Introduction to

Engineering

Mechanics
A Continuum Approach

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Introduction to

Engineering

Mechanics

A Continuum Approach

Jenn Stroud Rossmann

Lafayette College
Easton, Pennsylvania, USA

Clive L. Dym

Harvey Mudd College

Claremont, California, USA

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Rossman, Jenn Stroud.
Introduction to engineering mechanics: A continuum approach / Jenn Stroud
Rossman, Clive L. Dym.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-6271-7 (alk. paper)
1. Mechanics, Applied. I. Dym, Clive L. II. Title.
TA350.B348 1986
620.1--dc22
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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and the CRC Press Web site at
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2008033432

Contents
Preface..........................................................................................................xv
About the Authors.................................................................................... xvii
1

Introduction......................................................................................... 1
1.1 A Motivating Example: Remodeling an Underwater Structure.....2
1.2 Newtons Laws: The First Principles of Mechanics..........................4
1.3 Equilibrium............................................................................................5
1.4 Definition of a Continuum...................................................................6
1.5 Mathematical Basics: Scalars and Vectors..........................................9
1.6 Problem Solving................................................................................... 12
1.7 Examples............................................................................................... 13
Example 1.1........................................................................................... 13
Solution...................................................................................... 13
Example 1.2........................................................................................... 15
Solution...................................................................................... 16
1.8 Problems............................................................................................... 17
Notes.............................................................................................................. 18

Strain and Stress in One Dimension.............................................. 19

2.1 Kinematics: Strain................................................................................ 20
2.1.1 Normal Strain........................................................................... 20
2.1.2 Shear Strain............................................................................... 23
2.1.3 Measurement of Strain............................................................ 24
2.2 The Method of Sections and Stress................................................... 25
2.2.1 Normal Stresses....................................................................... 27
2.2.2 Shear Stresses........................................................................... 28
2.3 StressStrain Relationships................................................................ 32
2.4 Equilibrium.......................................................................................... 36
2.5 Stress in Axially Loaded Bars............................................................ 37
2.6 Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars................................................ 40
2.7 Equilibrium of an Axially Loaded Bar.............................................42
2.8 Indeterminate Bars..............................................................................43
2.8.1 Force (Flexibility) Method......................................................44
2.8.2 Displacement (Stiffness) Method.......................................... 46
2.9 Thermal Effects.................................................................................... 48
2.10 Saint-Venants Principle and Stress Concentrations....................... 49
2.11 Strain Energy in One Dimension...................................................... 51
2.12 A Road Map for Strength of Materials............................................. 53
2.13 Examples............................................................................................... 55
Example 2.1........................................................................................... 55
Solution...................................................................................... 55
v

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: A Continuum Approach

Example 2.2........................................................................................... 56
Solution...................................................................................... 57
Example 2.3........................................................................................... 57
Solution...................................................................................... 58
Example 2.4........................................................................................... 59
Solution...................................................................................... 59
Example 2.5........................................................................................... 60
Solution...................................................................................... 61
Example 2.6........................................................................................... 62
Solution...................................................................................... 62
Example 2.7...........................................................................................64
Solution......................................................................................65
Example 2.8........................................................................................... 66
Solution...................................................................................... 66
Example 2.9........................................................................................... 67
Solution...................................................................................... 68
2.14 Problems............................................................................................... 69
Case Study 1: Collapse of the Kansas City Hyatt Regency

Walkways.............................................................................................. 76
Problems............................................................................................... 82
Notes.............................................................................................................. 82

Strain and Stress in Higher Dimensions....................................... 85

3.1 Poissons Ratio......................................................................................85
3.2 The Strain Tensor................................................................................. 87
3.3 Strain as Relative Displacement........................................................90
3.4 The Stress Tensor................................................................................. 92
3.5 Generalized Hookes Law................................................................... 96
3.6 Limiting Behavior................................................................................ 97
3.7 Properties of Engineering Materials............................................... 101
Ferrous Metals.................................................................................... 103
Nonferrous Metals............................................................................ 103
Nonmetals.......................................................................................... 104
3.8 Equilibrium........................................................................................ 104
3.8.1 Equilibrium Equations.......................................................... 105
3.8.2 The Two-Dimensional State of Plane Stress....................... 107
3.8.3 The Two-Dimensional State of Plane Strain...................... 108
3.9 Formulating Two-Dimensional Elasticity Problems.................... 109
3.9.1 Equilibrium Expressed in Terms of Displacements.......... 110
3.9.2 Compatibility Expressed in Terms of Stress Functions.... 111
3.9.3 Some Remaining Pieces of the Puzzle of General
Formulations...................................................................................... 112
3.10 Examples............................................................................................. 114
Example 3.1......................................................................................... 114
Solution.................................................................................... 115
Example 3.2......................................................................................... 116

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vii

Solution.................................................................................... 116
3.11 Problems.............................................................................................. 116
Notes............................................................................................................ 121
4

Applying Strain and Stress in Multiple Dimensions................. 123

4.1 Torsion................................................................................................. 123
4.1.1 Method of Sections................................................................. 123
4.1.2 Torsional Shear Stress: Angle of Twist and the
Torsion Formula................................................................................. 125
4.1.3 Stress Concentrations............................................................ 130
4.1.4 Transmission of Power by a Shaft........................................ 131
4.1.5 Statically Indeterminate Problems...................................... 132
4.1.6 Torsion of Inelastic Circular Members................................ 133
4.1.7 Torsion of Solid Noncircular Members............................... 135
4.1.8 Torsion of Thin-Walled Tubes.............................................. 138
4.2 Pressure Vessels................................................................................. 141
4.3 Transformation of Stress and Strain............................................... 145
4.3.1 Transformation of Plane Stress............................................ 146
4.3.2 Principal and Maximum Stresses....................................... 149
4.3.3 Mohrs Circle for Plane Stress.............................................. 151
4.3.4 Transformation of Plane Strain............................................ 154
4.3.5 Three-Dimensional State of Stress...................................... 156
4.4 Failure Prediction Criteria................................................................ 157
4.4.1 Failure Criteria for Brittle Materials.................................... 158
4.4.1.1 Maximum Normal Stress Criterion...................... 158
4.4.1.2 Mohrs Criterion....................................................... 159
4.4.2 Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials..................................... 161
4.4.2.1 Maximum Shearing Stress (Tresca) Criterion..... 161
4.4.2.2 Von Mises Criterion................................................ 162
4.5 Examples............................................................................................. 162
Example 4.1......................................................................................... 162
Solution.................................................................................... 163
Example 4.2......................................................................................... 163
Solution.................................................................................... 163
Example 4.3......................................................................................... 165
Solution.................................................................................... 165
Example 4.4......................................................................................... 165
Solution.................................................................................... 165
Example 4.5......................................................................................... 166
Solution.................................................................................... 166
Example 4.6......................................................................................... 168
Solution.................................................................................... 168
Example 4.7......................................................................................... 170
Solution.................................................................................... 170
Example 4.8......................................................................................... 171
Solution.................................................................................... 171

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: A Continuum Approach

Example 4.9......................................................................................... 172
Solution.................................................................................... 172
Example 4.10....................................................................................... 177
Solution.................................................................................... 177
Example 4.11....................................................................................... 180
Solution.................................................................................... 180
4.6 Problems............................................................................................. 183
Case Study 2: Pressure Vessel Safety...................................................... 188
Why Are Pressure Vessels Spheres and Cylinders?..................... 189
Why Do Pressure Vessels Fail?........................................................ 194
Problems............................................................................................. 197
Notes............................................................................................................ 200

Beams................................................................................................ 201
5.1 Calculation of Reactions................................................................... 201
5.2 Method of Sections: Axial Force, Shear, Bending Moment......... 202
Axial Force in Beams........................................................................ 203
Shear in Beams................................................................................... 203
Bending Moment in Beams.............................................................. 205
5.3 Shear and Bending Moment Diagrams.......................................... 206
Rules and Regulations for Shear and Bending Moment
Diagrams............................................................................................. 206
Shear Diagrams...................................................................... 206
Moment Diagrams................................................................. 207
5.4 Integration Methods for Shear and Bending Moment................. 207
5.5 Normal Stresses in Beams................................................................ 210
5.6 Shear Stresses in Beams.................................................................... 214
5.7 Examples............................................................................................. 221
Example 5.1......................................................................................... 221
Solution.................................................................................... 221
Example 5.2......................................................................................... 223
Solution.................................................................................... 224
Example 5.3......................................................................................... 229
Solution.................................................................................... 230
Example 5.4......................................................................................... 231
Solution.................................................................................... 232
Example 5.5.........................................................................................234
Solution.................................................................................... 235
Example 5.6......................................................................................... 236
Solution.................................................................................... 237
5.8 Problems............................................................................................. 239
Case Study 3: Physiological Levers and Repairs................................... 241
The Forearm Is Connected to the Elbow Joint.............................. 241
Fixing an Intertrochanteric Fracture.............................................. 245
Problems............................................................................................. 247
Notes............................................................................................................ 248

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ix

Beam Deflections............................................................................. 251

6.1 Governing Equation.......................................................................... 251
6.2 Boundary Conditions........................................................................ 255
6.3 Solution of Deflection Equation by Integration............................. 256
6.4 Singularity Functions....................................................................... 259
6.5 Moment Area Method....................................................................... 260
6.6 Beams with Elastic Supports........................................................... 264
6.7 Strain Energy for Bent Beams.......................................................... 266
6.8 Flexibility Revisited and Maxwell-Betti Reciprocal Theorem.... 269
6.9 Examples............................................................................................. 273
Example 6.1......................................................................................... 273
Solution.................................................................................... 273
Example 6.2......................................................................................... 275
Solution.................................................................................... 275
Example 6.3......................................................................................... 278
Solution.................................................................................... 278
Example 6.4......................................................................................... 281
Solution.................................................................................... 282
6.10 Problems............................................................................................. 285
Notes............................................................................................................ 288

Instability: Column Buckling....................................................... 289

7.1 Eulers Formula.................................................................................. 289
7.2 Effect of Eccentricity.......................................................................... 294
7.3 Examples............................................................................................. 298
Example 7.1......................................................................................... 298
Solution.................................................................................... 298
Example 7.2.........................................................................................300
Solution.................................................................................... 301
7.4 Problems............................................................................................. 303
Case Study 4: Hartford Civic Arena.......................................................304
Notes............................................................................................................ 307

Connecting Solid and Fluid Mechanics....................................... 309

8.1 Pressure............................................................................................... 310
8.2 Viscosity.............................................................................................. 311
8.3 Surface Tension.................................................................................. 315
8.4 Governing Laws................................................................................. 315
8.5 Motion and Deformation of Fluids................................................. 316
8.5.1 Linear Motion and Deformation.......................................... 316
8.5.2 Angular Motion and Deformation...................................... 317
8.5.3 Vorticity................................................................................... 319
8.5.4 Constitutive Equation (Generalized Hookes Law)

for Newtonian Fluids............................................................. 321
8.6 Examples............................................................................................. 322
Example 8.1......................................................................................... 322

Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: A Continuum Approach

Solution.................................................................................... 323
Example 8.2......................................................................................... 324
Solution.................................................................................... 324
Example 8.3......................................................................................... 325
Solution.................................................................................... 326
Example 8.4......................................................................................... 327
Solution.................................................................................... 327
8.7 Problems............................................................................................. 328
Case Study 5: Mechanics of Biomaterials............................................... 330
Nonlinearity....................................................................................... 332
Composite Materials......................................................................... 333
Viscoelasticity.................................................................................... 336
Problems............................................................................................. 338
Notes............................................................................................................ 339

Fluid Statics...................................................................................... 341

9.1 Local Pressure.................................................................................... 341
9.2 Force Due to Pressure.......................................................................342
9.3 Fluids at Rest......................................................................................345
9.4 Forces on Submerged Surfaces........................................................348
9.5 Buoyancy............................................................................................. 355
9.6 Examples............................................................................................. 357
Example 9.1......................................................................................... 357
Solution.................................................................................... 357
Example 9.2......................................................................................... 358
Solution.................................................................................... 359
Example 9.3......................................................................................... 360
Solution.................................................................................... 361
Example 9.4......................................................................................... 363
Solution....................................................................................364
Example 9.5......................................................................................... 365
Solution.................................................................................... 366
9.7 Problems............................................................................................. 368
Case Study 6: St. Francis Dam................................................................. 373
Problems............................................................................................. 375
Notes............................................................................................................ 376

10

Fluid Dynamics: Governing Equations....................................... 377

10.1 Description of Fluid Motion.......................................................... 377
10.2 Equations of Fluid Motion............................................................. 379
10.3 Integral Equations of Motion........................................................ 379
10.3.1 Mass Conservation............................................................ 380
10.3.2 F = ma, or Momentum Conservation.............................. 382
10.3.3 Reynolds Transport Theorem.......................................... 385
10.4 Differential Equations of Motion.................................................. 386
10.4.1 Continuity, or Mass Conservation.................................. 386

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10.4.2 F = ma, , or Momentum Conservation.............................. 388

10.5 Bernoulli Equation............................................................................ 391
10.6 Examples............................................................................................. 392
Example 10.1....................................................................................... 392
Solution.................................................................................... 393
Example 10.2....................................................................................... 394
Solution.................................................................................... 395
Example 10.3....................................................................................... 396
Solution.................................................................................... 397
Example 10.4....................................................................................... 398
Solution.................................................................................... 399
Example 10.5....................................................................................... 402
Solution.................................................................................... 402
Example 10.6.......................................................................................404
Solution.................................................................................... 405
10.7 Problems............................................................................................. 406
Notes............................................................................................................408
11

Fluid Dynamics: Applications...................................................... 411

11.1 How Do We Classify Fluid Flows?............................................... 411
11.2 Whats Going on Inside Pipes?...................................................... 413
11.3 Why Can an Airplane Fly?............................................................ 417
11.4 Why Does a Curveball Curve?...................................................... 419
11.5 Problems...........................................................................................423
Notes............................................................................................................ 426

12

Solid Dynamics: Governing Equations....................................... 427

12.1 Continuity, or Mass Conservation................................................ 427
12.2 F = ma, or Momentum Conservation........................................... 429
12.3 Constitutive Laws: Elasticity......................................................... 431
Note............................................................................................................. 433

References................................................................................................. 435
Appendix A: Second Moments of Area................................................. 439
Appendix B: A Quick Look at the Del Operator.................................. 443
Divergence..................................................................................................444
Physical Interpretation of the Divergence......................................444
Example...............................................................................................445
Curl ..............................................................................................................445
Physical Interpretation of the Curl..................................................445
Examples.............................................................................................446
Example 1................................................................................446
Example 2................................................................................446
Laplacian..................................................................................................... 447

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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: A Continuum Approach

Appendix C: Property Tables.................................................................. 449

Appendix D: All the Equations.............................................................. 455
Index........................................................................................................... 457

If science teaches us anything, its to accept our failures, as

well as our successes, with quiet dignity and grace.
Gene Wilder, Young Frankenstein, 1974

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Preface
This book is intended to provide a unified introduction to solid and fluid
mechanics and to convey the underlying principles of continuum mechanics to undergraduates. We assume that students using this book have taken
courses in calculus, physics, and vector analysis. By demonstrating both the
connections and the distinctions between solid and fluid mechanics, this
book will prepare students for further study in either field or in fields such
as bioengineering that blur traditional disciplinary boundaries.
The use of a continuum approach to make connections between solid and
fluid mechanics is a perspective typically provided only to advanced undergraduates and graduate students. This book introduces the concepts of stress
and strain in the continuum context, showing the relationships between
solid and fluid behavior and the mathematics that describe them. It is an
introductory textbook in strength of materials and in fluid mechanics and
also includes the mathematical connective tissue between these fields. We
have decided to begin with the a-ha! of continuum mechanics rather than
requiring students to wait for it.
This approach was first developed at Harvey Mudd College (HMC) for a
sophomore-level course called Continuum Mechanics. The broad, unspecialized engineering program at HMC requires that curriculum planners ask
themselves, What specific knowledge is essential for an engineer who may
practice, or continue study, in one of a wide variety of fields? This course was
our answer to the question, what engineering mechanics knowledge is essential?
An engineer of any type, we felt, should have an understanding of how
materials respond to loading: how solids deform and incur stress; how fluids
flow. We conceived of a spectrum of material behavior, with the idealizations of Hookean solids and Newtonian fluids at the extremes. Most modern engineering materialsbiological materials, for examplelie between
these two extremes, and we believe that students who are aware of the entire
spectrum from their first introduction to engineering mechanics will be well
prepared to understand this complex middle ground of nonlinearity and
viscoelasticity.
Our integrated introduction to the mechanics of solids and fluids has
evolved. As initially taught by CLD, the HMC course emphasized the underlying principles from a mathematical, applied mechanics viewpoint. This
focus on the structure of elasticity problems made it difficult for students
to relate formulation to applications. In subsequent offerings, JSR chose to
embed continuum concepts and mathematics into introductory problems,
and to build gradually to the strain and stress tensors. We now establish
a continuum checklistcompatibility [deformation], constitutive law, and
equilibriumthat we return to repeatedly. This checklist provides a framework for a wide variety of problems in solid and fluid mechanics.
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Introduction to Engineering Mechanics: A Continuum Approach

We make the necessary definitions and present the template for our continuum approach in Chapter 1. In Chapter 2, we introduce strain and stress in one
dimension, develop a constitutive law, and apply these concepts to the simple
case of an axially loaded bar. In Chapter 3, we extend these concepts to higher
dimensions, introducing Poissons ratio and the strain and stress tensors. In
Chapters 47 we apply our continuum sense of solid mechanics to problems
including torsion, pressure vessels, beams, and columns. In Chapter 8, we
make connections between solid and fluid mechanics, introducing properties
of fluids and the strain rate tensor. Chapter 9 addresses fluid statics. Applications in fluid mechanics are considered in Chapters 10 and 11. We develop
the governing equations in both control volume and differential forms. In
Chapter 12, we see that the equations for solid dynamics strongly resemble
those weve used to study fluid dynamics. Throughout, we emphasize realworld design applications. We maintain a continuum big picture approach,
tempered with worked examples, problems, and a set of case studies.
The six case studies included in this book illustrate important applications of the concepts. In some cases, students developing understanding of
solid and fluid mechanics will help them understand what went wrong in
famous failures; in others, students will see how the textbook theories can be
extended and applied in other fields such as bioengineering. The essence of
continuum mechanics, the internal response of materials to external loading,
is often obscured by the complex mathematics of its formulation. By building gradually from one-dimensional to two- and three-dimensional formulations and by including these illustrative real-world case studies, we hope to
help students develop physical intuition for solid and fluid behavior.
Weve written this book for our students, and we hope that reading it is
very much like sitting in our classes. We have tried to keep the tone conversational and have included many asides that describe the historical context
for the ideas we describe and hints at how some concepts may become even
more useful later on.
We are grateful to the students who have helped us refine our approach. We
are deeply appreciative of our colleague and friend Lori Bassman (HMC)
of her sense of pure joy in structural mechanics and her ability to communicate that joy. Lori has been a sounding board, contributor of elegant (and fun)
homework problems, and defender of the integrity of second moment of
area despite the authors stubbornly abiding affection for moment of inertia. We also thank Joseph A. King (HMC), Harry E. Williams (HMC), Josh
Smith (Lafayette), James Ferri (Lafayette), Diane Windham Shaw (Lafayette),
Brian Storey (Olin), Borjana Mikic (Smith), and Drew Guswa (Smith). We
thank Michael Slaughter and Jonathan Plant, our editors at Taylor & Francis/
CRC, and their staff.
We want to convey our warmest gratitude to our families. First are Toby,
Leda, and Cleo Rossmann. Thanks especially to Toby, for his direct and indirect support of this project. And then theres Joan Dym, Jordana, and Miriam, and Matt and Ryan and spouses and partners, and a growing number
of grandchildren. We are grateful for their support, love, and patience.

About the Authors

Jenn Stroud Rossmann is assistant professor of mechanical engineering at
Lafayette College. She earned her B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University
of California, Berkeley. Her current research includes the study of blood flow
in vessels affected by atherosclerosis and aneurysms. She has a strong commitment to teaching engineering methods and literacy to non-engineers and
has developed several courses and workshops for liberal arts majors.
Clive L. Dym is the Fletcher Jones Professor of Engineering Design at Harvey Mudd College. He earned his B.S. from Cooper Union and his Ph.D.
from Stanford University. His primary interests are in engineering design
and structural mechanics. He is the author of eleven books and has edited
nine others; his two most recent books are Engineering Design: A Project-Based
Introduction, 3rd ed. (with Patrick Little, and with Elizabeth J. Orwin and R.
Erik Spjut, John Wiley, 2008) and Principles of Mathematical Modeling, 2nd ed.
(Academic Press, 2004). Among his awards are the Fred Merryfield Design
Award (American Society for Engineering Education [ASEE], 2002) and the
Joel and Ruth Spira Outstanding Design Educator Award (American Society
of Mechanical Engineers [ASME], 2004). Dr. Dym is a fellow of the ASCE,
ASME, and ASEE.

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