Exploring restoration ecology for mangrove forest conservation

Giannina Nicole R. Feliciano

Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines
Mangrove forests are ecologically and
economically
valuable
ecosystems,
prevalent in tropical countries such as the
Philippines
that
have
been
severely
depleted in the last century. Utilizing
ecological processes to restore mangrove
ecosystems,
through
the
study
of
restoration ecology, has recently been
explored as a sustainable means of
rehabilitating mangrove forests to predevelopment
conditions
and
regain
ecosystem productivity.

Mangrove ecosystems are centered typically on

tropical coastlines, and are primarily characterized
by the presence woody halophytes spanning up to
70 species, 27 genera and 19 families, collectively
known as mangroves (Ellison 2000). They are
productive areas with rich biomass and functional
uniqueness, making it a crucial ecosystem (Ellison
2000). However, mangrove ecosystems have been
put under threat in the last century, and are swiftly
being depleted (Long and Giri 2011).
Because of this, numerous conservation and
restoration initiatives have been undertaken, such
as planting mangroves on depleted areas. On
proposed
method
for
mangrove
forest
rehabilitation is restoration ecology. Ecological
restoration is a term defined as the process of
assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has
been degraded, damaged or destroyed (Lewis
2005). This paper, therefore, aims to explore to
solve the problem of mangrove forest depletion
with an ecological focus, specifically using
restoration ecology.
Mangrove physiology and forest ecology
Mangrove forests are frequently found in the
intertidal areas of tropical and subtropical
shorelines. Due to their exposure to salt and
flooding, they have evolved various adaptations
such as pneumatophores for gas exchange, and
extensive root system adaptations in order to cling
to their sandy or muddy substrate. In addition,
mangroves release floating seeds in order to more
effectively reproduce and colonize new territory
(Lewis 2005).

Mangrove forests also play an integral role in a

more vastly spanning ecosystem, which includes
other coastal ecosystems and even coral reefs.
They have clear ecological value as a habitat for
various bird, fish and invertebrate species. They
also serve as a nursery for some of these species,
and the leaf litter produced by mangrove forests
serves as an important part of the food web
(Ellison 2000). They also function as a means for
storm protection, by means of providing wind and
wave breaks (Walters 2004).
Mangrove forests in the Philippines
From a record of 500,000 ha mangrove cover in
1918 (Long and Giri 2011), up to 70% of original
mangrove forests in the Philippines have been
depleted (Walters 2004). A study using Landsat
imagery showed approximately 256,000 ha of
mangrove cover in the Philippines circa 2000;
however, quality and conditions of the ecosystem
were not accounted for (Long and Giri 2011).
Mangrove depletion is a trend observed across
Southeast Asia, and is attributed to the
development
of
aquaculture
operations,
specifically brackish-water pond development in
the Philippine setting (Long and Giri 2011).
Because of this, local government units, nongovernment organizations and even government
initiatives have been undertaken in the hope of
restoring mangrove forests in the Philippines
(Walters 2004). Since, a decrease in mangrove
deforestation occurred through national policies
banning use of mangroves for bakery fuel,
restrictions on aquaculture and laws dedicated to
mangrove preservation (Walters 2004).
Although increased planting of mangroves and
decreased depletion has been observed, threats in
Philippine mangrove forests still include coastal
development, management folly and managed
forest distribution that is still incomparable to
untouched forest (Walters 2004).
Ecological restoration of mangroves

The initial purpose of mangrove restoration was

planting of new forests in order to sustain human
need for mangrove as a natural resource (Ellison
2000). Examples of this include planting of
monospecific mangroves for direct harvest, such in
Bais Bay and Banacon Island (Lewis 2005).
Recently, restoration is done to preserve its
ecological values (Ellison 2000). Because of this,
ecological restoration was deemed as a more
sustainable and productive mode of rehabilitation,
both benefitting humans and the ecosystem in
terms of coastal livelihoods, coastal protection and
preservation of the ecosystem (Ellison 2000).
Depending on tidal hydrology, abundance of
mangrove propagules and distribution of seeds,
secondary succession can occur within 15-30 years
(Lewis 2005). To successfully carry out ecological
restoration in mangrove forests, these factors must
be understood and utilized maximally. Direct
human intervention in the restoration process has
led to less productive results, as monocultures and
even some polycultures carried out in mangrove
forests have led to increased propagule predation
by known predators, declining productivity over
time and loss of plant species diversity (Ellison
2000).
Therefore,
utilizing
natural
ecosystem
processes and encouraging secondary succession
may serve as a suitable tool for the restoration of
mangrove forests. For example, with the goal of
returning an ecosystem to its pre-development
condition, it is necessary to also take into account
other facets of the ecosystem, such as soil type
changes, altered habitation and altered flora and
fauna (Lewis 2005). Emphasis should also be put
on discerning whether the tidal hydrology is apt for
forest growth, such as checking for tidal inundation
and other stresses (Lewis 2005). In addition,
propagule recruitment must be observed once other
stresses are deemed absent, in order to discern
whether secondary succession can really occur, as
natural seedling recruitment was reported to
exceed other plant seedling densities in mangrove
sites that were affected in an oil spill. For
restoration ecology, assistance in the succession
process should only be done once it is deemed that
this cannot occur naturally (Lewis 2005).
With the intention of preserving or
rehabilitating a site into its original state,
ecological restoration is a suitable and sustainable
practice. In order to successfully carry this out for

mangrove ecosystems, one must first consider the

specific location of planting, such as an appropriate
down slope in a coastal drainage basin, where
mangroves are usually located (Lewis 2009).
Through field level investigations, one must also
take into account the individual physiology and
ecology of the mangrove species present in the
area, especially with regard to reproduction,
distribution and propagation, as well as the
hydrological patterns in the area and how they
affect distribution and propagation of the specific
mangroves or area being targeted (Lewis 2009).
After which, the history of the site should also be
analyzed, in order to determine the specific
modifications that prevent natural secondary
succession. It is only after these considerations that
a restoration program must be designed,
prioritizing hydrological restoration and propagule
distribution, with minimal direct human
intervention (Lewis 2009). Direct seedling planting
should only be carried out when natural
recruitment is not deemed possible or sustainable
in number for complete secondary succession to
occur (Lewis 2009).
Based on the ecological and economic
importance of mangrove ecosystems, it is clear that
there is a need for a sustainable and long-term
solution for rapid mangrove depletion. While
direct mangrove planting may prove to be effective
in short-term rehabilitation, utilizing ecological
processes, relationships and natural succession to
preserve and rehabilitate mangrove ecosystems
prove to be long-term solutions that have
exceeding economic and ecological benefits for
mangrove conservation in the Philippines.
Literature Cited
Ellison, A.M. 2000. Mangrove Restoration: Do We Know
Enough? Restoration Ecology 8(3) 219-229.
Lewis, R.R. III. 2005. Ecological engineering for successful
management and restoration of mangrove forests.
Ecological Engineering 24: 403-418.
Lewis, RR. III. 2009. Methods and Criteria for Successful
Mangrove Forest Restoration. In Coastal Wetlands: An
Integrated Ecosystem Approach (G.M.E. Perillo, E.
Wolanski, D,R, Cahon, M.M. Brinson, eds.). California:
Elsevier B.V. 787p.
Long, J.B. and C. Giri. 2011. Mapping the Philippines
Mangrove Forests Using Landsat Imagery. Sensors 11(3):
2972-2981.
Walters, B.B. 2004. Local Management of Mangrove Forests
in the Philippines: Successful Conservation or Efficient
Resource Exploitation? Human Ecology 32(2): 177-195.