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Essay: Essay (Disambiguation) Essai (Disambiguation)

Essays are generally scholarly pieces of writing that present an author's argument. Essays can include literary criticism, observations, and reflections. While essays are typically brief, some works like essays by John Locke and Thomas Malthus are more extensive. In some countries, essays are used as a teaching tool to improve students' writing skills and are part of school and university assessments.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
87 views16 pages

Essay: Essay (Disambiguation) Essai (Disambiguation)

Essays are generally scholarly pieces of writing that present an author's argument. Essays can include literary criticism, observations, and reflections. While essays are typically brief, some works like essays by John Locke and Thomas Malthus are more extensive. In some countries, essays are used as a teaching tool to improve students' writing skills and are part of school and university assessments.

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© © All Rights Reserved
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Essay

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Essay (disambiguation).


"Essai" redirects here. For other uses, see Essai (disambiguation).

Essays of Michel de Montaigne

Essays are generally scholarly pieces of writing giving the author's own argument, but the definition
is vague, overlapping with those of an article, a pamphlet and a short story.
Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: literary criticism, political manifestos,
learned arguments, observations of daily life, recollections, and reflections of the author. Almost all
modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been dubbed essays (e.g. Alexander
Pope's An Essay on Criticism and An Essay on Man). While brevity usually defines an essay,
voluminous works like John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Thomas
Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. In some countries (e.g., the
United States and Canada), essays have become a major part of formal education. Secondary
students are taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and admission
essays are often used byuniversities in selecting applicants and, in the humanities and social
sciences, as a way of assessing the performance of students during final exams.
The concept of an "essay" has been extended to other mediums beyond writing. A film essay is a
movie that often incorporates documentary film making styles and which focuses more on the
evolution of a theme or an idea. A photographic essay is an attempt to cover a topic with a linked
series of photographs; it may or may not have an accompanying text or captions.
Contents
[hide]

1 Definitions

2 History
o

2.1 Europe

2.2 Japan

3 As an educational tool

4 Forms and styles


o

4.1 Cause and effect

4.2 Classification and division

4.3 Compare and contrast

4.4 Descriptive

4.5 Dialectic

4.6 Exemplification

4.7 Familiar

4.8 History (thesis)

4.9 Narrative

4.10 Critical

4.11 Economics

4.12 Other logical structures

5 Magazine or newspaper

6 Employment

7 Non-literary types
o

7.1 Visual Arts

7.2 Music

7.3 Film

7.4 Photography

8 See also

9 References

10 Further reading

11 External links

Definitions[edit]

John Locke's 1690 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

An essay has been defined in a variety of ways. One definition is a "prose composition with a
focused subject of discussion" or a "long, systematic discourse".[1] It is difficult to define the genre
into which essays fall. Aldous Huxley, a leading essayist, gives guidance on the subject.[2] He notes
that "the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything", and adds
that "by tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece". Furthermore, Huxley argues that
"essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within
a three-poled frame of reference". These three poles (or worlds in which the essay may exist) are:

The personal and the autobiographical: The essayists that feel most
comfortable in this pole "write fragments of reflective autobiography
and look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and
description".

The objective, the factual, and the concrete-particular: The


essayists that write from this pole "do not speak directly of
themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or
scientific or political theme. Their art consists on setting forth,
passing judgement upon, and drawing general conclusions from the
relevant data".

The abstract-universal: In this pole "we find those essayists who do


their work in the world of high abstractions", who are never personal
and who seldom mention the particular facts of experience.

Huxley adds that "the most richly satisfying essays are those which make the best not of one, not of
two, but of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist".
The word essay derives from the French infinitive essayer, "to try" or "to attempt". In
English essay first meant "a trial" or "an attempt", and this is still an alternative meaning. The
Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (15331592) was the first author to describe his work as essays;
he used the term to characterize these as "attempts" to put his thoughts into writing, and his essays
grew out of hiscommonplacing.[3] Inspired in particular by the works of Plutarch, a translation of
whose Oeuvres Morales (Moral works) into French had just been published by Jacques Amyot,
Montaigne began to compose his essays in 1572; the first edition, entitled Essais, was published in
two volumes in 1580. For the rest of his life he continued revising previously published essays and
composing new ones. Francis Bacon's essays, published in book form in 1597, 1612, and 1625,
were the first works in English that described themselves as essays. Ben Jonson first used the
word essayist in English in 1609, according to the Oxford English Dictionary.

History[edit]
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the
subject. Please improve this articleand discuss the issue on the talk page. (January 2011)

Europe[edit]
English essayists included Robert Burton (15771641) and Sir Thomas Browne (16051682). In
France, Michel de Montaigne's three volume Essais in the mid 1500s contain over 100 examples
widely regarded as the predecessor of the modern essay. In Italy, Baldassare Castiglione wrote
about courtly manners in his essay Il libro del cortegiano. In the 17th century, the Jesuit Baltasar
Gracin wrote about the theme of wisdom.[4] During the Age of Enlightenment, essays were a
favored tool of polemicists who aimed at convincing readers of their position; they also featured
heavily in the rise of periodical literature, as seen in the works of Joseph Addison, Richard
Steele and Samuel Johnson. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Edmund Burke and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge wrote essays for the general public. The early 19th century in particular saw a proliferation
of great essayists in English William Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt and Thomas de Quincey all
penned numerous essays on diverse subjects. In the 20th century, a number of essayists tried to
explain the new movements in art and culture by using essays (e.g., T.S. Eliot). Whereas some
essayists used essays for strident political themes, Robert Louis Stevenson and Willa Cather wrote
lighter essays. Virginia Woolf, Edmund Wilson, and Charles du Bos wrote literary criticism essays.[4]

Japan[edit]
Main article: Zuihitsu
As with the novel, essays existed in Japan several centuries before they developed in Europe with a
genre of essays known as zuihitsu loosely connected essays and fragmented ideas. Zuihitsu
have existed since almost the beginnings of Japanese literature. Many of the most noted early works
of Japanese literature are in this genre. Notable examples include The Pillow Book (c. 1000), by
court lady Sei Shnagon, and Tsurezuregusa (1330), by particularly renowned Japanese Buddhist
monk Yoshida Kenk. Kenk described his short writings similarly to Montaigne, referring to them as
"nonsensical thoughts" written in "idle hours". Another noteworthy difference from Europe is that
women have traditionally written in Japan, though the more formal, Chinese-influenced writings of
male writers were more prized at the time.

As an educational tool[edit]

University students, like these students doing research at a university library, are often assigned essays as a
way to get them to analyse what they have read.

Main article: Free response


In countries like the United States and the United Kingdom, essays have become a major part of a
formal education in the form of free response questions. Secondary students in these countries are
taught structured essay formats to improve their writing skills, and essays are often used by
universities in these countries in selecting applicants (see admissions essay). In both secondary and
tertiary education, essays are used to judge the mastery and comprehension of material. Students
are asked to explain, comment on, or assess a topic of study in the form of an essay. During some
courses, university students will often be required to complete one or more essays that are prepared
over several weeks or months. In addition, in fields such as the humanities and social sciences, [citation
needed]
mid-term and end of term examinations often require students to write a short essay in two or
three hours.
In these countries, so-called academic essays, which may also be called "papers", are usually more
formal than literary ones.[citation needed]They may still allow the presentation of the writer's own views, but
this is done in a logical and factual manner, with the use of the first person often discouraged.
Longer academic essays (often with a word limit of between 2,000 and 5,000 words) [citation needed] are
often more discursive. They sometimes begin with a short summary analysis of what has previously
been written on a topic, which is often called a literature review.[citation needed]
Longer essays may also contain an introductory page in which words and phrases from the title are
tightly defined. Most academic institutions[citation needed] will require that all substantial facts, quotations,
and other porting material used in an essay be referenced in abibliography or works cited page at
the end of the text. This scholarly convention allows others (whether teachers or fellow scholars) to
understand the basis of the facts and quotations used to support the essay's argument, and thereby
help to evaluate to what extent the argument is supported by evidence, and to evaluate the quality of
that evidence. The academic essay tests the student's ability to present their thoughts in an
organized way and is designed to test their intellectual capabilities.
One essay guide of a US university makes the distinction between research papers and discussion
papers. The guide states that a "research paper is intended to uncover a wide variety of sources on

a given topic". As such, research papers "tend to be longer and more inclusive in their scope and
with the amount of information they deal with." While discussion papers "also include research,
...they tend to be shorter and more selective in their approach...and more analytical and critical".
Whereas a research paper would typically quote "a wide variety of sources", a discussion paper
aims to integrate the material in a broader fashion. [5]
One of the challenges facing US universities is that in some cases, students may submit essays
which have been purchased from an essay mill (or "paper mill") as their own work. An "essay mill" is
a ghostwriting service that sells pre-written essays to university and college students.
Since plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty or academic fraud, universities and colleges may
investigate papers suspected to be from an essay mill by using Internet plagiarism
detection software, which compares essays against a database of known mill essays and by orally
testing students on the contents of their papers.[citation needed]

Forms and styles[edit]


This section describes the different forms and styles of essay writing. These forms and styles are
used by an array of authors, including university students and professional essayists.

Cause and effect[edit]


The defining features of a "cause and effect" essay are causal chains that connect from a cause to
an effect, careful language, and chronological or emphatic order. A writer using this rhetorical
method must consider the subject, determine the purpose, consider the audience, think critically
about different causes or consequences, consider a thesis statement, arrange the parts, consider
the language, and decide on a conclusion.[6]

Classification and division[edit]


Classification is the categorization of objects into a larger whole while division is the breaking of a
larger whole into smaller parts.[7]

Compare and contrast[edit]


Compare and contrast essays are characterized by a basis for comparison, points of comparison,
and analogies. It is grouped by object (chunking) or by point (sequential). Comparison highlights the
similarities between two or more similar objects while contrasting highlights the differences between
two or more objects. When writing a compare/contrast essay, writers need to determine their
purpose, consider their audience, consider the basis and points of comparison, consider their thesis
statement, arrange and develop the comparison, and reach a conclusion. Compare and contrast is
arranged emphatically.[8]

Descriptive[edit]
Descriptive writing is characterized by sensory details, which appeal to the physical senses, and
details that appeal to a reader's emotional, physical, or intellectual sensibilities. Determining the
purpose, considering the audience, creating a dominant impression, using descriptive language, and
organizing the description are the rhetorical choices to be considered when using a description. A
description is usually arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic. The focus of a
description is the scene. Description uses tools such
as denotative language, connotative language, figurative language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at
a dominant impression.[9] One university essay guide states that "descriptive writing says what
happened or what another author has discussed; it provides an account of the topic". [10] Lyric
essays are an important form of descriptive essays.

Dialectic[edit]

In the dialectic form of essay, which is commonly used in Philosophy, the writer makes a thesis and
argument, then objects to their own argument (with a counterargument), but then counters the
counterargument with a final and novel argument. This form benefits from presenting a broader
perspective while countering a possible flaw that some may present.

Exemplification[edit]
An exemplification essay is characterized by a generalization and relevant, representative, and
believable examples including anecdotes. Writers need to consider their subject, determine their
purpose, consider their audience, decide on specific examples, and arrange all the parts together
when writing an exemplification essay.[11]

Malthus' Essay on the Principle of Population

Familiar[edit]
A familiar essay is one in which the essayist speaks as if to a single reader. He speaks about both
himself and a particular subject. Anne Fadiman notes that "the genre's heyday was the early
nineteenth century," and that its greatest exponent was Charles Lamb.[12] She also suggests that
while critical essays have more brain than heart, and personal essays have more heart than brain,
familiar essays have equal measures of both.[13]

History (thesis)[edit]
A history essay, sometimes referred to as a thesis essay, will describe an argument or claim about
one or more historical events and will support that claim with evidence, arguments and references.
The text makes it clear to the reader why the argument or claim is as such. [14]

Narrative[edit]

A narrative uses tools such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, and transitions that often build to a climax.
The focus of a narrative is the plot. When creating a narrative, authors must determine their purpose,
consider their audience, establish their point of view, use dialogue, and organize the narrative. A
narrative is usually arranged chronologically.[15]

Critical[edit]
A critical essay is an argumentative piece of writing, aimed at presenting objective analysis of the
subject matter, narrowed down to a single topic. The main idea of all the criticism is to provide an
opinion either of positive or negative implication. As such, a critical essay requires research and
analysis, strong internal logic and sharp structure. Each argument should be supported with
sufficient evidence, relevant to the point.

Economics[edit]
An economic essay can start with a thesis, or it can start with a theme. It can take a narrative course
and a descriptive course. It can even become an argumentative essay if the author feels the need.
After the introduction the author has to do his/her best to expose the economic matter at hand, to
analyse it, evaluate it, and draw a conclusion. If the essay takes more of a narrative form then the
author has to expose each aspect of the economic puzzle in a way that makes it clear and
understandable for the reader

Other logical structures[edit]


The logical progression and organizational structure of an essay can take many forms.
Understanding how the movement of thought is managed through an essay has a profound impact
on its overall cogency and ability to impress. A number of alternative logical structures for essays
have been visualized as diagrams, making them easy to implement or adapt in the construction of
an argument.[16]

Magazine or newspaper[edit]
Essays often appear in magazines, especially magazines with an intellectual bent, such as The
Atlantic and Harpers. Magazine and newspaper essays use many of the essay types described in
the section on forms and styles (e.g., descriptive essays, narrative essays, etc.). Some newspapers
also print essays in the op-ed section.

An 1895 cover of Harpers, a US magazine that prints a number of essays per issue.

Employment[edit]
Employment essays detailing experience in a certain occupational field are required when applying
for some jobs, especially government jobs in the United States. Essays known as Knowledge Skills
and Executive Core Qualifications are required when applying to certain US federal government
positions.
A KSA, or "Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities," is a series of narrative statements that are required
when applying to Federal government job openings in the United States. KSAs are used along with
resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify for a job. The
knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for the successful performance of a position are contained
on each job vacancy announcement. KSAs are brief and focused essays about one's career and
educational background that presumably qualify one to perform the duties of the position being
applied for.
An Executive Core Qualification, or ECQ, is a narrative statement that is required when applying to
Senior Executive Service positions within the US Federal government. Like the KSAs, ECQs are
used along with resumes to determine who the best applicants are when several candidates qualify
for a job. The Office of Personnel Management has established five executive core qualifications that
all applicants seeking to enter the Senior Executive Service must demonstrate.

Non-literary types[edit]
Visual Arts[edit]
In the visual arts, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch upon which a final painting or sculpture
is based, made as a test of the work's composition (this meaning of the term, like several of those
following, comes from the word essay's meaning of "attempt" or "trial").

Music[edit]
In the realm of music, composer Samuel Barber wrote a set of "Essays for Orchestra," relying on the
form and content of the music to guide the listener's ear, rather than anyextra-musical plot or story.

Film[edit]
A film essay (or "cinematic essay") consists of the evolution of a theme or an idea rather than a plot
per se; or the film literally being a cinematic accompaniment to a narrator reading an essay. From
another perspective, an essay film could be defined as a documentary film visual basis combined
with a form of commentary that contains elements of self-portrait (rather than autobiography), where
the signature (rather than the life story) of the filmmaker is apparent. The cinematic essay often
blends documentary, fiction, and experimental film making using a tones and editing styles. [17]
The genre is not well-defined but might include propaganda works of early Soviet parliamentarians
like Dziga Vertov, present-day filmmakers including Chris Marker,[18] Michael Moore (Roger &
Me (1989), Bowling for Columbine (2002) and Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004)), Errol Morris (The Thin Blue
Line (1988)), Morgan Spurlock (Supersize Me: A Film of Epic Proportions) and Agns Varda. JeanLuc Godard describes his recent work as "film-essays".[19] Two filmmakers whose work was the
antecedent to the cinematic essay include Georges Mlis and Bertolt Brecht. Mlis made a short
film (The Coronation of Edward VII (1902)) about the 1902 coronation of King Edward VII, which
mixes actual footage with shots of a recreation of the event. Brecht was a playwright who
experimented with film and incorporated film projections into some of his plays. [17] Orson Wellesmade
an essay film in his own pioneering style which was released in 1974 called F for Fake, which dealt

specifically with art forger Elmyr de Hory and with the themes of deception, "fakery," and authenticity
in general.
David Winks Gray's article "The essay film in action" states that the "essay film became an
identifiable form of film making in the 1950s and '60s". He states that since that time, essay films
have tended to be "on the margins" of the film making world. Essay films have a "peculiar searching,
questioning tone" which is "between documentary and fiction" but without "fitting comfortably" into
either genre. Gray notes that just like written essays, essay films "tend to marry the personal voice of
a guiding narrator (often the director) with a wide swath of other voices". [20] The University of
Wisconsin Cinematheque website echoes some of Gray's comments; it calls a film essay an
"intimate and allusive" genre that "catches filmmakers in a pensive mood, ruminating on the margins
between fiction and documentary" in a manner that is "refreshingly inventive, playful, and
idiosyncratic".[21]

Photography[edit]

"After School Play Interrupted by the Catch and Release of a Stingray" is a simple time-sequence photo essay.

A photographic essay is an attempt to cover a topic with a linked series of photographs. Photo
essays range from purely photographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full text
essays with a few or many accompanying photographs. Photo essays can be sequential in nature,
intended to be viewed in a particular order, or they may consist of non-ordered photographs which
may be viewed all at once or in an order chosen by the viewer. All photo essays are collections of
photographs, but not all collections of photographs are photo essays. Photo essays often address a
certain issue or attempt to capture the character of places and events.

See also[edit]

Abstract (summary)

Admissions essay

Body (writing)

Book report

Thesis

Essay thesis

Five paragraph essay

Introduction

List of essayists

Plagiarism

SAT Essay

Schaffer paragraph

Treatise

Writing

References[edit]
1.

Jump up^ Gale Free Resources Glossary DE.


Gale.cengage.com. Retrieved March 23, 2011.

2.

Jump up^ Aldous Huxley, Collected Essays, "Preface".

3.

Jump up^ "Book Use Book Theory: 15001700: Commonplace


Thinking". Lib.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2013-08-10.

4.

^ Jump up to:a b essay (literature) Britannica Online Encyclopedia.


Britannica.com. Retrieved March 22, 2011.

5.

Jump up^ Sections 3.1 through 3.3. of the Simon Fraser University
CNS essay handbook.

6.

Jump up^ Chapter 7: Cause and Effect in Glenn, Cheryl. Making


Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al.
Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

7.

Jump up^ Chapter 5: Classification and Division in Glenn, Cheryl.


Making Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra,
et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

8.

Jump up^ Chapter 6: Comparison and Contrast in Glenn, Cheryl.


Making Sense: A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra,
et al. Second ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

9.

Jump up^ Chapter 2: Description in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A


Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed.
Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.

10. Jump up^ Section 2.1 of the Simon Fraser University CNS Essay
Handbook. Available online at:sfu.ca
11. Jump up^ Chapter 4: Exemplification in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense:
A Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second
ed. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.
12. Jump up^ Fadiman, Anne. At Large and At Small: Familiar Essays.
p. x.
13. Jump up^ Fadiman, At Large and At Small, xi.

14. Jump up^ History Essay Format & Thesis Statement, (February 2010)
15. Jump up^ Chapter 3 Narration in Glenn, Cheryl. Making Sense: A
Real World Rhetorical Reader. Ed. Denise B. Wydra, et al. Second ed.
Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2005.
16. Jump up^ "'Mission Possible' by Dr. Mario Petrucci" (PDF).
Retrieved 2014-10-25.
17. ^ Jump up to:a b Cinematic Essay Film Genre.
chicagomediaworks.com. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
18. Jump up^ (registration required) Lim, Dennis (July 31, 2012). "Chris
Marker, 91, Pioneer of the Essay Film". The New York Times.
Retrieved July 31, 2012.
19. Jump up^ Discussion of film essays. Chicago Media Works.
20. Jump up^ [dead link] [1]. San Francisco Film Society.
21. Jump up^ "Talking Pictures: The Art of the Essay Film".
Cinema.wisc.edu. Retrieved March 22, 2011.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]

Theodor W. Adorno, "The Essay as Form" in: Theodor W.


Adorno, The Adorno Reader, Blackwell Publishers 2000.

Beaujour, Michel. Miroirs d'encre: Rhtorique de l'autoportrait'.


Paris: Seuil, 1980. [Poetics of the Literary Self-Portrait. Trans. Yara
Milos. New York: NYU Press, 1991].

Bensmaa, Reda. The Barthes Effect: The Essay as Reflective Text.


Trans. Pat Fedkiew. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1987.

D'Agata, John (Editor), The Lost Origins of the Essay. St Paul:


Graywolf Press, 2009.

Giamatti, Louis. "The Cinematic Essay", in Godard and the Others:


Essays in Cinematic Form. London, Tantivy Press, 1975.

Lopate, Phillip. "In Search of the Centaur: The Essay-Film",


in Beyond Document: Essays on Nonfiction Film. Edited by Charles
Warren, Wesleyan University Press, 1998. pp. 243270.

Warburton, Nigel. The basics of essay writing. Routledge,


2006. ISBN 0-415-24000-X, ISBN 978-0-415-24000-0

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or
guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and
converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references.(February 2015)
Wikibooks has a book on
the topic of: How to write
an essay
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Essays.

Essay writing category on EnglishGrammar.org

Essay eTexts at Project Gutenberg

The Dialectical Essay: A detailed writing guide Sewanee


University

In Praise of the Undergraduate Essay by Dan Edelstein, Stanford


University

The Age of the Essay Criticism of the modern essay, by Paul


Graham

How to Say Nothing in 500 Words at the Wayback


Machine (archived October 27, 2007)

How to write an essay - Infographic

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