1.

ABSTRACT/ SUMMARY

Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration unit consists of a classical venturi made of clear acrylic.
A series of wall tappings allow measurement of the static pressure distribution along the
converging duct, while a total head tube is provided to traverse along the centre line of the test
section. Basic hydraulic bench or any water supply also attached to this apparatus to operate
together. The apparatus can show the flow comparison by using venturi tube. The objective of
this experiment is to demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem.
Generally all the apparatus are set up and the experiment only running on the Bernoullis
Theorem Demonstration unit and hydraulic bench. The readings of the manometer tube or the
height of the water levels that is concerned and recorded in these experiments. The readings
from probe A to H will be taken to calculate the ViB by using Bernoulli equation, ViC using
continuity equation and the difference between two. While doing the experiments, the
presence of bubbles in the tube will affect the height of the water level in the manometer tube
and will cause error in the calculation for pressure. This problem can be solved by bleeding
processes.
The results show the pressure at the throat of the venturi is the lowest while its velocity is the
highest. The results obtain are according to the theory. There are two equations used to obtain
the different velocity which are Bernoulli equation and Continuity equation. The results
calculated from this two equation then are subtract to find the difference.
As the conclusion, the experiments are success where the supposed values have been
obtained. All the objectives are achieved and the theories of these experiments are wellunderstood.

2.0

INTRODUCTION

Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration unit consists of a classical venturi made of clear acrylic.
A series of wall tappings allow measurement of the static pressure distribution along the
converging duct, while a total head tube is provided to traverse along the centre line of the test
section. These tappings are connected to a manometer bank incorporating a manifold with air
bleed valve. Pressurization of the manometers is facilitated by hand pump.
The venturi can be demonstrated as a means of flow measurement and the discharge
coefficient can be determined. This test section can be used to demonstrate those
circumstances to which Bernoullis Theorem may be applied as well as in other circumstances
where the theorem is not sufficient to describe the fluid behaviour.

Figure 2.1: Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration unit

Note: Refer the apparatus section for labeled part of the Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration
unit.
The main test section is an accurately machined acrylic venturi of different circular cross
section. It is provided with a number of side hole pressure tappings, which are connected to
the manometer tubes on the rig. These tappings allow the measurement of static pressure head
simultaneously at each 6 sections. The test section incorporates two unions, one at either end,
to facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent.
A hypodermic tube, the total pressure head probe, is provided which may be positioned to
read the total pressure head at any section of the duct. This total preesure probe may be moved
after slacking the gland nut; this nut should be retightened by hand after adjustment. An
additional tapping is provided to facilitate setting up. All eight pressure tappings are
connected to a bank of pressurized manometer tubes. Pressurization of manometer is
facilitated by connecting any hand pump to the inlet valve on the manometer manifold.
The unit is connected to the hydraulic bench using flexible hoses. The hoses and the
connections are equipped with rapid action couplings. The flexible hose attached to the outlet
pipe which should be directed to the volumetric measuring tank on the hydraulic bench. A
flow control valve is incorporated downstream of the test section. Flow rate and pressure in
the apparatus may be varied independently by adjustment of the flow control valve and the
bench supply control valve.

3.0

AIM/OBJECTIVE
To demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem

4.0

THEORY

4.1 Derivation using Streamline Coordinates

The Euler's equation for steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline is a relation between
the velocity, pressure and density of a moving fluid. It is based on the Newton's Second Law
of Motion. The integration of the equation gives Bernoulli's equation in the form of energy
per unit weight of the following fluid (www.codecogs.com, 2013).
It is based on the following assumptions:

The fluid is non-viscous (i,e., the frictional losses are zero).

The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible (i.e., mass density of the fluid is
constant).

The flow is continuous, steady and along the streamline.

The velocity of the flow is uniform over the section.

No energy or force (except gravity and pressure forces) is involved in the flow.

Derivation Of Equation
Let us consider a steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline and small element AB of the
flowing fluid as shown in figure (www.codecogs.com, 2013).

Figure 4.1

Let,

dA = Cross-sectional area of the fluid element

ds = Length of the fluid element

dW = Weight of the fluid element

P = Pressure on the element at A

P+dP = Pressure on the element at B

v = velocity of the fluid element

We know that the external forces tending to accelerate the fluid element in the direction of the
streamline

(1)
We also know that the weight of the fluid element,

From the geometry of the figure, we find that the component of the weight of the fluid
element in the direction of flow,

(2)

Mass of the fluid element =

We see that the acceleration of the fluid element
(3)
Now, as per Newton's second law of motion, we know that Force = Mass *Acceleration

Dividing both sides by

or,

(4)
This is the required Euler's equation for motion as in the form of a differential equation.
Integrating the above equation,

or in other words,

(5)
which proves the Bernoulli's equation (http://www.codecogs.com, 2013).

4.2 Bernoullis Equation

The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of energy
principle appropriate for flowing fluids. The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with
the term "Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions where the flow velocity
is increased. This lowering of pressure in a constriction of a flow path may seem
counterintuitive, but seems less so when you consider pressure to be energy density. In the
high velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic energy must increase at the expense of
pressure energy (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu,
Bernoullis law states that if a non-vicious fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross
section, then the pressure is lower at the constrictions where the velocity is higher and the
pressure is higher where the pipes opens out and the fluid is stagnate. Many people find this
situation paradoxical when they first encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure). This can
be seen in the equation below:
P V2
+ + z=h
g 2 g

(6)

Where,
P

g
z
h*

= Fluid pressure static at the cross section

= Density of the flowing fluid
= Acceleration due to gravity
= Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
= Total (stagnation) head

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h), velocity
head (hv) and the elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as the total
head (h*). According to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head at
any cross section is constant. In a real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as
measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones.
In the experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections that is considered lie on the
same horizontal plane where z = 0, the equation reduces to:
P V2
+ =h
g 2 g

(7)

This represents the total head at a cross section. For this experiments, the pressure head is
denoted as hi and the total head as h*i, where i represents the cross sections at different tapping
points.

4.3 Static, Stagnation and Dynamic Pressures

The pressure, P which have been used in deriving the Bernoullis equation,
2

P V
+ + gz=constant
2

(8)

is the thermodynamic pressure which commonly called as static pressure. The static pressure
is that pressure which would be measured by an instrument moving with the flow. However,
such a measurement is rather difficult to make in a practical situation.
There was no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This fact makes it possible to
measure the static pressure in a flow fluid using a wall pressure tapping, placed in a region
where the flow streamlines are straight, as shown in figure 4.2(a). The pressure tap is a small
hole, drilled carefully in the wall, with its axis perpendicular to the surface. If the hole is
perpendicular to the duct wall and free from burrs, accurate measurements of static pressure
can be made by connecting the tap to a suitable pressure measuring instrument.

Figure 4.2: Measurement of static pressure

In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are curved, accurate static pressure
measurements can be made by careful use of a static pressure probe, shown in figure 4.2(b).
Such probe must be designed so that the measuring holes are place correctly with respect to
the probe tip and stem to avoid erroneous results. In use, the measuring section must be
aligned with the local flow direction.
Static pressure probes or any variety of forms are available commercially in sizes as small as
1.5mm in diameter. The stagnation pressure is obtained when a flowing fluid is deceleratedto
zero speed by a frictionless process. In incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation can be
used to relate changes in speed and pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglecting
the elevation differences, equation (8) becomes

P V
+ =constant
2

(9)

4.4 Pressures Varies Along the Pipe

A number of factors can cause for pressure to vary along the pipe such as:

Friction the pipes inner surface

The diameter of the pipe (small, the pressure is lower)
Density of the fluid in the pipe
The height of the pipe at which the pipe stands or height at which the flow through
(gravity)
Turbulence of the fluid

4.5 Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge. The
venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure
below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower
its static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which
pressure difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to
change the area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into
pressure head. A differential pressure measurement between two sections of s pipe of different
diameters and joined by a smooth change in diameter can be interpreted by using Bernoullis
equation, to provide a measure of momentum change and thus velocity. In order to calculate
the flow rate from the differential pressure measurement of the venturi meter, it is necessary
to know the density of the fluid which in this case, the density of water (1000kg/m 3) (Hunt,
1989).

Figure 4.3: Venturi Meter

Assume incompressible flow and no frictional losses, from Bernoullis equation
P1 V 21
P2 V 22
+ +Z 1= + + Z 2
2g
2g

(10)

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (10) becomes

[ ( )]

P1 P 2
V 22
A
+ Z1 Z 2=
1 2

2g
A1

(11)

Ideally,

Q = A2V2 = A2

2 1
2

[ ( )] [
A2
1
A1

P P2
2g 1
+ Z 1Z 2

)]

1
2

(12)

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that
given by equation (12) because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between inlet
and throat.

Qa = (Cd) (A2)

2 1
2

[ ( )] [
A
1 2
A1

P P2
2g 1
+ Z 1Z 2

)]

1
2

(13)

In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally

Z 1=Z 2
determined coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With
in
this apparatus, the discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
Cd =

Qa
Qi

(14)

Discharge coefficient, Cd usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99.

5.0

APPARATUS

10

Figure 5.1: Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration unit

6.0

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
11

1) General Start-up Process

1. The clear acrylic section is installed with the converging section upstream. The union
is also checked to make sure it is tighten.
2. The apparatus is located on the flat top of the bench.
3. A spirit level is attached to baseboard and the level unit on top of the bench by
adjusting the feet.
4. The water is filled to the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until approximately
90% full.
5. The flexible inlet tube is connected using the release coupling in the bed of channel.
6. A flexible hose is connected to the outlet and make sure that it is directed into the
channel.
7. The outlet flow control valve is partially opened.
8. The bench flow control valve, V1 is fully closed the pump is switched on.
9. The V1 is gradually opened and the piping is allowed to fill with water until all air has
been expelled from the system.
10. The trapped bubbles are also checked in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube. If the
bubble exists, the bleeding process is carrying out.
11. The water is flowed into the venturi and discharged into the collection tank.
12. The water flow rate is increased. When the flow in the pipe is steadied and no trapped
bubble, the discharge valve is closed to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable
flow rate.
13. The V1 and the outlet control valve are adjusted to obtain the flow through the test
section and observed that the static profile along the converging and the diverging
section is indicated on its respective manometers.
14. The total head pressure along the venture tube is measured by traversing the
hypodermic tube.
15. The actual flow of water is measured using the volumetric tank with a stop watch.
2) General Shut-down Process
1. The water supply valve and the venturi discharge valve are closed.
2. The water supply pump is turned off.
3. The water is drained off from the unit when not in use.

3) Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration

1. The general start-up procedures above are performed.
12

2. All manometer tubings are checked whether it is properly connected to the

corresponding pressure taps and air-bubble free.
3. The discharge valve is adjusted to a high measurable flow rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, the water flow rate is measured using volumetric method.
5. The hypodermic tube is slide gently (total head measuring) connected to manometer
#H, so that its end reaches the cross section of the venturi tube at #A. after sometimes,
the reading is recorded from manometer #H and #A. The manometer reading for
manometer #H is the sum of the static head and velocity heads (h *). The reading in
manometer #A measured the pressure head (h i) because it is connected to venturi tube
pressure tap, which does not obstruct the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure.
6. The step 5 is repeated for cross sections #B, #C, #D, #E and #F.
7. Steps 3 to 6 are repeated with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the
venturi discharge valve.
8. The velocity, ViB are calculated using the Bernoullis equation where ViB =

2 g ( h h ) .
B

9. The velocity, ViC is calculated using the equity equation where ViC = Qav / Al.
10. The differences between two calculated velocities are determined.

7.0

RESULTS

1) Data Analysis

13

Volume (m3)
Average Time (s)
Flowrate (m3/s)

1st Flowrate
0.003
33.0
9.09x10-5

2nd Flowrate
0.003
13.8
2.17x10-4

3rd Flowrate
0.003
7.8
3.85x10-4

2) 1st Flowrate
Cross
section
#
A
B
C
D
E
F

Using Bernoullis Equation

h* = hH (m)
0.177
0.175
0.174
0.169
0.168
0.168

hi (m)
0.165
0.160
0.130
0.149
0.154
0.158

ViB (m/s)
0.485
0.542
0.930
0.626
0.524
0.443

Using Continuity
Equation
Ai (m2)
ViC (m/s)
-4
5.309x10
0.171
3.664x10-4
0.248
-4
2.011x10
0.452
3.142x10-4
0.289
-4
3.801x10
0.239
5.309x10-4
0.171

Difference
ViB-ViC (m/s)
0.314
0.294
0.478
0.337
0.285
0.272

3) 2nd Flowrate
Cross
section
#
A
B
C
D
E
F

Using Bernoullis Equation

h* = hH (m)
0.228
0.224
0.221
0.213
0.207
0.205

hi (m)
0.190
0.178
0.090
0.148
0.159
0.174

ViB (m/s)
0.863
0.950
1.603
1.129
0.970
0.780

Using Continuity
Equation
Ai (m2)
ViC (m/s)
5.309x10-4
0.409
-4
3.664x10
0.592
2.011x10-4
1.079
-4
3.142x10
0.691
-4
3.801x10
0.571
5.309x10-4
0.409

Difference
ViB-ViC (m/s)
0.454
0.358
0.524
0.438
0.399
0.371

4) 3rd Flowrate
Cross
section
#
A
B
C
D
E
F

8.0

Using Bernoullis Equation

h* = hH (m)
0.300
0.300
0.300
0.289
0.279
0.267

hi (m)
0.234
0.207
0.013
0.139
0.170
0.203

ViB (m/s)
1.138
1.351
2.373
1.716
1.463
1.120

Using Continuity
Equation
Ai (m2)
ViC (m/s)
-4
5.309x10
0.725
3.664x10-4
1.051
-4
2.011x10
1.914
-4
3.142x10
1.225
3.801x10-4
1.013
-4
5.309x10
0.725

Difference
ViB-ViC (m/s)
0.413
0.300
0.459
0.491
0.450
0.395

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

1) The flowrates are calculated from the volume and average time recorded.
Q = Volume / Time (m3/s)
Q = 0.003 / 33.0
14

Q = 9.09x10-5 m3/s
* All the flowrates are calculated using the equation above and can be seen in the table above.

2) Using the Bernoulli equation, the values ViB are calculated using the formula below:
V iB= 2 g ( h hi )

(m/s)

Where, h* = hH

V iB= 2(

9.81 m 2
) ( 0.1770.165 )
s

= 0.485 m/s
* All the

V iB

values are calculated and tabulated in the table above according to its

flowrates.

3) To calculate the ViC values, the area first determined using diameter of the venturi
(refer to figure 4.3)
A l=

D 2l
4

A l=

0.0262
4

(m2)

= 5.309x10-4 m2
* The area for venturi from A to F is the same throughout this experiment because it is the
constant values.
V iC =

Q AV
Al

V iC =

9.09 x 10
4
5.309 x 10

(m/s)
5

= 0.171 m/s

15

4) The difference are then calculated after the values of V are determined
Difference = ViB ViC (m/s)
= (0.485 0.171) m/s
= 0.314 m/s

9.0

DISCUSSION

This experiments also highlighted about the pressure, same as the previous one (flowmeter
measurement). In this experiment, the equipment used consists of a classical venturi made of
clear acrylic. The concept of the venturi meter is when the fluid flow through the inlet or
diverging part, the pressure is increased while the velocity is decreased. Opposite to the latter
facts, when the fluid flows through the converging part, which is at the throat where the
diameter is the smallest, the pressure is decreased while the velocity is at its maximum. This
can be seen in the table below,
Cross section
#
A
B
C
D
E
F

Diameter (m)
0.0260
0.0216
0.0160
0.0200
0.0220
0.0260

(1) ViB (m/s)

0.485
0.542
0.930
0.626
0.524
0.443

Velocities
(2) ViB (m/s)
0.863
0.950
1.603
1.129
0.970
0.780

(3) ViB (m/s)

1.138
1.351
2.373
1.716
1.463
1.120

After the first readings are taken, where the actual readings of the manometer of the first flow
rates successfully recorded, the hypodermic tube for measuring the total head measuring is
connected to manometer #H, so that its end reaches the cross section of the venturi tube at #A,
where it will become resistance in the water, and effected the reading in manometer where the
level of water becomes lower than before. The readings are also the same for other tubes
where the water levels decreased. The results are recorded and calculated for the velocity for
total head and the velocity for pressure head.
The experiments are repeated twice with different flowrates but still the reading showing the
same patterns. The difference is when the flowrates are increased, the results calculated also
increase. For the calculations using the continuity equations, the area of the venturi is
calculated. In this case, the area for the three flowrates is the same as the same equipment and
venturi are used. What differentiate them is only the flowarates because the flowrates on this
experiment are increased. This is because, if the flowrates is let to decrease, there will be error
in taking the measurement as the level of water will lower. Then the 2 nd and 3rd experiment
cannot be carrying out respectively to the first experiment.

16

The flowrates of the water are determined by dividing the volume with time. All the results
calculated are in SI units. The last thing to do after the two velocities are obtained is to
subtract them to find the value of the difference between the two head.

10.0 CONCLUSION
All in all, this experiment obeys the theory and the objectives also achieved. The objective of
this experiment only one, which is to demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem. Most of all,the
Bernoulli theorem explain about the pressure of liquid. The venturi tube also involve in this
experiment because basically venturi is used to determine the pressure and head of the water.
It is suitable the most because it have different diameter across the tube of venturi where it
have throat which we can see the different in pressure and velocity of water.

11.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
There are some recommendations in order to improve this experiment. Firstly, make sure the
experiment is started with the highest level of water or the height of water is at its maximum
so that when the flow rate is decreased, the water will not too low from the manometer tube.
The observer also has to differentiate and familiarized themselves with the valves that they
supposed to handle while running the experiment. The observer tend to get confuse with the
valve, the right way to open or close. The small mistakes will affect the results.
Secondly, avoid any error as possible when doing the experiment. The manometer reading
should be taken perpendicular to the eyes of the observer. The observer also has to use ruler in
order to take the reading because the scale at the apparatus is small. The manometer itself
should have calibration mark to get accurate value of reading.
Lastly, the students should ensure the pipes are cleared from the bubbles when running the
experiment because the bubbles inside the pipe will affect the pressure and height of the water
in the manometer tube resulting the inaccurate reading. To avoid this, bleeding process can be
done. Also to make the experiment more interesting, other types of fluid should be used to see
the pressure difference between using water and other liquid.

17

12.0 REFERENCE
1. Codecogs
(2013).
Eulers
Equation.
Retrieved
from
http://www.codecogs.com/reference/engineering/fluid_mechanics/fundamentals/eulers
_equation.php
2. Hunt, A. (1989). U. S. Patent No. 4856344. Houston, Tex: U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office.
3. Hyperphysics. Bernoulli Equation. Retrieved from http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/pber.html#bcal
4. Utexas (2013). Fox McDonal Excerpt Bernoulli equation. Retrieved from
http://www.me.utexas.edu/~longoria/me383Q/notes/3_fluid_hydraulic/Fox_McDonal
M_Excerpt_Bernoulli_equation.pdf

13.0 APPENDIX
Please refer to the next page.

18