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SQL FIRST() Workaround in SQL Server, MySQL and Oracle ..... 25
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SQL commands
Some of The Most Important SQL Commands :
CustomerID
1
SELECT - extracts data from a database
UPDATE - updates data in a database
DELETE - deletes data from a database
INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
DROP TABLE - deletes a table
CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
DROP INDEX - deletes an index
CustomerName
ContactName
Address
City
PostalCode
Country
Alfreds Futterkiste
Maria Anders
Obere Str. 57
Berlin
12209
Germany
Mxico D.F.
05021
Mexico
Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312
Mxico D.F.
05023
Mexico
Around the Horn
Thomas Hardy
120 Hanover Sq.
London
WA1 1DP
UK
Berglunds
snabbkp
Christina
Berglund
Berguvsvgen 8
Lule
S-958 22
Sweden
Ana
Trujillo
Emparedados
y Ana Trujillo
helados
Antonio
Taquera
Moreno
Avda.
de
Constitucin
2222
la
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
The result is stored in a result table, called the result-set.
Command
Function
SELECT * FROM Customers;
selects all the records (rows) in the
"Customers" table
selects the "CustomerName" and "City"
columns from the "Customers" table
SELECT CustomerName,City FROM
Customers;
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In a table, a column may contain many duplicate values; and sometimes you only want to
list the different (distinct) values.
The DISTINCT keyword can be used to return only distinct (different) values.
Command
Function
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Customers;
selects only the distinct values from the
"City" columns from the "Customers" table
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
SQL WHERE Syntax
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value;
Command
Function
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Mexico';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerID=1;
selects all the customers from the country
"Mexico", in the "Customers" table
selects customer whose ID=1, in the
"Customers" table
PS: Numeric fields should not be quoted like text fields
The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:
Operator
Description
Equal
<>
Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may be written as !=
>
Greater than
<
Less than
>=
Greater than or equal
<=
Less than or equal
BETWEEN
Between an inclusive range
LIKE
Search for a pattern
IN
To specify multiple possible values for a column
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The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition AND the second condition are
true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition OR the second condition is
true.
Command
Function
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
AND City='Berlin';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City='Berlin'
OR City='Mnchen';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
AND (City='Berlin' OR
City='Mnchen');
selects all customers from the country
"Germany" AND the city "Berlin", in the
"Customers" table
selects all customers from the city "Berlin"
OR "Mnchen", in the "Customers" table
selects all customers from the country
"Germany" AND the city must be equal to
"Berlin" OR "Mnchen", in the "Customers"
table
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by one or more columns.
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort the records
in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
SQL ORDER BY Syntax
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name,column_name ASC|DESC;
Command
function
SELECT *
ORDER BY
SELECT *
ORDER BY
selects all customers from the "Customers"
table, sorted by the "Country" column
selects all customers from the "Customers"
table, sorted DESCENDING by the "Country"
column
selects all customers from the "Customers"
table, sorted by the "Country" and the
"CustomerName" column
FROM Customers
Country;
FROM Customers
Country DESC;
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country,CustomerName;
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
SQL INSERT INTO Syntax
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
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The first form does not specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their
values:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2,column3,...)
VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...);
Command
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,
ContactName, Address, City,
PostalCode, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal','Tom B.
Erichsen','Skagen
21','Stavanger','4006','Norway');
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,
City, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger',
'Norway');
function
inserts a new row in the "Customers" table
insert a new row, but only insert data in the
"CustomerName", "City", and "Country"
columns (and the CustomerID field will of
course also be updated automatically)
The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
SQL UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value1,column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value;
Notice
the
WHERE
clause
in
the
SQL
UPDATE
statement!
The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be updated. If you
omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
Command
function
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Alfred Schmidt',
City='Hamburg'
WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds
Futterkiste';
update the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste"
with a new contact person and city
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The DELETE statement is used to delete rows in a table.
SQL DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value;
Notice the WHERE clause in the SQL DELETE statement!
The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be deleted. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records will be deleted!
Command
function
DELETE FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds
Futterkiste' AND ContactName='Maria
Anders';
deletes the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste"
from the "Customers" table
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means that the
table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name;
or
DELETE * FROM table_name;
Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The SELECT TOP clause can be very useful on large tables with thousands of records.
Returning a large number of records can impact on performance.
Note: Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause.
SQL Server / MS Access Syntax
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name;
MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
LIMIT number;
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Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
LIMIT 5;
Oracle Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;
Example
SELECT *
FROM Persons
WHERE ROWNUM <=5;
The LIKE operator is used to search for a specified pattern in a column.
SQL LIKE Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;
Command
function
selects all customers with a City starting
with the letter "s"
selects all customers with a City ending with
the letter "s"
selects all customers with a Country
containing the pattern "land"
selects all customers with a Country NOT
containing the pattern "land"
Tip: The "%" sign is used to define wildcards (missing letters) both before and after the
pattern.
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 's%';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '%s';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country LIKE '%land%';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country NOT LIKE '%land%';
In SQL, wildcard characters are used with the SQL LIKE operator.SQL wildcards are used to
search for data within a table.
With SQL, the wildcards are:
Wildcard
Description
A substitute for zero or more characters
A substitute for a single character
[charlist]
Sets and ranges of characters to match
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[^charlist]
or
[!charlist]
Matches only a character NOT specified within the brackets
Command
Function
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 'ber%';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '%es%';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '_erlin';
selects all customers with a City starting
with "ber"
selects all customers with a City containing
the pattern "es"
selects all customers with a City starting
with any character, followed by "erlin"
selects all customers with a City starting
with "L", followed by any character, followed
by "n", followed by any character, followed
by "on"
selects all customers with a City starting
with "b", "s", or "p"
selects all customers with a City starting
with "a", "b", or "c"
selects all customers with a City NOT
starting with "b", "s", or "p"
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE 'L_n_on';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '[bsp]%';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '[a-c]%';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City LIKE '[!bsp]%';
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
SQL IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...);
Command
Function
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE City IN ('Paris','London');
selects all customers with a City of "Paris" or
"London"
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a range. The values can be numbers, text, or
dates.
SQL BETWEEN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
ProductID ProductName
SupplierID CategoryID Unit
Price
18
Chais
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10 boxes x 20 bags
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Chang
24 - 12 oz bottles
19
Aniseed Syrup
12 - 550 ml bottles
10
Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning
48 - 6 oz jars
22
Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix
36 boxes
21.35
Example 1:
Command
function
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE (Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20)
AND NOT CategoryID IN (1,2,3);
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'C' AND
'M';
SELECT * FROM Products
WHERE ProductName NOT BETWEEN 'C'
AND 'M';
selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10
and 20
display the products outside the range of the
previous example, use NOT BETWEEN
selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10
and 20, but products with a CategoryID of
1,2, or 3 should not be displayed
selects all products with a ProductName
beginning with any of the letter BETWEEN 'C'
and 'M'
selects all products with a ProductName
beginning with any of the letter NOT
BETWEEN 'C' and 'M'
Example 2:
OrderID
CustomerID
EmployeeID
OrderDate
ShipperID
10248
90
7/4/1996
10249
81
7/5/1996
10250
34
7/8/1996
10251
84
7/9/1996
10252
76
7/10/1996
Command
function
SELECT * FROM Orders
WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #07/04/1996#
AND #07/09/1996#;
selects all orders with an OrderDate
BETWEEN '04-July-1996' and '09-July-1996'
SQL aliases are used to give a database table or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Basically aliases are created to make column names more readable.
SQL Alias Syntax for Columns
SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;
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SQL Alias Syntax for Tables
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName
ContactName Address
City
PostalCode Country
Ana
Trujillo Ana Trujillo
Emparedados
y
helados
Avda. de la Mxico
Constitucin
D.F.
2222
05021
Mexico
Antonio
Taquera
Mataderos
2312
05023
Mexico
Around the Horn
WA1 1DP
UK
Moreno Antonio
Moreno
Thomas Hardy 120
Sq.
Mxico
D.F.
Hanover London
And a selection from the "Orders" table:
OrderID
CustomerID
EmployeeID
OrderDate
ShipperID
10354
58
1996-11-14
10355
1996-11-15
10356
86
1996-11-18
Command
function
SELECT CustomerName AS Customer,
ContactName AS [Contact Person]
FROM Customers;
specifies
two
aliases,
one
for
the
CustomerName column and one for the
ContactName column.
Tip: It require double quotation marks
or square brackets if the column name
contains spaces:
SELECT CustomerName, Address+',
'+City+', '+PostalCode+', '+Country
AS Address
FROM Customers;
combine four columns (Address, City,
PostalCode, and Country) and create an alias
named "Address"
SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate,
c.CustomerName
FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o
WHERE c.CustomerName="Around the
Horn" AND c.CustomerID=o.CustomerID;
selects all the orders from the customer with
CustomerID=4 (Around the Horn). We use
the "Customers" and "Orders" tables, and
give them the table aliases of "c" and "o"
respectively (Here we have used aliases to
make the SQL shorter)
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The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match
between the columns in both tables.
SQL INNER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
or:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
PS! INNER JOIN is the same as JOIN.
Command
function
SELECT Customers.CustomerName,
Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
INNER JOIN Orders
ON
Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
The following SQL statement will return all
customers with orders:
Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as there is a match
between the columns. If there are rows in the "Customers" table that do not have matches
in "Orders", these customers will NOT be listed.
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1), with the matching rows
in the right table (table2). The result is NULL in the right side when there is no match.
SQL LEFT JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
or:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
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The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all rows from the right table (table2), with the matching
rows in the left table (table1). The result is NULL in the left side when there is no match.
SQL RIGHT JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
JOIN table2
or:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
PS! In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table1) and from the
right table (table2).
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword combines the result of both LEFT and RIGHT joins.
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.
Notice that each SELECT statement within the UNION must have the same number of
columns. The columns must also have similar data types. Also, the columns in each SELECT
statement must be in the same order.
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SQL UNION Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
Note: The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate values,
use the ALL keyword with UNION.
SQL UNION ALL Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
ALL
PS: The column names in the result-set of a UNION are usually equal to the column names
in the first SELECT statement in the UNION
Command
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION ALL
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany'
UNION ALL
SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany'
ORDER BY City;
function
selects
all
the different cities
(only
distinct values) from the "Customers" and
the "Suppliers" tables
uses UNION ALL to select all (duplicate
values also) cities from the "Customers"
and "Suppliers" tables
uses UNION ALL to select all (duplicate
values also) German cities from the
"Customers" and "Suppliers" tables
The SELECT INTO statement selects data from one table and inserts it into a new table.
SQL SELECT INTO Syntax
We can copy all columns into the new table:
SELECT *
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM table1;
Or we can copy only the columns we want into the new table:
SELECT column_name(s)
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM table1;
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Tip: The new table will be created with the column-names and types as defined
in the SELECT statement. You can apply new names using the AS clause.
Command
SELECT *
INTO CustomersBackup2013
FROM Customers;
SELECT *
INTO CustomersBackup2013 IN
'Backup.mdb'
FROM Customers;
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName
INTO CustomersBackup2013
FROM Customers;
SELECT *
INTO CustomersBackup2013
FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany;
SELECT Customers.CustomerName,
Orders.OrderID
INTO CustomersOrderBackup2013
FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders
ON
Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID;
SELECT *
INTO newtable
FROM table1
WHERE 1=0;
function
Create a backup copy of Customers
Use the IN clause to copy the table into
another database
Copy only a few columns into the new
table
Copy only the German customers into the
new table
Copy data from more than one table into
the new table
The SELECT INTO statement can also be
used to create a new, empty table using
the schema of another. Just add a
WHERE clause that causes the query to
return no data
The INSERT INTO SELECT statement selects data from one table and inserts it into an
existing table. Any existing rows in the target table are unaffected.
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax
We can copy all columns from one table to another, existing table:
INSERT INTO table2
SELECT * FROM table1;
Or we can copy only the columns we want to into another, existing table:
INSERT INTO table2
(column_name(s))
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1;
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Command
function
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,
Country)
SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM
Suppliers;
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,
Country)
SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM
Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany';
Copy
only
a
few
columns
"Suppliers" into "Customers"
from
Copy only the German suppliers into
"Customers"
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a database.
SQL CREATE DATABASE Syntax
CREATE DATABASE dbname;
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
Tables are organized into rows and columns; and each table must have a name.
SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax
CREATE TABLE
(
column_name1
column_name2
column_name3
....
);
table_name
data_type(size),
data_type(size),
data_type(size),
The column_name parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
The data_type parameter specifies what type of data the column can hold (e.g. varchar,
integer, decimal, date, etc.).
The size parameter specifies the maximum length of the column of the table.
Tip: For an overview of the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and SQL
Server, go to our complete Data Types Reference.
Command
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,
Country)
SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM
Suppliers;
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,
Country)
SELECT SupplierName, Country FROM
Suppliers
WHERE Country='Germany';
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function
Copy
only
a
few
columns
"Suppliers" into "Customers"
from
Copy only the German suppliers into
"Customers"
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SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of the
date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as expected.
However, if a time portion is involved, it gets complicated.
Before talking about the complications of querying for dates, we will look at the most
important built-in functions for working with dates.
The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in MySQL:
Function
Description
NOW()
Returns the current date and time
CURDATE()
Returns the current date
CURTIME()
Returns the current time
DATE()
Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression
EXTRACT()
Returns a single part of a date/time
DATE_ADD()
Adds a specified time interval to a date
DATE_SUB()
Subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF()
Returns the number of days between two dates
DATE_FORMAT()
Displays date/time data in different formats
The following table lists the most important built-in date functions in SQL Server:
Function
Description
GETDATE()
Returns the current date and time
DATEPART()
Returns a single part of a date/time
DATEADD()
Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date
DATEDIFF()
Returns the time between two dates
CONVERT()
Displays date/time data in different formats
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MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in the
database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
YEAR - format YYYY or YY
SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time value in
the database:
DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD
DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number
Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in your
database!
Data type
Description
Storage
Text
Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters
maximum
Memo
Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536
characters. Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they
are searchable
Byte
Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255
1 byte
Integer
Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767
2 bytes
Long
Allows
whole
2,147,483,647
Single
Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals
4 bytes
Double
Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals
8 bytes
Currency
Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 8 bytes
decimal places. Tip:You can choose which country's currency to
use
AutoNumber
AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own 4 bytes
number, usually starting at 1
Date/Time
Use for dates and times
numbers
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between
-2,147,483,648
and 4 bytes
8 bytes
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Yes/No
A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or On/Off. 1 bit
In code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to -1 and
0). Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields
Ole Object
Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large up to 1GB
OBjects)
Hyperlink
Contain links to other files, including web pages
Lookup Wizard
Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a 4 bytes
drop-down list
In MySQL there are three main types : text, number, and Date/Time types.
Text types:
Data type
Description
CHAR(size)
Holds a fixed length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The fixed size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters
VARCHAR(size)
Holds a variable length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The maximum size is specified in parenthesis. Can store up to 255
characters. Note: If you put a greater value than 255 it will be converted to a
TEXT type
TINYTEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
TEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 characters
BLOB
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data
MEDIUMTEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
MEDIUMBLOB
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
LONGTEXT
Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters
LONGBLOB
For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data
ENUM(x,y,z,etc.)
Let you enter a list of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an
ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be
inserted.
Note: The values are sorted in the order you enter them.
You enter the possible values in this format: ENUM('X','Y','Z')
SET
Similar to ENUM except that SET may contain up to 64 list items and can store
more than one choice
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Number types:
Data type
Description
TINYINT(size)
-128 to 127 normal. 0 to 255 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may
be specified in parenthesis
SMALLINT(size)
-32768 to 32767 normal. 0 to 65535 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of
digits may be specified in parenthesis
MEDIUMINT(size) -8388608 to 8388607 normal. 0 to 16777215 UNSIGNED*. The maximum
number of digits may be specified in parenthesis
INT(size)
-2147483648 to 2147483647 normal. 0 to 4294967295 UNSIGNED*. The
maximum number of digits may be specified in parenthesis
BIGINT(size)
-9223372036854775808
to
9223372036854775807
normal.
0
to
18446744073709551615 UNSIGNED*. The maximum number of digits may be
specified in parenthesis
FLOAT(size,d)
A small number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits
may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the
right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
DOUBLE(size,d)
A large number with a floating decimal point. The maximum number of digits
may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number of digits to the
right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
DECIMAL(size,d)
A DOUBLE stored as a string , allowing for a fixed decimal point. The maximum
number of digits may be specified in the size parameter. The maximum number
of digits to the right of the decimal point is specified in the d parameter
*The integer types have an extra option called UNSIGNED. Normally, the integer goes from
an negative to positive value. Adding the UNSIGNED attribute will move that range up so it
starts at zero instead of a negative number.
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Date types:
Data type
Description
DATE()
A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD
Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31'
DATETIME()
*A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS
Note: The supported range is from '1000-01-01 00:00:00' to '9999-12-31
23:59:59'
TIMESTAMP()
*A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the number of seconds since
the Unix epoch ('1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD
HH:MM:SS
Note: The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01' UTC to '2038-0109 03:14:07' UTC
TIME()
A time. Format: HH:MM:SS
Note: The supported range is from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
YEAR()
A year in two-digit or four-digit format.
Note: Values allowed in four-digit format: 1901 to 2155. Values allowed in
two-digit format: 70 to 69, representing years from 1970 to 2069
*Even if DATETIME and TIMESTAMP return the same format, they work very differently. In
an INSERT or UPDATE query, the TIMESTAMP automatically set itself to the current date
and time. TIMESTAMP also accepts various formats, like YYYYMMDDHHMMSS,
YYMMDDHHMMSS, YYYYMMDD, or YYMMDD.
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String types:
Data type
Description
Storage
char(n)
Fixed width
characters
varchar(n)
Variable width
characters
varchar(max)
Variable
width
character
1,073,741,824 characters
Text
Variable width character string. Maximum 2GB of text 4 bytes + number of
data
chars
Nchar
Fixed width
characters
Nvarchar
Variable width
characters
nvarchar(max)
Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 536,870,912
characters
Ntext
Variable width Unicode string. Maximum 2GB of text
data
Bit
Allows 0, 1, or NULL
binary(n)
Fixed width binary string. Maximum 8,000 bytes
Varbinary
Variable width binary string. Maximum 8,000 bytes
varbinary(max)
Variable width binary string. Maximum 2GB
Image
Variable width binary string. Maximum 2GB
character
character
Unicode
Unicode
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string.
string.
string.
string.
Maximum
8,000 Defined width
Maximum
8,000 2 bytes + number of
chars
string.
Maximum 2 bytes + number of
chars
Maximum
4,000 Defined width x 2
Maximum
4,000
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Number types:
Data type
Description
Storage
Tinyint
Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255
1 byte
Smallint
Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767
2 bytes
Int
Allows
whole
2,147,483,647
Bigint
Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 8 bytes
and 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
decimal(p,s)
Fixed precision and scale numbers.
numbers
between
-2,147,483,648
and 4 bytes
5-17 bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits
that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the
decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits
stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from
0 to p. Default value is 0
numeric(p,s)
Fixed precision and scale numbers.
5-17 bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits
that can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the
decimal point). p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits
stored to the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from
0 to p. Default value is 0
smallmoney
Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647
Money
Monetary
data
from
922,337,203,685,477.5807
float(n)
Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 4 or 8 bytes
308.
-922,337,203,685,477.5808
4 bytes
to 8 bytes
The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8
bytes. float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8byte field. Default value of n is 53.
Real
Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38 4 bytes
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Date types:
Data type
Description
Storage
Datetime
From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy 8 bytes
of 3.33 milliseconds
datetime2
From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy 6-8 bytes
of 100 nanoseconds
smalldatetime
From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 4 bytes
minute
Date
Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999
3 bytes
Time
Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds
3-5 bytes
datetimeoffset
The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset
8-10 bytes
Timestamp
Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row
gets created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an
internal clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table
may have only one timestamp variable
Other data types:
Data type
Description
sql_variant
Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types, except text, ntext,
and timestamp
uniqueidentifier
Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
Xml
Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB
Cursor
Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations
Table
Stores a result-set for later processing
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
AVG() - Returns the average value
COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
FIRST() - Returns the first value
LAST() - Returns the last value
MAX() - Returns the largest value
MIN() - Returns the smallest value
SUM() - Returns the sum
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SQL scalar functions return a single value, based on the input value.
Useful scalar functions:
UCASE() - Converts a field to upper case
LCASE() - Converts a field to lower case
MID() - Extract characters from a text field
LEN() - Returns the length of a text field
ROUND() - Rounds a numeric field to the number of decimals specified
NOW() - Returns the current system date and time
FORMAT() - Formats how a field is to be displayed
Tip: The aggregate functions and the scalar functions will be explained in details in the next
chapters.
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
SQL AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name
Command
function
SELECT AVG(Price) AS PriceAverage FROM
Products;
SELECT ProductName, Price FROM Products
WHERE Price>(SELECT AVG(Price) FROM
Products);
gets the average value of the "Price"
column from the "Products" table
selects the "ProductName" and "Price"
records that have an above average price
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be
counted) of the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;
SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the
specified column:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name;
Note: COUNT(DISTINCT) works with ORACLE and Microsoft SQL Server, but not
with Microsoft Access.
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The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column.
SQL FIRST() Syntax
SELECT FIRST(column_name) FROM table_name;
Note: The FIRST() function is only supported in MS Access.
SQL FIRST() Workaround in SQL Server, MySQL and
Oracle
SQL Server Syntax
SELECT TOP 1 column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name ASC;
Example
SELECT TOP 1 CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID ASC;
MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name ASC
LIMIT 1;
Example
SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID ASC
LIMIT 1;
Oracle Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name ASC
WHERE ROWNUM <=1;
Example
SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID ASC
WHERE ROWNUM <=1;
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The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column.
SQL LAST() Syntax
SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name;
Note: The LAST() function is only supported in MS Access.
SQL LAST() Workaround in SQL Server, MySQL and
Oracle
SQL Server Syntax
SELECT TOP 1 column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name DESC;
Example
SELECT TOP 1 CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID DESC;
MySQL Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name DESC
LIMIT 1;
Example
SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID DESC
LIMIT 1;
Oracle Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name DESC
WHERE ROWNUM <=1;
Example
SELECT CustomerName FROM Customers
ORDER BY CustomerID DESC
WHERE ROWNUM <=1;
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
SQL MAX() Syntax
SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;
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The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SQL MIN() Syntax
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SQL SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name;
The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with
aggregate functions.
SQL HAVING Syntax
SELECT column_name, aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;
Command
SELECT Employees.LastName,
COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees
ON
Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID)
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 10;
SELECT Employees.LastName,
COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Employees
ON
Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID
WHERE LastName='Davolio' OR
LastName='Fuller'
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 25;
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function
finds if any of the employees
registered more than 10 orders
has
find the if the employees "Davolio" or
"Fuller" have more than 25 orders
We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the
SQL statement
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The UCASE() function converts the value of a field to uppercase.
SQL UCASE() Syntax
SELECT UCASE(column_name) FROM table_name;
Syntax for SQL Server
SELECT UPPER(column_name) FROM table_name;
The LCASE() function converts the value of a field to lowercase.
SQL LCASE() Syntax
SELECT LCASE(column_name) FROM table_name;
Syntax for SQL Server
SELECT LOWER(column_name) FROM table_name;
The MID() function is used to extract characters from a text field.
SQL MID() Syntax
SELECT MID(column_name,start[,length]) AS some_name FROM table_name;
The equivalent function for SQL Server is SUBSTRING():
SELECT SUBSTRING(column_name,start,length) AS some_name FROM table_name;
The following SQL statement selects the first four characters from the "City" column from
the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT MID(City,1,4) AS ShortCity
FROM Customers;
The LEN() function returns the length of the value in a text field.
SQL LEN() Syntax
SELECT LEN(column_name) FROM table_name;
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The ROUND() function is used to round a numeric field to the number of decimals specified.
SQL ROUND() Syntax
SELECT ROUND(column_name,decimals) FROM table_name;
The NOW() function returns the current system date and time.
SQL NOW() Syntax
SELECT NOW() FROM table_name;
The FORMAT() function is used to format how a field is to be displayed.
SQL FORMAT() Syntax
SELECT FORMAT(column_name,format) FROM table_name;
Source : http://www.w3schools.com/sql/
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