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Astronomy 45
Introduction to Astrophysics
Fall 2002
Alex Dalgarno
([email protected])

Astronomy 45 is an introduction to the concepts and methods of

astrophysics. It includes a survey of astronomical objects, a description of
astronomical measurements and units and an introductory account of the
astrophysics of radiation, orbital motions, tidal interactions, stellar structure, energy
generation, many-body dynamics and cosmology.
1.1 Introduction
By astronomy we usually mean the observation and measurement of the
properties of extraterrestrial objects. The observations are almost entirely of
electromagnetic radiation over an extended wavelength range through the radio,
millimeter, infrared, optical and ultraviolet to X-rays and -rays. Information is also
obtained from studies of cosmic rays and neutrinos. The measurement data include
positions, velocities, brightnesses and spectra of objects which include the planets,
the Sun, stars, globular clusters, nebulae, novae, supernovae, the interstellar medium,
galaxies, clusters of galaxies, neutron stars and black holes. Astrophysics applies

1-2
physics to interpret and understand the observations and it attempts to develop a
unified picture of the history and evolution of the Universe.
Astrophysics is characterized by enormous changes of scale from the size of
nuclei 10

-13

cm to the distances to the earliest galaxies 10

41

cm. The different

scales can be hard to grasp and we have to find ways to manage them conceptually.
One advantage Astrophysics has over Physics and Chemistry is that high precision
is often unnecessary. Estimates correct to an order of magnitude often suffice.
Astrophysics covers a wide range of physics and we need some knowledge
of many-body dynamics, of atomic, molecular and optical physics, nuclear physics,
plasma physics, condensed matter physics, particle physics and also chemistry. The
participation of these areas of physics makes the study of astrophysics interesting
and challenging.
I will begin by describing some pre-astrophysics history, starting with the
Solar system and the planets.
1.2 Planets
Viewed from Earth, the Sun appears to move eastward with respect to the
stars and circles the sky in one year (Fig. 1-1). The imaginary path it traces out is
called the ecliptic. The N-S polar axis of the Earth points in a fixed direction in
space or nearly so. Perpendicular to it through the center of the Earth is the
equatorial plane. Imagine the plane to be extending in space. The equatorial plane
of the Earth is inclined by 23.5 degrees with respect to the plane of the ecliptic. The
Sun crosses it twice a year. The two points of intersection of the path of the Sun
with the equatorial plane are the Spring (vernal) and Autumn equinoxes (nox is

1-3
Latin for night). They are the times at which the lengths of day and night are
everywhere equal (see Fig. 1.1). The winter solstice is the time of the shortest day or
longest night in the Northern Hemisphere. The summer solstice is the time of the
longest day or shortest night. The planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Neptune, Uranus and Pluto, in order of increasing distance from the Sun
(see Fig. 1-2). (With the discovery of many trans-Neptunian objects which look like
smaller versions of Pluto, the designation of Pluto as a planet has come into
question.) The first analyses of planetary motions used geometry, not physics.

1-4

Fig. 1-1

Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Asteroids

1-5

Uranus

Jupiter Saturn

Neptune

20

10

30

Pluto

40

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Mars

Earth

(A)
Venus

Mercury

Sun

AU
Asteroids

AU

(B)
Relative orbital distances of the planets. (A) The distance scale in astrononical
units from the Sun to Pluto. (B) An expanded scale shows the inner Solar System
Fig 1-2

1.2.1 Geometry
Copernicus (early 16th century) put forward the simplifying suggestion that
the planets are in circular orbits around the Sun. (We will see later that the orbits are
ellipses). Planets are inferior or superior. Mercury and Venus are inferior planets
because they lie closer to the Sun than the Earth. The others, lying further from the
Sun are superior planets. The positions of planets are described by their
elongations. The elongation is an angle, the angle measured at the Earth between
the direction from Earth of the center of the Sun and the direction from Earth of the
planet. Conjunction and opposition occur when the Earth, Sun and Planet are in a

1-6
straight line. Conjunction occurs for the elongation 0it is inferior conjunction
when the planet lies between the Earth and the Sun and superior conjunction when
it lies on the opposite side of the Sun. When the planet is at an elongation of 180 it
is at opposition. Opposition occurs only for superior planets. When the elongation
is 90 it is called quadrature (see Fig. 1-3) for superior planets. For inferior
planets, the maximum elongation is called the greatest elongation . At greatest
elongation, the Earth-Planet-Sun angle is 90.

Superior Planet

Inferior Planet

Conjunction

Superior Conjunction
Planet

Sun
Elongation
Quadrature

Sun

Earth
Earth
Greatest elongation

Opposition

Fig. 1-3

Inferior Conjunction

1-7

Two periods are used to characterize the orbits of the planets. The synodic
period S is the interval between successive oppositions or inferior conjunctionsit
is the period measured from Earth. The sidereal period P is the actual time to make
a complete orbit around the Sun. They are related, as Copernicus noted, by
1
1
1
=

for inferior planets

P
P
S
r
1
1
1
=

for superior planets

S
Pr
P
where P is the sidereal period of the Earth

Superior Planet
Earth

Sun
B
B
A
A
A

1-8
Fig. 1-4

Consider Fig. 1-4.

Opposition occurs at A. Suppose next opposition occurs at B. To get from A to B
2
-1
the planet takes time S and travels through the angle (2/P) S,
radians s
P
being its angular speed. In the same time, Earth has to travel one orbit taking a time
P and then travel from A to B in the remaining time (S -P). In the time (S -P)
Earth travels through the angle (S -P) 2/ P . Hence

S H

2
2
= ( S Pr)
P
Pr

and
1
1
1
=

.
Pr
P
S

For superior planets, P > P.

For inferior planets, it is the other way around.
We may express the relationship between periods in terms of angular
velocities. For circular motion, is a constant so

r =

2
2
, =
Pr
P

1-9

Then
2
= N =
S
=

r
2
Pr

2
P

or simply note that the difference in the angle traversed in time S by the planet, S,
and the Earth, S, is 2 , i.e. (-)S = 2 , as it should since S is the period as
measured from Earth.
We may define an angular velocity more generally as the change in angle

in a time

d
.
dt

If r is the distance from the center of the orbit, the velocity is

rd
= r,
dt

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perpendicular to r.
Copernicus also determined the relative distances of the planets from the
Sun, though not the absolute distance. At maximum or greatest elongation, for an
inferior planet,

Inferior Planet

90

Sun

Orbit of Planet
Maximum Elongation

Fig. 1-5

Earth

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If r is the radius of the orbit of the planet,
r = R sin relates the Sun-Planet distance r to the Sun-Earth distance R,
R, the distance of the Earth from the Sun, defines the astronomical unit of
distance, R = 1 AU.
The Copernicus method for a superior planet uses observations of
opposition (so only one per orbit)
Superior Planet

Earth

Sun

opposition

S
1AU
E

r
quadrature

Fig 1-6

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To determine r = SP = SP, observe at opposition P and at quadrature P where the
angle between SE and SP, SP = 90). We know the time for the planet to move
from P to P and the Earth to move from E to E. We know the angular speeds, so
SE . By subtracting we obtain the angle PS E .
we know the angles PS P and E
Then cos (PS E) = SE/r and r = 1AU/ cos (PSE)
Kepler used a more elaborate geometry, applicable at all points of the orbit

E
1AU

P
1AU

d
E

Earth

Fig 1-7

Planet P returns to chosen original position after one sidereal period and Earth
moves from E to E. Elongations and are measured. We know Earths sidereal

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period so we know ES E and EE in AU. Triangle is isosceles so we know angles
SE and SE. By subtraction, we obtain PE and PE. Then sine rule
sin b
sin c
sin a
=
=
b
c
a

applied to triangle PE gives

sin PE N E
d

sin PE E N
sin E N P E
=
.
dN
EE N

All these angles are known, so we derive d and d . From either d or d use

r2 = d2 + (1AU)2 - 2d cos
or

r2 = d2 + (1AU)2 - 2d cos

Here are the measurements of P and of the average distance a from the Sun:

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Measurements of P
Planet

P
(days)

a
(AU)

Mercury

87.969

0.387099

Venus

224.701

0.723332

Earth

365.256

1.000000

Mars

686.980

1.523691

Jupiter

4332.589

5.202803

Saturn

10759.22

9.53884

Uranus

30685.4

19.1819

Neptune

60189

30.0578

Pluto

90465

39.44

To determine 1 AU in some known unit, km, say, we need an absolute

distance in both AU and km.

1.2.2 Parallax
In the case of planets, parallax is the apparent change in position of an
object measured from different points of the Earth.

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rP
d
Earth

Planet

Fig. 1-8

Then d/rp = sin . If is small, sin ~ , with in radians. d is called

the baseline.
Knowing d in km, say, and r p in AU, we may obtain AU in km from a
8

measurement of . It was found that 1 AU = 149 597 870 1km ~ 1.49610 km.
(the orbits are actually ellipses, and the Earth-Sun distance is not a constant. 1 AU
is defined as the semi-major axis of the Earths orbit which is equal to the average
Earth-Sun distance) (cf. Chapter 4).
Knowing rp, we can now determine the orbital velocities of the planets.
For the Earth,
rE = 1.496 108 km

= 2 rad yr-1
= 1.99 10-7 rad s-1
v

= rE = 2 1.496 108 km yr-1

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= 9.40 108 km yr-1

= 29.8 km s-1 .
(1 yr = 3.156 107 s)

For stars, parallax is determined from different points of the Earths orbit.
The parallax angle is defined as half the apparent angular displacement of the star as
seen from the Earth in half of one complete orbit.
Make observations of the positions of fixed stars from opposite points of
the Earths orbit.

Earth
1 AU
Sun
1 AU
Earth

Distant star

rs

Star

= parallax angle

Distant star

Fig. 1-9

+ + 2 =

-( + ) = +
Hence 2 = ( + )
In practice, choose observation times or stars so that = . Then

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1 AU
1 AU
~
tan

rs =

A distance unit, characteristic of stellar distances, is the parsec (abbreviated

pc). A parsec is the distance rs corresponding to a parallax angle of 1 arc sec for a
baseline of 1 AU. With angle measured in radians and distance in AU,
rs
rad
= .
AU
Converting to angles measured in arcseconds, using 2 radians =
36060 60 arcsec,

rs =
=

360 x 60 x 60 1
AU
2

206265

AU .

By definition = 1 arcsec corresponds to r = 1pc.

= 1
rs = 1pc

<

>
1AU

1-18
So 1pc = 206265 AU
13

= 3.086 x 10 km
18

= 3.086x10 cm.

Another unit in common use is the light yearthe distance travelled by light
in one year.
1 ly = 3x10

10

-1

cm s x 3.156 x10 s = 9.467x10

17

cm

so 1 pc = 3.26 lyr.
(Milky Way galaxy has a radius of about 7 kpc).

1.2.3 Transit of Venus

Venus is observed, though rarely, to transit the Sun. (The next two transits
will occur in June 2004 and 2012.) The transits of Venus (the passages of Venus
across the face of the Sun) were used to establish a distance scale for the Solar
System. Venus appears as a small black dot moving across the face of the sun (see
Fig. 1.10.

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NS = 8000 km

Not to scale

N
AA
h
B
S

Venus

Earth

0.723 AU

0.277 AU

Sun

h
A
B

>
>

A
2.28
Sun

42

Fig. 1-10

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The dot is actually moving in an arc on the surface of the Sun. When it is viewed
from different locations on Earth, it appears to move in straight lines on slightly
different tracks at different latitudes of the Sun (Figs 1-10).
We can determine an absolute distance scale from the difference in apparent
latitudes 2.28 of the transits. We can also measure the different crossing times for
which we can get the angles, knowing the Suns angular size.
The arc travelled is
BB = 2 Ru cos 42 rE
with Ru measured in AU.
Crossing rate is the relative angular velocity of the Earth and Venus.
R u cos 42

r =

2
2
=
S
1 . 60 years

r = 1AU
E

= 4. 49 H 10 4 rad / hour .
2 R u cos 42

Earth

1-21
Measured crossing time at 42 latitude was 15.4 hours so with Ru in AU

arc BB N = 2R u cos 42 E = 15.4

4
r Er
4.49 H 10
and the angular size of the Sun is

4
Ru
= 15.4 H 4.49 H 10 rad
rE
2 H 0.743

3
= 4.65 H 10 rad = 16 N .

We can measure the anglar size of the Sun directly so this is a check. The
measured crossing time along arc AA was 14.8 hours.
arc AA N = 2R u cos (42 E + ) = 14.8
4
r Er
4.49 H 10

which yields =2.28. Thus Northern observers see Venus crossing at 42 solar
latitude, and Southern observers see Venus crossing more to the North of the Sun at
latitude 44.28 The difference in angle is 2.28 = 0.0398 radians. Because is
small, the arc AB can be replaced by the line AB and AB is perpendicular to AO.
See Fig. 1.10. Then h = AB cos 42. But (h/NS) = 0.72/0.28. NS = 8000 km, so
h = 20, 571 km and AB = 27681 km. With = 2.28 = 0.0398 radians, R u =

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5

(27681/0.0398)km = 6.96 10 km.

Knowing the angular size of the Sun32 arcminutes = 32, we obtain the Sun5

Earth distance 1 AU = Ru/tan 16 = (6.96 10 /0.00465) = 1.496 10 km.

1.2.4 Luminosity and Flux

Luminosity is the amount of energy emitted in unit time by a radiant object,
whose radiant flux is defined as the amount of energy crossing a unit surface in unit
time. Given that energy is conserved (no loss of energy by absorption), the flux
2

diminishes with distance as 1/r . (The total surface area increases as 4 r so the
2

unit surface area expressed as a fraction of the total diminishes as 1/r ).

To reduce the flux from an objectthe Sunuse a pinhole of area A, say.

A
spherical area A

Sun

diameter D
32

l
Fig 1-12

1-23
A
( l is the focal ratio)
All light collected by A is spread out over area A.

Now the angle subtended by A is also 32 so

AN =

D 2
32 2 2
=
l
,
4
4 60 360

changing 32 to radians. Brightness (flux) is diminished by

A N = 6.0 x 10 5 l 2 .
A
A
Original unit of luminosity was a candle and the candle power Lu of the Sun was
27

determined to be 2.8x10 candles (Huygens 1650).

-1

We now use Watts or ergs per second or Joules (1 W = 10 ergs s

-1

1 Joule s ). The solar luminosity Lu is given by the solar constant, the energy flux
Fu received at Earth from the Sun,

Fu =

Lu
4 r2

, r = 1AU .

-2

The measured solar constant is 1370 Wm and the solar luminosity is

Lu = 4 r 1370 W/m

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= 4 (1AU) 1370 W

With 1AU = 1.496 10

11

m,
Lu

33

= 3.85 x 10

-1

erg s .

1.2.5 Circular motion

r = constant, r = constant

Now r = r r
d
dr
so dt (r r) = 2r dt = 0 .
dr
dt = velocity v so r v = 0
v is perpendicular to r
d 2
d 2
Consider dt v = dt v = 0
d 2
dv
v
=
2v

dt
dt = 2v a

a is acceleration.
a is perpendicular to v and so is along the radius. Now, to find a consider that

1-25

d
dv
dr
A v + r A
= v2 + r A a
dt (r v) = 0 = dt
dt

So a =

v2
r
r

r is unit vector along r.

a is the centripetal acceleration along the radius to the center and ma is the
2
mv
corresponding centripetal force. Its magnitude is
or mr 2 since v = r.
r