9

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents the review of related literature from different authors.
Related Literature:
According to Aieua 2008, science is a process as well as knowledge. Children learn
science by being involved not only with its content, but also with its methodology. The effective
science facility accommodates both. Science study requires a variety of unique instructional
materials in addition to those materials common to all of education. A science facility must have
space to accommodate this variety in combination with hands-on instructional strategies. Science
instructional areas have spatial and material needs that are different from those considered in
designing a general use classroom.
Science encompasses a significant part of a childs formal and informal education. In
order to solve everyday problems, children consciously or unconsciously engage in scientific
thinking and analysis of situations. This scientific approach to solving everyday problems needs
to be encourage and develop in a formal educational setting where teachers continuously change
and organize curriculum and instruction to meet the needs of their children (Poon, Tan & Tan
2009). According to Poon, Tan & Tan 2009, science education is important in the childs formal
and informal education. It enhances the student to learn and solve and their everyday problems,
and most importantly it provide real life experiences through investigation and observation.
The best environment that fosters and develops structured scientific analytical thinking is
the school, where the child spends the major section of his/her day when he/she is away from

10

home. It is within the school environment that formal learning takes place. Acceptable attitudes
and values which the child inculcates are transmitted by the teacher who is specifically trained to
teach at given levels. There exists research done by professional educators and theorists who
posit statements and provide evidence in support of both the inquiry method and direct
instruction method of teaching science. (Abrams et. Al, 2008)
According to Klinkman 2008, inquiry approach is the search for truth, information or
knowledge. It pertains to research and investigation and to seeking information by asking
questions while to Suchman, inquiry is a natural way that human beings learn about their
environment. Suchman believed that natural curiosity of the learners can betrained and
disciplined in the procedures of inquiry.
Chiappetta (2007) encourages all science teachers to view science as inquiry, which is
more of an ongoing process and an overall mindset with students in an active learning role,
rather than to teach science by inquiry which views science as isolated events in the course of the
day or risks sending the message that science is simply a body of knowledge to be learned,
while inquiry-based instruction potentially offers significant advantages for science education, by
modeling scientific inquiry (Cobern et al., 2010, p. 93). Developing students that are
comfortable with science as inquiry produces critical thinking skills that carryover into all
aspects of life (Brand & Moore, 2011). According to (Brand & Moore, 2011) teaching science
through inquiry can help the students to think logically, and it can be used in a real life situations.
According to Hassard, (2009) inquiry approach is a type of instruction in which students
are engaged in open-ended, student-centered investigations often set in the context of real-life
problems, has been promoted by educational reform for nearly two decades as one of the central

11

tenants of good science teaching. As opposed to traditional teacher-led instruction, when engaged
in inquiry, students make observations, pose questions, plan investigations, develop models, and
interpret data. Although national and state standards call for inquiry-based instruction, and there
is a body of research that reports on the benefits of inquiry-based instruction in improving
science education, many teachers do not understand what inquiry is and do not implement
inquiry in their classrooms.
Science helps us to understand whatever is happening in our environment. Science
systematically interprets and explains all sorts of natural phenomena. This important feature of
science goes back to the past that is, even from its birth around. Another important fact is that
science cannot be regarded as unsystematically collected ideas, because it has been systematic
and well organized. Science is a way to understand the problems of humanity, so it cannot
remain in isolation from the humanity. Science has influenced all spheres of humanity e.g.
health, education and the economy as a whole.
(http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index_sub7.html)
Such statements made us realize how important the inquiry approach in teaching science.
It reveals that inquiry approach is effective in teaching science because students who are involve
on hands on activities, experiments and observation develops critical thinking skill and able to
cope up with the daily problems for their everyday living.
Inquiry Approach
According to Edelson et al, (2009) inquiry is defined as "a seeking for truth, information, or
knowledge -- seeking information by questioning." Individuals carry on the process of inquiry
from the time they are born until they die. This is true even though they might not reflect upon

12

the process. Infants begin to make sense of the world by inquiring. From birth, babies observe
faces that come near, they grasp objects, they put things in their mouths, and they turn toward
voices. The process of inquiring begins with gathering information and data through applying the
human senses -- seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling.

Importance of Inquiry
Memorizing facts and information is not the most important skill in today's world. Facts
change, and information is readily available -- what's needed is an understanding of how to get
and make sense of the mass of data.
Educators must understand that schools need to go beyond data and information
accumulation and move toward the generation of useful and applicable knowledge . . . a process
supported by inquiry learning. In the past, our country's success depended on our supply of
natural resources. Today, it depends upon a workforce that "works smarter."
Through the process of inquiry, individuals construct much of their understanding of the
natural and human-designed worlds. Inquiry implies a "need or want to know" premise. Inquiry
is not so much seeking the right answer -- because often there is none -- but rather seeking
appropriate resolutions to questions and issues. For educators, inquiry implies emphasis on the
development of inquiry skills and the nurturing of inquiring attitudes or habits of mind that will
enable individuals to continue the quest for knowledge throughout life.
Content of disciplines is very important, but as a means to an end, not as an end in itself.
The knowledge base for disciplines is constantly expanding and changing. No one can ever learn

13

everything, but everyone can better develop their skills and nurture the inquiring attitudes
necessary to continue the generation and examination of knowledge throughout their lives. For
modern education, the skills and the ability to continue learning should be the most important
outcomes. (Stoddart 2010)

Role of the teacher using inquiry Approach

The role of the teacher in an inquiry-based approach is to be a facilitator, guide, and
partner. Initially, the teacher poses open-ended questions; students follow this lead and form their
own. This type of activity motivates students because their own questions ultimately become the
focus of research and learning.
As students begin to research and explore, their learning becomes more web-like in
structure, and the teacher assumes a different role. At this point, the teacher remains attentive to
help students remain focused.
The teacher must be willing to allow time for discoveries, to encourage dialogue among
class members, and to allow mistakes to be made. Errors lead students to re-analyze their data
and to readjust their thinking.

Benefits of Inquiry Approach

14

There are many benefits of inquiry centered science teaching. According to Hudson
(2010), pointed out that some people have reservations, raise questions and concerns, and
disagree with the exaggerated assertions made in favor of teaching science through activity and
practical work.
Anderson et.al.,(2002) work is related to investigative instruction and programs based on
inquiry methods in the sixties. Meching & Oliver, 2003, and Shymansky et al., 1990 have shown
positive results about inquiry based teaching. Mattheis & Nakayama, (1988) found inquiry based
instruction beneficial for middle level learners, and enhanced the learners achievement, and
specially proved more fruitful for inquiry and laboratory skills. There is also evidence that
inquiry based teaching is effective for developing scientific processes, and procedural
competencies.
Lindberg (2000), scientific terminology and understanding of concepts that are abstract
in nature (Lloyd and Contereas,2005,2007), thinking with reasoning and logically (Narode et
al,2007), beliefs and convictions about scientific knowledge (Kyle et al.2005,Rakow,2006 ), test
achievement on the knowledge of methods or knowledge based on processes (Glasson ,2010)
and structuring of mathematical rationality (Staver,2006). Rosebery et al. (2000) asserted that
inquiry based teaching may prove useful for the disadvantaged sect. The inquiry based teaching
develops the classification skills, and communication at primary level students (Rodriguez &
Bethel, 2003).Chira (2000), inquiry based teaching is effective for all the students. Wolf (2000),
it was also concluded that the usefulness of inquiry may prove doubtful in case of
underachieving intelligent learners particularly while developing positive self concepts, problem
solving inquiry and scientific skills.

15

Advantages of Inquiry Approach

This review of literature aims to examine, outline and discuss the pros and cons of the use
of each method in isolation and also the possible benefits which can be derived from a science
curriculum formulated to instruct students through a combination of both the inquiry and direct
methods of instruction. Many of the researchers see benefits of using inquiry-based method of
teaching. Most of the researchers have also pointed out that teachers should first look at the
organization of the classroom and make sure that the seating arrangement is going to help
children transition easily from one activity to the other. Moreover, the curriculum and
instructions should be changed to include more hands-on activities to promote inquiry-based
teaching (Poon, Tan & Tan, 2009). Students learn best when they take an active role and practice
what they have learned (Smart & Csapo, 2007). Its very important that in order to facilitate
inquiry-based learning, the teacher make simple changes and organize the classroom in a way so
she could manage transition and gain attention as the children use hands-on investigative
activities, use of science journals, use of group-based activities, and guided students to reflect on
their learning process. Teachers should also invest some time in the organization of the
classroom. It is also very important that teachers have the knowledge of how to provide and
sustain enquiry-based learning environment. Al-Sabbagh, a researcher points out that its
important that teachers get support from school administration in creating the learning
environment suitable for inquiry-based teaching (Al-Sabbagh, 2009).

16

Some researchers also suggest that before teaching, the pre-service teachers should be
exposed to inquiry-based method at college level. It is suggested that the pre-service teachers
who are taught using inquiry-based method are more likely to develop hands-on activities for
their science classroom (Hohloch, Grove & Bretz, 2007). Teachers who are exposed to inquirybased learning are more likely to link science experiments to everyday life.
Theorists such as John Dewey believed that inquiry-based scientific approach could
improve education. Dewey advocated that teachers should always let children use their natural
activity and curiosity when learning about a new concept (Vandervoort, 1983; Dewey, 2008).
Dewey also believed that the child should be given an opportunity where he/she can follow their
interest. Some researchers believe that science should be introduced to a child as an integral part
of life and not an isolated problem. They make this claim based on Deweys approach to the
teaching process which requires taking into consideration the psychological needs of the child
rather than introducing science as a logical coherent subject (Eshach, 1997; Henderson & David,
2007). The teacher can create the learning environment to motivate the child. The teacher can
bring the real life experience to the class which can provide a rich learning environment.
Students also get more involved in higher order thinking when they see teacher as the model
(Wrenn & Wrenn, 2009).
Piaget, another theorist believes that as the child grows and his brain experiences
intellectual development and he/she starts to construct mental structures through his interaction
with the environment which would weigh heavily upon the technique of discovery (Lawson, &
Renner, 1975). An inquiry based curriculum would facilitate this type of discovery especially on
such at that which was developed by University of California, Berkley. It involves three basic
components: exploration, invention, and discovery. It is a learning cycle in which students move

17

from one phase to the next as they learn and developmental structures through their interaction
with the environment (Lawson, & Renner, 1975).

Disadvantages of Inquiry-based Teaching:

There are some disadvantages associated with the use of the inquiry method of
instruction used in isolation. It has been established that in an inquiry based classroom the
teachers role is mainly that of a facilitator.

Many of them experience interactional difficulty

with their students. Teachers also face lots of difficulties in channeling and maintaining the
interest of students as they engage themselves in inquiry activities and try to derive appropriate
conclusions about nature (Bencze, 2009). It is an indication that many science teachers are
unprepared for the social demands of this of type of strategy (Oliveria, 2009). They need to be
specifically trained in methods that will enhance their abilities to use directives in a polite form
and strategically share authority with their students while at the same time maintaining their
authority in the classroom. This would call for careful planning.

Careful planning and

preparation is also required for adequate content information to be imparted to students, which
makes it difficult for some science topic to be taught using the inquiry method (Robertson,
2007).
A major part of inquiry method of instruction involves allowing the student to make
scientific discoveries. However, science being a vast accumulation of discoveries must be
transmitted through books, charts, tables etc. Therefore, a great deal of science content must be
taught and education cannot possibly fulfill its obligation by simply arranging for rediscovery
(Skinner, 1987).
An important aspect of the inquiry learning environment is to provide the child with the
opportunity of working alone and making choices regarding what he is interested learning about.

18

In this case, the children work independent of the teacher who supervised and observes.
However, Vygotsky believe that the teaching/learning process cannot occur in isolation. The
child always needs the support of an adult (Beliavsky, 2006).
Many elementary school teachers support the inquiry based learning. However the ones
who were taught using the direct instruction method tend to use this method because they do not
feel confident using the inquiry based teaching strategy. Most teachers tend to teach how they
were taught (Qablan, Al-Ruz, Theodora & Al-Momani, 2009; Wang, & Wen, 2010)