Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotope Signatures of Northeast Atlantic Water Masses

Deep-Sea Research II ()
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Deep-Sea Research II
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Oxygen and hydrogen isotope signatures of Northeast Atlantic

water masses
Antje H.L. Voelker a,b,n, Albert Colman c, Gerard Olack c, Joanna J. Waniek d, David Hodell e
a
Diviso de Geologia e Georecursos Marinhos, Instituto Portugus do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), Avenida de Braslia 6, 1449-006 Lisboa, Portugal
CIMAR Associated Laboratory, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
c
Department of the Geophysical Sciences, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
d
Leibniz-Institut fr Ostseeforschung Warnemnde, Seestrasse 15, 18119 Rostock, Germany
e
Godwin Laboratory for Palaeoclimate Research, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
b
art ic l e i nf o
Keywords:
Oxygen isotopes
Hydrogen isotopes
NE Atlantic
Mediterranean Outow Water
GEOTRACES
a b s t r a c t
Only a few studies have examined the variation of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes of seawater in NE
Atlantic water masses, and data are especially sparse for intermediate and deep-water masses. The current
study greatly expands this record with 527 18O values from 47 stations located throughout the mid- to
low-latitude NE Atlantic. In addition, D was analyzed in the 192 samples collected along the GEOTRACES
North Atlantic Transect GA03 (GA03_eKN199-4) and the 115 Iberia-Forams cruise samples from the
western and southern Iberian margin. An intercomparison study between the two stable isotope
measurement techniques (cavity ring-down laser spectroscopy and magnetic-sector isotope ratio mass
spectrometry) used to analyze GA03_e samples reveals relatively good agreement for both hydrogen and
oxygen isotope ratios. The surface (0100 m) and central (100500 m) water isotope data show the typical,
evaporation related trend of increasing values equatorward with the exception for the zonal transect off
Cape Blanc, NW Africa. Off Cape Blanc, surface water isotope signatures are modied by the upwelling of
fresher Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) that generally has isotopic values of 0.0 to 0.5 for 18O and
0 to 2 for D. Along the Iberian margin the Mediterranean Outow Water (MOW) is clearly
distinguished by its high 18O (0.51.1) and D (36) values that can be traced into the open
Atlantic. Isotopic values in the NE Atlantic Deep Water (NEADW) are relatively low (18O: 0.1 to 0.5;
D: 1 to 4) and show a broader range than observed previously in the northern and southern
convection areas. The NEADW is best observed at GA03_e Stations 5 and 7 in the central NE Atlantic basin.
Antarctic Bottom Water isotope values are relatively high indicating modication of the original Antarctic
source water along the ow path. The reconstructed 18Osalinity relationship for the complete data set
has a slope of 0.51, i.e., slightly steeper than the 0.46 described previously by Pierre et al. (1994, J. Mar. Syst.
5 (2), 159170.) for the tropical to subtropical Northeast Atlantic. This slope decreases to 0.46 for the
subtropical North Atlantic Central Water (NACW) and the MOW and to 0.32 for the surface waters of the
upper 50 m. The Dsalinity mixing lines have estimated slopes of 3.01 for the complete data, 1.26 for the
MOW, 3.47 for the NACW, and 2.63 for the surface waters. The slopes of the 18OD relationship are
signicantly lower than the one for the Global Meteoric Water Line with 5.6 for the complete data set, 2.30
for the MOW, 4.79 for the NACW, and 3.99 for the surface waters. The lower slopes in all the relationships
clearly reect the impact of the evaporation surplus in the subtropics.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
High precision stable isotope (18O, D) analyses of fresh and
ocean water were rst discussed by Epstein and Mayeda (1953) and
Friedman (1953). Craig and Gordon (1965) later showed that 18O
n
Corresponding author at: Diviso de Geologia e Georecursos Marinhos, Instituto
Portugus do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), Avenida de Braslia 6, 1449-006 Lisboa,
Portugal.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.H.L. Voelker).
can be used as a water mass tracer and that the 18Osalinity

relationship follows a slope of 0.61 in the surface waters of the highlatitude North Atlantic and thus the North Atlantic Deep Water
(NADW) but changes to a slope of 0.22 in the surface waters of the
subtropical North Atlantic or even 0.11 in the Atlantics equatorial
trough. Subsequent studies focused on specic regions (e.g.,
Fairbanks, 1982; Van Donk and Mathieu, 1969; Weiss et al., 1979)
and a global study of seawater stable isotope transects and vertical
proles was made by the GEOSECS program (stlund et al., 1987).
Although the GEOSECS program provided the rst global data set,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2014.11.006
0967-0645/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Voelker, A.H.L., et al., Oxygen and hydrogen isotope signatures of Northeast Atlantic water masses. Deep-Sea
Res. II (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2014.11.006i
A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()
the spatial coverage was limited. In the North Atlantic south of the
Greenland-Iceland-Scotland ridge, six vertical stations covered the
complete water column, but only Station 115 at 281N and 261W was
located in the eastern basin. After the GEOSECS program a major gap
followed in seawater stable isotope studies. In the last two decades,
however, various studies provided new 18O data that focused on
high latitude regions and the inuence of meltwater in the Atlantic
sector (e.g., Azetsu-Scott and Tan, 1997; Bauch et al., 1995; Cox et al.,
2010; Mackensen, 2001; Meredith et al., 1999a, 1999b), the NW
African upwelling region off Cape Blanc (Pierre et al., 1994: Fig. 1B)
and the Mediterranean Sea (Pierre, 1999). Pierre et al. (1994)
proposed a slope of 0.46 for the 18Osalinity mixing line for the
waters of the tropical to mid-latitude North Atlantic. In the Mediterranean Sea basin with its excess evaporation the slope is lower
varying from 0.25 to 0.27 (Pierre, 1999).
Data on the intermediate to deep waters in the North Atlantic
remained sparse until the study of Frew et al. (2000) who analyzed
vertical 18O proles from stations in the North Atlantics subpolar
gyre. The authors found a mixing slope of 0.62 that matches the
one of Craig and Gordon (1965), but could also show that Northeast Atlantic Deep Water (NEADW; 0.22) can be distinguished
isotopically from the bottom waters in the Northwest Atlantic
(0.13) owing to different formation and mixing processes.
Furthermore, they were able to trace the signature of the more
saline Mediterranean Outow Water (MOW) as an isotopically
relative higher value (0.3) at a water depth of 800 m in their
easternmost station at 51.751N 201W. Bigg and Rohling (2000)
used the global data base compiled by Schmidt et al. (1999) and
related a break in the slope of the mixing line at 36.5 to the high
salinity waters of the Mediterranean Sea with the slope above this
salinity value being less steep.
In regions with excess evaporation the slope of the 18O
(or D)salinity mixing line or the 18OD relationship strongly
diverges from the global slope (Bigg and Rohling, 2000) or the
Global Meteoric Water Line (Craig and Gordon, 1965) as clearly

demonstrated by Gat et al. (1996) for the eastern Mediterranean
Sea. Gat et al. (1996) showed that it is important to understand the
regional mixing lines because the isotopic signals observed in the
surface waters impact the isotopic range of the marine moisture
and the subsequent precipitation over the sea and land (e.g., Gat,
1996; Benetti et al., 2014). Conditions in the Mediterranean Sea are
highly relevant for our study because deep convection, in particular in the eastern basin, form the intermediate to deep-water
masses that contribute to the deep outow from the Mediterranean Sea feeding into the MOW. The MOW plays an important role
for the North Atlantics overturning circulation because the excess
salt it exports into the North Atlantic contributes to increase the
density in the convection areas of deep-water formation (Bigg
et al., 2003).
In the last six decades, the world oceans experienced changes
that also affect the hydrological cycle. As a consequence of the
increased salinity in the surface waters of evaporation dominated
regions, such as the Atlantics subtropical gyres, and enhanced
freshening in precipitation dominated regions the global hydrological cycle was intensied (Durack et al., 2012). Salinity changes
were not restricted only to the surface ocean but also affected
deeper levels. In the northeastern Atlantic higher salinities at the
1000-dbar level are linked to MOW enhancement and spreading
along the southern pathways (Curry et al., 2003; Durack and
Wijffels, 2010). Freshening and equatorward spreading of this
signal is observed in the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW)
and Upper Circumpolar Deep Water (UCDW) (Curry et al., 2003).
Likewise, deep waters formed in the northern hemisphere, such as
the Central Labrador Sea Water (CLSW), are freshening (Durack
and Wijffels, 2010).
Changes in the hydrological cycle are also relevant for paleoclimate studies. In the last years, 18O and D data have gained
increasing importance in paleoclimate studies, in particular for the
Fig. 1. Map of the North Atlantic (A) with surface water currents (Fratantoni, 2001; Peliz et al., 2005) and ow directions of major deeper water masses indicated by arrows
and (B) a close-up of the NE Atlantic with the GA03_e stations marked by stars and station number, the Iberia-Forams stations by black dots, the AMT-18 stations by black
diamonds, and the POS stations by gray triangles. E denotes the ESTOC station north of the Canary Islands.
hydrological cycle, and have been incorporated into global climate

models (LeGrande and Schmidt, 2009; Roche and Caley, 2013;
Schmidt, 1998; Schmidt et al., 2007). Understanding isotopic
changes in precipitation is particularly relevant for ice core and
speleothem studies (e.g., Masson-Delmotte et al., 2005, 2010; Cai
et al., 2010; Cheng et al., 2013). Furthermore, seawater 18O data
are essential for the calibration of the 18O signal of foraminiferal
calcite (e.g., Kohfeld et al., 1996; Mulitza et al., 2003; Ortiz et al.,
1996; Peeters et al., 2002; Wilke et al., 2009) that is used
extensively in paleoceanographic studies. Ecological or climate
models evaluating the relationship between foraminiferal calcite
and water isotopes rely on seawater isotope data as input or for
comparison (Caley and Roche, 2013; Paul et al., 1999; Schmidt,
1999; Schmidt and Mulitza, 2002).
In the Northeast Atlantic most water masses have been altered
by mixing, especially in the depths below the permanent thermocline, and isotopic values likely diverge from the ones found at the
source of a particular water mass. Given the dearth of stable
isotope data for NE Atlantic water masses and the MOW we
analyzed seawater samples collected during several cruises occurring during the years from 2006 to 2012 (Table 1). The data set
presented here includes stable isotope data for 527 levels from 47
stations (Fig. 1, Table 1), of which only 41 data points have been
published previously (Voelker et al., 2009).
2. Sample stations and hydrographic setting

Corresponding 18O and D proles are available for the 18
stations sampled during the GA03_e and the Iberia-Forams (Ib-F)
cruise. The GA03_e transect (US GEOTRACES Meridional and Zonal
transect) was sampled during the KN199-4 cruise on R/V Knorr in
October 2010 in a prole from Lisbon to the Cape Verde Islands
(Fig. 1B). Because the cruise is related to the international
GEOTRACES program (www.geotraces.org) and involved multiparameter analyses (see related publications in this issue) samples
were collected at 24 levels. The Iberia-Forams cruise on R/V Garcia
del Cid took place in September 2012 and collected water samples
at 9 stations along the western and 3 stations along the southern
Iberian margin sampling up to 12 levels at each station (Voelker,
2012). The British Atlantic Meridional Transect (AMT; www.amtuk.org) program conducts an annual cruise from the UK to the
South Atlantic undertaking biological, chemical and physical
oceanographic research. Samples for the seawater stable isotope
study (Fig. 1B, Table 1) were gathered during the AMT-18 cruise on
RRS James Clark Ross during October 2008 in proles covering the
upper 300 m of the water column. Additional water samples were
collected during various cruises on the German R/V Poseidon
(Table 1). Most of these cruises were part of a recurring sampling
program across the Azores Front in meridional transects along the
longitudes of 221W or 201W (Fig. 1). Reoccupation of stations
during different years and seasons allows the comparison of
interannual and seasonal 18O variations.
From a hydrographic point of view the study region belongs to the
transitional waters and subtropical gyre of the NE Atlantic (Fig. 1A).
The dominant surface-water currents are the North Atlantic Current
(NAC) in the north, the Azores Current (AzC), which separates from
the NAC near the Grant Banks and ows towards the east, and the
Portugal (PC) and Canary Currents (CC) as the recirculating eastern
boundary currents. The typically 150 km wide AzC crosses the Atlantic
in large meanders between 31 and 371N and is on its northern
boundary associated with the subtropical front, the Azores Front, that
reaches at least 500 m deep and is often dened by the 15 1C isotherm
(Klein and Siedler, 1989; Pingree, 1997; Pingree et al., 1999; Siedler and
Onken, 1996; Frndt and Waniek, 2012). In the eastern basin the AzC
splits into different branches, most of which recirculate equatorward
and feed the CC (Siedler and Onken, 1996; Fig. 1A). The eastern branch
of the AzC ows, however, into the Gulf of Cadiz (Johnson and Stevens,
2000; Peliz et al., 2005; Vargas et al., 2003) and, especially during the
non-upwelling season (OctoberMarch), waters from this branch ow
also along the western Iberian margin as the Iberian Poleward Current
(Peliz et al., 2005). The subsurface component of the Iberian Poleward
Current conveys eastern North Atlantic Central Water (NACW) of
subtropical origin poleward that is formed by strong evaporation and
winter cooling along the Azores Front (Rios et al., 1992). The PC,
centered west of 101W off Portugal, advects freshly ventilated surface
and subsurface waters southward (Perez et al., 2001; van Aken, 2001)
with the subsurface component being eastern NACW of subpolar
origin (Brambilla et al., 2008; McCartney and Talley, 1982). The CC, at
500 m deep on average, ows along the NW African margin and the
AzC waters are modied by the entrainment of the colder AAIW
upwelled along the African margin all year-round (Knoll
et al., 2002; Wooster et al., 1976).
In the intermediate depth range (5001600 m), i.e., below the
permanent thermocline formed by the NACW (van Aken, 2001), the
most important water masses are the MOW and the AAIW. The
warm, salty MOW is formed in the Gulf of Cadiz by mixing of
Mediterranean Sea with Atlantic central and surface water. As a
result of mixing the MOW splits into two cores centered at about
800 and 1200 m (Ambar and Howe, 1979) that ow as poleward
undercurrents along the western Iberian margin. Facilitated by the
topography (canyons, capes, seamounts) the MOW sheds many
eddies (Richardson et al., 2000; Serra and Ambar, 2002). These socalled meddies greatly contribute to the MOWs admixing into the
wider North Atlantic basin and can be traced throughout the eastern
North Atlantic basin (Richardson et al., 2000). Only north of 40.51N
and at depths around 1600 m can CLSW, the uppermost component
of the NADW, be observed along the Iberian margin (Alvarez et al.,
2004; Fiuza et al., 1998). Along the NW African margin AAIW, a
relatively fresh water mass of Antarctic origin, is generally encountered between 700 and 1000 m and is the water mass upwelled in
the laments formed off Cape Ghir or Cape Blanc (Knoll et al., 2002;
Mittelstaedt, 1989; Tsuchiya, 1989). Knoll et al. (2002) observed that
AAIW inuence is strongest during the autumn. Small amounts of
AAIW have been traced as far north as the southwestern Iberian
margin (Cabeadas et al., 2003; van Aken, 2001).
Deeper in the water column NEADW and Lower Deep Water
(LDW) are encountered. LDW (44000 m) is warmed Antarctic
Bottom Water (AABW) that enters the eastern Atlantic basin through
the Vema fracture zone at 111N and the Iberian and Tagus abyssal
plains partly as an intensied current through the Discovery Gap near
371N (Saunders, 1987). The NEADW is a mixture between IcelandScotland Overow Water (ISOW), CLSW, LDW, and MOW with the
contributions of LDW and MOW increasing to the south (van Aken,
2000).
Jenkins et al. (this volume) performed an Optimum MultiParameter Analysis (OMPA) water mass analysis for the stations along the
GA03 transect. OMPA assesses the relative contributions of endmember water masses that have mixed to form each water sample
collected. This analysis employs a least-square optimization using
input values for the concentrations of a suite of conservative properties measured on the sample and dened for the endmembers
(Tomczak, 1981; Jenkins et al., this volume). The OMPA data revealed
that NACW occupied the depth interval between 50 and 500 m at all
stations (Fig. 2A and B) and as deep as 600 m at Station 5, i.e., within
the Azores Front region. Atlantic Equatorial Water (AEW) had the
strongest signal along the zonal transect through the Cape Blanc
upwelling system (Stations 912; Fig. 1B) and was identied at water
depths from 100 to 600 m (Fig. 3A and B; Jenkins et al., this volume).
Salinity proles indicate MOW was present between 500 and 1600 m
as hardly modied water mass at Station 1 on the Portuguese margin
and slightly diluted at Station 3 (Fig. 2B). At Station 5 MOW
Table 1
Overview of station data and analytical laboratory.
No. of levels
Lab*
18-2810
22-2785
32-5030
33-4586
22-3019
27-3324
32-3337
32-3531
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
1, 2
1
1, 2
1
1
1, 2
1
1
10-1750
10-1650
10-780
10-2300
10-1150
10-560
10-540
10-1900
10-2500
10-1000
12
12
12
12
12
7
12
12
12
12
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
6
6
5
5
4
6
6
6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
40-2000
20-2000
40-2000
50-2000
10-4700
11
10
9
11
16
3
3
3
3
3
12/2008
12/2008
12/2008
12/2008
12/2008
12/2008
5-2000
5-2000
5-2000
5-900
5-900
10900
9
8
10
8
10
8
3
3
3
3
3
3
20.00
20.00
22.00
04/2007
04/2007
04/2007
400-2000
400-2000
600-2000
6
6
3
3
3
3
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
20.00
8.50
03/2006
03/2006
03/2006
03/2006
03/2006
03/2006
10-600
10-600
10-600
10-600
10-600
10-2000
6
7
7
7
7
9
3
3
3
3
3
3
Cruise ID
Station ID
Latitude [1N]
Longitude [1W]
Sample date [month/year]
KNR199-4
KNR199-4
KNR199-4
KNR199-4
KNR199-4
KNR199-4
KNR199-4
KNR199-4
GA03_e-1
GA03_e-3
GA03_e-5
GA03_e-7
GA03_e-9
GA03_e-10
GA03_e-11
GA03_e-12
38.32
35.20
31.00
24.09
17.36
17.35
17.35
17.40
9.66
16.30
22.00
22.00
18.25
20.78
22.74
24.50
10/2010
10/2010
10/2010
10/2010
10/2010
10/2010
10/2010
11/2010
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Iberia-Forams
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
Ib-F
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
42.09
41.20
40.33
40.33
38.76
36.80
36.81
36.04
37.56
36.72
9.6
9.60
9.77
9.88
9.98
8.04
7.71
8.23
10.11
9.37
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
09/2012
AMT
AMT
AMT
AMT
AMT
AMT
AMT
AMT
AMT
JRC218-008
JRC218-010
JRC218-011
JRC218-013
JRC218-015
JRC218-018
JRC218-021
JRC218-024
JRC218-027
46.59
45.66
42.67
38.88
36.01
33.30
30.47
27.63
24.74
18.70
19.59
22.19
25.32
27.74
30.80
33.95
37.03
40.09
10/2008
10/2008
10/2008
10/2008
10/2008
10/2008
10/2008
10/2008
10/2008
POS383
POS383
POS383
POS383
POS383
161
163
165
173
175
36.00
35.00
34.00
32.00
33.00
22.00
22.00
22.00
21.00
22.00
04/2009
04/2009
04/2009
04/2009
04/2009
POS377
POS377
POS377
POS377
POS377
POS377
693 (ESTOC)
694
696
698
700
704
29.00
30.00
31.00
32.00
33.00
35.00
15.00
22.00
22.00
22.00
22.00
22.00
POS349
POS349
POS349
263
267-1
270-1
35.00
32.00
30.00
POS334
POS334
POS334
POS334
POS334
POS334
67
68
69
70
71
72
33.00
35.00
36.33
37.09
38.38
36.00
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
Sample depth range [m]
3.5-300
2.5-300
3.5-300
3.5-300
2.5-300
100-300
0-300
2.5-300
2.5-300
Analytical laboratories are: 1 Godwin/Cambridge; 2 Chicago; 3 Leibniz/Kiel.
contributed more than 50% to the waters around 800 m and a diluted
signal can be traced south to the zonal transect stations (Jenkins et al.,
this volume). AAIW was encountered between 600 and 1000 m, in
particular at Stations 7 to 12 (Figs. 2 and 3). Minor inuence is also
observed between 800 and 1000 m at Station 5. All three major
NADW water masses could be identied in the eastern basin as well
(Jenkins et al., this volume). CLSW contributed 5080% to the waters
in the depth range of 19002500 m. Below 3500 m ISOW dominated
and contributed 60% to the water mass signal and Denmark Strait
Overow Water (DSOW) up to 20% between 3000 and 4000 m, in
particular at Stations 5 and 7 (Fig. 2A and B). AABW contributed 30
40% to the water masses below 4000 m at Stations 5 to 12 but less
than 20% at Stations 3 and 1 (Jenkins et al., this volume).
With the absence of upwelling prior to and during the IberiaForams cruise (Voelker, 2012) subtropical surface and subsurface
(NACW) waters were encountered along the southern and western
Iberian margin down to 250 m (Figs. 4 and 5). Below the subtropical
NACW the lower salinities clearly depict the fresher subpolar NACW
between depths of 250 to 500 m along the southwestern margin,

deepening to 750 m at the northernmost station (Ib-F 2). MOW
occupied the water depths between 500 and 1500 m along the
western margin but reached as deep as 1600 m at Station Ib-F 11
that is located in the vicinity of GA03_e Station 1 (Fig. 1). Along the
southern margin the uppermost MOW core was observed at the two
eastern stations (Ib-F 8 and 9; Fig. 5). The AMT-18 hydrographic
sections place the Azores Front at about 361N based on the 15 1C
thermocline and steep salinity gradient (Fig. 6).
3. Methods
3.1. Sampling
During the KN199-4 cruise, samples were collected from the
Niskin bottles on the ships CTD rosette into 20 ml borosilicate
glass vials with polyethylene-seal, conical-insert screw caps
Fig. 2. Hydrographic conditions ((A) temperature; (B) salinity; Jenkins et al., this volume) and 18O (C) and D (D) data along the NorthSouth section of GA03_e (Stations
1 to 7 and 11; (E). Gray lines in (A) and (B) mark positions and lengths of CTD proles; back dots in (C) and (D) sample depths. Dominant water mass identication mostly
follows Jenkins et al. (this volume) with AEW indicating the Atlantic Equatorial Water, NACW the North Atlantic Central Water, MOW the Mediterranean Outow Water,
AAIW the Antarctic Intermediate Water, UCDW the Upper Circumpolar Deep Water, CLSW the Central Labrador Sea Water, NEADW the Northeast Atlantic Deep Water as mix
of MOW, LSW, ISOW as Iceland Scotland Overow Water, DSOW as Denmark Strait Overow Water, and AABW as Antarctic Bottom Water. In general, most water masses
encountered are a mixture of three or more source water masses.
(Kimble, no. 74516-20). Water was sampled through a short

drawing tube, overowing the vials three times. During capping,
air was avoided in the headspace and a tight seal ensured between
cap liner and glass vial. Vials were stored dark and at room
temperature or 4 1C. Samples from GA03_e Stations 1, 5 and 10,
used for the intercomparison, were split in the laboratory at U.
Chicago into multiple 4 ml borosilicate vials with polyseal caps,
using a pipette and minimizing the time that each sample was
uncapped. The Iberia-Forams samples were lled into 10 cc glass
vials that were closed with a rubber septum and a crimped
aluminum cap. All samples were stored at 4 1C and shipped to
Cambridge within a few months after the cruise. AMT-18 and POS
cruise samples were collected into 100 cc glass asks. The asks
were sealed with ground glass stoppers after applying a thin layer
of silicone grease to enable a tight t. Stoppers were furthermore
xed with tape to avoid loosening during transport. Samples were
stored in aluminum boxes at 4 1C.
3.2. Stable isotope analyses
The samples from the KN199-4 and Iberia-Forams cruises were
analyzed at the Godwin Laboratory for Palaeoclimate Research in the
Fig. 3. Hydrographic conditions ((A) temperature; (B) salinity; Jenkins et al., this volume) and 18O (C) and D (D) data along the EastWest GA03_e section (Stations 9 to 12;
(E)) through the Cape Blanc (Fig. 1B) upwelling system. Gray lines in (A) and (B) mark positions and lengths of CTD proles; back dots in (C) and (D) sample depths. Water
masses as in Fig. 2.
Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Cambridge (UK).

Water oxygen and hydrogen isotopes were measured simultaneously
by cavity ring-down laser spectroscopy (CRDS) using a L1102-i Picarro
water isotope analyzer and A0211 high-precision vaporizer. Each
sample was injected nine times into the vaporizer. Memory effects
from previous samples were avoided by rejecting the rst three
analyses. Values for the nal six injections were averaged with in-run
precision of less than 70.1 for 18O and 71 for D (1-standard
deviation). Calibration of results to VSMOW was achieved by analyzing internal standards before and after each set of 7 or 8 samples. The
instrument was calibrated at the start and during each run using
three working standards from the University of Cambridge (Delta,
Botty, SPIT) with known values calibrated against VSMOW, GISP, and
SLAP. An internal seawater standard (SPIT) was analyzed after every
three samples to correct for instrument drift.
At the Department of the Geophysical Sciences of the University of
Chicago (USA) all seawater samples were processed on a GasBench II
(Thermo, Bremen, Germany) with a GC PAL autosampler (CTC
Analytics, Zwingen, Switzerland) and interfaced to a Delta V Plus

isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Thermo) operating in continuous
ow mode with helium carrier gas. A hydrogen equilibration method
using platinum catalyst was used for D analysis (Nelson, 2000); a
classical CO2H2O equilibration at 26 1C was used for 18O analysis. In
both cases, samples were entrained in a helium carrier gas with gas
sample cleanup and removal of water vapor achieved on the
GasBench II peripheral prior to isotopic analysis in continuous ow
mode on the mass spectrometer. Raw 18O analyses are corrected for
the fractionation factor between water and CO2 as a function of
temperature of equilibration (Friedman and ONeill, 1977), mass
balance between water oxygen and CO2 oxygen present in the tube.
Replicate analyses of the standards VSMOW2, SLAP2, and GISP were
included in every run, and samples were evaluated against these
isotopic reference materials using standard practices. The D analyses
are corrected to the standards (Nelson, 2000), and then a uniform
2.0 salt correction (Martineau et al., 2012) is applied to compensate for isotopic enrichment of the headspace H2 for the seawater
Fig. 4. Hydrographic conditions ((A) temperature; (B) salinity; CTD data) and 18O (C) and D (D) data along the western Iberian margin based on the Iberia-Forams results
(Stations Ib-F 2 to 6 and 10 to 12; (E)). Note that the transect bends towards the SE into the Gulf of Cadiz between the two southernmost stations (Ib-F12 and Ib-F10). Gray
lines in (A) and (B) mark positions and lengths of CTD proles; back dots in (C) and (D) sample depths. Water mass abbreviations same as before with sp indicating the
subpolar and st the subtropical variety of the North Atlantic Central Water (NACW).
samples. With few exceptions, all samples analyzed in Chicago were

analyzed in triplicate. The resultant precision (1 s.d.) for triplicate 18O
analyses run on the same day averaged better than 0.03 and for D
analyses averaged 1.4. Splits from a subset of samples were
preserved in smaller conical insert vials and reanalyzed in triplicate
four months later. The means of the repeat analyses agreed with the
original means within the measured analytical uncertainty as determined from the triplicates run each day.
Oxygen isotope ratios in POS and AMT-18 cruise samples were
measured at the Leibniz Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and
Isotope Research at the University of Kiel (Germany). POS349,

POS377, POS383 and AMT-18 samples were analyzed in continuous ow mode on the DeltaPlusXL mass spectrometer coupled to
a Gasbench II. POS334 samples were analyzed on a Delta E mass
spectrometer coupled to an equilibration bath (Voelker et al.,
2009). During the analyses three to four lab internal standards
were used that are calibrated against VSMOW, GISP and SLAP.
Analyses have a precision better than 7 0.06.
Both oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions are reported in
parts per thousand () on the VSMOW scale. The isotope and Iberia-
Fig. 5. Hydrographic conditions ((A) temperature; (B) salinity; CTD data) and 18O (C) and D (D) data along the nearshore southern Iberian margin transect of the IberiaForams cruise (Stations Ib-F 12 and 7 to 9; (E)). The westernmost station (Ib-F 12) is also part of the western transect shown in Fig. 4. Gray lines in (A) and (B) mark positions
and lengths of CTD proles; back dots in (C) and (D) sample depths.
Forams CTD data is available from the PANGAEA world data center
(http://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.831469). The KN199-4 data
is also archived with the Biological and Chemical Oceanography Data
Management Ofce (www.bco-dmo.org/) and the AMT-18 data with
the British Oceanographic Data Centre (BODC).
Figs. 16 and 8 were constructed using the Ocean Data View
program (Schlitzer, 2013). The transects in Figs. 26 were done
with weighted-average gridding using scale-length values as small
as possible (Figs. 25: x-axis length: 7580 permil; y-axis length:
4060 permil; Fig. 6: x-axis length: 85 permil; y-axis length: 125
permil). Owing to the greater x-axis values some features/isolines
might articially be elongated.
4. Results
4.1. Intercomparison data for GA03_e Stations 1, 5 and 10
Fig. 7 shows the comparison between the 18O and D values
analyzed for the same samples with the Picarro water isotope
analyzer at the Godwin Laboratory and the Thermo Delta V Plus
mass spectrometer in Chicago. For 18O values, especially those from
Station 1 (see also Fig. 9A and B), the agreement is relatively good
and many values fall onto or near a 1:1 line. Within the 1 standard
deviations nearly all values of Station 1 fall onto the 1:1 line. A larger
scatter is observed for samples from Stations 5 and 10 compared to
results from Station 1 (see also Fig. 9), which might be related to the
larger range of salinity values encountered at Stations 5 and 10
(Figs. 2 and 3). At these stations the Picarro results appear to be less
reliable because the isotope values obtained with the Delta V mass
spectrometer t more closely to the GEOSECS Station 115 data (see
Fig. 9D for St. 5) than the Picarro results. However, there is no
systematic offset from the 1:1 line as indicated by the linear
relationship that clearly follows the above-mentioned trends.
Although not measured on the same samples, the 18O proles from
Station Ib-F 10 analyzed on the Picarro and Station POS334-72
measured on a Delta E mass spectrometer are nearly identical
(Fig. 10E) indicating that the Picarro data are not systematically
offset. Nevertheless, the KN199-4 data shows that more intercalibration work should be carried out in the future.
The reproducibility of D among different labs is as good as for
18O with values falling close to the 1:1 line (Fig. 7B). However, error
bars for some of the Picarro measurements are large because duplicate
measurements often gave results that differ by more than the
estimated precision of 1 (especially for Station 5). Similar to the
18O data this relates mostly to the Stations 5 and 10 and especially to
the levels of the intermediate- to deep-water masses that have values
in the lower range. Although perhaps some scatter in the Picarro
Fig. 6. Hydrographic conditions ((A) temperature; (B) salinity; CTD data provided by the British Oceanographic Data Centre) and 18O (C) variations along the AMT-18
transect with black dots marking the sample depths. Note that the 18O scale differs from the previous plots. (D) Map with AMT-18 stations. Abbreviations for the water
masses are the same as before with addition of NATW as North Atlantic Transitional Waters. AzF marks the Azores Front (15 1C isotherm).
measurements could be related to the fact that with VSMOW (0 for

18O and D) being the most enriched standard analyzed the D
regression for the KN199-4 samples (signicantly more enriched than
VSMOW) is extrapolated beyond the range of the standard values, the
lower precision is more likely caused by salt buildup in the vaporizer,
which greatly reduces accuracy (Saad and Trinh, 2013). As for 18O
more intercomparison work is needed as well as potentially repeating
the analysis of some of the GA03_e samples using the new set-up
proposed by Picarro to minimize salt buildup (Saad and Trinh, 2013).
4.2. KN199-4 GEOTRACES transects
Water mass isotopic ranges (only Picarro results) along the GA03_e
transects are grouped according to the OMPA water mass analysis of
Jenkins et al. (this volume) as briey outlined in Section 2. Very few of
the water samples collected along GA03_e represent nearly pure
endmember compositions. Therefore, most of the isotopic compositions we report are the result of mixtures of endmembers. We
highlight the distribution and isotopic inuence of some key endmembers below, using the water mass identications from Jenkins
et al. (this volume).
Surface waters (050 m) along the meridional transect show 18O

values from 0.4 to 1.6 and D values from 4 to 10 (Figs. 28 and
9). Along the EastWest transect off Cape Blanc these values are 0.4 to
1.0 and 4 to 7, respectively (Fig. 3). Based on Stations 17, water
in the 50500 m depth interval has isotopic values ranging from 0.6
to 2.6 for 18O and 3 to 11 for D. The majority of the 18O values
between 0.6 and 0.9 and of the D values between 5 and 7
represent water samples with 480% NACW and small contributions
from Southwest Atlantic Central Water and AEW. In the Cape Blanc
transect (Stations 912) these depths are mostly occupied by the AEW
and NACW (100600 m) with 18O values spanning from 0.1 to
1.2 and D values from 1 to 8 (Fig. 3). MOW was most important
in contributing to mid-depth waters (5001600 m) at Stations 1 and
3 with declining importance at stations further south than Station
3 and below 1000 m; 18O values in this depth interval (5001600 m)
are 0.6 to 0.9 and D values 4 to 7 (Figs. 2 and 8). At the stations
and depths where MOW declines in importance, AAIW, UCDW, and
CLSW are all important contributors with generally small (o20%)
fractions of Irminger Sea Water (ISW). Over the 6001000 m depth
range for these stations, isotopic values range from 0.1 to 0.6 18O
and 0 to 6 D based on Stations 7 to 12 and the 1000 m level of
10
Fig. 7. Crossplots of Picarro and Delta V results for 18O (A) and D (B). For data
points representing averages of duplicate measurements error bars show the 1
standard deviation of the average (mostly Picarro results). Where no standard
deviation was available the analytical error of 0.1 for 18O and 1 for D was
used for the Picarro data. For the Delta V mass spectrometer results error bars
mostly reect the 1 standard deviation of the measurement itself. Black dots mark
Station 1 results, gray triangles Station 5 and gray dots Station 10.
Station 5. In the interval from 1000 to 1900 m (excluding Stations

1 and 3 where MOW is present) 18O values vary between 0.2 and
0.5 in the meridional transect and 0.1 and 0.7 in the zonal Cape
Blanc transect. Respective D values are 1 to 3 and 2 and 6
(Figs. 2, 3 and 8).
Most stations show substantial (4070%) contributions from CLSW
in the 19002500 m interval, and water isotopic compositions are in
the range of 0.1 to 0.8 for 18O and 0 and 4 for D and 0.0 to
0.5 for 18O and 0 to 3 for D between 2500 and 3500 m. In the
less diluted ISOW depth range (35004000 m) 18O values vary from
0.1 to 0.2 and D values from 1 to 2. Jenkins et al. (this
volume) show that waters from 43500 m (Stations 5 and 7) mainly
consist of ISOW and AABW. Measured isotopic compositions on these
waters are 0.0 to 0.7 for 18O and 1 to 3 for D (Figs. 2, 3 and 8).
4.3. Iberia-Forams stations
Along the Iberian margin 18O values in the seasonal thermocline
water (upper 90 m) ranged from 0.6 to 1.3 and D values from 3 to
6 (Figs. 4, 5 and 8). Isotopic values in the depth range from 100 to
280 m, representing mostly the subtropical NACW, are 0.61.1 18O
and 37 D, respectively. The lower 18O values of 0.7 and 0.6
were measured at Station Ib-F 5 at 240 m (also lowest D value) and
Station Ib-F 11 at 250 m, respectively, and might reect remnants of
upwelling events occurring prior to the cruise and consequently

potential admixing of the fresher subpolar NACW. Within the depth
range of the subpolar NACW (300680 m but excluding depths
Z500 m at southern Stations Ib-F 8 and 9) isotopic compositions of
0.4 to 0.9 18O and 2 to 4 D were observed (Fig. 8). On the
Algarve coast at Stations Ib-F 8 and 9 depths Z500 m reveal high
isotopic values (Fig. 5C and D) related to the presence of the
shallowest (third) MOW core that in this region can be observed
between 400 and 600 m (Ambar, 1983). The lowest subpolar NACW
isotope values were recorded at Station Ib-F 6 north of Lisbon
(38.81N; Fig. 4).
In the depth interval from 700 to 1450 m the MOW is clearly
depicted in the hydrographic and isotopic data along the western
Iberian margin (Figs. 4 and 8). Ranges of isotopic values for the
samples most heavily inuenced by MOW are 0.7 to 1.1 for 18O
and 3 to 6 for D, respectively. In the 18O values the upper MOW is
well illustrated all along the western margin (Fig. 4C) whereas the
lower MOW core is best portrayed at Station Ib-F 3 (41.21N). The
differences between the stations and levels are to be expected because
the MOW cores are dynamic ows that shed many eddies (Serra and
Ambar, 2002; Serra et al., 2005, 2002), especially in regions with
topographic features such as the Portimo Canyon (vicinity of Station
Ib-F 10) and the Estremadura promontory on which southern edge
Station Ib-F 6 is located. Actually, at Station Ib-F 10 only a diluted
lower MOW core is observed (Fig. 4). At this station the isotopic value
at 790 and 1000 m is 0.5 for 18O and 3 for D. The 18O value is
similar to those observed in the AAIW levels along the GA03_e
sections (Figs. 2 and 3) and might indicate AAIW advection into the
Gulf of Cadiz as previously observed by Cabeadas et al. (2002, 2003)
and Louarn and Morin (2011). The Ib-F 10 18O prole agrees very well
with the data from station POS334-72, located nearby but sampled in
2006 (Fig. 10E).
Below 1500 m isotopic values range from 0.1 to 0.9 18O and
0 to 5 D (Figs. 4 and 8). The high values of 0.9 and 5 at
1750 m depth at Station Ib-F 2 result probably from admixing of
lower MOW core waters, even though the depth range also ts the
LSW level (Alvarez et al., 2004; Fiuza et al., 1998).
4.4. AMT-18 transect

Oxygen isotope values of the surface to subsurface water masses
sampled along the AMT-18 transect range from 0.8 to 1.5 (Figs. 6C, 8).
As to be expected with increasing evaporation in the subtropical gyre
surface water isotope values rise from the north to the south. North of
the Azores Front the subpolar NACW has 18O values between
0.9 and 1.0 whereas the values increase to 1.11.2 in the
subtropical NACW.
4.5. Azores current and front stations

Figs. 8 and 10 show the 18O data for the stations located in the
Azores Current region and of the ESTOC (European Station for TimeSeries in the Ocean, Canary Islands) station close to the Canary Islands
(Fig. 1). Combining the data from all POS stations surface water 18O
values range from 0.8 to 1.4 and in the 60600 m level from 0.4 to
1.5. In the depth interval from 600 to 1000 m, occupied by MOW
and/or ISW/AAIW in the GA03_e transect, values vary between
0.3 and 0.8 (Fig. 8). Samples from 1500 m have 18O values of
0.2 to 0.6 and from 2000 m (LSW level) of 0.2 to 0.6. Station
POS383-175 is the only one extending to depths below 2000 m and
shows a 18O value of 0.4 at 3000 and 4000 m, respectively
(Fig. 9C). At the deepest point (4700 m), i.e., in the AABW/LDW depth
range, 0.2 are observed.
11
Fig. 8. Isotope values in relation to the temperaturesalinity proles (small black dots). (A) 18O for all KN199-4 stations; (B) D for all KN199-4 stations; (C) 18O for all
Iberia-Forams stations; (D) D for all Iberia-Forams stations; (E) 18O for all stations within the Azores Front region (POS stations; GA03_e-5; CTD data from Frndt et al.,
2013); and (F) 18O for AMT-18 stations. Water mass abbreviations see Fig. 2.
5. Discussion
5.1. Potential outliers
At GA03_e Station 3 unusually low 18O values of 0.6 to
0.4 were measured in the four samples from the upper 100 m
(Figs. 2 and 8). In comparison to all the other surface water values
observed, especially at the open ocean POS and AMT-18 stations
(Figs. 6 and 10), these values are very low. The corresponding D
values are also relatively low at 4 to 5. Because these values were
measured in four adjacent samples they suggest a real signal of a
strong contribution from an isotopically light source (i.e., a freshwater source). A potential freshwater source could be heavy rain
associated with perishing Hurricane Otto that crossed the sampling

region as tropical storm on October 13th to 14th, 2010 (National
Hurricane Center, US National Weather Service; http://www.nhc.
noaa.gov/2010atlan.shtml), i.e., just days prior to the occupation of
Station 3 on October 19th, 2010. Storm related winds could also
explain why a freshwater signal was mixed as deep as 100 m.
However, there is no signicant salinity anomaly observable in
these samples as would be required in order for rainwater to
account for the oxygen isotope compositions. The salinities for
these samples were between 36.25 and 36.65 and generally decline
with depth. These are more saline (about 0.15 higher) than the
surface waters at GA03_e Station 2 to the north and less saline
(about 0.20 lower) than the surface waters at GA03_e Station 4 to
12
Fig. 9. (A) 18O and D proles of GA03_e Station 1 measured in the Picarro (black dots, black line) and Delta V (gray dots, gray line) mass spectrometers in comparison to
nearby station Ib-F 11 (crosses, black line). (B) 18O to salinity relationship of data shown in (A). (C) 18O and D proles of GA03_e Station 5 measured in the Picarro (black
dots, black line) and Delta V (gray dots, gray line) mass spectrometers in comparison to station POS377-696 (triangles, black line; same position as Station 5) and station
POS383-175 (crosses, dark gray line; 331N). (D) 18Osalinity crossplot for GA03_e Station 5 (black dots: Picarro; gray dots: Delta V), Station 7 (black circles) and GEOSECS
Station 115 (black stars). (E) GA03_e Station 5 (crosses) and 7 (gray dots) 18O proles (Picarro) in comparison to GEOSECS Station 115 at 281N 261W (triangles; (stlund et al.,
1987). (F) Comparison between GA03_e Station 9 (crosses) and 10 (gray dots) 18O proles and two of the Pierre et al. (1994) records (181W eutrophic station stars; 211W
mesotrophic station black dots). For Pierre et al. (1994) the 18O data adjusted ( 0.14) by Schmidt et al. (1999) is shown. (G) 18Osalinity relationship plot comparing the
values of GA03_e Stations 9 (crosses), 10 (gray dots) and 12 (triangles) with the complete Pierre et al. (1994) data (plus signs). Note scale changes between panels.
the south. Because the four samples are interpreted as reecting

singular conditions they were excluded from the calculation of the
18Osalinity relationships (Figs. 11A, 12).
The other set of unusual data are the values from the upper
185 m at GA03_e Station 5 (Figs. 2, 8 and 9). Here enriched values
of 1.2 to 2.6 18O and 8 to 11 D were analyzed with the
Picarro and 1.0 to 1.2 18O and 8 to 10 D with the Delta V.

With the exception of the 2.6 measured at 81.5 m the 18O
values t into the range observed for the subtropical gyre at the
other stations (Fig. 8). What makes these samples outstanding are
the high D values that are the greatest found in the whole data
set. However, the high values are measured in duplicates and in
13
Fig. 10. (A) 18O proles of stations POS383-163 (black dots; April 2009), POS377-704 (gray dots; December 2007), POS349-263 (crosses; April 2007), and POS334-68 (stars;
March 2006) at 351N. (B) 18O proles of stations POS383-175 (black dots; April 2009; complete proles shown in Fig. 8C), POS377-700 (gray dots; December 2007) and
POS334-67 (stars; March 2006) at 331N. (C) 18O proles of stations POS383-173 (black dots; April 2009), POS377-698 (gray dots; December 2007) and POS349-267-1
(crosses; April 2007) at 321N. (D) 18O proles of stations POS383-161 at 361N (black dots; April 2009) and POS334-69 at 36.21N (stars; March 2006). (E) Comparison of
neighboring stations POS334-72 (black stars; March 2006) and Ib-F 10 (gray dots; September 2012), also located at 361N but within the Gulf of Cadiz. (F) Seasonal records for
the upper 600 m at the ESTOC station. The black line and dots mark the POS377-693 record in comparison to the Wilke et al. (2009) data for spring 1998 (black circles),
summer 1998 (gray dots), fall 1995 (crosses), and winter 1997 (triangles). (G) 18Osalinity relationship of POS383 data (black dots) in comparison to the data from all the
other R/V Poseidon cruises (gray crosses) and GEOSECS Station 115 (black stars; stlund et al., 1987). Note scale changes in (E) and (F).
both laboratories indicating that they reect a true signal, for

which we do not have an explanation. Corroboration for the
occurrence of such high values comes from the recent study of
Benetti et al. (2014) who measured D values between 7.5 and 9
in the surface waters along a transect extending from the Canary
Islands into the subtropical gyre. Only the sample at 81.5 m, which
was just measured with a D value of 11 by the Picarro, is
agged as outlier because of the extreme 18O value (excluded in
Figs. 2, 8 and 10). It is assumed that the sample ask was not
sealed properly, so that evaporation occurred during shipping and/
or storing.
The 18O values obtained for the POS383 stations are nearly all
enriched by about 0.2 relative to the data from the previous R/V
Poseidon cruises and to GA03_e Station 5 (Figs. 8 and 10). The
POS383 and POS377 samples were analyzed at the same time, so
that an analytical error can be excluded. Although the time series
study of Frndt et al. (2013) revealed that the subtropical gyre is
displaced northward during the recent years, the temperature and
salinity proles of the different cruises show no large changes that
could explain the isotopic offset. We thus assume that the majority
of the POS383 samples are altered by evaporative loss caused by
poorly sealed glass asks. One level that might not be affected by
evaporation might be the deepest sample from the AABW/LDW
level at station POS383-175 because the value matches the GA03_e
and GEOSECS data (Fig. 9D). Nevertheless, all the POS383 data was
excluded from the calculation of the 18Osalinity relationships
(Figs. 11A, 12).
5.2. Water mass characteristics

As expected surface water (upper 100 m) 18O and D values
increase equatorward with increasing evaporation (Figs. 2, 4 and 6).
The stations along the GA03_e Cape Blanc transect are the exceptions
to this rule. These are the southernmost stations in the dataset but
isotope values (Figs. 3 and 8) are much lower than those observed in
the open ocean at 251N (Figs. 2, 6 and 8). The cause of this offset is the
mixing of the surface waters with the fresher and thus isotopically
lighter AAIW, which is upwelled along the NW African margin, as
clearly depicted in the GA03_e Station 9 and 10 values from 50 to
100 m depth (Fig. 12). The Cape Blanc area experiences annual
upwelling and Knoll et al. (2002) observed that the AAIW signal is
especially strong in fall, i.e., the season when the GA03_e was sampled.
The inuence of the AAIW on the surface waters properties is
something that is unique to the isotopic values and not seen in the
OMPA by Jenkins et al. (this volume).
The MOW is marked by high 18O and D values, generally in
the range of 0.51.1 and D 36 (Figs. 8 and 12), respectively.
In the transects along the Iberian margin the isotopic signatures
allow one to clearly distinguish the different cores, even the
shallowest one in the Gulf of Cadiz (Fig. 5), and related dynamics.
In the open Atlantic at the AzC stations 18O values between
0.4 and 0.8 highlight MOW presence (Fig. 8; diluted MOW in
Fig. 12). In the same region the D data of GA03_e Station 3 reveals
that meddies, shed from both the upper and the lower MOW core,
were present and that isotopic signatures from the lower MOW
14
Fig. 11. Relationships between 18O (A) and D (B) and salinity for the complete data set (excluding the POS383 data). Crosses indicate surface and NACW samples (0-600 m)
and circles lled in gray those from 600 to 1750 m with MOW-related samples highlighted as black stars. Deep-water samples ( 41750 m) are marked by triangles. (C) 18O
salinity mixing line for the deep-water samples and comparison to endmember values for the AABW (Weddell Sea: Mackensen, 2001; WOCE A11 transect: Meredith et al.,
1999a) and the NADW (CONVEX cruise: Frew et al., 2000). In addition, the deep-water values from GEOSECS station 115 (stlund et al., 1987) and Pierre et al. (1994) in the
Cape Blanc area are shown. (D) 18OD crossplot for the complete data set of this study. Open circles mark the four lighter values from GA03_e Station 3.
Fig. 12. Mixing line plots for the surface water (050 m and 0100 m), the NACW and the MOW. Dashed balloon and NATW in the surface water 18Osalinity plot indicate
values from the North Atlantic Transitional Waters. st and sp in conjunction with NACW abbreviate subtropical and subpolar, respectively. The diluted MOW samples
group the data from the open ocean stations and from 1450 m at Station Ib-F 3, a depth below the typical lower boundary for the MOW on the Iberian margin.
core were entrained into the CLSW level (Fig. 2), in agreement
with the OMPA data (Jenkins et al., this volume). The contribution
of MOW to the intermediate water depths at GA03_e Stations
5 and 7 is also indicated by the isotopic values (Fig. 2), although for
Station 7 this is not seen in the TS diagram (Fig. 8A and B) and
needs the corroboration of the OMPA (Jenkins et al., this volume).
Low 18O and D values of 0.2 to 0.5 and 0 to 2,
respectively, between 800 and 1500 m at the stations south of
321N indicate the presence of AAIW (Fig. 8), in agreement with the
OMPA data of Jenkins et al. (this volume). The strong overprint of
the MOW 18O signal in this depth range does not allow recognition of AAIW further to the north (GA03_e Stations 5 and 3), where
the OMPA still reveals AAIW contribution to the water mass
mixture (up to 25% at Station 5; Jenkins et al., this volume). Along
the zonal transect off Cape Blanc (Fig. 3) higher variability is
observed in this depth interval, most likely related to the upwelling. At the easternmost Station 9 the AAIW dominated water
(around 900 m) is overlain by a water mass with slightly higher
isotopic values and MOW and AEW inuence. This water mass
probably reects the mixing between subtropical/equatorial surface and central water with the AAIW during the upwelling.
Further offshore there appear two AAIW cores based on the
isotope values. Fig. 9F shows the comparison between the GA03_e
Station 9 and 10 18O proles with two proles measured by
Pierre et al. (1994). The Station 9 values for the AAIW depth range
are slightly more enriched than the Pierre et al. (1994) records
whereas Station 10 records shows much more depleted values
(Fig. 9F and G). Fig. 9G compares the complete data set of Pierre
et al. (1994) to Cape Blanc GA03_e Stations 9, 10 and 12. Both data
sets show a broadly dened mixing line. The higher variability in
the isotopic values from the upper water column can be linked to
interannual variability in the upwelling strength and thus the
admixing of AAIW. Nevertheless, to better evaluate the Cape Blanc
transect values it would be good to obtain isotope data for the
AAIW closer to the source region or at least in the eastern South
Atlantic. The UCDW is difcult to distinguish because the isotopic
range is not much different from the overlying AAIW and underlying CLSW. Only with the background knowledge of the OMPA
can the plume of lower 18O and D data in the Cape Blanc
transect (Fig. 3) be attributed to the UCDW.
The isotopic ranges in the depth interval related to the NEADW,
based on the OMPA data a mixture of up to 5 different water
masses, are 0.10.5 for 18O and 14 for D (Fig. 8). This
is a wide range for a relative narrow salinity range and the
observed scatter is much larger than in the Pierre et al. (1994),
GEOSECS and Frew et al. (2000) data (Fig. 11C). The Pierre et al.
(1994) data, the only one with records for more than one station in
the deeper NE Atlantic, does, however, reveal a higher variability
than the Frew et al. (2000) data from close to the source areas. As
Fig. 9 shows the GA03_e values for the CLSW depth range are
much more depleted than in the Pierre et al. (1994) proles
whereas the values merge for the ISOW. In relation to the GEOSECS
Station 115 data from 281N and 261W (stlund et al., 1987) the
values observed in the ISOW and DSOW depth levels at GA03_e
Stations 5 and 7 are not so different (Fig. 9C and D) and the
contributions of these two water masses to the NEADW are clearly
depicted in the meridional transect (Figs. 2 and 8). From the stable
isotope data alone it is, however, impossible to say which water
masses contributed the most to the NEADW (CLSW, ISOW, AABW
according to Jenkins et al., this volume) as sampled along the
GA03_e transect. Because the presented dataset is so much larger
than any of the previous studies in the mid-latitude North Atlantic
we assume that at least some of the observed scatter is related to
interannual variability within the water masses themselves and
signal modication due to entrainment of adjacent waters such as
MOW and AABW (Fig. 8). Some part of the scatter is probably
15
related to the lower precision of the Picarro analyses, most likely

linked to salt buildup in the vaporizer (Saad and Trinh, 2013).
Within the AABW/LDW depth range the observed 18O values of
0.0 to 0.7 are comparably higher than the 0.3 to 0.1 range
measured at stations within or close to the region of AABW formation
(Mackensen, 2001; Meredith et al., 1999a; Fig. 11C). The more enriched
values in deep NE Atlantic are probably related to the mixing of the
AABW with isotopically heavier water masses on its way northward as
previously observed by Pierre et al. (1994).
5.3. Interannual and seasonal variability
Several locations were occupied more than once during the
various cruises and Figs. 9 and 10 show comparisons between the
respective proles. This data allows looking at interannual and
seasonal variability.
On the Iberian margin there are two areas where proles were
measured for nearby locations. GA03_e Station 1 and Station Ib-F
11 (located slightly to the south and more offshore; Fig. 1) were
sampled two years apart under non-upwelling/fall-type hydrographic conditions. Their 18O proles nearly replicate themselves
whereas the D values show differences beyond the analytical
error range (7 1) in the MOW and NEADW (Fig. 9A). The small
differences reect the slightly higher salinities during October
2010 (GA03_e Stations 1). Given the dynamical hydrography in
this region, which is a major area of meddy generation and meddy
recirculation (due to the Estremadura promontory at 391N; Serra
and Ambar, 2002; Serra et al., 2002), it is actually astonishing that
the records agree so well. The second group is stations Ib-F 10 and
POS344-72 in the central Gulf of Cadiz (Fig. 1B). Although sampled
6 years apart, the 18O proles (Fig. 10E) are nearly identical
indicating the dominant inuence of AzC derived subtropical
subsurface waters at this location (MOW only sampled at Station
Ib-F 11). The persistent AzC inuence on the waters above 600 m
in the Gulf of Cadiz conrms the westward extension of the
northern AzC branch into the Gulf of Cadiz (Fig. 1A; Peliz et al.,
2005, 2009) and thus the causal linkage between the AzC itself
and the MOW formation that is evident in modeling studies (Jia,
2000; zgkmen et al., 2001). In the depth range between 700
and 1000 m relatively low 18O and D values are recorded at
station Ib-F 10 (Figs. 4 and 10), contrary to any of the other stations
along the Iberian margin where this depth range is occupied by
the MOW. Together with the lower temperatures and salinities
these isotopic compositions conrm the presence of modied
AAIW (Louarn and Morin, 2011) at station Ib-F 10.
With the exclusion of the POS383 data the interannual and
seasonal differences observed between the other R/V Poseidon
cruises are relatively small (Fig. 10AD). For the stations at 35 and
321N there are even water depths where no differences are
observed. More variability between the years and seasons are
seen at 331N (Fig. 10B), which is probably related to water mass
dynamics on the southern side of the Azores Front. Exactly at this
station Frndt et al. (2013) observed extensive subsurface warming shifting from a depth of 240 to 500 m due to the northward
expansion of the subtropical gyre. This observation agrees with the
higher 18O values observed at station POS377-700 (sampled in
2008) than at station POS334-67 (sampled in 2006); likewise for
the POS337 and POS334 stations at 351N. Small differences in the
isotopic values in the depth range between 700 and 1200m values
can also be caused by the presence/absence of meddies. At the
ESTOC station (Figs. 1B, 10F) the new POS377-693 data t well
with the data previously obtained by Wilke et al. (2009), even
though more than a decade separates the two time series for late
fall/winter. The Wilke et al. (2009) data highlight, however, an
additional aspect that is the seasonal differences that can be
observed in a region inuenced by upwelling. At this station the
16
summer values are much lighter than during any of the other
seasons indicating the strong modication of the summer values
by the isotopically lighter AAIW upwelled along the NW African
margin (similar to the surface waters in GA03_e Stations 9 and 10).
Because the ESTOC station is located outside of the direct inuence
of the upwelling laments formed off Cape Ghir or Cape Yubi
(Fig. 1B) it is possible that the isotopically lighter surface waters
are advected from the margin to the offshore region. The varying
inuence of the upwelled waters as well as the southward owing
Canary Current (strongest under the trade winds in summer and
fall; Knoll et al., 2002) are the most likely reasons for the small
variations seen in the fall to spring records (Fig. 10F). Nevertheless,
the POS cruise data shows that open ocean isotopic values can vary
and that the higher variability observed along the GA03_e sections
is not necessarily unusual.
The interannual differences observed at our stations can reach
0.1, i.e., a range similar to the 1 analytical error (0.060.1).
Based on this interannual variability and the standard deviations
of our measurements we recommend that users who might want
to compare our seawater data to their climate model results to
apply at minimum a 1 error 0.1 for 18O and 1 for D, better
yet the respective 2 range.
5.4. Isotope ratio to salinity relationships
Based on the complete 18O data set presented we observe a 18O
salinity (S) relationship of 18O 0.51 S 17.53 with a R2 value of
0.75 (Fig. 11A). The observed Dsalinity relationship is
D 3.01 S 103.84 with a R2 value of 0.69 (Fig. 11B). The slope of
0.51 in the 18Osalinity relationship is slightly steeper than the one
given by Pierre et al. (1994) for the subtropical to tropical Atlantic but
lower than the 0.61 and 0.62 slopes found by Craig and Gordon (1965)
and Frew et al. (2000), respectively, for the subpolar gyre. If calculated
just for the water masses below 1750 m, i.e., those waters consisting of
a mixture of CLSW, AABW and ISOW with minor contributions of
MOW and DSOW (Jenkins et al., this volume), the slope becomes 0.55
(Fig. 11C). Some of our data points fall into the cluster of existing North
Atlantic deep-water values (Fig. 11C); the scatter in our data is,
however, much larger leading to a very low R2 value of 0.10. The
larger scatter is related to some of the relatively low values determined with the Picarro. Interestingly, the slope and intercept (0.55;
18.98) we observe for the deeper waters t those estimated by
LeGrande and Schmidt (2006), using the database of Schmidt et al.
(1999), for the whole North Atlantic, whereas their NADW slope and
intercept (0.51; 17.75) matches those we observe for our complete
data set. Nevertheless, the values are close enough to corroborate our
slopes. Because of the strong water mass mixing in the study area
(Jenkins et al., this volume) we did not separate the deeper water
masses further.
Separate 18O and Dsalinity relationships were, however,
calculated for the surface water, the NACW, of which the subtropical
version is formed within our study area, and the MOW (Fig. 12). With
the exception of the 50100 m values observed at GA03_e Stations
9 and 10, which are likely affected by the upwelled, isotopically lighter
AAIW, the 0-50 and 0100 m values are generally comparable (Fig. 12
top panel). This is also reected in the similar slopes estimated for the
050 m (18O/S: 0.32; D/S: 2.63) and 0100 m values (18O/S: 0.36;
D/S: 2.89). Most of our samples are from subtropical waters where
evaporation exceeds precipitation but the slope is nevertheless less
steep than the 0.22 found by Craig and Gordon (1965) for the North
Atlantics subtropical surface waters between 20 and 271N. One reason
for this difference might be that most of our stations are from latitudes
north of 271N and also include stations within the North Atlantics
transitional waters with values falling on the lower end of the
reconstructed mixing line (Fig. 12). Several points, in particular those
with 18O values higher than 1.2, plot above the mixing line hinting
at the existence of another mixing line, which may be the one pointed
out by Craig and Gordon (1965). However, more data from the central
subtropical gyre are needed to conrm if this potential mixing line is
related to the latitudinal band (and thus the evaporation surplus), the
18O or the salinity range because with our current dataset no
subgroup (24271N, 18O 41.2 or S 436.8) provides a clear picture.
For the combined NACW data the 18Osalinity relationship
has a slope of 0.50 with an intercept of 17.35 and a R2 value of
0.59 (Fig. 12 central panel). If just calculated for those points that
can clearly be attributed to the subtropical NACW the slope
decreases to 0.46 and the intercept to 15.82. In the 18O realm
the statistics are too poor (R2 of o 0.09) to calculate a mixing line
for the subpolar NACW. The Dsalinity mixing line for the
subpolar NACW, however, has a much lower slope (1.86) than
the one for the subtropical NACW (3.06) or for the NACW in
general (3.47). The slope of the subtropical NACWs 18Osalinity
mixing line matches the one found by Pierre et al. (1994) for the
surface and central waters in the Cape Blanc upwelling region.
The slope (0.46) and intercept (15.94) calculated for the
extended MOW data set, including the stations along the Iberian
margin and those offshore (diluted MOW) with a clear MOW-related
higher salinity and temperature signal, is nearly identical to the one of
the subtropical NACW (Fig. 12). This is not a big surprise because the
MOW is formed by entrainment of NACW in the Gulf of Cadiz, but
there is also indication of detrainment (upward mixing of the salinity
signal) from the MOW into the NACW (Mauritzen et al., 2001). The
statistics are too poor (R2 of o0.01) to estimate a mixing line for the
MOW just from the stations along the Iberian margin. The slope of the
MOWs mixing line is not too far off from the 0.41 slope LeGrande and
Schmidt (2006) obtained for the deep Mediterranean Sea, i.e., some of
those waters contributing to the outow through the Strait of
Gibraltar, indicating that some of the Mediterranean Sea signal is
likely still preserved in the MOW. The Mediterranean Sea inuence is
probably also behind the slope of the MOWs Dsalinity mixing line
that with a slope of 1.26 is much lower than the subtropical NACWs
slope (3.06; Fig. 12) but lies between the summer (1.64) and winter
(nearly constant D) slopes for the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Gat et
al., 1996) where the Levantine Intermediate Water, a major contributor
to the outow from the Mediterranean Sea, is formed. A mixture of
the Mediterranean Sea and NACW inuence is likely also driving the
slope of the 18OD mixing line that, at 2.3, is much lower than for
the NACW, the surface waters (Fig. 12) or the complete data set
(Fig. 11D).
For the surface waters the estimated 18OD slope is 3.99
2
(R 0.50), whereas it increases to 4.79 (R2 0.46) for the NACW
and 5.60 (R2 0.74) for the complete data set. All of these slopes are
clearly offset from the slope of 8 of the Global Meteoric Water Line
(GMWL; Craig and Gordon, 1965). However, the slope is already close
to 7 in southern France (Genty et al., 2014), i.e., at the northern
boundary of our study area. In our data the lower slopes likely reect
the impact of the higher net evaporation in the subtropics, in
particular in the surface waters. The inuence of the subpolar NACW,
formed in a region where precipitation exceeds evaporation, is seen in
the steeper NACW slope compared to the surface waters. Likewise the
effect of the AAIW, AABW and deeper North Atlantic water masses, all
formed in regions with net precipitation, is visible in the shift of the
slope of the complete data set more towards the GMWL. Nevertheless,
our data clearly conrms the observation of Craig and Gordon (1965)
and later on Gat et al. (1996) that the linear 18OD relationship
breaks down in areas with high net evaporation.
6. Conclusions
The new large dataset presented here greatly improves our
knowledge of oxygen and hydrogen isotope ratios in NE Atlantic
water masses. The MOW has been sampled for the rst time close
to its source region and is clearly distinguishable in isotope
proles from the NE Atlantic. The AAIW can also clearly be
recognized by its isotopic compositions and is modifying surface
to subsurface waters in the Cape Blanc upwelling area. The stable
isotope values for the depth range occupied by the NEADW masses
show a range wider than previously observed. This scatter is
related to interannual variability, which is constrained in this
larger data set, and water mass modication by entrainment.
Additional constraints on deep-water isotope values in the NE
Atlantic will come in the near future from the OVIDE 2010 transect
(Portugal to Reykjanes Ridge), for which analyses are currently
underway, as this data will directly link the data presented to the
area studied by Frew et al. (2000). These new data also provide a
broader empirical basis for models of seawater stable isotope
composition (e.g., Roche and Caley, 2013) or for the hydrological
cycle (e.g., LeGrande and Schmidt, 2009).
Acknowledgments
Funding for KN199-4 ship time, sampling operations, and hydrographic data was provided by the U.S. National Science Foundation
to the US GEOTRACES North Atlantic Transect Management team of
W. Jenkins (OCE-0926423), E. Boyle (OCE-0926204), and G. Cutter
(OCE-0926092). We thank E. Gorman and the complete KN199-4
science party for sample collecting. A.C. acknowledges support
through U.S. National Science Foundation Award no. OCE 0827122.
Funding of the Iberia-Forams cruise was provided by the European
Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant
agreement no. 228344-EUROFLEETS to A.V. J. Waniek received
funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through grants
WA2157/1-1 to WA2157/5-1 for the PO cruises. A.V. thanks Chris
Gallienne and Malcolm Woodward from the Plymouth Marine
Laboratory (UK) for collecting the AMT-18 samples. A. Rebotim, CN
Prabhu and the Iberia-Forams team are acknowledged for sample
collecting during the respective cruises. Stable isotope analyses in
Cambridge were funded by grant PEst-C/MAR/LA0015/2011 (GEOTRACES) and funds provided by the late E. Willweber (IberiaForams). Measurements in Kiel were made possible by the Marine
Geology Department of LNEG through PIDDAC funds. A.S.C. received
funding through U.S. National Science Foundation Award no. OCE
0827122. D.H. acknowledges NERC for technical support of the
Godwin Laboratory. Thanks go to Mike Hall, Ian Mather and James
Rolfe in Cambridge and Nils Andersen and team in Kiel for the stable
isotope measurements.
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Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotope Signatures of Northeast Atlantic Water Masses

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Oxygen and hydrogen isotope signatures of Northeast Atlantic

can be used as a water mass tracer and that the 18Osalinity

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

Global Meteoric Water Line (Craig and Gordon, 1965) as clearly

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

hydrological cycle, and have been incorporated into global climate

2. Sample stations and hydrographic setting

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

Sample date [month/year]

Sample depth range [m]

Analytical laboratories are: 1 Godwin/Cambridge; 2 Chicago; 3 Leibniz/Kiel.

between depths of 250 to 500 m along the southwestern margin,

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

(Kimble, no. 74516-20). Water was sampled through a short

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Cambridge (UK).

Analytics, Zwingen, Switzerland) and interfaced to a Delta V Plus

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

samples. With few exceptions, all samples analyzed in Chicago were

Isotope Research at the University of Kiel (Germany). POS349,

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

measurements could be related to the fact that with VSMOW (0 for

Surface waters (050 m) along the meridional transect show 18O

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

Station 5. In the interval from 1000 to 1900 m (excluding Stations

upwelling events occurring prior to the cruise and consequently

4.4. AMT-18 transect

4.5. Azores current and front stations

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

associated with perishing Hurricane Otto that crossed the sampling

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

the south. Because the four samples are interpreted as reecting

Picarro and 1.0 to 1.2 18O and 8 to 10 D with the Delta V.

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

both laboratories indicating that they reect a true signal, for

5.2. Water mass characteristics

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

related to the lower precision of the Picarro analyses, most likely

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

A.H.L. Voelker et al. / Deep-Sea Research II ()

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