1

Hardware Design and Deployment Issues in

UHF RFID Systems
Byung-Jun Jang
Kookmin University, Seoul
Korea
1. Introduction
Recently, radio frequency identification (RFID) have created emerging applications for
tracking, sensing, and identifying various targets in wide-ranging areas such as supply
chain, transportation, airline baggage handling, medical and biological industry, and
homeland security. RFID systems with a variety of radio frequencies and techniques have
been introduced. Among them, ultra-high frequency (UHF) band passive RFID systems that
operate in the 860 960MHz band have drawn a great deal of attention because of its
numerous benefits, such as cost, size, and increased interrogation range. In particular, the
interrogation range of the UHF RFID system is comparatively large, due to the use of a
travelling electromagnetic (EM) wave to transfer power and data. The increased
interrogation range makes it possible for UHF RFID systems to revolutionize commercial
processes, such as supply chain management. Several major supply chain companies such as
Wal-Mart and Tesco plan to mandate the use of an UHF RFID system in their supply chains
(Finkenzeller, 2003).
UHF band passive RFID system based on modulated backscatter has a unique characteristic,
quite distinct from those encountered in most other radio systems which involve active
transceivers on both sides of the link (wireless LAN, Bluetooth, etc). Because tag has no
internal power supply, RFID reader must always supply the power in order to communicate
with tags. This puts a different emphasis on the radio link, hardware design, and
deployment aspects (Nikitin & Rao, 2008).
In this chapter, we review recent works in current passive UHF RFID systems to provide
guidance regarding RFID system design and deployment. We cover the following topics.

UHF RFID radio links using the link budget concept to calculate forward-link and
reverse-link interrogation ranges.

Hardware design considerations at the reader: phase diversity and quadrature signal
combining, phase noise with range correlation effect, and transmitter leakage reduction
methods.

Deployment issues including reader-to-reader interference

The organization of this chapter is as follows. Section 2 analyzes the RFID link
characteristics and shows the necessity of link budget concepts to calculate the RFID
interrogation range. The hardware issues in an RFID reader are discussed in Section 3 along
with recently published research results. Section 4 shows the RFID deployment issues with
Source: Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Design Methods and Solutions, Book edited by: Cristina Turcu,
ISBN 978-953-7619-72-5, pp. 324, February 2010, INTECH, Croatia, downloaded from SCIYO.COM

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Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Design Methods and Solutions

emphasis on reader-to-reader interference in dense reader environments. Finally, the

conclusions are presented in Section 5.

2. RFID link budget

A communication link, as is well known, encompasses the entire communication path from
the transmitter (TX), through the propagation channel, and up to the receiver (RX). In a
typical wireless communication system, illustrated in Fig. 1(a), there are forward and
reverse links. The forward link is the communication link from a base station (BS) to a
mobile station (MS), whereas the reverse link is the opposite communication link, from MS
to BS. Because BS and MS can simultaneously transmit data to each other through the
forward and reverse links, a typical communication link is called full duplex. In addition,
the power levels of the two links have few differences. Therefore, the forward link coverage
is almost the same as that of the reverse link, although the transmit power and sensitivity of
both links are a little different (Dubkin, 2008).

(a) Typical wireless communication system

(b) RFID system

Fig. 1. Comparison of link characteristics between a typical wireless system and an UHF
RFID system
On the other hand, UHF RFID links, as illustrated in Fig. 1(b) are different from typical
wireless links. An RFID system is generally comprises two components: reader and tag. The
reader, sometimes called the interrogator, is made up of a TX/RX module with one or more

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Hardware Design and Deployment Issues in UHF RFID Systems

antennas. The tag consists of a microchip for storing data and an antenna to transmit stored
data. Tags are normally categorized into active and passive types by the presence or absence
of an internal power supply. Because the passive tag has no power supply of its own, it
obtains energy from the continuous wave (CW) signal transmitted by a reader. In addition,
the passive tag transmits its data by backscattering the CW signal. In other words, the data
transmission from tags to the reader is done by reflecting the wave energy back to the
reader. Therefore, an RFID link is half duplex: reader to tag and then tag to reader. This
means that RFID links are intrinsically unbalanced. Moreover, the reverse link is highly
correlated with the forward link, because the tag's transmit power is determined by the
reader's transmit power (Yoon & Jang, 2008).
These link characteristics of the UHF RFID system can be easily calculated using the link
budget concept, which is the wireless communication system designer's primary tool for
estimating the cell coverage.
2.1 Forward link budget calculation
In the forward link, the power received by the RFID tag, PRX , can be found by applying the
Friis EM wave propagation equation in free space:

PRX (r ) =
PTX GT GR
4 r
2

(1)

where
: the wavelength in free space
r : the operational distance between an RFID tag and the reader
PTX : the signal power feeding into the reader antenna by the transmitter
GR : the gain of the reader antenna
GT : the gain of the tag antenna

One portion of the power PRX is absorbed by the tag for direct current (DC) power
generation, and the other portion of PRX is backscattered for the reverse link. In order to
deliver enough power to turn the tag's microchip on, the absorption power for DC power
generation must be larger than the minimum operating power required for tag operation,
PTH . For example, the forward link budget which has amplitude shift keying (ASK)
backscatter modulation is given by:
PRX (r ) =

1 m4
PTX GT GR PTH
2
( m + 1) 4 r
2

(2)

where m means the modulation depth.

The forward-link interrogation range (FIR) using the forward link budget calculation is
depicted in Fig. 2. The FIR is proportional to the square root of the transmitted effective
isotropic radiated power (EIRP), PTX GT , and the tag antenna's gain, GR , and is inversely
proportional to the square root of the tag's power threshold level, PTH . From experience, it is
known that the threshold power level required to turn on a tag ranges from 10uW (-20dBm)
to 50uW (-13dBm) (Karthasu & Fischer, 2003). The modulation depth, m , is chosen to be an
average value between 0.1 and 0.9.

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Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Design Methods and Solutions

30

Tag received power [dBm]

20

10

-10

FIR

-20

-30

4
5
6
Tag-reader distance [m]

10

Fig. 2. Forward link budget of an UHF RFID system with center frequency of 915MHz,
receive antenna gain of 2.15dBi, of -15dBm, and transmit EIRP of 4W
2.2 Reverse link budget calculation
In the reverse link, the backscattered signal from a tag should be strong enough so that the
reader's demodulation output signal will meet the system's minimum signal-to-noise-ratio
(SNRmin) requirement. This is very similar to typical wireless communication system links.
However, because the CW signal always exists in a reverse-link to turn the tag on, the TX
leakage level plays an important role in determining the reverse-link budget. Fortunately,
the DC offset due to TX leakage is removed from a baseband bandpass filter. Nonetheless,
the phase noise of the TX leakage, NPN, on the receiving bandwidth is unfortunately not
removed by the filter. Therefore, it may be much stronger than the thermal noise, to a degree
that the reverse link budget mainly depends on the phase noise of the TX leakage. On the
other hand, in a typical wireless communication system, the phase noise of the TX leakage
within the receiving bandwidth is normally not a major problem, because duplexing
techniques, such as frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time division duplexing
(TDD), are applied.
Figure 3 shows a link budget example in the stationary reader case according to tag-reader
distance. The reverse-link interrogation range (RIR) is defined as the maximum distance at
which the tags backscattered signal meets the minimum reader sensitivity condition. As
showin in Fig. 3, the forward link is determined by a tag threshold voltage, the reverse link
is mainly determined by the phase noise of TX leakage.
2.3 Interrogation range
The performance of an UHF RFID system is usually characterized by its interrogation range,
which is defined as the maximum distance at which an RFID reader can recognize a tag.
This can be divided into two categories: the FIR and the RIR. Since the actual interrogation

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Hardware Design and Deployment Issues in UHF RFID Systems

Tag received power

Reader received power

20

0
FIR
Power (dBm)

-20

P TH

-40

-60
RIR
N+Npn+SNRmin+link margin

-80

Npn
-100
N
-120

10
15
Reader-tag Distance (m)

20

25

Fig. 3. Reverse link budget of an UHF RFID system (N: thermal noise) (Yoon & Jang, 2008)
range is determined by the smaller value of FIR and RIR, both values should be considered
simultaneously when deploying UHF RFID systems. As shown in Fig. 3, FIR has a smaller
value than RIR in the case of a well-designed reader. However, RIR may be much more
significant than the FIR in environments such as warehouses because of interference from
other readers. Also, the interrogation range of a battery-assisted tag is determined by the
RIR only.

3. Hardware design issues in the UHF RFID reader

In order to discuss hardware design issues in the UHF RFID reader, let us consider an UHF
RFID system model using a direct-conversion I/Q demodulator, as shown in Fig. 4. The
reader is composed of local oscillator (LO), a transmitter, a receiver and an antenna. The
power amplifier (PA) amplifiers the LO signal to achieve a high power level. The amplified

Fig. 4. Architecture of an UHF RFID system and block diagram of a reader and a tag

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Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Design Methods and Solutions

signal feeds into the reader antenna via the circulator and then radiates into the air. The
reader antenna simultaneously receives the backscattered signals from the tag. The antenna
can be configured in two ways: two antennas or one antenna with a circulator. The
circulator is a non-reciprocal three-port device, where the signals travel from the transmitter
port to the antenna port or from the antenna port to the receiver port. In practice, the
circulator cannot entirely isolate the transmitter from the receiver, due to the inherent
leakage between its ports. Generally, TX leakage is between -20 to -50dB (Jang & Yoon,
2008a).
3.1 Phase diversity and optimal I/Q signal combining
As shown in Fig. 4, the same LO provides two identical frequency signals, one for the
transmitter and the other for the receiver. The LO signal for the receiver is further divided
using a power splitter to provide two orthonormal baseband outputs, I and Q signals.
Because the received signal and the LO signal have the same frequency, the absolute phase
of the received signal influences the amplitude of the down-converted signal. Therefore,
some sort of phase diversity using I and Q signals should be provided to demodulate the tag
signal (Jang, 2008).
Figure 5 shows the simulation results of normalized I and Q signal power at the quadrature
receiver for the case of tag moving. For this simulation, the tag located 1 meter below the
reader antenna is assumed to move up to 5m away from the reader. The complex plot forms
a spiral-like shape due to the periodic received signal power variation.

(a) Simulation scenario

(b) Constellation diagram

Fig. 5. Received signal variation characteristics of an UHF RFID receiver with respect to the
reader-tag distance
Using the quadrature receiver, the demodulator can choose the higher of the tag signals to
retrieve the tag's data. This is called selection diversity. Now, the reader can select the better
of the quadrature (I and Q) channel outputs and overcome the limitation of a single channel
receiver. Figure 6 shows the performance of selection diversity compared with the I and Q
channel signals with respect to phase value from zero to . In selection diversity, two
extreme instances, i.e., 'minimum' and 'optimum' occur every / 8 meters, as the tag moves
away from the reader antenna. At 900 MHz, these minimum points occur every 4.2cm. For
the optimum instance, the tag signal can be demodulated without loss. However, for the

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Hardware Design and Deployment Issues in UHF RFID Systems

minimum instance, the tag signal can be reduced with a 3dB loss in power. In order to
overcome this 3dB loss of selection diversity, various I/Q combining techniques can be
used. For example, the power combining technique can be used in the ASK case. On the
other hand, signal combining with phase shift keying (PSK) is not as easy as ASK. Recently,
arctangent combining and principal component combining (PCC) have been suggested
(Jang, 2008).
10
Single channel(I) only
Single channel(Q) only
Selection combining

5
optimum point

SNR degradation [dB]

0
-5
minimum point
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30

null point

0.5

1.5
phase [rad]

2.5

Fig. 6. SNR degradation for various receiver combining techniques

3.2 Phase noise and range correlation effects
Phase noise is an important parameter in designing RFID systems since it can have a
significant influence on system performance. Because a LO is generally used for both CW
signal generation and the down-converting operation, the phase noise of the received signal
is correlated with that of the LO signal. The correlation level is inversely proportional to the
time difference between the two signals. In an UHF RFID system, this time difference is very
small (several nsec) due to the short tag-reader distance, and so phase noise is reduced by
the correlation effect. In an RFID application, this phase noise reduction phenomenon is
called the range correlation effect (Jang & Yoon, 2008b).
The baseband power spectral density (PSD), S ( t ) ( f ) , for LO phase noise with the offset

frequency f c and a round-trip delay of t is given by (Droitcour et al., 2004):

r f c

S ( t ) ( f ) = SLO ( t ) ( f ) 4 sin 2 4
c

(3)

where (t ) = LO (t ) LO (t t ) and LO (t ) is the phase noise of the LO signal.

The term in parenthesis embodies the range correlation effect on the baseband spectrum.
Assuming that the typical values for r and f o are 8m and 160kHz, respectively, the value

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Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Design Methods and Solutions

of r f c / c will be on the order of 10-3. So the range correlation effect will dramatically reduce
the PSD of the LO phase noise.
Figure 7 shows an example of a typical PSD of the LO itself and the phase noise reduction
effects due to the range correlation with a round-trip delay of 1m. The typical PSD of the LO
is selected considering state-of-the-art UHF RFID LO performance. The effect of the range
correlation on the phase noise for different offset frequencies was estimated by (3). For
example, at an offset frequency of 10Hz, the phase noise is reduced by 130dB.

-60

Phase Noise [dBc/Hz]

-80

-100

-120
typical LO(LO(t))

LO w/ range correlation ((t))

samsung(2007)
Intel(2007)
Analog Devices(2007)
ETRI(2006)
Microelectronics(2007)

-140

-160

-180
1

10

10

10
10
Offset Frequency ( fc) [Hz]

10

10

Fig. 7. LO phase noise as a function of offset frequency

In addition, the phase noise may affect the symbol-error-rate (SER) performance in an RFID
system. Figure 8 shows the SER performance of the PSK modulation and FM0 coding with
phase noise as a function of range correlation. Without the range correlation, the SER
performance is worse for the case of typical LO phase noise, as shown in Fig. 7. This
degradation is worse for a small modulation phase noise. However, the phase noise of the
LO with range correlation effects is almost identical to the SER performance in AWGN
environments because of the phase noise reduction by range correlation. For a real LO using
a phase-locked loop (PLL), the power spectral density of the phase noise is filtered by the
transfer function of the PLL, and the phase noise effects on the error performance are even
small. Unlike PSK modulation, phase noise has no effects on ASK modulation, because there
is no information in the carriers phase (Jang & Yoon, 2008b).
3.3 TX leakage reduction methods
Finally, some difficult technical problems arise from TX-to-RX leakage because the RFID
reader transmits CW and simultaneously receives back-scattered data from tags. The strong
TX leakage into the receiver side degrades the reader performance in relation to the
sensitivity of the receiver and its interrogation range. In detail, the low noise amplifier

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Hardware Design and Deployment Issues in UHF RFID Systems

10

FM0-BPSK(/8)

-1

Symbol Error Rate

10

-2

10

FM0-BPSK(/4)

-3

10

Analysis,AWGN
Analysis, LO(t),

Analysis, (t)
Simulation,AWGN
Simulation,LO(t),

-4

10

Simulation,(t)
-2

8
10
SNR [dB]

12

14

16

18

20

Fig. 8. SER performance of FM0-BPSK signal as a function of phase noise and range
correlation effect (Jang & Yoon, 2008b)
(LNA) of the receiver can be saturated by this strong TX leakage, decreasing the dynamic
range of LNA. A DC offset problem is also caused by self mixing at the mixer in the reader
receiver.
To alleviate the TX leakage problem, the strong TX signal should be separated from the RX
signal as much as is possible to achieve higher performance from the RFID reader. The
simplest solution is to separate the TX and RX antennas. However, the size and cost of the
reader hardware will increase. A circulator of ferrite material or an active CMOS circulator
may lighten this burden, but the cost is still high, and isolation of these circulators is
insufficient to meet some required criteria. A directional coupler may, therefore, be a better
choice given its simplicity and low cost (Kim et al., 2006).

4. Deployment Issues
In supply-chain applications, tens or hundreds of RFID readers will be in operation within
close range of each other, which may cause serious interference problems.
There are three types of UHF RFID interference: multiple-tag-to-reader interference (tag
collision), multiple-reader-to-tag interference (tag interference), and reader-to-reader
interference (reader interference or frequency interference) as shown in Fig. 9.
Multiple-tag-to-reader interference arises when multiple tags are simultaneously energized
by a reader and reflect their respective signals back to the reader. Due to a mixture of
scattered waves, the reader cannot differentiate individual IDs from the tags: therefore, anticollision mechanisms such as those known as binary-tree and ALOHA are needed to resolve
multiple-tag-to-reader interference (Dubkin, 2008), (EPCglobal, 2004). Multiple reader-to-tag
interference happens when a tag is located at the intersection of two or more reader

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Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Design Methods and Solutions

interrogation ranges and the readers attempt to communicate with the tag simultaneously.
This can cause a tag to behave and communicate in undesirable ways. Multiple reader-totag interference can be solved simply by separating reader intterrogation ranges.

Fig. 9. Three types of Interference in UHF RFID systems

The last type of interference, reader-to-reader interference, is induced when a signal from
one reader reaches other readers (Birari & Iyer, 2005). This can happen even if there is no
intersection among reader interrogation ranges. As the signal transmitted from distant
readers may be strong enough to impede accurate decoding of the signals that are backscattered from adjacent tags, reader-to-reader interference can cause serious problems in
UHF RFID system deployment (Kim et al., 2008), (Kim et al., 2009). Moreover, the
interference is potentially magnified in a dense reader environment, which can involve
hundreds of readers in one warehouse or manufacturing facility. Many attempts to mitigate
reader-to-reader interference have been made. They are normally based on standard
multiple access mechanisms such as frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), timedivision multiple access (TDMA), or carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA). For example, the
electronic product code for global class 1 generation 2 (EPCglobal C1G2) includes spectrum
management of an UHF RFID operation in a dense reader environment. According to
EPCglobal C1G2, reader transmit signals and tag back-scattered signals are separated in a
spectral domain (EPCglobal, 2004).
Additionally, careful consideration of the positioning and type of RFID reader antenna
selected are important for reader-to-reader interference (Leong et al., 2006). The situation
can also be improved by using reader synchronization and frequency channelling. Actual
field testing will be carried out in the future, especially in warehouses, where dense RFID
reader environments are most likely to exist

5. Conclusion
In this chapter, we discuss hardware design and deployment issues in current passive UHF
band RFID systems. Using the link budget concept, the simple method to calculate forward-

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Hardware Design and Deployment Issues in UHF RFID Systems

11

and reverse-link interrogation range is shown. Then, we consider the hardware issues on an
RFID reader: phase diversity and signal combining techniques, phase noise with range
correlation effect, and TX leakage reduction methods. Finally, three interference problems
with an emphasis on reader-to-reader interference encountered in the deployment of RFID
systems are presented.

6. References
Birari, S. M. & Iyer, S. (2005). Mitigating the Reader Collision Problem in RFID, Proceedings of
the 13th IEEE International Conference on Networks, 16-18 Nov. 2005
Droitcour, A. D.; Lubecke, O. B., Lubecke, V. M., Lin, J. & Kovacs, G. T. A. (2004). Range
correlation and I/Q performance benefits in single-chip silicon doppler radars for
noncontact cardiopulmonary monitoring, IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., Vol.
52, No. 3, pp.838-848, Mar. 2004, ISSN 0018-9480
Dubkin, D. M. (2008). The RF in RFID: passive UHF RFID in practice, Elsevier ISBN 978-07506-8209-1
EPCgloabl (2004). EPC radio-frequency identity protocols class-1 generation-2 UHF RFID protocol
for communications at 860MHz-960MHz version 1.0.9, EPCglobal Standard
Specification, 2004.
Finkenzeller, K. (2003). RFID Handbook: Fundamentals and applications in contactless smart cards
and identification, John Wiley, ISBN 0-470-84402-7, Chichester
Jang, B. -J. (2008). Phase diversity and optimal I/Q signal combining methods on an UHF
RFID reader's receiver, Microwave Journal(Web Exclusive), Vol. 51, No. 4, April. 2008
Jang, B. -J. & Yoon, H. (2008a). Examine the effects of phase noise on RFID range, Microwave
and RF, July. 2008, pp. 78-77, ISSN 0745-2993
Jang, B. -J. & Yoon, H. (2008b). Range correlation effect on the phase noise of an UHF RFID
reader, IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components letters, Vol.18, No. 12, Dec. 2008,
pp. 827-829, ISSN 1531-1309
Karthasu, U. & Fischer, M. (2003). Fully integrated passive UHF RFID transponder IC with
16.7-uW minimum RF input power, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol. 38, No. 10,
pp.1602-1608, Oct. 2003, ISSN 0018-9200
Kim, D. Y.; Yoon, H., Jang, B. -J., & Yook, J. G. (2008). Interference Analysis of UHF
RFID Systems, Progress In Electromagnetics Research B, vol. 4, pp. 115-126, ISSN 19376472
Kim, D. Y.; Yoon, H., Jang, B. -J., & Yook, J. G. (2009). Effects of Reader-to-Reader
Interference on the UHF RFID Interrogation Range, IEEE Trans. Industrial
Electronics, Vol. 56, No. 7, Mar. 2004, pp.2337-2346, ISSN 0278-0046
Kim, W. -K.; Lee, M. -Q., Kim, J. -H. Lim, H. -S., Yu, J. -W., Jang, B. -J. & Park, J. -S. (2006). A
passive circulator with high isolation using a directional coupler for RFID, IEEE
Microwave Symposium Digest, pp.1177-1180, ISSN 0149-645X, June. 2006
Leong, K. S.; Ng, M. L. & Cole, P. H. (2006). Positioning Analysis of Multiple Antennas in a
Dense RFID Reader Environment, Proceedings of. International Symposium on
Applications and the Internet Workshops, pp. 23-27, ISBN 0-7695-2510-5, Jan. 2006

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Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Design Methods and Solutions

Nikitin, P. V. & Rao, K. V. S. (2008). Antennas and propagation in UHF RFID systems,
Proceedings of 2008 IEEE International Conference of RFID, pp. 277-288, ISBN 978-14244-1711-7, Apr. 2008
Yoon, H. & Jang, B. -J. (2008). Link budget calculation for UHF RFID systems, Microwave
Journal, Vol. 51, No. 12, Dec. 2008, pp. 78-77, ISSN 0192-6225

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Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications

Design Methods and Solutions
Edited by Cristina Turcu

ISBN 978-953-7619-72-5
Hard cover, 324 pages
Publisher InTech

Published online 01, February, 2010

Published in print edition February, 2010

This book, entitled Radio Frequency Identification Fundamentals and Applications, Bringing Research to
Practice, bridges the gap between theory and practice and brings together a variety of research results and
practical solutions in the field of RFID. The book is a rich collection of articles written by people from all over
the world: teachers, researchers, engineers, and technical people with strong background in the RFID area.
Developed as a source of information on RFID technology, the book addresses a wide audience including
designers for RFID systems, researchers, students and anyone who would like to learn about this field. At this
point I would like to express my thanks to all scientists who were kind enough to contribute to the success of
this project by presenting numerous technical studies and research results. However, we couldnt have
published this book without the effort of InTech team. I wish to extend my most sincere gratitude to InTech
publishing house for continuing to publish new, interesting and valuable books for all of us.

How to reference

In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
Byung-Jun Jang (2010). Hardware Design and Deployment Issues in UHF RFID Systems, Radio Frequency
Identification Fundamentals and Applications Design Methods and Solutions, Cristina Turcu (Ed.), ISBN: 978953-7619-72-5, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/radio-frequency-identificationfundamentals-and-applications-design-methods-and-solutions/hardware-design-and-deployment-issues-inuhf-rfid-systems

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