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Sensor Classification

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 1

Physical-quantity-based taxonomy
Physical
quantity
Position &
displacement
Level
Proximity

MECH 430

Sensor
Potentiometer, LVDT, optical encoder,
Hall-effect, capacitive, inductive, Eddy
current, magnetoresistive, ultrasonic.
Capacitive, inductive, Hall effect,
ultrasonic.
Capacitive, inductive, Eddy-current, IR
emitter/receiver, ultrasonic, reed switches,
Hall effect, magnetoresistive.

Sensor classification

Slide 2

Potentiometers
A potentiometer (or pot) is a device used to measure
linear or rotary displacement.
The principle relies on a increase in electrical
resistance with displacement.
The pot is composed of a sliding contact + a winding

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 3

Potentiometers
Pots can be configured in
linear or angular rotary form.
A known voltage is applied
across the total resistance and
we measure the output
voltage.
The output from the sliding
contact is discrete.
Conductive plastic pots
eliminate this stepwise output

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 4

Inductors
Inductance is an effect that results
from the magnetic field that forms
around a current carrying conductor.
Inductance is a measure of the
generated emf for a unit change in
current.
An inductor with an inductance of 1
Henry produces an emf of 1V when
the current through the inductor
changes at the rate of 1 amperes per
second.
MECH 430

Sensor classification

di
V=L
dt
Slide 5

LVDT

V2 = L2

di2
di
+M 1
dt
dt

Number of coils

M = N1 N 2 P12
MECH 430

Permeance of the space

occupied by the flux
Sensor classification

Slide 6

LVDT
Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT)
comprises 3 coils: a primary
and 2 secondaries.
It is based on the variation in
mutual inductance between
the windings when a
ferromagnetic core moves
inside it.
The 2 secondary coils are
connected in opposition. This
means at the center position
the output is zero.
MECH 430

AC input voltage

Induced voltages

Sensor classification

Output
Slide 7

LVDT

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 8

Optical encoder
Consists of a rotating disc,
a light source, a
photodetector (light
sensor).
The disc is mounted on the
rotating shaft and has
coded patterns of opaque
and transparent slots.
As the shaft rotates, the
pattern interrupts the light,
thereby generating a digital
pulse determine speed.
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 9

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/mouse2.htm

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 10

Incremental encoders
Incremental encoders track motion, velocity, and
direction.
They use 2 outputs called quadrature outputs (90
degrees out of phase)
Clockwise rotation

MECH 430

Counter-clockwise rotation

Sensor classification

Slide 11

Hall-effect
The hall effect is the potential
difference (Hall voltage) on
opposite sides of a sheet of
conducting or semi-conducting
material through which current
is flowing, created by a
magnetic field applied
perpendicular to the Hall
element.
Lorentz force is applied on the
electrons due to the magnetic
field. This force causes a field
(voltage) to exist in a direction
perpendicular to B and I
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 12

Hall effect applications

The sensing of wheel rotation in antilock brakes.
Some type of brushless DC electric
motors use Hall effect sensors to
detect the position of the rotor.
Current sensor
current

Magnetic
flux density

IB / d
VH =
ne

Charge carrier density

of carrier electrons
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Plate
thickness
Electron charge
Slide 13

Hall effect - application

For robot odometry, a hall effect quadrature encoder
senses gear teeth on the driveshaft in order to
measure rotation.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 14

Inductive displacement sensor

Inductive sensor with
ferromagnetic core causes
magnetomotive force (mmf).
The air gap causes an increase
in the circuit reluctance and
decrease in the flux.
Therefore the change in distance
can be quantified from a change
in inductance.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 15

Inductive displacement sensor

The mmf is calculated as:
mmf = Flux x Reluctance = (A.turns)

The flux of one coil may be expressed as:

=

ni
(Webers)

The total flux of n coils is then:

n2 I
= n =
(Webers)

The self inductance is then:

n2
L= =
(H)
i

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 16

Inductive displacement sensor

But the reluctance is calculated as:
Total length of flux path (m)

l
=
r 0 A

Cross-sectional area of flux path (m2)

Permeability of free
space 4 x10-7 (H/m)

Relative magnetic permeability

(dimensionless)

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 17

Capacitors
A capacitor is an electric
component capable of storing
electrical energy between two
metal plates separated by an
insulator (dielectric).
The units of capacitance is
Farads (or F).
1
V = i dt
C
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 18

Capacitive displacement sensor

Dielectric constant or
permittivity

Effective area of the

plates in m2

A
A
C(x) = = r 0
x
x
Relative dielectric constant
Dielectric constant of
vacuum 8.85(10-12) F/m
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Distance of the
plates in m

Slide 19

Other types of capacitive

displacement sensors

Transverse motion

Dielectric moves
MECH 430

Differential capacitive sensor

Sensor classification

Slide 20

Eddy current
Eddy current is caused by a
moving magnetic field
intersecting a conductor.
The relative motion causes a
circulating flow of electrons
within the conductor.
The eddies create magnetic
fields that oppose the change
in the external field.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 21

Magnetoresistance
Magnetoresistance is the property of some materials
to change the value of their electrical resistance when
an external magnetic field is applied to them.

A Corbino disk
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 22

Ultrasonic range sensor

Ultrasound is a sound with a frequency greater than
the upper limit of human hearing (20KHz).
Ultrasonic ranging is performed by measuring the
difference in time between the emitted and reflected
wave.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 23

Ultrasound - applications

Medical applications

MECH 430

Robotics

Sensor classification

Slide 24

Infra red emitter/receiver

Infra red radiation is a electromagnetic radiation of
wavelength longer than that of visible light but
shorter than radio waves.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 25

Reed switch
The reed switch is an electrical switch operated by
applying a magnetic field.
It consists of a pair of contacts on ferrous metal reeds
in a hermetically sealed glass envelope.
The contacts can be made to open or close.
N

S
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 26

Reed switch - applications

Proximity switch
Door and window sensors in burglar alarm systems.
On bicycle wheels reed switches are used to actuate
briefly each time a magnet on the wheel passes the
sensor.

Security system
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 27

Physical-quantity-based taxonomy
Physical
quantity

Sensor

Velocity

Tachometer, potentiometer, optical

encoder, or piezoelectric.

Acceleration

Piezoresistive, piezoelectric, and

capacitive accelerometer.

Strain

Metal foil and semiconductor strain gages;

piezoelectric; Moire interferometry.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 28

Tachometer
A tachometer determines the speed of rotation of a
shaft or disk.
Tachometers can be based on:
Spark rate of ignition (automotive)
Hall effect (trains)

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 29

Piezoelectric & Piezoresistance

(acceleration)
Piezoelectricity is the ability of crystals and certain
ceramics to generate a voltage in response to applied
mechanical stress.
Piezoresistance is the changing electrical resistance of
a material (mostly silicon) due to an applied
mechanical stress.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 30

Strain gauge
A strain gauge is a device used to
measure the deformation of an
object.
The most common type of strain
gauge (foil gauge) consists of a
metallic foil pattern supported by an
insulated flexible backing.
The gauge is attached to the strained
object with an adhesive.
As the gauge deforms, its resistance
changes because of the conductors
geometry (length, thickness).
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 31

Strain gauge
The gauge factor is given as:
change in resistance
due to strain

resistance of
undeformed gauge

R / RG
GF =

strain

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 32

Strain gauge

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 33

Moir interferometry
A Moir pattern is an interference pattern when two grids are
overlaid that have different grid sizes or different orientations.
Interferometry is the science of interfering two or more waves,
such that the output wave is different from the input waves.
The resultant wave can be used to study the properties of the
input waves.

I1 (x) = I 0 sin(2 k1 x)
I 2 (x) = I 0 sin(2 k2 x)
I(x) = I 0 2 cos(2
MECH 430

Sensor classification

(k1 k2 )
(k + k )
x) sin(2 1 2 x)
2
2
Slide 34

Physical-quantity-based taxonomy
Physical
quantity
Pressure

MECH 430

Sensor
U-tube,
Bourdon tube,
Diaphragm,
Capsule,
Bellows,
Piezoresistive,
Capacitive,
Moir interferometry.

Sensor classification

Slide 35

U tube
A U tube (liquid column
manometer) compares the pressure
to be measured with a reference
pressure and yields a difference h of
liquid level.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 36

Bourdon tube
A bourdon tube is a curved or twisted flattened
metallic tube with one closed end.
When pressure is applied through the open end the
tube tends to straighten. The displacement indicates
the applied pressure, which yields an electric output
signal.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 37

Diaphragm
A diaphragm is a flexible
circular plate consisting of a
taut membrane that strains
under the action of a pressure
difference.
A micromachined diaphragm
is an etched silicon wafer
with implanted gages that
sense local strain.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 38

Bellows
A bellows is a flexible chamber with axial elongation
that undergoes deflection when a pressure is applied.
Bellows undergoes deflections larger than capsules or
diaphragms.

P
x

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 39

Forces
Physical
quantity
Force

MECH 430

Sensor
Strain gages,
Piezoelectric,
Load cells,
Capacitive,
Force Sensitive Resistor (FSR).

Sensor classification

Slide 40

Load cell
A load cell is an electronic device that transforms
force into an electrical signal.
The most common load cells are based on strain
gages.
Other types of load cells include hydraulic load cells
(increase in pressure), or piezoelectric load cells
(generates a voltage).

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 41

Force Sensitive Resistor

A Force Sensitive Resistor
(FSR) has a variable
resistance as a function of
applied pressure.
As the force increases, the
resistive element is
deformed against the
substrate.
Air is pushed out.
The more the active area
touches the substrate, the
less the resistance.
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 42

Temperature sensors
Physical quantity
Temperature

MECH 430

Sensor
Thermocouples,
Thermometer,
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD),
Thermistor,
Thermoelectric,
Thermodiode,
Thermotransistor,
Thermochromatic paints,
Surface acoustic wave devices.
Sensor classification

Slide 43

Thermocouple
Thermocouples are used to measure the temperature
gradient between two points.
The sensor is based on the principal that any conductor
subjected to a temperature gradient, generates a voltage
(thermoelectric effect).
Thermocouples connected in series are called
thermopile.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 44

RTD
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are
temperature sensors that exploit the predictable
change in electrical resistance of conductors with
changing temperature.
Most of them are made of platinum and are therefore
known as Platinum Resistance Thermometers (PRT).

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 45

Thermistor
Thermistor comes from `thermally
sensitive resistor and applies to
temperature-dependent resistors that are
based on ceramics or polymers and not on
pure metals (as is the case for RTDs).
RTD are useful over a high temperature
range, while thermistors are more precise
but work on a limited temperature range.
They are designated as NTC when having
a negative temperature coefficient and
PTC when having a positive temperature
coefficient.
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 46

Light sensors
Physical
quantity

Sensor

Light detector Vacuum tube photosensor,

Photoconductive cells photoresistor,
Phototransistor,
Photodiode,
Photovoltaic.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 47

Vacuum tube photosensor

Phototsensors or photodetectors are sensors of light
or other electromagnetic energy.
A vacuum tube photosensor (phototube) is a vacuum
tube sensitive to light.
These devices operate on the photoelectric effect:
Incoming photons strike a photocathode, generating
electrons, which are attracted towards the anode, thus
generating a current flow which is dependent on the
frequency and intensity of incoming light

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 48

Photoconductive cell photoresistors

Light-Dependent Resistors (LDR)
(photoresistors, photoconductors), are
electronic components whose resistance
decreases with increasing incident light
intensity.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 49

Photodiode
A photodiode is a semiconductor
diode that functions as a
photodetector.
A diode is a component
that allows the flow of
current on one direction
but blocks the other.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 50

Flow sensors
Physical quantity
Local fluid
velocity:

Sensor
Pitot probe,
Thermal (hot wire anemometry),
Laser anemometry.

Average fluid
velocity:

Electromagnetic,
Ultrasound: transit time,
Ultrasound: doppler.

Mass flow rate:

Coriolis effect,
Thermal transport.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 51

Hot-wire anemometer
Such sensors measure the rate of heat
loss from the wire to the flowing fluid.
The heat flow rate is proportional to:
The heat interchanging area,
T,
Film coefficient of the heat transfer h.

Determine the local fluid velocity by

measuring the current to keep the wire
at a specific temperature.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 52

Thermal transport mass

flowmeter
This sensor is a heat-transfer
flowmeter, which measures the
rise in temperature of fluid
after a known amount of heat
has been added to it.
T1 decreases and T2 increases
as the flow increases.
T is proportional to the mass
flow (at low flow rates).
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 53

Physical quantity
Volume flow rate:

MECH 430

Sensor
Orifice plate,
Venturi tube,
Variable area (rotameter),
Pitot probe,
Positive displacement,
Ultrasonic

Sensor classification

Slide 54

Orifice plate in a pipe

This is an obstruction-type flowmeter, where a plate
with an orifice is placed inside a pipe.
A cross-section change causes a change of velocity.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 55

Flow nozzle & Venturi tube

Flow nozzles and Venturi tubes
are based on the same principle
as the orifice plate but their
internal shapes are not so blunt
(Cd is reduced)

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 56

Rotameter
A rotameter consists of a uniform
conic tube & conic float.
The float is dragged to a height
based on its weight and the flow.
When the flow increases, the float
rises, the pass section increases, the
pressure difference between both
ends is constant.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 57

Pitot tube (point velocity flow)

The Pitot tube measures the velocity at a point.
The fluid rises until the pressure excreted by the fluid
column balances the force produced by the impacting
velocity on the open end.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 58

Positive displacement
Positive displacement flowmeters continuously
separate the liquid stream into known volumes and
register flow by counting the cycles or revolutions.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 59

Ultrasonic flowmeter
Ultrasonic flowmeters measure the difference of the
propagation time of ultrasonic pulses propagating in
(normally an inclination angle around 30 to 45 is
used) flow direction and against the flow direction.

Vu1
Vu2

MECH 430

Flow

Sensor classification

Slide 60

Acoustic sensors
Physical
quantity

Sensor

Acoustic sensors Liquid microphone,

Capacitive microphone,
Dynamic microphone (ribbon, carbon),
Laser microphone,
Piezoelectric microphone.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 61

Liquid microphone
Bells liquid transmitter consists of a metal cup filled
with dilute sulfuric acid.
A sound wave causes a diaphragm to move, forcing a
brass tube to move up and down in the liquid.
The electrical resistance between
a wire and a plate located at the
bottom of the cup is then
inversely proportional to the
length of wire submerged (or
proportional to the height of
water between tip and bottom).
MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 62

Capacitor microphone
In a condenser microphone,
also known as a capacitor
microphone, the diaphragm acts
as one plate of a capacitor, and
the vibrations produce changes
in the distance between the
plates.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 63

Carbon microphone
A carbon microphone is a capsule containing carbon granules
pressed between two metal plates.
A voltage is applied across the metal plates, causing a small
current to flow through the carbon.
One of the plates, the diaphragm, vibrates in sympathy with
incident sound waves, applying a varying pressure to the
carbon.
The changing pressure deforms the granules, causing the
contact area between each pair of adjacent granules to change,
and this causes the electrical resistance of the mass of granules
to change.
The changes in resistance cause a corresponding change in the
voltage across the two plates, and hence in the current flowing
through the microphone, producing the electrical signal.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 64

Laser microphone
A laser microphone consists of a laser beam that
must be reflected off a glass window or another rigid
surface that vibrates in sympathy with nearby
sounds.
The laser measures the distance between itself and
the surface extremely accurately; the tiny
fluctuations in this distance become the electrical
signal of the sounds picked up.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 65

Piezoelectric microphone
A piezoelectric microphone uses the effect of
piezoelectricity to convert sound vibrations to an
electrical signal.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 66

Chemical sensors
Physical quantity
Chemical sensors

MECH 430

Sensor
Chemoresistor,
Chemocapacitor,
Chemotransistor,
Chemodiode,
Thermochemical,
Electrochemical,
Pellistor,
Organic gas,
pH electrodes.
Sensor classification

Slide 67

Chemoresistor, Chemocapacitor
A chemoresistor is a resistor that changes based on
a chemical effect. Each chemoresistor has a
different sensitivity to different gases.
A chemocapacitor is a capacitor that changes based
on the chemical effect.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 68

Pellistor
Catalytic gas sensors use fine coils of platinum wire
and measure its resistance at 450oC.
The coil is embedded in a pellet of sintered alumina
powder, called a pellistor, impregnated by a catalyst.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 69

Pellistor
If a flammable gas contacts the catalytic surface it
becomes oxidized and burns (flameless), thus
increasing the temperature of the wire and changes
its resistance.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 70

Sensor classification

Modulating
Self-generating
Analog
Digital
Deflection
Null deflection

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 71

Modulating sensors
A modulating or active sensor is a sensor that requires
a separate power source in order to operate.
Examples include LVDT, and thermistors, ultrasonic
range sensor, reed switch, RTD.
The input only controls the output (i.e., delivers no
power).

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 72

Modulating sensors
Modulating sensors have higher efficiency and tend to
produce much higher energy than self-exciting
sensors.
Modulating sensors have the advantage that the power
supply voltage can modify their overall sensitivity.
External drive

Input x(t)
MECH 430

Sensor
(LVDT,
Potentiometer)
Sensor classification

Output y(t)+yd
Slide 73

Self-generating sensors
Self-generating or passive sensors yield an electric
signal from a measurand without requiring an
electrical supply.
For example a thermocouple is a self-generating
thermal sensor, since it produces an emf from the
difference in junction temperatures. Energy is
supplied via the thermodynamic process.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 74

Self-generating sensors
Self-generating sensors produce very low output
power signals, which often needs amplification to a
useful level.
Self-generating sensors require less wires than
modulating sensors because the same wires deliver
the signal and power.
Self-exciting

Input x(t)

MECH 430

Sensor
(Piezoelectric,
Photovoltaic,
Thermoelectric)
Sensor classification

Output y(t)

Slide 75

Analog sensors
In analog sensors the output changes in a continuous
way at a macroscopic level.
Sensors are predominately analog devices that
generate analog signals.
Analog signals must be converted to digital bits
before they can be stored by a computer.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 76

Digital sensors
Digital sensors generate digital signals that can be
directly interfaced to a computer.
Some pre-processing is usually involved in the sensor
electronics to obtain a digital output.
An example of a digital sensor is the optical encoder,
whose output consists of several bits representing the
angular velocity of the shaft.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 77

Deflection sensors
In deflection sensors, the measured quantity produces
a physical effect that generates in some part of the
instrument a similar but opposing effect that is related
to some useful variable.
For example, a dynamometer to measure force is a
sensor where the force to be measured deflects a
spring to the point where the force the spring exerts,
proportional to its deformation, balances the applied
force.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 78

Null-Deflection sensors
Null-type sensors prevent deflection from the null
point by applying a known effect that opposes that
produced by the quantity being measured.
There is an imbalance detector and some means to
restore balance.
Take the weighing scale as an example.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 79

Deflection vs. Null-Deflection

Null measurements are usually more accurate than
deflection sensors because the imbalance detector
only measures near zero. Therefore it can be very
sensitive and does not require calibration.
The disadvantage of null measurements are that they
are slow.

MECH 430

Sensor classification

Slide 80