatic data collection is shown in figure 10.
The purpose of a Line Monitor System (LMS) on a packaging line is to give insight into
the functioning of the packaging line and to improve the performance of the packaging
line. An LMS has three tasks: monitoring, visualising, and recording the line
performance.
The process registration can consist of a host of counts, timers, signals etc. The
machines and conveyors of a packaging line are each controlled by a so-called
Programmabie Logic Controller (PLC). This is a computer using a program code for the
process tasks. The PLC' s give signals or instructions to the machines. These PLC' s are
connected by a network. The signals of the PLC's are collected by the Supervisory
Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system. This system visualises the machine and
line information on monitors for the operators. The operator also receives signaIs directly
trom the machines from differently coloured light bulbs or text displays. From the
SCADA system the data is stored in a database. Planning information and other
information can be collected through links with other computer systems or databases.

Database

Other systems

Visuafisation

SCADA

Figure 10: Layers of a fine monitor system

Manual data collection

The basic form of manual data collection is the operator writing events on a event list. A
modem version of this is typing events directly into a computer system or pushing touch
buttons on a computer screen when an event occurs. Or in combination with an
automatic data collection system it is just adding remarks to the recorded events
afterwards.
In appendix B the basis registration is discussed. This gives an impression ofthe data that
should be collected for the efficiency analysis of packaging lines.

26

4.2

Database

Both electrorucally and manually recorded data (static and dynamic) are entered into a
relational database. The data model ofthis relational database is very impo rtant, because
the features and possibilities of data analysis are partly determined by il. I,inks with other
databases (e.g. product data, planning data, maintenance data) allow more sophisticated
analysis (for instance by detecting relationships).
The data manager should filter out irrelevant data and Iloise or errors 10 keep Ihe
analysis reliable. He creates standard reports of the packaging line and ad hoc t(ueries ir
asked. Ideally the database is easy to use, i.e. queries, aggregation, graphs cic. can be
made quickly with user friendly tools. Of course the features of the database systcm that
are used and needed depend on the detail of the data and the detail of the analysis An
useful feature of an registration system is the use of several counts to calculate the same
quantity as a verification of the value.

4.3

Visualisation

The SCADA system usually also offers visualisation. Visualisation give an on-line
representation ofthe packaging line data in text and/or graphics, e.g. the machine state is
shown in a machine drawing or the production progress of the current order is shown.
The system should lead to shorter machine stops, because of the information it provides
to the operator on the cause (and the cure) ofthe stop, and also lead to less excess order
production because of the more accurate information on the production progress. The
visualisation system should be flexible and configurable, have a consistent and user
friendly graphical user interface (GUl), and be expandable. What is shown on the screens
must be based on careful consideration and be recorded in clear definitions. Especially the
consistent use of colours is helpfuI.
An important feature of a visualisation system is the possibility to create so-called
historicals or trends, i.e. graphs of the course of events or machine speeds, buffer
contents (see figure 11). Other examples are the development of the MTTR and MTBF
over time, the nu mb er of failures etc.

4.4

Line parameter estimation

The data collection can be used to determine the value of the line parameters. The
methods to estimate the line parameters are discussed below.

4.5

Machine parameters

The machine parameters are the machine states, the failure behaviour, the machine
efficiency and the production rates.
4.5.1 Machine state
Recording the machine state amounts to recording the start time and end time or duration
of the machine state event as signalled from the PLC. Most machine states are defined in
the line logic. However it is not always possible to distinguish the different states, for
instance when an operator who opens a machine to clean it, this is automatically recorded
as a machine failure, while in fact it could be planned downtime. The detail of recording
will also vary. Automatically the machine states are known every single second, manually
this is of course not possible.

27

Usually some extra data is added to the machine states. For a starved machine the
material it is starved for (botties, cases, pallets etc.) is added; for a failure the cause as
provided by the machine sensor signals is added.
Sometimes a machine can be in different states, e.g. blocked and failed when an
operator opens a blocked machine. Then either everything is recorded and filtered later so
that a machine can be in one state at a time , or the filtering is done in the PLC, losing
data but reducing the data flow. The most common filtering methods arefirst-up (with
memory), meaning the machine remains in the first state until this state ends and then the
machine assumes the next state; or priority, meaning that each state has a priority weight
and that of the present state is the one with the highest priority. Something sirnilar is
often do ne for the failure causes. As there are many different types of machine failure and
often one failure leads to an other, so again filtering can be applied.
4.5.2 Machine failure behaviour
The estimation of the machine failure behaviour is done through estimation of the MTTR
and the MTBF t The following sample estimators are common:
MTTR:

~
n

1;fail

= 'ffail

i=1

MTBF: 1;run =
m 1=1

run

with:
n
m
1;fa,1

number of internal failures

number of run times = n 1
internal fail time i, i= 1, ..., n

1;rWl
I fail
I rWl

run time i, i= 1, ..., m

average internal fail time
average run time

The corresponding confidence interval can be approximated as follows (ifn is large):

.

- til

MTTR. [ T

-run

MTBF: [ T

Sf.il

sfail ]

- rail

- Zl_~'

J;;' T + ZI _~ . J;;

- ZI _~'

srun -rWl
srun ]
rm'
T + ZI _ ~' rm

with:
Z I _~

the value of an standard normal distributed random variabie X for which

P(X:S:: ZI_~ )= 1- Vza

a
sfail

confidence level, usually 5%

estimated stanard error of the internal failure times Tt il

A separate state 'failed and blocked' ean also be defined.

t Depending on the definition ofMTBF the run times or cloek times between failures are used

28

_-2:(1;'"0 _ 'f rf il ) 2
n - 1 i= 1

srun

estimated standard error of the run times 1;run

1 m

-I(1;nJIl - nJll1) 2
m-l

i= l

A confidence interval is a measure for the accuracy of the estimate. With a chance of l-a
the confidence interval contains the true value of the estimated quantity. The more
observations in the sample the smaller the confidence interval (as can be seen in the above
expressions the width of the confidence decreases width the square root of the number of
observations, i.e. approximately 4n observations re sult in a confidence interval half as
widef.
Note that the estimates are only a ' snapshot' of the current situation (or period
specified), because the failure behaviour of the machines varies. Therefore the changes of
the parameter values should be monitored and for estimation a representative sample
should be used. Also exceptions should be excluded trom the estimation. Often graphical
tools can help in estimating a parameter.

4.5.3

Machine efficiency

The machine efficiency

.

7]machine

is measured straightforwardly for the period specified:

total running time

x 100%
total running time + total time intemal failures

MTBF
x 100%
MTBF + MTTR

7]mochme

or:
7]m.chioe

In practice, these ca1culation often include waiting time for an operator or mechanic to
arrive. Then the machine efficiency is not the pure machine efficiency but the effective
machine efficiency. For installation tests the pure machine efficiency should be measured.

4.5.4 Machine production rate

The machine production rates can be measured with the counts of production and rejects
of the inspection equipment or the machine display. The conditions for the different
production rates are described in the line logic. These conditions can be created or mimed
with the sensors. Another method uses a historicalof the machine speed over a longer
time period, and checks the different machine speeds that occur (see figure 11).
An important tooi in controlling the packaging line is to check if the configured
speeds in the control correspond with the speeds of the line design. Often machines are
shifted down when problems occur or because this create a more even flow . However,
trom a line efficiency point ofview this may not be desired.
Normally the number of units produced and rejects are recorded for each
machine, ifpossible. This enables the calculation ofthe line efficiency .

If we assume tbe distribution of tbe failures to be exponential tbe confidence interval can be calculated
exactly using a gamma distribution (see [7] and [8))

29

L ' - - _.,._ '

4.6

' . _ - - "'_" - ,

Buffer parameters

The buffer parameters are the accumulation and recovery times of the buffers. Basically
there are two estimation methods. The first method caIculates the buffer sizes with the
equipment specification or measurement of the length and width of the conveyors in real
or trom the layout. Then the machine speeds are used and the conveyor speeds trom the
line design are used. And of course the size ofthe bottIes/cans or cases/cratesJtrays.
The second method measures the accumulation by experiment. So the real
machine speeds and conveyor speeds are measured, Then the conveyor contents as set by
the control are measured by tests, For instance the buffer between two machines is
measured as follows: First stop the machine before the conveyor and let the machine after
the conveyor empty the conveyor completely. Then start the first machine again and
measure both the time it takes for the second machine to start again and the number of
units on the conveyor before the second machine starts again. This is the transport part of
the conveyors. Then stop the second machine and measure how many units can be placed
on the conveyor by the first machine, resulting in the maximum conveyor fill level. So,
the buffer content is simply what is put on the conveyor by the machine before the buffer
minus what is taken of by the machine after it, taking into account rejects and machine
contents,
The values for both methods can differ because the spacing of the units is set in
the control (e.g, to decrease the pressure on the bottles) and the location ofthe sensors
affect the effective buffer. Changes in contral often also change then accumulation and
recovery, Using a trend' ofthe buffer contents and machine speeds ofthe machine before
and after the machine (see figure 11) the buffer capacity, accumulation and recovery can
also be monitored over time,

Machine
speed

"
machine 1
- - machine 2

Buffer

buffer

contents

60000

r
4000

40000

3000
20000
1000

o
time~

Figure 11: Trend of machine speeds and buffer contents

The counting of the contents of the buffer has to be reset every once in a while to avoid differences. For
instanee reset when the buffer is completely empty of full,

30

'-'---I

The nominal fill level of the conveyor can be ascertained by monitoring the buffer for a
certain time in which the machine before and after the buffer function without failures. In
that case the machine speeds usually modulate around the nominal machine capacity.
These speeds are controlled by the sensors on the conveyors, so also the buffer content
modulates between two levels. For example the machine after the buffer runs faster than
the machine before the buffer until the buffer content is decreased to a certain level, then
the machine after the buffer slows down and the buffer content is increased to a certain
level, and then the machine after the buffer shifts up again etc. The nominal fill level is
now chosen as the higher level for anti-block buffers and the lower level for anti-starve
buffers.
Monitoring the buffer contents can also be useful for determining when to start a
neworder. In other words ifyou know how many product there are on the line you know
almost exactly when an order is finished.

4.7

Organisational aspects

Technically there are few limitations for a Line Monitor System (LMS). However, some
technical and organisational efforts are to be expected. Technical efforts, because the data
collection should receive input from the ProgrammabIe Logic Controllers (PLC's) ofthe
line equipment, this often requires reprogramming or extra programming. The
visualisation also requires some effort. And the LMS needs a stabie network, hardware
and software environment to ensure the continuity of the data collection. Organisation
efforts, because the introduction of a LMS first of all requires a functional specification,
i.e. a description of the possibilities and features the system must have. After the system
has been installed the users have to be trained and the system should be managed and
adapted. Using the LMS should be an integrated task of those involved with the
packaging line for the system to be really used successfully.
The use of the system depends on the tools it offers and its user friendliness. Data
processing should be fast for standard reports and flexible for ad hoc queries. Often
systems are discarded because of the Iimitations of the system or the uncIear and
complicated use.
The LMS should built step by step. Creating a overall complete system is simply a
technical risk. A1so it is not optimal, because the organisation then does not have the
opportunity to leam, and expand the system as needed. A cost-benefit decision is
impossible and users are hardly involved. This could result in a more than complete (i.e.
with a host ofunknown and unnecessary features), technical perfect, yet unused LMS.
The first step in building a LMS should be a to determine what kind of system is
needed and what is expected from the system (the functional specification). Most LMS
systems are adapted versions of standard software packages, but also tailor made system
exist, each with their own (dis)advantages. A1though costlbenefit analysis is often hard
for information technology projects, because some benefits are hard to quantity (e.g.
more involvement of operators with the machines, a better overview of the line, etc.)
some sort of costlbenefit decision should be made with each expansion ofthe system.

31

CHAPTER

ANALYSIS

This chapter describes various mathematical methods lor efficiency analysis based on
the available process data.
The efficiency analysis serves to transform the pro ce ss data into information on the (loss
of) efficiency by representing these data in a comprehensible manner and calculating
performance indicators. The interpretation of these figures is based on norm values
(determined by the objective and history ofthe packaging line), historical comparison and
comparison among packaging lines. Also incidents and exceptions must be taken into
account. The data should be analysed over different production shift teams, different time
periods, different product types, and different packaging lines. From this follows that all
analysis can be carried out on a time base, because shift teams, production orders etc. all
correspond to certain time intervals. Therefore we assume that the time period to be
analysed is specified, for in stance all the shift of the last week of team A, or the time
intervaIs of all orders of a certain product, etc.
Of each analysis method the following elements are discussed:
Description: description of the method, mostly the idea behind it and the application
ofthe method.
Goal: objective ofthe method
Data: which data are used and therefore needed for the method
Calculation: the calculations and graphs ofthe method
Example: example ofthe method
Use: how the method is used and what is the value ofthe method
Remarks: limitations, possibilities and cautions of the method
The following analysis methods are discussed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Efficiency limits and buffer strategy performance

Machine event summary and Machine efficiency analysis
Accumulation ratefRecovery rate and Buffer efficiency analysis
V-graph analysis
Statistical analysis: HistogramslFrequency
Event lists and Event pattems
Efficiency Loss Allocation algorithm

5.1

Efficiency limits and buffer strategy performance

Description
The line efficiency is the starting point of the analysis. Theoretically two limits can be
derived for the line efficiency. The lower limit is calculated for a hypotheticalline with the
same machines and machine efficiencies, however without buffers. In other words a stop
on one of the machines causes a stop of the line. The upper limit is calculated for a
hypothetical line with the same machines and machine efficiencies, however with infinite
buffers. In other words the machines function independently from each other. The lower
limit is called the zero-buffer limit, and the upper limit is called the infinite-buffer limit.

33

By comparing the real line efficiency with these lower and upper limits for the line
efficiency, a measure for the performance ofthe buffer strategy is derived. The closer the
real efficiency is to the lower (upper) limit, the worse (better) the buffer strategy is
functioning. In other words if the buffer strategy performs weil the machines function
more independently.

Goal
This method gives a measure for the performance of the buffer strategy and limits for the
line efficiency.
Data
The data needed for the line efficiency limits are:
line component system, i.e. a description of the machines of the line and where they
are connected.
machine efficiencies for all machines (or MTTR's and MTBF's to calculate the
machine efficiencies (note that no assumptions are made about the distributions ofthe
failure behaviour.
The data needed for the buffer strategy performance are:
line efficiency limits
actualline efficiency

Calculation
For the lower limit of the line efficiency 77J~n.for a series system without buffers we
assume that the production rate of the line is the minimum of the machine capacities of
the machines and the line availability is the product of the machine efficiencies. Then the
line efficiency lower limit or zero-buffer limit is the product of the line production rate
and the line availability [3][4].
Line production rate : R low
Line availability

: A

low

= machine
min c maeh
=

TI

1]machine
machine

Lower limit
For a system with parallel machines the production rate and availability of each
'production path' have to be summed to get the lower line efficiency limit.
For the upper limit ofthe line efficiency 1'/1:. for a series system with infinite buffers we
assume that the line efficiency is minimum of the Mean Effective Rates of the different
machines. This results in the line efficiency upper limit or infinite-buffer limit.
Mean Effective Rate (MERm.ch) = 1'/machin. x C mach
Upper limit
For parallel machine groups the MER of the group is the sum of the MERs of the
machines. And the minimal machine group MER is the upper limit ofthe line efficiency.

34

The buffer strateb'Y performance is defined as the ditTerence between the actual line
efficiency 'lhno and the line efficiency lower limit as percentage of the difference
between the line efficiency upper limit and the line efficiency lower limit:
C'

'C

BUf Ier strateb'Y perlonnance:

IJ =

il

'lljno - 'llinc
r

11

100"/
/0

11

< . < 'llinc

"

'llinc - 'l1111C -

'7lino - '711110

1~~'Wm(Jle

Figure 12 shows the six machines of a (series system) packaging line. The combined
Rinser/Filler machine is the co re machine: the buffer upstream of this machine is full
and the buffers dO\'lnstream are partly empty.

hgure 12: ('olll(Jonents o/u (Jackuging Ime

In table I the machine capacities as a percentage with respect to the core machine
(Rinser/Filler) are shown, and also the machine efficiencies and the Mean Effective
Rates for the machines.
Muchine

Cmacho/O
135%
100%
100%
125%
130%
135%

Depalletiser
Rinser/Filler
Pasteuriser
LabelIer
Packer
Palletiser

l1ma~h

97%
98%
99%
95%
93%
96%

MERmach
131%
98%
99%
119%
121%
130%

Tuhle I: Machine cU(Jucit les, mUc/lIne efficlencies (/flJ Meun Ijfect ive Nates

The lower and upper Iimits for the time period specified are shown in table 2; the real
efficiency for the period was 87%, the resulting buffer strateb'Y performances is 50%.
(/
0

100% 76%

er limit
z

Ruffer .Itrate ' , erfimnance

'llinc

lJlinc

76%

98%

50%

'J'uhle 2: I,ower anJ u(J(Jer efficlenr..y liflut wui huffer (Jerfimnunce

[Jse
Although the Iimits are theoretical, they can serve as a indication of the line potential
and the influence of each machine on the line efficiency. The buffer performance should
be viewed for different time periods. ft may be possible to estimate a correlation
between the line efficiency the machine efficiencies (tor instance always a low line
efficiency when the labelIer has a low machine efficiency). The method is used on a
very global level

35

Remarks
- If we assume that a forced down machine cannot fail (so-called operation depended
failures) then the availability of a series system is [3] [4]:
A 10w

1
1+ L(~"':'", -1)
machine

- For a shift the line efficiency can be 0% because of a long failure or because of a
changeover faster than planned the efficiency can be over 100%.
- The machine with the lowest MER is called the bottleneck of the line; normally this
should be the core machine
- Reaching (and increasing) the upper limit is likely to be the line objective, and often
buffers need not really be infinitely large to achieve this, it should be analysed which
buffers (or machines) do not perform in keeping with the upper limit.

5.2

Machine event summary and Machine efficiency analysis

Description
The machines of a line are viewed separately using a pie-chart, a summary table of the
machine events and the machine efficiency for the analysis period.
The pie chart gives the proportion of the time period specified that the machine
was in each of the possible states. The summary table gives an impression of the machine
behaviour, e.g. exceptions can be detected (e.g. in the maximum state event duration
column) and nervous or non-smooth running can be seen (i.e. many short stops).
Especially the core machine is of importance, because the production time lost on
this machine cannot be recovered (i.e. it results in line efficiency loss). The part ofthe line
causing the most core machine stops can be located; this is either the core machine itself
(i.e. core machine failures), upstream of the core machine (core machine starvation), or
downstream of the core machine (core machine backup). The analysis then focuses to
that part ofthe !ine.
Goal
The machine event summary, pie chart and machine efficiency give a quick overview of
the performance of each machine during the period specified, and especially the core
machine.
Data
The data needed for the machine event summary table are:
total time that a machine was in each of its possible machine states,
number of occurrences of each machine state,
minimum, average and maximum event duration for each machine state
standard error ofthe event duration
In effect all machine events are needed.
The data needed for the machine pie chart are:
total time that a machine was in each of its possible machine states,
time period specified, which ought to be equal to the sum over the total time that the
machine was in each of its possible states

36

The data needed for the machine efficiency are:

total time that the machine was running
total time that the machine had an internal failure
Calculation
The machine data are put in a table with one row for each machine state and column
totals at the bottom. On each row the total time of the state, the number of state
occurrences, the minimum, average, and maximum event duration of the machine state,
and the standard error of the event duration. The pie chart is calculated for the total state
times, which add up to the total time of the period specified (otherwise a pie slice
'unknown' is added). The machine efficiency is calculated as defined.
Example
Figure 13 and table 3 show an example for a Filler for a shift of 8 hours.

Machine: Filler

o Running
.Internal Failure
IJ Starved for
boltles
DBlocked by
boltles
Lack of
material

Figure 13: Time pie-chart machine states

Machine state
Running
Internal Failure
Starved for bottles
Blocked by bottles
Lack of material
Total

Sum
6:09 :23
0:22:34
0:29:02
0:51:57
0:07:04
8:00:00

Machine efficiency =

Number #
112
32
27
59
12
242

Mean
Min
Max
S.E.
003:18 0:00:12 0:09:14 0:00: 16
0:0041 0:00:07 0:0343 0:00:15
0:01:05 0:00:53 0:04:02 0:00:24
0:00:53 0:00:23 0:02:19 0:00:19
0:00:35 0:00:19 0:0l:l7 0:00:34
0:01:59 0:00:07 0:09: 14 0:0043

6:09'23
.
= 0.942
6:09:23 + 0:22:34

Table 3: Machine event summary tab Ie

Use
The method focuses on each machine separately using data facts. It gives a overview of
the machine registration data. By comparing different shifts changes in the machine
behaviour can be detected. Also relations between machine can be analysed by looking at
the machine interaction with these machine event summaries (i.e. the number ofbackups
compared to the number of machine stops of the next machine). Operators can get
information on their machines and the machine behaviour can be compared over different
products. Also a need for further analysis can be found .

37

Remarks
- extra machine data can be added like the number of units produced, rejects, average
speed, MER, etc.
- it can also be useful to divide the state running into sub-states for each specified speed,
then the number of speed changes gives an impression of the functioning of the machine
and the surrounding machines (e.g. are there many speed changes, are all speeds used,
and for how long). Also the sum of each total time per machine speed multiplied by the
speed should give the number of units produced. Drilling down even further down the
failure behaviour and rejects could be identified for each speed.

5.3

Accumulation ratelRecovery rate and Buffer efficiency analysis

Description
Although the machines are of course the essential parts of the packaging lines, the
conveyors/buffers also have an important task: they allow the machines to function
independently. The buffers should cover the short stops or microstops (a few minutes and
shorter) and are not designed to cover the langer stops or macrostop (langer than a few
minutes). It is assumed that rnicrostops cannot be totally avoided, because of dirt,
irregularities in the materiaI, breaking glass, etc. and the high speed of the machines.
Macrostops are the result of (Jack of) maintenance or impraper use, they are aften called
breakdowns to contrast them with failures.
The buffer strategy consists of two parts: the buffers and the overcapacities. In
5.1 the performance of the buffer strategy as a whole was calculated, but also for each
buffer separately the performance can be calculated, using the ratio of the accumulation
and the Mean Time To Repair. the ratio of the recovery time and the Mean Time
Between Failures, and the buffer efficiency [15].
Goal
The buffer efficiency analysis, and accumulation and recovery rates give a quick overview
ofthe performance of each buffer during the period specified.
Data
The data needed for the accumulation rate are:
Mean Time Ta Repair (MTTR) for the machine befare the buffer for anti-starve
buffers and for the machine after the buffer for anti-block buffers
Nominal accumulation ofthe buffer
The data needed for the recovery rate are:
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) for the machine before the buffer for antistarve buffers and for the machine after the buffer for anti-block buffers
nominal recovery time of the buffer
Mean Time Ta Repair (MTTR) for the machine before the buffer for anti-starve
buffers and for the machine after the buffer for anti-blo ck buffers
actual recovery time of the buffer for a failure of length MTTR
The data needed for the buffer efficiency are:
total time that a machine was in each of its possible machine states, for bath the
machine before and the machine after the buffer

38

Calculation
Both types of buffers: anti-starve and anti-block buffers are treated separately. There is
basica!ly no difference between statie and dynamic accumulation here.
Anti-starve buffers
Let machine A and machine B be the machines before and after the buffer as shown in
figure 14, the flow is trom A to B. The core machine is B or one of the following
machines. The objective of the buffer between machine A and B is to prevent machine B
trom becoming starved. Machine A has an higher machine capacity than machine B to
catch up when machine A has had a failure (see figure 6).

Figure 14: Two machines connected by a buffer

The accumulation rate is equal to the rate of the accumulation of the buffer and the
MTTR of machine A:
T nom
accumulation rate = M;;R
A

accumulation capacity in containers

c~om x MTTR A

The accumulation rate is also equal to the maximum buffer content divided by the
average decrease of the buffer content by machine B during the average failure time of
machine A. For instance, an accumulation rate of 1.5 means that the buffer provides an
accumulation of 1.5 times the average failure time of machine A. Obviously the higher the
accumulation rate the less influence the failures of machine A have on machine B.
The recovery rate is equal to the increase of the buffer content during the average run
time of machine A because of the speed difference between machine A and B, divided by
the average decrease of the buffer content by machine B during either the nomina!
accumulation time or the average failure time of machine A.
.
MTBFAx (CA - c~om)
nam mal recovery rate =
nom
nom
C B X Tacc

mean recovery rate

MTBFAx(C A _c~om)
nom

CB

xMTTR A

The higher the recovery rate the more failures of machine A will be covered. The
recovery rate is a measure for the ability of a machine to catch up its own failures. For
instance a recovery rate of 2 means that the average run time of machine A is 2 times as
long as the time needed to recover the average stop of machine A. Note that the mean
recovery rate is equal to the nominal recovery rate multiplied by the accumulation rate.

39

Because machine A has an higher machine capacity than machine B the following should
hold:
B
<TA
TstalVe
stop
or:
total time machine B is starved ~ total stop time of machine A except blocked by machine B
= total time intemal failures machine A
+ total time machine A is starved
+ tota! time machine A is stopped not caused by machine B
(e.g. lack ofmaterial, blocked for another reason, etc.)
In short the total time that machine B is starved should be less than the total time machine
A is not running that can cause machine B to become starved. If machine B has an higher
capacity than machine A than machine B can become starved by just emptying the buffer
because of its higher production speed.
The difference between the starved time of machine B and the stop time of machine A is
due to the buffer between machine A and B. The buffer efficiency.,,:!., is defined as:
AB

7Jbuffer

TA -T B
,top
'larve
TA

I OOO/C
0

stop

This buffer efficiency is the percentage of the maximum starve time of machine B that is
eliminated by the presence of the buffer and the extra capacity of machine A. F or instance
a buffer efficiency of 60% means that on average a stop time of one minute on machine
A would result in 24 seconds of starve time on machine B, i.e. 36 seconds are covered by
the buffer. If there would be no buffer the starve time of machine B would be equal to the
stop time of machine A.
If the buffer efficiency is negative then either every stop of machine A stops machine B,
the buffer itself is causing problems, there is a delay before machine B starts after a stop,
or machine B has an higher capacity than machine A.
The value of this buffer efficiency can be distorted by macrostops which are longer that
the accumulation time of the buffer and therefore cannot be covered by the buffer (for
instance a machine failure of an hour will cause a stop of almost an hour on the other
machines). Then it is better to use the buffer efficiency for the number of occurrences:
AB

7J#

buffer

number of stops of machine A - number of times machine B is starved

.
x 100%
number of stops of machIne A

F or instance, a buffer efficiency of 60% means that six out of ten stops on machine A do
not result in a stop of machine B, i.e. four out of ten stops of machine A do result in a
starvation of machine B. Again only the stops of machine A not caused by machine B
should be counted. If there would be no buffer the number of stops of machine A would
be equal to the number of times machine Bis starved.

40

Anti-block buffers
Let machine A and machine B be the machines before and after the buffer as shown in
figure 14, the flow again is trom A to B. Now, however, the core machine is machine A
or one of the previous machines. The objective of the buffer between machine A and B is
to prevent machine A from becoming blocked. Machine B has an higher machine capacity
than machine A, to catch up when machine B has had a failure (see figure 7).
The accumulation rate is equal to the rate of the accumulation of the buffer and the
MTTR of machine B:
accumulation rate =

T nom

accumulation capacity in containers

ace

c~om X

MTTR B

MTTR B

The accumulation rate is equal to the maximum space on the buffer divided by the
average increase of the buffer content by machine A during the average failure time of
machine B. For instanee, an accumulation rate of 1.5 means that the buffer provides an
accumulation of 1.5 times the average failure time of machine B. Obviously the higher the
accumulation rate the less influence the failures of machine B has on machine A.
The recovery rate is equal to the decrease of the buffer content during the average run
time of machine B because of the speed difference between machine A and B, divided by
the average increase of the buffer content by machine A during either the nominal
accumulation time or the average failure of machine B.
.
MTBFB X (C B - c ~om)
nomlnal recovery rate =
cnom
nom
A
X Tacc

mean recovery rate =

MTBFll

(C

- c~om)

B
c nom x MTTR
A

The higher the recovery rate the more failures of machine B win be covered. The
recovery rate is a measure for the ability of the machine to catch up its own failures. For
instance a recovery rate of 2 means that the average run time of machine B is 2 times as
long as the time needed to re cover the average stop of machine B.Note that the mean
recovery rate is equal to the nominal recovery rate multiplied by the accumulation rate.
Because machine B has an higher machine capacity than machine A the following should
hold :
A
< TB
Tblock
stop

or:
total time machine A is blocked :::; total stop time of machine B except starved by machine A
= total time intemal failures machine B
+ total time machine B is blocked
+ total time machine B is stopped not caused by machine A
(e.g. lack ofmaterial, starved for another reason, etc.)

41

In short the total time that machine A is blocked should be less than the total time
machine B is not running that can cause machine A to become blocked. If machine A has
an higher capacity than machine B than machine A can become blocked by just filling the
buffer because of its higher production speed.
The difference between the blocked time of machine A and the stop time of machine B is
due to the buffer between machine A and B. The (reverse) buffer efficiency ~.:rer is
defined as:
BA
17buffer

Ts!p - T blOC~

100%

TB
stop

This reverse buffer efficiency is the percentage of the maximum block time of machine A
that is elirninated by the presence of the buffer and the extra capacity of machine B. For
instance a buffer efficiency of 60% means that on average a stop time of one minute on
machine B would result in 24 seconds of block time on machine A, i.e. 36 seconds are
covered by the buffer. If there would be no buffer the block time of machine A would be
equal to the stop time of machine B.
If the buffer efficiency is negative then either every stop of machine B stops machine A,
the buffer itself is causing problems, there is a delay before machine A starts after a stop,
or machine A has an higher capacity than machine B.
The value of this buffer efficiency can be distorted by macrostops which are longer that
the accumulation time of the buffer and therefore cannot be covered by the buffer (for
instance a machine failure of an hour will cause a stop of almost an hour on the other
machines). Then it is better to use the buffer efficiency for the number of occurrences:
BA

1]#
buffer

number of stops of machine B - number of times machine A is blocked

x 100%
number of stops of machine B

For instance, a buffer efficiency of 60% means that six out of ten stops on machine B do
not result in a stop of machine A, i.e. four out of ten stops of machine B do result in a
backup of machine A. Again only the stops of machine B not caused by machine A
should be counted. If there would be no buffer the number of stops of machine B would
be equal to the number of times machine A is blocked.

Use
The performance of the buffer is a tooi to determine problems or bottleneck on a
packaging line. Buffer with low efficiencies are either very small buffers or are not
functioning weil. Again the values of the accumulation rates, recovery rates and buffer
efficiency should be monitored over time.

Remarks
- more detailed analysis involves correcting these buffer performance indicators by
leaving out stops longer that the accumulation time of the buffer. Note that although
buffers are not designed to cover these stops, their influence should not be neglected.
Likewise changeovers influence the buffer performance.

42

- instead of using the MTBF sometimes the mean time between stops can be used; and
the mean time of stop instead of the MTTR. This may give a more complete picture of
the machine interference, because starvation and backup can interrupt recovery.
- as in queuing theory, where the service rate should be greater than the arrival rate to
avoid an 'explosion' ofthe system, it is expected that the recovery rate should be greater
than 1 to ensure a stabie packaging process, and also an accumulation rate greater than 1
is preferabie.
- a part ofthe starvation and backup is also eliminated by speed reduction ofthe machine
that are becoming starved or blocked.
- for each buffer the buffer efficiency can be calculated in both directions, although the
buffer is of course designed to function in one direction. If an anti-starve (anti-block)
buffer has a low (high) normal buffer efficiency and a high (Iow) reverse buffer efficiency,
this indicates that the buffer is mostly empty (fulI), which is of course unwanted.

5.4

V-graph analysis

Description
The machines on either side of the core machine have extra capacity to restore the
accumulation aft er a failure has occurred. And this overcapacity increases for each
machine going upstream or downstream from the co re machine. The graph of the
machine capacities has a 'V' -shape with the co re machine at the base.
The V-graph of a packaging line is basically a graph of the machine capacities in
the sequence of the line. The V -graph can be expanded with the Mean Effective Rate of
the machine, which gives the effective V-graph (using machine efficiencies). The actual
line efficiency can also be shown. A more detailed V-graph shows a bar for each machine
and the machine state totals are shown as bar segments of each machine bar. This Vgraph gives a overview of the machine event sumrnary for the machines of the line. The
V-graphs can help identify the bottleneck machine, as this is the machine which has many
internal failures, and the preceding machine has a lot of block time and the succeeding
machine has a lot of starve time. The buffer efficiencies of 5.3 can also be shown in the
V-graph.
Goal
The V-graph creates a line view instead of viewing the machines and buffers separately;
this means that machine interaction can be seen on a global level. It also helps to identify
the bottleneck machine of the packaging line.
Data
The data needed to create the V-graph are:
line component system, i.e. a description of the machines of the line and where they
are connected.
machine capacities for each machine
The date needed to add the effective V-graph are:
Mean Effective Rate (MER) of each machine,
or machine efficiency of each machine to calculate the MERs
The data needed to add the actualline efficiency is:
Line efficiency for the period specified

43

The date needed to add the machine bars and machine state bar segments are:
tota! time that a machine was in each of its possible machine states,
time period specified, which ought to be equal to the sum over the possible states of
the tota! time that the machine was in that state
In effect the same data as needed for the machine event summary pie chart.
The data needed to add the buffer efficiencies are:
buffer efficiencies for each buffer, although these can be calculated using the machine
bar segments
Ca/culation
Usually both the V-graph of machine capacities and the effective V-graph are shown
together as in Figure 15.
Mean Effective Rate (MERmach) = 17mac hine x C mach
The machine with the lowest M.E.R. is ca!led the bottleneck machine, i.e. the machine
with the lowest effective production capacity [11]. In keeping with the design this should
be the core machine. The mean effective rate of the bottleneck machine gives the upper
limit of the efficiency (see a!so paragraph 5.1). A line for the line efficiency can be added.
The bar V-graph (figure 16) has a bar for each machine and for each machine the machine
state total times are projected on the machine bar (provided these add up to the total time
of period specified, otherwise a bar segment 'unknown' is added). So, each machine state
has a bar segment within the machine bar, proportional to the tota! time of the state with
respect to the tota! time ofthe period specified.
total time of machine state

machine state bar segment

= tota!'time 0 f the peno

. d
'fi d x machine capacity
specl Ie

The bottleneck machine is then identified as the machine which transforms backup into
starvation, i.e. the previous machine is blocked and the next machine is idle, whereas the
machine itself has few starvation and backup, but a lot of failures (or loss of speed).
Again a line can be added for the line efficiency, the machine state running can then be
divided in a part running at nominalline speed and a part loss of speed.
Fina!ly the buffer efficiencies can be shown by connected the bar segments of the machine
before the buffer with the relevant bar segments of the machine after the buffer, as in
figure 17. For anti-starve buffers all stops of the machine before the buffer that could
cause starvation are connected with the starvation of the machine after the buffer; for
anti-block buffers a!l stops off the machine after the buffer that could cause backup at the
machine before the buffer are connected with the block time of the machine before the
buffer. Note that the order arrangement of the different machine states bar segments is
important. Also the value of the buffer efficiency can be shown in the graph or in a
corresponding tabie.
Example
Three examples of V-graph are shown in figure 15 -17. Figure 15 is a basic V -graph with
machine capacities and MER, figure 16 is a bar V-graph with the machine states
projected on the bar of the machine capacity and MER, and figure 17 is a bar V-graph
with buffer efficiencies.

44

Machine
Capacityc------- - ........ Machine capacity

160"10

--+- MER

140%
120%
100%
Line efficiency
80%

60"10

80%

--- --------- ---- ----+---+---+---+---T---T---~--r_--r_-~

...

bO

.,

il
:'"

::l

ii2

<.)

c::
:
..c

-;;

ol

....

~
,.,:,

"'"

c::

;.:;i

c::

...
]

bO

p.,

p.,

Vl

Figllre /5: V-graph: muchine CUpucl/le,I, AIU? und Une efficie/1L}'

Machine.-________________________________________________________~
Capacity
160%

"
Cl

[==::J Running

"c::

il

'"

.~

ol

:;0"
Cl

<.)

Starved

[==::J

...

~
"'"c::

ii2

Failed _

.,

;.:;i

....

bO

il

:'"::l

.0

ij"

ol

p.,

Bloeked _

bO

c::

<.)

il

'"

.~

:;
p.,

,.,:,

"2
..c

Vl

Laek of material --+- MER

Figllre /6: V-graph: purti/io/1 of'nwchine cupuci/ies liver muchine sla/es and AI/R

45

N.fachme ~

______________________________________________~

Capacity
160%

.,e

;., :.
<J
Cl os

.,....
<Il

.~

::;;0.

.,

Cl
c::::::J Rtmning _

~.,
<Il

Starved c::::::J Failed _

00

<Il
.t:

Ol

::s

.J:J

Bloeked _

00

e
:.>i<J

os
(l...

<Il

Laek of material

~
~

.
..e

r/J

--+- ME R

I'/gure 17: V-gruph : muchine cupucilies unJ hull elliciel1C/e.\

(J.\e

The main use of the V-graph is the overview it gives of the machines and buffers of the
line . ft is a tooi to detect exceptions and bottlenecks. The V-graph is useful in comparing
different packagi ng lines.

Remurks
- note that overcapacities are only useful in combination with buffers.
- there should be a choice which machines are shown in the V-graph, for instance leave
out unimportant machine or machines with so much overcapacity that the whole graph
gets out of proportion: or create a separate graph for the carton street and the packing
mac hine
- for groups of parallel machines, the machines can simply be added together
- the V-graph can be even more detailed either by adding a division in failure types (e.g.
between microstops and macrostops) or by addi ng a division in different machine speeds
(e.g. a bar segment for each machine speed instead of just one segment ' running' or a
bar segment for the net production time (=number of units produced/machine capacity)
and a residual bar sel:,rment 'Ioss of speed'.
- another V-graph shows the different machine speeds of the machines of the line. This
can be seen as a part of the line logic. For each machine the speeds as set in the control
are marked in the graph. One would expect, for instance, that all machines have a speed
almost equal to the nominal line capacity, to allow the line can run in equi librium .
- another way of creating a line overview is showing the machine efficiencies and buffer
efficiencies in lay-out ofthe line next to each machine and buffer respectively.

46

5.5

Statistical analysis: Histograms

Description
The machine events can be analysed statistically is various different ways. This analysis
should of course have an aim, and is often triggered by some signalor indication of a
characteristic or relation ofthe observed quantities (a so-called conjecture or hypothesis).
Statistical analysis is less detailed than an event list, but more detailed than the machine
event summary. It can give more insight than either the event list and the machine event
summary. All the classical statistical methods can be of use. Here only histograms for the
machine state events are discussed.
Goal
In general statistical analysis is used to confirm of reject conjectures on certain observed
quantities. Histogram analysis is used to identify the distribution ofthe machine behaviour
i.e. machine event duration.
Data
The data needed to create an histogram diagram are:
duration of each machine state event, for the machines and machine states being
analysed
Calculation
An histogram is a (bar) graph of the frequency distribution of a certain group of events
over certain chosen intervaIs (usually with the same width). First the interval width is
chosen (e.g. 20 sec.) then all events are assigned to the interval that contains the duration
ofthe event. Often not only the number of events per interval (=frequency) are reported
but also the total duration of these events for each interval (pareto diagram).
Example
An example of an histogram of the failures of a machine is shown in figure 18. The
number of occurrences is shown as a line, the total time of the events in each interval is
shown as a bar. Also the accumulation of the buffer after the machine is shown.
Total time

Numberof
occurrences

accumulation

60

15 min

40

10 min

20

5 min

20

40

60

80

100 120

140

Figure 18: Histogram ofmachinefailures

47

160 time (sec)

Use
Statistical analysis is used to combine the detailed data into some sort of summary, to get
an impression of the data. In particular histograms are used to analyse the machine state
events. The development and changes in the machine behaviour (and thus the histograms)
should be monitored over time. In this way relationships between certain quantities can
be established.
Remarks
- the shape of the failure and run distribution is shown using a histogram, though often
for convenience exponential distributions are chosen. Also separate estimates of the
MTTR and MTBF (or even the distribution function) can be made for each type of
failure.
- some examples of the variety of possibilities for statistical analysis are: relationships
between product types and machine behaviour or line efficiency, energy use during the
different machine states of the pasteuriser, comparison of rejects between glass or carton
suppliers, efficiency trends over teams or shifts, influence of changeovers, relationship
between rejects and start/stop behaviour of machines or failures, recovery and
accumulation, etc.
- a histogram can also be used to look at the buffer performance. For instance, if the
starve events of the machine before the buffer are put in a histogram and the stop events
of the machine after the buffer in another histogram. Again the accumulation can be
shown.

5.6

Event list and Event patterns

Description
From the machine events a more detailed overview can be given in an event list, sorted by
duration or by start time. Also event lists for each machine state separately can be given,
or even a detailed failure list with a failure type or cause for each failure. Also time
restrictions on the event length can be set. These are all simply database queries resulting
in a table of data. Also queries over more than one machine can be given, e.g. comparing
two parallel machines, or matching two consecutive machines for backup and starvation.
Graphically this can be represented by colour patterns on a time line, one line for
each machine. The different machine states all have their own colour. In this way nervous
machine behaviour can be detected quickly and if the time-scale is small enough cause
and effect relations can be identified between failures and starvation or backup. Also
graphs per machine or machine state or combinations of machines and machines states
can be generated, or again graphs using time limits. Basically event lists are a tooi to
quickly scan the machine event data, and event patterns could be called graphical queries.
Goal
The event lists and event patters give a detailed overview of the machine events of the
period specified for monitoring (e.g. identifying exceptions, detecting cause and effect
relations, etc.).
Data
The data needed for the event lists and event patterns are:
start time and end time of every machine state event, for all the machines ofthe line

48

Calculation
Basically the event list is the result of a database query. With aselection for which
machines state events should be regarded, per machine which machine states, minimum
and maximum event duration, sorted by machine, duration, and/or start time or end time.
The event pattems are a graphical representation of these queries. For each
selected machine a time line is drawn for the period specified, and each event is shown on
this line trom start time till end time with the corresponding colour.
Example
Figure 19 shows two event lists for a certain machine, sorted by start time and sorted by
duration, over a given period. Figure 20 shows an event pattem for three machines.
Event list

Machine A

0:00:00 - 8:00:00 all events > 0 min, sorted by start time

State
Running
Blocked
Failed
Blocked

Duration
0:03:26
0:04: 13
0:00:04
0:02:14

Start time
0:00:00
0:03:26
0:07:39
0:07:43

Event list

Machine A

0:00:00 - 8:00:00 all failures > 5 min, sorted by duration

State
Failed
Failed
Failed

Duration
0:14:34
0:09:22
0:06: 11

Start time
6:46:00
4:07:48
4:21:27

End time
0:03:26
0:07:39
0:07:43
0:09:57

End time
700:34
4:17:10
4:27:38

Figure 19: Event lists, sorted by start time or duration

Machine
A

it"41 ti

----------------------------------------------------+1 time

Running

rIl Starved El Failed I!!!l Blocked

Lack of material

Figure 20: Event pattern ofthree machines

Use
Event lists and event pattems can be used to get a picture of the functioning of the
packaging line over the period specified, a view of the machine interference and an
impression ofthe machine failure behaviours or event sequences.

49

Remarks
- the usefulness of the event lists and event pattems can be enhanced when data on
changeovers, planned downtime, lunch breaks etc. are added.
- more detailed lists and pattems distinguish between different types of failures and
different machine speeds.
- the functioning of a buffer for anti-starve buffers can be shown in detail with an event
pattem of the starve events of the machine after the buffer and the stops of the machine
before the buffer that can cause starvation at the machine after the buffer; the functioning
of a buffer for anti-block buffers can be shown in detail with an event pattem of the block
events of the machine before the buffer and the stops of the machine after the buffer that
can cause backup at the machine before the buffer.
- a better way offollowing the buffer functioning is to combine these event pattem with a
graph of the machine speeds of the machine before and after the buffer, and the buffer
content for the same period of time (see figure 11).

5.7

Efficiency Loss Allocation algorithm

Description
The analysis methods described above all give an impression of the functioning of the
packaging line. However one would like to have hard figures instead of pattems and
indications. The efficiency loss allocation (ELA) algorithm was developed to achieve this
for packaging line 2.
The ELA algorithm concentrates on the total loss of production time of the core
machine of packaging line 2: the filling machine. As mentioned above, this loss is almost
equal to the loss of efficiency. The loss of production time is allocated to the machines of
the packaging line.

The algorithm works as follows. For each buffer the fill level is monitored, and if the fill
level differs trom than the nominal fillievel the cause(s) of this difference are recorded.
This is done in discrete time steps: for all events of the machine before and the machine
after the buffer. When loss of production has occurred this is allocated to the causes that
have been recorded at that moment.
The fill level of a buffer is a function in time. The buffer fill level at a certain
moment can be viewed as a bar with a height equal to the number of units in the buffer. If
this bar differs trom the nominal height (corresponding with the nominal fill level) the
causes are shown in bar segments (figure 21).
Buffer
fill

Buffer

Cause bar

level

fill

level

Anti-block buffer
: Causebar

Nooonru

~----------~-

Nooonru

r-----------~-

Anti-starve buffer

--time

--time

Figure 21: Buffer contents and cause bars for anti-starve and anti-block buffer

50

For an anti-starve buffer all causes of the buffer fill level below the nominal fill level are
recorded (as more than nominal is OK); for an anti-block buffer the causes of the buffer
till level above the nomina! fill level are recorded (as less than nominal is OK). The soca!led 'cause bar' consists of the bar segments of the causes for the fill level above or
below nominal.
At the end of each machine event that is relevant for the buffer (i.e. the union of
start and end times of the events of the machine before and the machine after the buffer)
this cause bar is updated: adding or increasing a cause, rescaling, or emptying the cause
bar. The buffer fillievel changes because ofthe differences in speed ofthe machine before
and the machine after the buffer: the total change is the integral over time of this speed
difference.
A loss of production time is allocated to the present causes in the cause bar at the
end time of a loss event (i.e. machine stop or machine speed lower than nominai). This
ailocation is propagated until the core machine (the filling machine). For in stance the
bac1cup of the labelling machine is allocated to the packer and palletiser, then the backup
at the pasteuriser caused by the backup of the labelling machine is also ailocated to the
packer and palletiser, and again for a backup of the filling machine caused by this backup
of the pasteuriser. This is called cause propagation. The total allocation of production
loss at the filling machine is listed.
The cause bar consists ofthe fillievel ofthe buffer above or below the nominai fill
level with a bar segment for each cause. When the fillievel remains between the nominai
fillievel and the fillievel at loss of production (machine stop or loss of speed), the cause
bar corresponds to the extra or lower fill level. When the machine before or after the
buffer gets blocked or starved and the directly responsible cause continues, somehow the
cause bar of that cause has to be increased (otherwise the cause would not be weighted
fairly'). This is done with a virtual jill level. The bar segment of the cause is then
increased (or decreased) with a segment of the extra units that are virtually put on or
removed from the buffer during event, equal to the backup of starvation time within the
event multiplied by the nominal machine capacity of the stopped machine. The virtuai fill
level is then higher than the real fill level. When the fill level decreases (in the case of
backup) or increases (in the case of starvation) the virtual fill level is rescaled to the real
fillievei. The cause bar segments decrease proportionally. Once the fillievel is equal to
the nominal fillievel, the cause bar is c1eared.
Failures remain a cause, until the fillievel ofthe buffer is recovered to the nominal
fill level. The list of causes is only as long as the number of machines, yet other causes
can be added (e.g. start-up, changeover, lunch break, external downtime etc.)
The main idea of the algorithm is that the ratio of the causes is constant under
rescaiing. This ailows the loss allocation at the end of the events, and is useful in
allocating starvation through gaps in the product flow.
Note that there is a difference between the fill level of a buffer and the
arrangement of the product on the buffer (e.g. gaps in the product flow). The
arrangement of the buffers is, signalled by the sensors on the buffers, as far as possible.
Implicitly it is assumed that at the nominal fillievel no backup or starvation can occur (as
at the nominal fillievel no causes are listed).

For instance, the bar segment of an event that causes the machine to become blocked and continues
would otherwise stay constant, with the virtual fill level the segment is proportionally increased with the
event duration. In other words otherwise the last event that causes the machine backup would receive a
smaller cause weight.

51

I
Goal
The ELA is used to allocate the totalloss ofproduction time ofthe core machine (i.e. the
filling machine for packaging line 2) over the period specified, to the machines of the
packaging line by monitoring the buffer fill levels. This results in a table of the loss of
production time caused byeach machine or a pie chart of the totalloss of production
time with a pie part for each machine (this is called a Fil/er Loss Analysis [19]). By
knowing how much production loss each machine causes, the bottleneck of the line can
be identified and effort and further analysis can be directed to that machine(s) to improve
the line efficiency.
Data
The data needed to run the ELA-algorithm are:
Static data
for each buffer: the maximum fillievel, and the nominal fillievel,
if available: the fillievels at backup, starvation, change of speed of machine before and
after the buffer
for each machine: the machine speeds as set in the control, and the nomina! capacity
Dynamic data
current machine speeds
buffer fill level of the buffer before and the buffer after the machine at each machine
event

Calculation
The steps ofthe ELA-algorithm are described below:
STEP 0:

INITIALISATION

Start with:
all buffer empty, then for the buffers before the filler the cause ofthe lack is 'start-up'
and for the buffers after the filler no cause is needed, or
all buffer at their nominal fillievel, or
all buffers at the current fill level, then the cause for lack or extra fill level is
' initialisation' .
STEP I :

MONITORING THE FILL LEVEL

The fill level of the buffers is monitored all moments relevant for the buffer and causes
are recorded in a list for each buffer.
Time
Let B be a buffer en MI the machine before Band M2 the machine after B. The machine
state events of MI and M2 are relevant for B. Let Tij be the end time of event i on
machine MI with i=I,2,3, ... (this is also the start time of event i+ 1); let T2j be the end
time of event j on machine M2 with j=I,2,3, ... (this is also the start time of event j+ I).
Then let Sk be the time of moment k relevant for B, with k=I ,2,3, ... with Sk= min { (minj
(Ti j ITij > Sk-l), (minj (T2j IT2j > Sk-l) }where So=Tl o=T2 o=0, i.e. the start time ofthe
period specified.

52

Production rates:
vl(t) = speed machine mI op at time t
v2(t) = speed machine rn2 op at time t
vl nom = nominal speed machine mI at time t
v2nom = nominal speed machine m2 at time t
FilI level:
FLB(t) = fillievel of buffer B at time t [in units], this can be measured, otherwise:
Sk
FLB(Sk) = FLB(Sk-l) + f {vlet) -v2(t)} dt '" VGB(Sk-l) + {VI(Sk_l) -V2(Sk_l)} x {Sk - Sk-J}
Sk-l
nom
FL B= nominal fin level of buffer B, lower bound (upper bound) ofnominal fin level
interval for anti-starve (anti-block) buffer of a chosen value
FLminB = minimal fin level of buffer B, i.e. at this fin level production loss starts
FLmaxB= maxima! fillievel of buffer B, i.e. at this fillievel production loss starts
VFLB(t) = virtual fiJl level of buffer B at time t [help variabie]
= the true fin level plus the extra fiJl level for continuing causes
Causes:
For the machines a list is kept ofthe causes:
Om(Sk) = cause contribution of machine m for the fiJl level ofthe buffer other than
nominal Om>Ofor an anti-block buffer and Om<Ofor an anti-starve buffer.
For all Sk :
1. list is empty, ifFLB(Sk) > FLB(Sk-l) for an anti-block buffer FLB(Sk) < FLB(Sk-l) for an
anti-starve buffer, then put Om(Sk)= FLB(Sk)-FLnomB in the list with m the machine of
the causing event or in the case of backup of starvation the propagated list of causes.
2. list is not empty and there is a new cause (i.e. FLB(Sk) > FLB(Sk-l) for an anti-block
buffer and FLB(Sk) < FLB(Sk-l) for an anti-starve buffer), then put Om(Sk)= FLB(Sk)FLB(Sk_l) in the list.
3. a) list is not empty and FLB(Sk) < FLB(Sk_l) for an anti-block buffer,
nom
for every machine m on the list: m(Sk) = a m(Sk-l) with a ={FLB(Sk)- FL B} /

{FLB(Sk_l) - FLnomB}1",,0
b) list is not empty and FLB(Sk) > FLB(Sk-l) for an anti-starve buffer,
for every machine m on the list: Om(Sk) = a Om(Sk-l) with a ={FLB(Sk)- FLnomB} /
nom
{FLB(Sk-l) - FL B}1",,0

4. a) FLB(Sk-l)= FLmaxBand the event that led to the backup continues, then increase this

cause with Om(Sk)+=(Sk-Sk-l) x vinom, and caIculate the virtual fillievel: VFLB(Sk)=
FLmaxB +Om( Sk)
b) FLB(Sk-l)= FLminB and then event that led to the starvation continues, then decrease
this cause with m(Sk)~(Sk-Sk-l) X v2 nom , and caIculate the virtual fiJl level: VFLB(Sk)=
FLmaxB -Om(Sk)
53

5. a) ifFLB(sk) < FLmaxB and VFLB(Sk) > FLB(Sk) then scale the causes by a factor
a={FLB(sk)-FLnomB} / {VFLB(Sk) - FLnomB}Ia;,Q
b) ifFLB(sk) > FLminBand VFLB(Sk) < FLB(Sk) then scale the causes by a factor
a={FLB(Sk)-FLoomB} / {VFLB(Sk) - FLnomBHuo
So, at each time Sk the list of causes is known (or empty)
IfFLB(sk)= FLmaxBor FLB(Sk)= FLminBand recovery starts then allocate the loss to the
causes: STEP 2, else STEP 1.
STEP 2:

LOSS ALLOCATION

Production loss is allocated to the causes at the end ofthe production loss event.
Allocation:
A list is kept ofthe totalloss a machine has causes:
Smet) = totalloss allocated to machine m at time t, Sm(O) =0
Allocation:
For all causes in the relevant list at time Sk increase the allocation for back-up and
decrease the allocation for starvation:

with:

production loss

= Vnom x (ti - ti-I)

machine stop
+ (Vnom - V(ti_I) X(ti - ti-I) loss of speed before stop
+ (Voorn - V(ti+IX (ti+1 - ti) loss of speed after stop

So, the production loss is allocated to the causes in the list at the end ofthe loss event.
Example

The ELA-algorithm results in a c1ear and useful table (tabie 4) or pie chart (figure 22) of
the production loss.

Machine

Depalletiser
RinserlFiller
Pasteuriser
Labelling
Packing
Carton street
Palletiser
Total

Production
loss (min)
9

18
I
10

4
6
2
50

18%
36%
2%
20%
8%
12%
4%
100%

Table 4: Output table ELA algorithm

54

[i]

Carton sireei
12%

Packing
8%

Palleliser

4%

ll1 Labelling
20%

Depalletiser
18%

C Pasleuriser
2%

Rinser/Filier
36%

Figure 22: Output pie-chart ELA-algorithm

Use
The ELA algorithm is both useful from a more theoretical point of view, for instance in
simulation studies when all parameters can be controlled, and useful from a practical
point of view, i.e. if the resulting table and/or pie chart are available every shift. The loss
allocation gives on overview of the influence of each machine on the line efficiency. The
influence of changes in machine behaviour can be expressed in hard figures. It improves
the experience based estimates that are being made about the causes of efficiency loss.
Remarks
- The algorithm is very logica!: using the buffer contents to track the causes of efficiency
loss seems obvious, and all the dynamic data that is needed can be collected. However,
the nominal fillievel plays an important role is not easy to determine, and also the cause
weight created using the virtual fill level is not totally apparent. Also for packaging lines
with parallel components the algorithm has to be adapted
- in the algorithm the nominal speed is used, because the loss of production is with
respect to the filler and the real speed at which the machine would have run at is very
hard to determine.
- the resulting table is called an Filler Loss Analysis [19] tabie, using buffer efficiencies an
approximation of this table can be calculated. Allocating the 10ss of production time of
all machines ofthe line would result in a so-called Lost Time Matrix [23]
- when the cause bar segments are recorded as percentages of the total cause, the virtual
fillievel is not necessary but the segments are rescaled accordingly.
- the algorithm depends on the nominal fill levels of the buffers. Therefore a sensitivity
analysis for these values can be made, by simply choosing and comparing different values
for the nominal fill level while using the same data.
- visualisation ofthe calculations ofthe algorithm can give insight (for instance the buffer
contents, the cause bars, the loss allocation, etc.)
For instance first multiply the tota! stop time of the labelIer with the buffer efficiency of the buffer
between the pasteuriser and the labelIer and then multiply tbis with the buffer efficiency of the buffer
between the filler and the pasteuriser to get the approximation of the efficiency loss cause by the labelIer.

55

CHAPTER 6

SIMULATION

This chapter compares analytical and simulation models and discusses the possibilities
of using simulation to analyse the efficiency ofpackaging lines.

6.1

Mathematical models

A model is a representation of the operation of the system. To the user of a model, it

either is a mathematical formula or a computer program which, when supplied with the
numerical values of various parameters, will make a numeri cal prediction of the system
performance measures. By changing the values of a parameter the user can gain insight
into its influence on the system performance. The model may even enable the optimal
values of the parameters to be found (where optimal means that they optimise the
performance ofthe system as described by the model).
Models are intended to support decisions about the system, so there rarely is one
model that will support all decisions. The basic approach to modelling [5] involves the
following steps:

1. Identify the issues to be addressed: ascertain the needs of the user: what is the
problem? how will the model be used? when is it needed?
2. Learn about the system: identify the performance measures of interest to the user,
characterise the relevant aspects ofthe components and key parameters ofthe system.
3. Choose a modelling approach: use simulation or analytical modeis, do models
already exist?
4. Develop and test the model: obtain data on the parameters of the model, make
'reasonabie' assumptions.
5. Verify and valiciate the model: check the model for internal consistency (verification),
and assess the accuracy ofthe results (validation).
6. Develop a model interface for [he user: ensure that the user can actually use the
model and convince the user of the value of the model.
7. Experiment with the model: develop an understanding of the factors influencing the
performance ofthe system.
8. Present the results: give recommendations based on the model results, explain the
possibilities and limitations of the model, promote the model.
There are two types of mathematical modeis: simulation models and analytical models.
Simulation models represent the events that could occur as the system operates by a
sequence of steps in a computer program. The logical relationships that exist between
events must be known. The probabilistic nature of many events, such as machine failures,
are represented by sampling from a distribution representing the pattern of occurrence of
the event. Simulation studies are time consuming but can handle even very complex
system modeis.
Analytical models describe the system using mathematical relationships. These are
used to derive a formula or procedure by which the performance measures of the system
can be calculated. This type of model often relies on the presence of an elegant
mathematical structure. Analytical models are easy to use and provide insights into what
determines the system behaviour. However, often further assumptions have to be made
with respect to the relationships of the model. This resulting model is then approximate
rather than exact.

111 kM 1_1 'i kl I

57

In developing a model there are a number of considerations:

complexity versus simplicity: decide how much data to represent; more detail is likely
to better resembie the reality, yet requires more time and is harder to verify and
validate. On the other hand a simple model may not represent the system adequately.
Simulation models can be used for whatever level of complexity is desired. Analytical
modeIs are quite limited in the complexity of the system they can describe, and
although approximate models can handle larger systems, these models are difficult to
verify.
flexibility: both the system and the decision making about the system evolve over
time, this means that the model should permit changes in the system modelled (ranging
from changes of the parameter values to changes of the system structure). For both
simulation models and analytical models it is easy to change the parameter values.
Simulation models can often be easily adapted to analyse related system structures,
whereas changes in the system structure often require a totally new analytic model.
data requirements: in general the data mainly determine the value of the model, often
the data available is not in the form required by the model, the data collection,
applicability of the data, sensitivity assessment of the model to errors in the data are
important aspects. Most analytical modeIs require far less data than simulation modeis.
transparency: in order for the model to be accepted by the users, the model
assumptions and procedures must be reasonably transparent to others beside the
model developer(s), this often requires understandable documentation. Simulation
models are often written in specially developed simulation code, which is only
transparent to a prograrnmer. However, the logic of the simulation model can be
described to the user. Analytical models are usually transparent to those who have the
appropriate mathematical skilIs.
efficiency: models can consume significant resources, both in their development and in
their use. The effort required to develop a simulation model is more predictabie than
the effort needed to arrive at an analytical model. Analytical models generally do not
require much time to use to get results. Simulation models require substantial time,
especially when changes in parameter values are to be explored.
user interface: a user interface is essential to enable correct use of the model, both
with respect to the required input and the interpretation of the results. Simulation
modeIs often have a visual and interactive interface, which shows an animation of the
operation of the system. This can be very valuable both in developing and using the
model. The interface of analytical model is mostly restricted to input and output
screens.
Effective modelling of systems often require both analytical and simulation models.
Analytical approximations are often tested with simulation modeis, and simulation models
are validated by looking at extreme cases, where the system performance can be easily
predicted with analytical models (for instance when it is assumed that machines never
fail) . As mentioned in paragraph 5.1, analytical models exist for the extreme cases of
packaging lines without buffers and packaging line with infinite buffers.

Simulation and animation can also be used in training operators

58

6.2

Packagiog lioe models

To analyse the efficiency of packaging lines both simulation and analytical model can be
used .
6.2.1

Analytical models

Due to the complexity of packaging lines analytical modeIs are rare. The complexity is
caused by the relatively large number of machines of a packaging line and the presence of
buffers. The functioning of these buffers generates the probabilistic interference of the
machines, each having their own capacities, speeds and failure behaviour. Also the
characteristics of a packaging lines like the V-graph machine capacities, and the transport
function of conveyors/buffers are usually hard to incorporate into these modeis.
In the literature of manufacturing systems like flow lines and automatic transfer
lines only exact models for two machines are to be found. For modeIs of three or more
machines only some scarcely applicable approximations are known, because many extra
assumptions have to be made. However, the general idea behind some of these analytical
models or procedures can be helpfuI. For instance from the point of view of a buffer the
line consists of just two machines. Also integrating several machines into one is an
effective simplification [9].
If exponential distributions for the failure behaviour of the machines are assumed,
markov chain models can be formulated for these manufacturing systems, yet the number
of states is too large' to solve the model [4].
6.2.2 Simulation models
Simulation of packaging lines can be performed on several detail levels, ranging from
global and simplified simulation models to simulation models that consider the forces
exercised on each bottle.
Simulation is often used when the problem or model definition is too complex to
be solved by an analytic method. Appendix C presents a simp Ie simulation model that was
used to estimate the expected line efficiency of packaging line 2. This model only takes
into account the machine capacities, the buffer capacities and the MTTR and MTBF of
the machines.
Simulation represents the movement of bottles, cans, cases, pallets or people
through a set of relationships. These pieces are referred to as the entities of the system.
There are basically two types of simulation: discrete event and continuous simulation.
These terms relate to how the entities move through the system. Discrete event
simulation occurs when the dependent system variables change discretely at specified
points in simulated time, referred to as ' event times' . For in stance, modelling the arrival
of beer bottles at a filler is a discrete event simulation because there is aspecific event
when each bottIe reaches the filler and the model is updated at the time of each of these
events. In a continuous simulation model, the state of the system is represented by
dependent variables that change continuously over time. For instance, the transfer of beer
from one tank to another is a continuous process and is modelled as a continuous
function over time. Simulation of packaging lines to analyse the line efficiency involves
discrete event simulation ofthe production units ofthe packaging line.
The nurnber of states of a markov chain model is determined by the nurnber of states of each machines
(ruruting, failed, etc.) and the nurnber ofstates ofeach buffer (the nurnber of units in the buffer, ranging
from zero to a few thousand) . For a simplified version of one street of packaging line 2 consisting of 6
machines and 5 buffers the nurnber of states is already of the order 1020 .

59

The advantages of simulation are:

understanding and learning: the construction and use of a simulation model will
provide understanding of the operation of the entire packaging line system; also the
influence of the line parameters is leamed
timing: new policies and procedures can be tested on the model before use on the real
system, or a new machine can be evaluated for its applicability and its effect on the
rest of the packaging line before it is even ordered
troubleshooting: process bottlenecks, often not readily obvious, of the packaging line
can be identified
experimentation: new situations and solutions can be tried without risk, i.e. without
the costs of actually implementing the proposed change, and without disturbing the
real packaging line
The disadvantages of simulation are:
specialised skilIs: there is need for specialised skilIs to analyse the problem and build
the modeis; these skilIs involve knowledge of probability theory, statistics and
programrning or the simulation software'
interpretation: simulations deal with random data and thus the output must be
interpreted with care; for instance confidence intervals should be constructed and
sufticient simulation runs should be generated
costs: simulation is time consuming; the benefits form the simulation should cover the
costs to construct and exercise the model; note that the costs of simulation decreases
as more simulation models are built, i.e. as experience increases
To ensure the success of a simulation study there are three necessary conditions:
there must be a stakeholder who knows what the target problem is, and can determine
what will constitute a solution to the problem. This person or group must be in a
position to assign resources for the analysis ofthe problem and the development ofthe
simulation model. Also they must have the capability ofimplementing the resuIts ofthe
simulation. This condition is often called management commitment.
there must be the resources for analysis of the input data to the system model. This is a
time consuming and time sensitive task, because the data must be fresh and relevant
for the model to have any validity
there must be the expertise to construct and exercise the model, and provide analysis
of the output of the model in the form of recommendations for the stakeholder

Specialised simulation software developed for packaging Iines is available, e.g. Pritsker Packaging
Lines [12)

60

Simulation modelling process

The simulation modelling process involves the following steps:

6.2.3

l. Problemformulation: Defining the problem solving objective

2. Model building: Abstracting the system into mathematica1Jlogical relationships in
accordance with the problem formulation and preparing a computer model
3. Data acquisition: Identifying, specifying and collecting data
4. Verification: Establishing that the computer model executes as intended
5. Validation: Establishing that a desired accuracy or correspondence exists between the
simulation model and the real system
6. Experimentation: Executing the simulation model to obtain output values
7. Analysis of results: Analysing the simulation outputs to draw inferences and make
recommendations for problem resolution
8. Documentation: Detailed description ofthe model and its use
Step 1 and 2 lead to a c1ear problem and model definition, which ensures that only the
relevant aspects ofthe system are modelled . Step 3 is often difficult and time consuming,
although with the introduction of Line Monitor Systems (see also chapter 4) more and
better data becomes available. Using sensitivity analysis (or what-ifanalysis) the influence
of errors in the data and the assumptions that were made, can be determined. Step 4 and
5 check the applicability of the model. Step 6 and 7 involves the design of experiments
and the interpretations of the results. Step 8, finally, secures the knowledge that was
obtained and enables reusability ofthe model and methods.
Simulation models can be developed in a number of ways. One is to try and include all
the required detail of the system trom the beginning. This tends to result in long
development and debugging time and usually makes the resulting code unreadable to all
but the developer. Another approach is to develop models of system components and,
after each component model has been debugged, tested and validated, link the
components two at a time, test and validate, then three at a time, test and validate, and so
on. Ideally this results in a library of simulation models of various components and
subsystems, and of various detail level. This approach is called the micro-macro
approach and is useful in developing models of large systems and especially valuable in
terms of reusability.
In order to evaluate the simulation results of a complex system like a packaging
line tools to analyse the results/data are needed, i.e. methods to determine the influence
of parameters. Suitable tools are the efficiency analysis methods as described in chapter 5.
Of course, in simulation studies the parameter values can be controlled and varied and
thus more insight can be obtained. However data analysis of the process data of existing
packaging lines is a essential step before simulation models are constructed. The ultimate
model validation is to use the individual machine events of a packaging line (as recorded
by the Line Monitor System), and the actual control of the line (as programmed in the
PLes of the line equipment) as input for the simulation model and compare the system
resuIts with the real resuIts. Simulation is particularly useful when the packaging line is
just being designed, when changes and improvements can be made easily and quickly.
After the packaging line has been installed, it is of course much more difficult to alter the
system features.

61

lil IIIIK

6.2.4 Packagiog lioe simulatioo use

Simulation is a valuable tooi for efficiency analysis of packaging lines and can be used to
answer the following questions about packaging lines:
Should a certain machine with a machine efficiency of 87% be replaced by another
machine with a machine efficiency of 98%?
What would happen if the maximum speed of a certain machine would be increased by
1O%? Or decreased?
Which buffer capacities should be increased to improve the line efficiency?
Should the conveyor speed of a buffer be changed?
What is the expected optimalorder sequence to produce a certain set of orders?
Do the benefits of stopping a certain machine every two hours for cleaning and
inspection cover the loss of production time during the stops?
How do two or more design alternatives compare?
Should we use two or three parallel machines for a certain stage in the packaging
process?
What would happen ifthe control ofa certain conveyor or machine was changed?
How much should a certain machine be improved (e.g. increase MTBF, or decrease
MTTR) to improve the line efficiency?
What is the influence ofthe value of certain line parameters on the line efficiency?"
What is the maximum or expected productivity of a certain packaging line?
What is the effect oflunch breaks on efficiency?
etc.
Simulation is a powerful tooi to analyse complex modeis, when analytical modeIs cannot
supply the solution. Although process data analysis of packaging lines is indispensable for
process control and often leads to improvements of the line efficiency, many questions
can only be answered using simulation.
Short term simulation involves creating quick and less detailed models that can be
used to get a quick impression, e.g. to upgrade a packaging line. Long term simulation
involves creating a simulation model during the design of the packaging line, and using
this model throughout the life ofthe line .

Perturbation analysis may be a useful method to enhance the value of simulation studies

62

CHAPTER

RESULTS

Thts chapter brtefly descrtbes the results of tmplementing the efficiencyanalysis on

packaging line 2.
On packaging line 2 a pilot system was implemented for the process registration and
efficiency analysis ofline 2. This pilot project was called RVC2 ('RendementsVerklaring
Colonne 2'). It involved PLC-programming, visualisation, spreadsheet calculations and
database applications.
First the line logic of packaging line 2 was constructed [16]. This formed the base
for the basis registration [24]. The statie data were mostly measured and collected
manually. And the dynamic data events were colleeted and visualised on the Line Monitor
System and stored in a database. These data were analysed using spreadsheets and also a
database application was built. This application featured most of the analysis methods
described in chapter 5. Overall this first phase required more effort than expected,
because some technical problems had to be mastered. Especially the PLC reprogramming
required a lot of time. But also creating a stabie data collection process proved to be
difficult.
It was a deiiberate choice to keep the first phase simpie. Thus only the machine
states were recorded and for in stance no causes were recorded for the machine failures.
Although future expansion were considered in the implementation, the goal was to create
a bounded but functioning system.
The efficiency analysis with this pilot system led to some small improvements. It
was noted that the infeed of some machines was not optimal, because there were many
very short lack of input events on these machines. Also it was found that one machine
had many short failures . On the who Ie the opinion was formed that short failures (Iess
than one minute) may have a big influence on the line efficiency, whereas previously the
focus was on long failures only. Also suppliers of machines were informed about the
performance of their machines.
Next the data collection was expanded to enable the implementation of the ELA
algorithm. This algorithm was only partly implemented, just far enough to prove that the
ELA algorithm works. The Visual Basic application is called Revecon2 [24].
Also the visualisation was expanded with figures of machine speeds and buffer
contents (figure 11). These showed a very volatile behaviour of some of the machines.
Studying the line logic around these machines, some inconsistencies in the control were
found. After these flaws were corrected, a more smooth production resulted.
Finally the data collections was also used for a study of the energy use of the
pasteuriser, a simple simulation study of line 2 (see appendix C) and a more detailed
simulation study. Also many questions were directed to the project team, for instance
about data collection for machine acceptance tests, data on the difference in machine
behaviour between boxes with six-packs, and boxes with an interior partition, losses of
packaging material, machine speeds, etc.
The technical aspect ofthe RVC2 project are described in [16] and [24].

63

I
The results of the project are of course the definitions and the mathematical methods of
the framework for efficiency analysis. This gives insight of what data is to be collected,
and what can and should be done with data. This knowledge can be useful in installing or
improving Line Monitor Systems on other packaging lines, and a!so help improve the
efficiency of these packaging lines.
Some improvements were made on packaging line 2 with the help of the pilot
system. Especially signals/symptoms/patterns that are not usually noticed were helpfui,
because longer periods (hours, days) can be viewedlscanned and analysed in rninutes.
Short stops of only a few seconds are normally not recorded but form a large part of the
tota! number of stops. Also the line logic and the trends ofthe machine speeds and buffer
contents have proved to be usefill.
Unfortunately the efficiency ana!ysis is not yet performed on a regular basis. Also
the combination of automatic and manual data has not been achieved. However, it was
found that there certainly is a need for data, are rather a need for tools to transform this
data into information. The framework for efficiency analysis as described in this report
and implemented on packaging line 2 is a step in the right direction.

64

CHAPTER

CONCLUSIONS

This report presents a framework for the efficiency analysis of packaging lines. To
improve the efficiency of packaging lines information is needed. The frarnework describes
how this information can be gathered from the process data.
Data gathering is not a goal by itself, but should support and improve the process
control and decision making on packaging lines. Technically there are few limitations for
data registration of the packaging process. However, the data registration system should
be built with a vision or an expectation of the use of the data and a functional
specification of the possibilities and features of the information system. In this respect
much can be learned from the history and use of existing information systems, for
instance the benefits, problems, errors of the system, etc.
In general, the information system must be based on a weil thought-out data
model and a set of sound definitions. The line logic provides the definitions of the
machine and buffer states and thus forms a base for the data collection. It is probably best
to built an information system stepwise, i.e. start with a basis registration and expand it
step by step. For each step this results in a functioning system, and also some sort of
cost/benefit decision can be made for each expansion. Visualisation is also an important
part ofthe system, because it makes the data readily accessible.
Data analysis of the process data should not be time consuming but supported by
easy to use tools. This means that the information system should have data analysis tools.
Data acquisition has no value without knowing what can and must be done with the data
(i.e. data analysis). On the other hand, data analysis has no value if it is not based on
good process data.
The framework presented in this report is the missing link to transform the
process data into useful information for efficiency analysis. This is achieved by
constructing comprehensible graphs and calculating easy to use performance indicators
for the machines and buffers separately, and for the line as a whoie.
Simulation can also be a valuable tooi for efficiency analysis, because simulation
can help answer a range of questions that cannot be answered using data analysis.
However, simulation should always be preceded by data analysis, not only because the
collected data forms the input of the model, but also because data analysis can lead to
valuable insights that are easier to achieve and more directly applicable. In simulation
studies the level of detail should gradually be increased, depending of course on how
much detail is required.
The success of efficiency analysis depends on the ease with which it can be
performed, this means that tools should be available and standard reports should be
generated quickly. Next to the technical implementation, also the organisational
implementation is a crucial factor for the success of efficiency analysis. This entails
training, maintenance of the information system and of the system environment, and
making efficiency analysis an integrated task ofthose involved with the packaging line.
Especially the machine operators should be directly involved in the efficiency
analysis. They probably have the most time to perform efficiency analysis, but lack the
skills. Therefore the data analyst should support them in developing these skills and in
creating the tools that facilitate the analysis.

65

Although, there is definitely much interest for the analysis of process data, it is not
obvious which actions can and should be taken as aresuit. Yet, it is expected that by
collecting and comparing information on the different packaging lines, efficiency analysis
can be a powerful tooi in helping Heineken to achieve its objective of cost leadership.
Because of this interest and potential for efficiency analysis, fluther research on
and implementation of efficiency analysis systems is needed, in which both the technical
and organisational aspects must be considered. The emphasis should be on using
information systems and actually performing efficiency analysis, in other words: learning
byusing.

66

REFERENCES
Most of the references listed here are on the subject of stochastic modelling and queuing
theory and in particular on the application of these subjects on packaging lines. Other
references are on the subject of simulation, information technology and packaging line
definitions.
1. Borkmann, K. and Pannasch, K. (1980), Untersuchungen zur Leistungssteigerung von

Getrnkeabfollinien durch richtige Dimensionierung der Transportsysteme und Speicher,

Lebensmittelindustrie 27 H. 12, 557-563.
2. Brewery Comparison System, Definitions, 1992
3. Buzacott, J.A. (1967), Automatic transfer lines with buffer stocks, IntJ.Prod.Res. 1967,5 (3),
183-200.
4. Buzacott, J.A. (1971), The role of inventory banks in flow-line production systems,
IntJ.Prod.Res. 1971 ,9 (5), 425-436.
5. Buzacott, J.A. and Shanthikumar, 1. George (1991), Stochastic Models of Manufacturing

Systems, 1991
6. Cooke, R.M. (1995), Unicorn: Methods and code for Uncertainty Analysis, Delft University
of technology, published by AEA Technology for the European Safety and Reliability
Association, March 1995.
7. Cooke, R.M. (1996), The design of reliability data bases, part l: review of standard design
concepts, Reliability Engineering and System Safety 1996, 51,137-146
8. Cooke, R.M. (1996), The design of reliability data bases, part l/: competing risk and data
compression, Reliability Engineering and System Safety 1996, 51 , 209-223
9. Dallery, Y. and Gershwin, S.B. (1992), Manufacturingflow line systems: a review ofmodels
and analytical results, Queueing Systems 12, 3-94.
1O.DIN 8782 (1984), Begriffe flr Abfollanlagen und einzelne Aggregate, May 1984.

I 1. Downes, B.R. (1993), An approach to reviewing packaging line performance and design
standards, IOBC & SA 1993, 233-246.
12.Duket, S.D., and Pristker, A., Simulating Production Systems, Pritsker & Associates, Inc.
13.Elsayed, E.A. and Turley, R.E. (1980), Reliability analysis ofproduction systems with buffer
storage, Int.J.Prod.Res 1980 (5), 637-645.
14.Gregoire, P.H.A. (1996), Visit Report Fredericia Brewery Denmark, December 1996.
15.Haines, G. (1995), The design and layout of packaging lines, The Brewer, March 1995,9297.

67

16.IJssel, J. van den (1997), Rendementsverklaring colonne 2, TH Rijswijk, January 1997

17.Knudsen, J.W. (1995), High level information technology in bottling, EBC Congress 1995,
457-466.
18.Master Brewers Association ofthe Americas (1996), General Principles for Packaging Line
Design and Control, March 1996.
19.Manning, H. (1985), Computer simulation ofpackaging lines, Modem Brewery Age, August
12 1985 .
20.McKenney, J.L. (1994), Waves of Change: Business Evolution through Information
Technology, Harvard Business School Press 1994.
2 I. Muth, J. and White, J.A. (1979), Conveyor theory: a survey, AllE Transactions 11 (4),
December 1979,270-277.
22.Panwalker, S.S. and Smith, M.L. (1979), A predictive equation for average output of K stage
series systems with finite interstage queues, AllE Transactions 11 (2), June 1979, 136-139.
23.Rice, J. (1995), Picture a better packaging line, Food Processing, July 1995, 73 .
24.Schakel, V. (1997), Rendementsverklaring Colonne 2: Revecon2 - applicatie, January 1997.
25.VP-IN (1996), DoelInformatiseringsprojekt Verpakken Zoeterwoude, August 1996
26.Wijngaard, J. (1979), The effect ofinterstage buffer storage on the output oftwo unreliable
production units in series, with different production rates, AllE Transactions II (I), March
1979, 42-47.
27.Wolff, RW. (1989), Stochastic Modelling and the theory of Queues, 1989.
28.Yokoi, T. (1992), Designing higher productivity packaging lines, BDI October 1992, 34-38.

68

!- - - -- -

SUMMARY
This report presents a framework for the efficiency analysis of packaging lines. The
framework consists of a set of clear definitions and the description of various
mathematical methods to create comprehensible graphs and easy to use performance
indicators.
The developments in information technology enable the installation of so-called
line monitor systems on packaging lines. Technically these systems can collect almost
every piece of data of these lines. In this report this data acquisition process is briefly
discussed. It is emphasised that data collection is not a goal by itself, but should support
and improve the process control of the packaging lines. The control of packaging line
equipment can be described using the line logic.
At Heineken a lot of data is collected on some of the packaging lines, but
unfortunately at present this data is not being used. This is simply because the appropriate
tools to analyse the data are not available.
The framework presented in this report provides the missing link to transform the
process data into useful information. This is done by constructing comprehensible graphs
and calculating easy to use performance indicators for the machines and buffers
separately, and for the packaging line as a whoie. The ultimate efficiency analysis tooi is
the so-called Efficiency Loss Allocation algorithm, which allocates the efficiency loss to
the machines of a packaging line. U sing this algorithm the bottleneck machine of the line
can be identified directly.
The efficiency analysis tools described in this report have been implemented in a
pilot system on packaging line 2 of the Heineken Brewery in Zoeterwoude. This system
has helped in improving the efficiency of this line.
The value of line monitor systems is determined by the tools and features the
system offers. Therefore the efficiency analysis tools of this report should be incorporated
in new and existing line monitor systems. Efficiency analysis of packaging lines can thus
be made easier, more familiar and comparabie, and become an integrated task ofthe users
of those involved with the packaging line.
Another valuable tooi for efficiency analysis is simulation. The possibilities of
simulation are discussed and a simp Ie example of a simulation study of packaging line 2 is
given. Simulation uses the process data collected by the line monitor system. For the
analysis of simulation results the same efficiency analysis tools should be applied as for
the actual process data of packaging lines.

69

ol

I1 ,

ApPENDIX A: LINE LOGIC

The line logic is a description of the conditions of the states of the machine of a
packaging line. It can be presented as a figure of each machine and its surrounding
conveyors and a logical table of the state conditions or the state conditions are depicted.
Basically it is a description ofthe control ofthe machines by the signaIs ofthe sensors on
the preceding and succeeding conveyors.
It is an important tooI that gives insight into how the machines of a packaging line
react on the population of product on the buffer. Collecting the data for the line logic can
lead to changing the control of the machine, because the control is not optimaI. For the
operator it is also useful to know the line logic of the machines of his working area. The
definition of the states of the machines in the line logic is the definition of registration of
the machine states by the line monitor system. (see also [16])

Example
Figure 23 shows an example ofthe line logic ofa certain machine. The sensors SI, S2, ... ,
S6 are used to control the speed of the machine. The sensor signals are: 'free' and 'not
tree'. The speed conditions are given in three ways: textual description, summary tabie,
and using figures (figure 24).

MachineM

Figure 23: Line logic machine M

Text
Machine M can be in one of the following 5 states:
High speed, if S 1 and S2 are not tree for 15 sec. and not starved or blocked
Normal speed, ifnot blocked, starved, high speed or low speed.
Low speed, if S2 is 20 sec. free and not starved or blocked.
Blocked, if S4 is not tree
Starved, if S3 is tree
Table
Sensor
Time
High speed

S2 free
20sec

S3 free

SJ not free
J5sec

S4 not free

Normalspeed'~~@ill2Mlliill&illEillE~ill&ill&illEl
Low speed
Blocked
Starved
Nonnal speed is the machine state if no other machine state conditions are satisfied

71

Graphical

= free

kt l = free or not free

=notfree

High speed

Low speed

Blocked

Starved

Normal Speed

Figure 24: Graphical state representation

The advantage of the graphical method is that possible state transitions can easily be seen;
the disadvantage is of course that the time restrictions of the state conditions are less

dear.

72

ApPENDIX B: BASIS REGISTRATION

Technically almost everything can be recorded. But the question is what is done with this
data, or why the data should be collected. The data acquisition or information system
should be tlexible and configurabIe, have a consistent and user fiiendly graphical user
interface (GUl), be stepwise expandable and based on clear definitions.
The basis registration is the specification of the first step of the data acquisition as
implemented on packaging line 2. It gives an impression of the data that should be
collected as a first step for the efficiency analysis ofpackaging lines (see also [24]).

Statie data
The following static data must be collected after each change and checked every month:
machine capacities (for each product type)
machine state definitions as determined in the line logic
Dynamie data
The following dynarnic data must be collected when the packaging line is used for
production:
start and end time of every machine state event: running, failure, starved, blocked, not
in use; for blocked and starved the corresponding material should be recorded (e.g.
starved for bottles, blocked for pallets, etc.)
Essentially only the machine state is recorded . This should also be visualised on the line
monitor system, so the registration can be easily verified.

Expansions

11

Once the basis registration is implemented, the data acquisition and visualisation can be
expanded, for several analysis and operation purposes:
failure reason for each machine failure
division between internal and external machine failures
partition of the state running in separate states for each speed (e.g. running at high
speed, etc.)
measurement ofthe machine speeds, both the specified speed and the actual speed
counting the number of produced units for each machine
counting the number of produets on each buffer
counting the rejects, and recording the reasons for rejects
production planning and reality
etc.
These expansions allow further analysis by detecting relations between quantities and also
can help to achieve a better process contro\.

A machine can be in only one state (see also chapter 4)

73

Recommendations
Some recommendations In implementing a Line Monitor System (LMS) to perform
efficiency analysis are:
construct a functional specification before implementing a LMS
create a stable technical environment
consider the organisational implementation
build the system step by step
try to make information technology decisions based on costlbenefit analysis
emphasise aspects like easy to use analysis tooIs, user friendliness, intuitive graphical
user interface, and flexibility
combine automatic and manual data, especially record planned downtime, incidents
and exceptions
implement the LMS before the packaging line is taken in use, so the process data is
available in the line acceptance test
etc.

74

ApPENDIX

C: SIMULATION USING UNICORN

This appendix describes a simple simulation model for series models of packaging lines,
that was developed by professor Roger Cooke of the Delft University of Technology.
Only indicative conclusions may be drawn from this simulation model.
First the software package Unicorn is described, then the mathematical model is
formulated . Finally an example is given of an application of the simulation model on
packaging line 2.

C.I

Unicorn

Unicorn is computer program for perforrning uncertainty analysis on moderately sized

problems [6]. The program is mainly designed to facilitate experimentation with small to
medium sized problems so as to gain insight into the probabilistic behaviour of real
mathematical modeis.

C2

Mathematica) model

A packaging line is modelled as a continuous production line with buffers, constant

production rates, discrete time and stochastic availability. The model is explained below
with six machines and five buffers:

Figure 25: Representation of a six-machine packaging fine

Let Vj be the production rate of machine i, i=I , ... ,6; i.e. Vj units can be processed in one
time step. Now bj is the actual amount in buffer i, i=I , ...,5 at time 0; the dependence on 0
will be suppressed in the notation. And kj is the maximal amount in buffer i. At the first
time step, bj=O. For every time: 0 :s; b j :s; kj, i= 1, .. ,5
The time 0 is chosen such that the maximal amount moved in one time step, Vj, i=I, .. .,6;
is at most one half of the buffer si ze kj, j= 1, ... ,5.
A variabie Xj is introduced as a state indicator for machine i, such that at each time step:
I if machine i is available
j

x = { 0 if machine i is not available

i= I, .. .,6

At the first time step we assume every machine is working. Further, we introduce for
each time step the throughput for machine j :
thj = number of units moved from j-l to j

SSOR TU Delft

75

We use the notation PREV(z) to indicate the value ofz in the previous time step, where z
may be any ofthe above variables.

Mass balance equations

The mass balance equations may then be written as:
LlOUT = min{v6*X6, PREV(b s)}
b s = min{ks, PREV(bs) - LlOUT + min{vs*xs, PREV(b 4)} }
b4 =

min{~,

PREV(b 4) - ths + min{v4*X4, PREV(b 3)}

The throughput quantities can be expressed as:

ths

t~ =

bs - (PREV(b s) - .OUT)
b4 - (PREV(b 4)

ths)

It will be observed that bi can be computed on the basis of Xi, bi+ 1, .

values of the buffers.

.,

bs and the previous

Availability
We assume that the up- and down-events for machine i can be modelled as independent
failure and repair distributions. We use a discrete version of the exponential distribution,
so that events which happen during a time step are modelled as if they occurred at the
end of the time step. Thus, if machine i is down at the beginning of the previous time
step, the probability of it being up at the beginning of the cunent time step is: l-el'i,
where ~i is the repair rate for machine i. If machine i is up at the beginning of the
previous time step, the probability of it being up at the beginning of the cunent time step
is: e"i, where i is the failure rate for machine i. The time step must be chosen such that
the probability of a failure-and-repair in one time step in negligible.
Let Ui be uniformly distributed on [0,1]; then setting:
I ifPREV(xJ = 1 and UI :s; e",ll
Xi == 1 ifPREV(xJ = 1 and U j :s; 1- e -jli
{
o otherwise
we have that Xi has the required distribution; the periods in which Xi= 1 contiguously
approximately followan exponential distribution with 'failure rate' i, and the periods
when Xi=O contiguously approximately followan exponential distribution with 'repair
rate' ~i .

In the implementation the Uj are chosen as independent, but there is no mathematical necessity for this.

76

The availability of Xi is the probability that Xi= 1. In general this is a function of time and
depends on the initial state of Xi when time begins. However, for large time values the
initial state is ' forgotten' and the ' equilibrium availability' of Xi is found by setting
P(Xi= 1)=P(PREV(Xi)= 1) in:

P(Xi= 1)=P(Xi= llPREV(Xi)= 1))P(PREV(Xi)= 1)+ P(Xi= IIPREV(Xi)=O) )P(PREV(Xi)=O)

The re sult" is:

Output variables
The following variables are evaluated at each time step:
TIME is the cumulative e\apsed time up to the time step
,10UT is the increment in output for that time step
OUT is the cumulative output up to that time step
RATE is OUT/TIME
What the model does not describe
The model does not describe variations in production rate within each time step. Nor
does it model the processing time for each machine. The pasteuriser for example requires
about 45min to process the bottles. Once the pasteuriser is full, of course, bottles enter
and leave at the same rate and the processing time is effectively zero. However, following
each product change and buffer drainage, 45 min win be consumed in simply filling the
pasteuriser.
The model can accommodate dependencies between machine unavailabilities, One might
anticipate that unavailabilities of adjacent machines would be negatively correlated, since
machines will not fail while they are starved or blocked due to the unavailability of a
neighbour. Further one would expect such negative dependence to be strongest
immediately following a buffer evacuation and to decrease in strength as buffer contents
increase. The model, however cannot handle temporal behaviour of correlation, it can
only replicate average correlation over time.
Further, the model assumes that for each machine the failure and rep air processes are
independent and exponential. This assumption could be relaxed.
Zero- and lnfinite-buffer limits
The performance of the line can be theoretically bounded by the zero-buffer and the
infinite-buffer limits.
With zero buffers, the line behaves as a series system: the failure of one machine
brings the entire line down, and the availability of the line is the product of the individual
availabilities. This assumes that the machines can fail independently; in particular it
assumes that one machine can fail while another is down. The rate of the line when all
machines are up is the rate of the slowest machine .
The commonly used fommla 1l;!(lli+i) is approximated for !li~O.l and i~O . 1

77

With infinite buffers in equilibrium, the effectively slowest machine will never be starved
or blocked. Machines upstream and downstream trom this machine (we assume that there
is a unique effectively slowest machine) produce at an average rate equa! to that of the
slowest effective rate. They will be starved and blocked trom time to time. So, the
throughput of the slowest machine is independent of failures of other machines. With
infinite buffers, as the line approaches equilibrium, the production rate approaches the
slowest effective rate.
When the line is first started with empty buffers, it behaves somewhat like a series
system. As soon as one machine is down, the entire line goes down and there is no
output. If all machines are up the production rate is equa! to the lowest production rate.
However, the availability ofthe system is the product ofthe availabilities ofthe individua!
machines. If these availabilities were at equilibrium, then the expected output per time
step is the zero buffer limit. On the other hand, the machines are assumed to start in the
up state, whereas the zero buffer limit assumes the initia! state has been 'forgotten'.
As a general rule, if the buffers are large enough to make the line behave like the infinite
buffer line at equilibrium, then we could improve the machine with the slowest effective
rate by increasing its speed, increasing its MTBF, or decreasing its MTTR, and these
improvements translate directly to the line. However, improvements beyond the next
slowest effective rate would not pay off in higher production. This general rule does not
hold if the line does not reach equilibrium, or if the equilibrium is not the infinite buffer
equilibrium.

C.3

Example

The simulation model can be used to determine the maximum productivity of a series
packaging line, like packaging line 2. This paragraph describes how this is done, however
no rea! data are shown here.
First the notion of maximum productivity must be defined. Next, the model
parameters are listed, i.e. the line parameters that deterrnine the productivity. Then the
parameter values must be estimated, and using these values the model can be validated.
Next the zero- and infinite buffer limits for the productivity can be are calculated and the
maximum productivity can be estimated with the simulation model. The influence of the
values ofthe model parameters can be shown in so-called high-Iow diagrams.
Maximum productivity
As a measure for the productivity we use the line efficiency 7]Iine, i.e. the percentage ofthe
actual output versus the possible output (see also chapter 3).
We consider the line efficiency that is achieved during norma! production. So,
changeovers, maintenance, start-up etc. are not considered. This line efficiency is the long
term average line efficiency (or equilibrium efficiency), or equivalently the expected line
efficiency during norma! production. The va!ue of this expected efficiency should be
equal to the norm efficiency as specified in the production plan, because disturbances of
this efficiency, because of changeover, maintenance, start-up etc., should be incorporated
with norm times or lower norm efficiencies. During normal production the real efficiency
varies around the expected efficiency.

78

Line parameters
The expected line efficiency is a stochastic variabie, i.e. the value ofthis variabie cannot
be predicted with certainty. The line efficiency is a function of the line parameters. We
consider the packaging line to be a series system of machines and buffers as shown in
figure 26. The line parameters are formed by the machine and buffer parameters.

Figuur 26: Series system of machines and buffers

The following machines are considered:
1. Depalletiser, where starvation of the depalletiser is also taken into account in the
availability, i.e. input problems and failures ofthe defoil machine are incorporated
2. Rinser/Filler
3. Pasteuriser, we assume it is fuIl and thus functions just like the other machines
4. Labelling machine
5. Packing machine, where the packer and dosing machine are seen as one machine
(because there is no buffer in between) en the starvation of the packer for boxes (i.e.
problems ofthe cartons street) are taken into account in the availability
6. Palletiser, where backup of the paIletiser is taken into account in the availability, i.e.
output problems and failures on the shrink-wrap installation are incorporated.
The values of the line parameters determine the line efficiency. These values have been
coIlected and/or estimated. Static data can be measured or retrieved from the line
specification. Dynamic data should be collected in a representative sample.

Machine parameters
The machine parameters we consider are: the machine capacity and the failure behaviour,
expressed in MTTR and MTBF. The machine capacity is the maximum machine
production rate. These can be shown in a V-graph (see 5.4).
The exact failure behaviour of a machine cannot be determined, because the data is never
100% correct, and because the failure behaviour changes over time. With the available
data an average failure behaviour can be estimated for the period specified. We use:
total time internal failures
Estimate for the MTTR of a machine: - - - - - - - - - number of internal failures
total time - total time internal failures
Estimate for the MTBF of a machine: - - - - - - - - - - - - nu mb er of internal failures
Using the individual failures confidence intervals can be constructed in the normal way.

Buffer parameters
We only consider the buffer capacity, i.e. no transport characteristics of the buffers are
modelled . The buffer capacity is the maximum number of units in the buffer

79

Model validation
The above model is validated by using the data of a number of shifts and compare for
each shift the true output or efficiency with the output or efficiency that is predicted by
the model. A given machine behaviour can lead to different results, i.e. there is a certain
spread in the results. Therefore several runs should be made with the model, each with a
different random seed. If the true output is in the range of generated outputs the model is
good.
The results for the model varied. In general the model predictions are reasonable
for such a simple model. Some shifts are the predictions are good, and some shifts they
are very bad (especially for shifts with many machine failures). Because ofthe limitations
and assumptions ofthe model, the results should be interpreted carefully.
Zero- and Infinite buffer limits
For the expected line efficiency two limits can be determines, by considering two extreme
cases: the line without buffers will give a lower limit, the line with infinite buffers wil!
give an upper limit. On the line without buffers every machine failure stops the entire line.
On the line with infinite buffers the machines function independently. In reality the
situation ofthe line is somewhere between these two extremes.
The limits are defined as follows . The lower limit is the product of the machine
availabilities x the minimum of the machine capacities; the upper limit is the minimum of
the effective rates (see 5.1).
Simulation
The simulation model described above is used to estimate the expected line efficiency (i.e.
the long term rate). The simulations show that it takes some time to reach this expected
line efficiency when the line is started with empty buffers. This is probably because the
line with empty buffers resembles a line without buffers, and a line in equilibrium is more
like a line with infinite buffers.
Influence analysis
To determine the influence ofthe line parameters on the expected line efficiency so-called
high-Iow graphs are created using simulation. To construct such a graph the line
parameters are varied one at a time, taking a high value and a low value. The difference
between the expected efficiencies for the high and the low value show how much
influence the line parameter has on the expected efficiency. An example is shown in figure
27.
TJline

+10%
+5%

expectation

-5%
-10o/0L-__________________________________~
A

parameter

Figure 27: High-Iow diagramfor the fine efficiency, with 5 parameters

80

The following reports appeared in the WBBM Report Series:

1 W . Osman, A Design of an MSS for Integrated Program & Proj ect Management
2 J.J. de Jonge, Maintenance Management and Modelling
3 B. Meima, Expert Opinion anel Space Del)lis
4 I":. Wouterse, Design of a Management Supporting System for Distributeel Proeluction
Planning
5 P.J.M. Waasdolp, Forecas ting and Inventory Replenishment in a Distribution Chain
6 R.A.L. Slaats, PlanningsalgoritmE's voor l\:IRP
7 H.C . Vos, A Multi-Component Maintenance Model with Discounts
8 G. Dijkhuizen, Inventory Management with Integrated Regldar and Express Ordering
9 R . van Dorp, Dependence Moclelling for U nCE'rtainty Analysis
10 D. van Schooneveld, Fracta.l Coeling of Monchrome Digi tal Im ages
11 D. Roeleven, Moclelling the Probability of Accident for lnl and \Vaterway Transport
12 W. van der Sluis, The Coorclin a.tion of Production and Di st.ribution in a Decent ra.li zed
Distribution Chain: A Cont ract ll a l App roach
13 A.G. Chessa, Object-basecl Modelling of Hydrocarbon Reservoi rs

14 M. Kwak , Planning and Replenishm ent for a Seasonal Oemand Pattern

15 P. van Kampen, Maintenan ce Management of Multi-Component Obj ects
16 C. de Blois, Dynamic Pollu tant Transpo rt Modeling for Poli cy Evaill at ion in the Rhine
Basin

17 G. van Acken, Hoe goed is een kl ant?

18 J.B. Molenkamp , Matching of assets an d liabilities for pension fund s
19 A.J. Bomans , Validation of a Model for Optimising Decisions on Maintenance
20 M.A. Odijk, Performance Evaluation of Railway Junction Track Layout Designs

21 S.M. Geervliet, Modellering van de Faalkans van Ondergrondse Transportleidingen

22 R.R. Witberg, A Ne ural Network Solution to Wireline- log Recognition Applications
23 H. de Blank , Beslissingsondersteunend Systeem voor het Persproces van Mengvoeders

24 M.C. Rozema, RailEase, Ondersteuning bij het Specificeren van Railinfrastructuur in

Knooppunten
25 J. Dorrepaal, Analysis Tools for Reliability Databases

26 G.M. te Brake, Automated Detection of Stellate Lesions and Architectural Distortions

in Digital Mammograms
27 S.T. van Houwelingen, Petrophysical Conductivity Modelling - Determination of Effective Conductivity and Electro-Type TooI Response Modelling
28 R.P.M . Goverde, Civil Aircraft Autopilot Design Using Robust Control
29 W. W.J. Gtz, Infiuence Diagrams and Decision Trees in Severe Accident Management

30 J.P.A . van der Vliet, Assets Liability Matching for Life Insurers

31 M.P.C. Alders , Spatio-spectral Analysis of Wireline Logs

32 J .W.P. Karelse, Risicomanagement bij een Woningcorporatie met Monte Carlo Simu-

laties

The Department pfMathematics and Computer Science at De1ft UniveFsity of TechnolQgy

offers a selecte4f gJ"ou,p' of peopte a two-year post-Master's program featu.ring speciali~ed
instruction in practical mathematical modeling and consultancy skills (in Duteh: Wiskundige
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report'5 of these pr'Ojects.

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Delft University of Technology

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