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Modelling and Simulation of Dynamic Behaviour in Crushing Plant

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Modelling and Simulation of Dynamic Behaviour in Crushing Plant

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THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF LICENTIATE OF ENGINEERING

PRODUCT AND PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT

MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR IN

CRUSHING PLANTS
GAUTI ASBJRNSSON

DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCT AND PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT

CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
GTEBORG, SWEDEN

FEBRUARY 2013

Modelling and Simulation of Dynamic Behaviour in Crushing Plants

Thesis for Licentiate of Engineering

ISSN 1652-9243
Technical report No. 75
Published and distributed by
Chalmers University of Technology
Product and Production Development
SE-412 96 Gteborg
Cover: Conveyor at a Jehander plant in Kllered

Printed in Sweden by
Chalmers Reproservice
Gteborg 2013

When You Come to a Fork in the Road, Take It!

Yogi Berra

ABSTRACT
Crushing plants are a vital part in the production of aggregates and metals. Plants are
traditionally simulated with a steady-state simulation. With steady-state simulation the plant is
simulated until equilibrium is achieved. However, crushing is a continuous process and as
such it is subjected to variations and changes in performance depending on the dynamics of
the system. A different technique is therefore necessary to estimate the real behaviour of the
plant.
The main hypothesis in this research is that crushing plants are affected by both gradual and
discrete changes in the process which alter the performance of the entire system, making it
dynamic. A dynamic simulation is defined here as continuous simulations with sets of
differential equations to reproduce the dynamic behaviour of a system. Crushing plants
experience different operating performance depending on the configuration of each individual
process unit, the configuration of the plant, the design of the control system, events occurring
in the process and additional disturbances. Three different application areas for dynamic
simulation have been demonstrated in this thesis: plant performance, process optimization and
operator training. Each of these areas put different constraints on the modelling and
simulation of crushing plants.
Traditional steady-state plant simulations are able to provide an overall estimation of the ideal
performance. Plants can however experience changes in performance during operation. Plant
simulation for an unstable plant has been performed in order to increase the level of stability
of the operation. Simulations and experiments of different operational strategies revealed that
a higher level of stability was possible with different configuration on specific production
units.
Development of control systems is important for the operating conditions in a crushing plant.
Real-time optimization is a relatively new field in aggregate production which aims to
optimize the production in real-time with the help of advanced process control algorithms.
One way of achieving this is with a Finite State Machine. By connecting a Finite State
Machine algorithm to a dynamic simulator, tuning of the control parameters becomes
possible. Even though only a marginal improvement was estimated with optimized
parameters, located with a genetic algorithm, it is an important step in control system
development.
The system structure required to enable operator training was built in the Chalmers Rock
Processing System laboratory. The fundamental framework around the system is built on the
dynamic simulator. The process is simulated in real-time and information from the simulated
process is communicated to a Human Machine Interface and a Programmable Logic
Controller. With this system, different scenarios can be simulated to assist the operator in
gaining knowledge and experience.
In conclusion, dynamic simulation of production processes has the ability to provide the user
with deeper understanding about the simulated process, details that are usually not available
with traditional steady-state simulations. Multiple factors can affect the performance of a
crushing plant, factors that need to be included in the simulation to be able to estimate the
actual plant performance. The dynamic response of a system is determined by the
characteristics of the system involved and the changes in the process.
Key words: Modelling, Dynamic Simulation, Crushing, Screening

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to start by expressing my gratitude to my supervisors Professor Magnus
Evertsson and Dr. Erik Hulthn, who have given me the opportunity to make this journey.
Without Eyjafallajkull this project may never have been formulated, an eruption which I still
get blamed for even though I have no power over the continental drifting. This journey is still
only half way through but it has already been an extraordinary experience and it has been
extremely motivating working with both of you.
Thanks to past and present colleagues at Chalmers Rock Processing Systems (CRPS) at the
department for Product and Production Development. To Elisabeth, Robert and Johannes,
thank you for all the support and advices that you have given me. Without your help I
wouldnt have enjoyed this so much. To Josefine, thanks for the great company over the past
two and a half years and the mutual interest for chocolate.
Without the support from the sponsors this project would never had been possible. Special
thanks go to the board of directors at the Ellen, Walter and Lennart Hesselman Foundation for
Scientific Research. At MinFo - Swedish Mineral Processing Research Association, I thank
Jan Bida. Thanks to Per Murn at NCC roads and the Board of Directors at the Swedish
Construction Development Foundation (SBUF) and finally to the Board of Directors at the
MinBaS II program.
Close collaboration with the industry is essential for any project. Support in the form of data
and access to plants has been really important for me. Thanks to the plant personnel and
management at the following sites: Jehanders in Fjrs, Kllered and Riksten, NCC in
Glimmingen and Steningssund, especially Pr Johnning, Anglo Platinum in Mogalakwena,
South Africa and finally to Kristoffer, Michael and Per at Roctim AB.
To everybody that has in some way been involved in this journey, to fellow researchers at
Global Comminution Collaboration (GCC), the discussions at conferences and meetings have
been a learning experience.
Finally I would like to thank my friends and family for their never ending love and support.
Thanks to my mom for giving me curiosity and the capability to enjoying the smaller things in
life. Thanks to my Icelandic friends that always treat me like I never left. Thanks to Hanna,
for bringing so much laughter into my life.
Gauti Asbjrnsson
Gteborg, February 2013

iii

PUBLICATIONS
This thesis contains the following papers.
Paper A: Asbjrnsson, G., Hulthn, E. and Evertsson, C. M., Modelling and Dynamic
Simulation of Gradual Performance Deterioration of a Crushing Circuit Including Time Dependence and Wear, Minerals Engineering (Journal), 2012,
Volume 33, pp 13-19.
Paper B: Asbjrnsson, G., Hulthn, E. and Evertsson, C. M., Modelling and Simulation of
Dynamic Crushing Plant Behaviour with MATLAB/Simulink, In press at Minerals
Engineering (Journal), 2012.
Paper C: Hulthn, E., Asbjrnsson, G. and Evertsson, C. M., Tuning of Real-Time Algorithm
for Crushing Plants Using a Dynamic Crushing Plant Simulator, Published in the
proceedings of the 8th International Comminution Symposium, Cape Town, South
Africa, 17-20 April 2012.
Paper D: Hulthn, E., Asbjrnsson, G. and Evertsson, C. M., A Training Simulator for
Crushing Plant Operators, Published in the proceedings of the XXVI International
Mineral Processing Congress, New Delhi, India, 24-28 September 2012.
Paper E: Asbjrnsson, G., Hulthn, E. and Evertsson, C. M., Modelling Dynamic Behaviour
of Storage Bins for Material Handling in Dynamic Simulations, Published in the
proceedings of the XXVI International Mineral Processing Congress, New Delhi,
India, 24-28 September 2012.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO CO-AUTHORED PAPERS

In all the papers A-E, Asbjrnsson, Evertsson and Hulthn initiated the idea.
Papers A-B & D: Implementation was conducted by Asbjrnsson. Asbjrnsson wrote the
paper with Evertsson and Hulthn as reviewers.
Papers C: Implementation was conducted by Hulthn. Asbjrnsson provided the simulator.
Hulthn and Asbjrnsson wrote the paper with Evertsson as a reviewer.
Paper E: Implementation was conducted by Ankarbranth and Mrtenson. Asbjrnsson
provided the simulator. Hulthn and Asbjrnsson wrote the paper with Evertsson as a
reviewer.

CONTENT
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements ..........................................................................................................iii
Publications ....................................................................................................................... v
Contributions to Co-Authored Papers ............................................................................... v
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Crushing & Screening.............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Crushing Plants in Mining and Aggregate Production ............................................ 3
1.3 Plant Control ............................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Operators .................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Plant Simulations ..................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Problems Associated With Plant Simulations ......................................................... 6
2 Objectives ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Research Outline ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Research Questions .................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Delimitations ............................................................................................................ 8
3 Research Approach ........................................................................................................ 9
3.1 Research Methodology ............................................................................................ 9
4 Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 11
4.1 Comminution ......................................................................................................... 11
4.2 Crushing Plant Simulation ..................................................................................... 12
4.3 Factors Influencing Plant Production .................................................................... 13
5 Modelling of Crushing Plants ...................................................................................... 15
5.1 Modelling Approach .............................................................................................. 16
5.2 Modelling System Dynamics ................................................................................. 18
6 Application of Dynamic Simulation ............................................................................ 31
6.1 Plant Performance .................................................................................................. 31
6.2 Process Optimization ............................................................................................. 36
6.3 Operator Training .................................................................................................. 38
7 Results & Discussions ................................................................................................. 39
7.1 Plant Performance .................................................................................................. 39
7.2 Process Optimization ............................................................................................. 41
7.3 Operator Training .................................................................................................. 43
8 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 45
8.1 General ................................................................................................................... 45
8.2 Answers to Research Question .............................................................................. 45
vii

9 Future Work................................................................................................................. 49
References ....................................................................................................................... 51
Appendix
Paper A: Modelling & Dynamic Simulation of Gradual Performance Deterioration of a
Crushing Circuit - Including Time Dependence and Wear
Paper B: Modelling & Simulation of Dynamic Crushing Plant Behaviour with
MATLAB/Simulink
Paper C: Tuning of Real-Time Algorithm for Crushing Plants Using a Dynamic Crushing
Plant Simulator
Paper D: A Training Simulator for Crushing Plant Operators
Paper E: Modelling Dynamic Behaviour of Storage Bins for Material Handling in Dynamic
Simulations

viii

1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this chapter is to:

Introduce the principles of crushing and screening.

Provide an overview of crushing plants in general, the process, the control and their
operators.
Give an introduction into the simulation technique.
Define the problems with plant simulations today.

Modern society is literally built on rock. Construction such as buildings, roads, bridges and
railways are almost entirely built out of excavated rock material which has been processed
into a usable product, such as aggregates and metals. Aggregates are processed rock materials
such as sand and gravel, commonly used in roads and construction. Structural frames and rails
are constructed from steel material which is a product of mining, a process in which the
metals in the ore are extracted from the raw material and then used to create other products,
for example steel.
In Sweden, aggregate production is an industry with approximately 920 active quarries spread
throughout the country. In 2008 they produced 101 million tonnes. Most quarries are however
relatively small, with 78 % of the plants producing less than 10.000 tonnes annually [1].
Aggregate production in Sweden is increasing again after the global economic crisis in late
2008 which affected the quantity of infrastructure and construction projects in Sweden in
2009 and in 2010.
Sweden is one of the major mining nations in Europe. In total, nearly 68 million tonnes of ore
were mined in Sweden in 2011 from only 13 mines. Out of these 68 million tonnes, 30.8
million tonnes was from iron ore. The rest consisted of zinc, copper, lead, silver and other
metals [2]. Over the last decade the price of base and precious metals has steadily increased.
In the case for gold for example, the price in 2001 was roughly 280 USD/oz. and in 2011 the
price reached 1896 USD/oz., which is a 677 % increase over 10 years [3]. This growth has
caused an increased focus on process development in the mining industry and several research
groups are collaborating to react to this research demand.

1.1 CRUSHING & SCREENING

Comminution is the process of size reduction of particles until the liberation of valuable
minerals can be achieved [4]. In mining and aggregate production, the size reduction of rock
material can be achieved by blasting, crushing and grinding. The material is processed in a
number of different stages until a desirable particle size distribution is achieved. In Figure 1, a
layout of a crushing plant in an aggregate production process can be seen. The material is
crushed in crushers and classified in screens.

Figure 1. A crushing plant in an aggregate application.

Comminution of rock material in mining and aggregate production is usually categorised with
three different crushing principles: compression, impact and attrition. These principles are
described in detail by Evertsson [5] and Lee [6], who denote a more general name instead,
form conditioned and energy conditioned crushing.
In form conditioned crushing, the size reduction is performed by a controlled compression of
a particle or particles to a certain degree or displacement. Form conditioned crushing can be
found in jaw- gyratory- and cone crushers (see Figure 2a). In the case of form conditioned
crushing, the amount of size reduction is determined by the displacement of the surfaces
while the force and energy required for the size reduction are functions of the displacement.
In cone crushers, the crushing is enabled with an eccentrically nutating cone within a concave.
The amount of surface displacement is determined by the amount of eccentric motion of the
cone.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 2. Schematic principles of form conditioned crushing (a), energy conditioned crushing (b) and attrition
(c), as presented by Evertsson [5].

In energy conditioned crushing, size reduction is determined by the amount of kinetic energy
applied to the particles (see Figure 2b). The more kinetic energy applied to the particles, the
harder the particles are thrown against a solid steel wall or a bed of particles which
subsequently determines the amount of breakage of the particles. This form of breakage is
typical for Vertical Shaft Impact (VSI) crushers and Mills. In VSIs the material is fed onto a
rotating plate which changes the trajectory of the particles and throws them against a steel
wall or a bed of particles. The faster the plate rotates, the harder the particles are thrown,
thereby generating more breakage.

Attrition is breakage caused by shear failure [5], usually as a result of friction between
particles, such as in interparticle breakage [6] (Figure 2c). This friction is caused by the
difference in relative motion between the particles which occurs in both form conditioned and
energy conditioned crushing. This type of breakage usually generates more fines as small
corners on the particle are chipped off in the process.
Classification is the process of separating objects according to specific grades. In the crushing
phase the flow of material is separated with respect to specific particle size. Different
techniques can be used to separate the material flow into separate fractions. Usually the
technique used is determined by the particle size distribution of the feed. For a coarse
material, vibrating screening decks or grizzlies are most commonly used. There, the material
is transported over the screening deck due to the inclination and the oscillating motion of the
deck. This enables the particles to move in the particle bed and eventually fall through
apertures on the deck if the particle is smaller than the size of the aperture, see Figure 3a.
Particles larger than the aperture on the screen will however not fall through and are therefore
transported over the deck [7].

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Two methods of separating the material with respect to certain particle size. With a fixed aperture (a)
and with relative drag force (b).

For fractions smaller than 2 mm, vibrating screens become insufficient due to pegging and
blinding. In cases where it is beneficial to separate the sub 2 mm material, such as for the
production of manufactured sand [8] and in the mining industry, air classifiers or
hydrocyclones can be used. The same principle applies in both cases but with different media
used; air or water. If the drag force on the particle, which is generated by the flow of the
medium, is larger than the gravitational force the particle will follow the flow. If, on the other
hand, the gravitational force is larger than the drag force, the particle will fall down, as
illustrated in Figure 3b. The cut point can therefore be controlled by manipulating the flow of
the medium [8].

1.2 CRUSHING PLANTS IN MINING AND AGGREGATE PRODUCTION

A crushing plant is a configuration of different production units, such as crushers, screens,
conveyors, bins, stockpiles and feeders. The number and configuration of units is dependent
on the preferred performance for which the plant and equipment are designed. The
configuration of each plant depends on the feed from the quarry and the desired purpose of
the material. This can range from a single crusher with a couple of conveyors to multiple
reduction stages in combination with a complex system of bins, screens and conveyors.
3

The setup and the configuration between crushing plants for mining and aggregate
applications differ as they have different purposes. In aggregate production, the purpose of the
process is to create a narrow, particular particle size fraction (the product in Figure 4a), while
minimizing the circulating load and the finer by-product (see Figure 1 and Figure 4a). The
size fraction that is desirable is usually determined by the market demand and the available
material at the plant.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4. Schematic illustration of capacity, product, circulating load and by-product identified on a particle
size distribution for aggregate (a) respectively mining application (b), as presented by Lee [6].

In mining applications, the purpose is to generate fine particles as depicted in Figure 4b. The
particles should be fine enough so that the valuable minerals in the ore can be liberated and
purified [4]. After the dry crushing section, the fine material (40 mm) is fed to mills for
further size reduction before it is sent to flotation.

1.3 PLANT CONTROL

Any modern industrial process that involves mass production with continuous processes, such
as aggregates and mining, uses a high level of automation and process control. The larger and
more complex the production system the higher the demand is on the level of automation. In
crushing, the level of automation is relatively low compared to other process industries,
especially for aggregate production.
Control system architecture of a typical crushing plant consists of local regulatory controls on
actuators, which operate under a supervisory controller. How the controllers operate will
depend on the control objectives and the response of the system. Process units such as
feeders, the most commonly controlled actuators in a crushing circuit, are controlled by
altering the frequency of the actuator with an On-Off controller or a PID controller which in
turn changes the flow rate from the feeder to supply the subsequent part of the circuit with
material. More advanced control algorithms are required when controlling crushers.
Asbjrnsson and berg [9] and Hulthn [10] have described different methods for controlling
a cone crusher. In Figure 5, a closed control loop for controlling the Close Side Settings
(CSS) and the eccentric speed on a cone crusher is illustrated [10].
If the focus on the control system is neglected during the design phase of the plant, a number
of problems can occur during the start-up of the plant, such as lower plant performance or
unexpected fluctuation as a consequence of process instability.
4

Figure 5. A closed loop process control for controlling the CSS and the eccentric speed of a cone crusher, as
presented by Hulthn [10].

1.4 OPERATORS
Operators are responsible for keeping the process running. The level and the type of
interaction an operator has with the process is determined by a number of factors such as: the
level of automation integrated into the process, the size of the plant, the complexity of the
process and the operational management. In a larger plant, with a high number of personnel,
an operators tasks become more specific, such as maintenance, material hauling or process
monitoring, whereas in a smaller plant, the operator can be involved in all of the previously
mentioned tasks.
Even with an increased automation in general, the level of automation is usually considered to
be quite scarce in the aggregate and mining industry. Many decisions are made by the
operators, decisions that rely on the operators previous experience. Multiple operating
decisions, which in many cases could be controlled by the supervisory control system, are left
up to manual control. For instance, the crusher operating set points for cone crushers, e.g. the
CSS and eccentric speed, are often selected by operators, resulting in crusher performance
being dependent on the operators ability to select appropriate operating set points for that
particular condition.
A common reason for operators to shut down the process is due to maintenance. The process
and equipment are designed to withstand high load, abrasive material and high vibration.
Because of this the process does not require frequent maintenance, except for changing wear
parts. Wear on critical components usually affects the process by causing loss of potential
production [10, 11]. Regular maintenance of such components is therefore necessary, but too
frequent maintenance is not advantageous either, since the cost of new components and
downtime has to be less than the potential gain in production profit.

1.5 PLANT SIMULATIONS

Equipment manufacturers as well as plant designers use software packages for predicting the
plant performance. There are a number of software packages available that are able to predict
plant performance. The most widely used type of simulations technique is steady-state
simulations, meaning that the system is considered to be at equilibrium with all derivatives
equal to zero. Another common simulation technique is dynamic simulation, sometimes
called time-dependent simulation. Dynamic simulation calculates the performance of the
system under different operating conditions as the system experiences changes and
accumulation of mass.

Eq. 1.1 illustrates how an output (differentiation of xi with respect to t) is linked to multiple
input variables (u1(t),,um(t)) and internal state variables (x1(t),,xn(t)) which are timedependent (t) [12].

dxi (t )
= fi ( x1 (t ),..., xn (t ), u1 (t ),..., um (t ))
dt

(1.1)

Examples of steady-state simulation packages include: PlantDesigner (Sandvik), Bruno

(Metso Minerals), JKSimMet (JKMRC), Aggflow (BedRock Solution) & UsimPac (Caspeo).
Examples of available software that can perform dynamic simulations includes: SysCAD
(Kenwalt), MetProSim (Metso Minerals), MATLAB/Simulink (Mathworks), Aspen
Dynamics (Aspentech) and Dymola (Dassault Systmes), With SysCAD and MetProSim
currently being the only feasible software with a built-in equipment library for comminution.
Plant simulations are usually used for evaluating plant performance or for optimizing a
current design. For these simulations, the steady-state simulation technique is an industry
standard with multiple available software that can perform the task. Steady-state simulations
are easy to set up and can offer results within a few seconds. Dynamic simulation however,
requires more configurations and more calculation time but in return it can give more detailed
information about the plant performance under different conditions. The increased
configuration time is a consequence of the additional effort required in constructing the plant
controllers and discrete events. The necessary calculation time increases as well since the
accumulation of mass, the response of the system and changes within the system have to be
calculated during a predetermined time period.

1.6 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PLANT SIMULATIONS

Every process is subjected to changes in performance and efficiency over time. Traditional
plant simulations are performed with steady-state simulation and are therefore limited to
showing only the performance in an ideal situation. However, actual plant performance
usually tends to deviate away from the predicted plant performance. These dynamics are
usually consequences of an altered state of the plant due to factors such as natural variations,
unmatched, inappropriate or degrading equipment performance and stochastic events.
Simulations are usually considered to be a cost effective tool. It is easier and cheaper to
simulate the process behaviour rather than building the actual process and running
experiments to find its optimal settings. Process simulations for aggregate production and
mining are limited when it comes to the plant startup phase. With steady-state simulations, no
consideration is taken with regards to control, startup and shutdown operation. This results in
a trial-and-error phase, where operators adjust equipment and control settings in order to
achieve maximum performance of the system.
Operators usually rely on their own previous experience, as mentioned in Section 1.4.
However, this entails that the operator needs to have experienced from that particular situation
before and remembers which reaction was taken and how that reaction affected the process
and the production. There are multiple scenarios that can be performed and maybe only a
handful of these will result in improved process performance. Operator training is one way of
reducing the risk of operators making the wrong decision to changes in the process. With
operator training, multiple cases can be created in which the operator can test different
strategies to deal with the problem.
6

2 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this chapter is to:
Describe the aim and objective of the research.
Formulate the research questions.
Clarify the delimitations of the research undertaken.

2.1 RESEARCH OUTLINE

The aim of this research is to understand how crushing plants which are used for production
of aggregates and metals operate under different conditions over time and to develop
knowledge and methods for improving plant operation. The main objective of this research is
thus to develop models and a simulation platform for the analysis of time-dependent plant
behaviour in crushing plants.
The hypothesis of this research is that crushing plants, as a continuous process, are affected
by gradual and discrete changes in the process, which in turn alters the performance of the
entire system. In order to simulate the effects that the changes have on the process, a dynamic
simulator has been developed. A dynamic simulation is defined here as continuous simulation
with sets of differential equations used to reproduce the dynamic behaviour of a system.
This thesis focuses on the plant operation and the performance of crushing plants for both
aggregate plants and the dry comminution in mining applications. The area of focus for a
mineral processing plant is depicted in Figure 6.

Figure 6. The focus of this is the crushing and screening stage in aggregate and mineral plants alike, depicted in
the dashed box.

2.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The scope of this thesis can be described by the following research questions:
RQ1.

What factors can cause dynamic behaviour in crushing plants?

RQ2.

What methods and techniques exist, and should be used to represent

dynamic crushing plant behaviour?

RQ3.

How can dynamic simulations assist in evaluation of effects of step

changes and other variations on crushing plant response and production?

RQ4.

How can dynamic simulation be used for industrial purposes?

2.3 DELIMITATIONS
In this work the focus on the plant operation and performance has been from a holistic
perspective. Plant simulations include multiple equipment models with different
characteristics and complexity. A majority of models used during the plant simulations are
industry and academic standards but often with some modification in order to account for the
dynamic behaviour.
Drilling and blasting is left outside the scope of this thesis. The product from the blasting is
entered as a feed input for the plant simulation, which includes the particle size distribution
and material properties. In a similar way milling and flotation are also left outside the scope
of this work. The material is in turn defined as a product as it leaves the last crushing stage.
At this stage of the work no consideration is taken into the quality aspects of the rock
material, e.g. the ore grade and the flakiness of the rock.

3 RESEARCH APPROACH
The aim of this chapter is to:
Introduce the research methodology used.
This research was carried out at the Chalmers Rock Processing Systems (CRPS), which is a
part of the Machine Element Group at the Department of Product and Production
Development at Chalmers University of Technology. The group has been active in research
within the field of equipment [5-8, 11, 13] and process performance [10, 14] for two decades.

3.1 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research approach which has been adopted by the Machine Elements Group is
characterised as a problem-based approach. The process of problem-based research has been
described by Evertsson [5] and Lee [6] and is depicted in Figure 7. In problem-oriented
research the choice of methods for solving the problem or question of interest is based on the
nature of the problem itself. In other words the problem itself is in the focus rather than the
method or tools required to solve it.

Problem/Question

Phenomen
Breakdowns
Malfunction
Lack of knowledge

Observations

Literature
Data acquisition
Guiding experiment

Method selection and

modelling

Physical principles
Assumptions
Fundimental experiments

Verification

Simulations
Optimizations
Validation experiments

Case studies

Simulations
Optimizations
Full-scale experiments

Implementation

Solution

Design consideration

New or redesigned product

Figure 7. The applied problem-oriented research model as illustrated by Evertsson [5].

Svedensten [14] and Hulthn [10] adopted a different view to the problem-oriented research
approach due to the nature of their respective problems. In their opinion, the importance of
early implementation was essential for the reliability of the results, making it an integrated
part of the entire problem-oriented process. According to Crotty [15], each piece of research
is unique and calls for a unique methodology. Therefore a general view of problem-based
research is described here in detail in order to further show the holistic perspective of the
approach.
This work, like other projects at CRPS, was initiated and objectives formulated with regards
to an identified problem or a research gap with an industrial relevance. The problem or
question in hand is usually a single entity in the system which for some reason causes
undesirable changes in the process or can be improved to increase the performance of the
process or an object.
The first step after the initial problem formulation is to identify the most significant aspect of
the problem through observations using both quantitative and qualitative methods such as
literature studies, initial experiments, interviews and on-site data acquisition.
When the most significant aspect of the problem has been identified the task of method
selection and modelling can start. As mentioned earlier, in problem-oriented research the
choice of methods for solving the problem or question of interest is based on the nature of the
problem itself and therefore is an in-depth knowledge of the problem is essential before this
phase can be appropriately carried out.
The models are run through a series of simulations and validation experiments to determine
the fidelity of the results. This is an iterative process. If models or methods are not adequate
enough the process is repeated with new sets of experiments or possibly new modelling or
method selection which improves the representation of the studied object or process. If the
models are adequate, larger case studies are performed to further evaluate the models and
methods.
How the implementation is conducted is different depending on the characteristics of the
problem. Generally the implementation is performed after the iteration process, often as an
integrated part of the results from the research as depicted in Figure 7. However, as pointed
out by Svedensten [14] and Hulthn [10], an early implementation, during the research phase,
is quite important as it will add an additional dimension to the validation process and ensure
that the research results are applicable when implemented in reality.
The CRPS works in conjunction with the Swedish aggregate and mining industries. By
working closely with the industry, problem identification and research implementation
becomes more qualitative as challenges that are faced by the industry are studied.

4 LITERATURE REVIEW
The aim of this chapter is to:
Provide an overview and introduction to the research on aggregate and mining
production.
Describe research that has focused on dynamic simulation of crushing plants.
Describe related research areas that have studied factors that influence plant
performance.
The research done on crushing plant simulation is diverse. The focus is mainly concentrated
on single production units, while less focus is given to the interaction between different units,
the operation of the plant and controls. This seems to be the case in both the mining and the
aggregate industries.

4.1 COMMINUTION
The essential parts of any crushing plant are the size reduction and size separation processes.
The classical comminution theories, which were derived by Rittinger [16], Kick [17] and
Bond [18] respectively, aim to describe the relation between energy and size reduction for a
given feed size. The three theories, which are usually referred to as the first, second and third
theory of comminution, are formulated in Eq. 2.1 2.3.
1
1
ERittninger = CRitt

p80 f80

(2.1)

p
EKick = CKick ln 80
f80

(2.2)

1
10
1
10
EBond = CBond

= WI

f
f
80
80
80
80

(2.3)

Where E is the energy input, C is a material constant, p80 is the size which 80 % of the
product passes, and f80 is the size which 80 % of the feed passes. WI is the Bonds work index
which expresses the resistance of a material to crushing or grinding. This constant is a
function of material properties and the efficiency of the crusher. A lower efficiency in a
crusher will give a higher work index.
These theories, especially Bonds and Rittingers, aim to provide an estimation of product
particle size from empirical testing for crushing and grinding. A significant drawback of these
11

theories is however that they only rely on a single point of the particle size distribution curve
as pointed out by Lindqvist [19], namely f80 and p80. This is not enough to characterize the
whole particle size distribution curve and can only provide a rough estimation of the breakage
behaviour in comminution equipment. Walker et al. [20] and later Hukki [21] were able to
create a more general form of the relation between energy and size reduction. Today the
energy-size relation in the comminution process is usually presented in the form of the
differential equation proposed by Walker [20] and revised by Hukki (see Eq. 2.4) which is
proportional to the surface area of the particle in relation to specific volume.

dE = C

dx
x f ( x)

(2.4)

Crushers are an essential part of the process as the size reduction occurs in the crusher. The
most common mathematical model used today for expressing the crusher performance is the
empirical Selection-Breakage model proposed by Whiten [22]. This model is however
empirically fitted to data from drop weight tests, which is more suitable for mills than
compressive crushers and does not predict capacity. More detailed analytical models based on
the mechanical properties of the crusher have been proposed by Evertsson [5] and Briggs
[23]. These models can provide more accurate information from the process but require
detailed information about crusher geometry, breakage behaviour and require considerable
simulation time.
Screens are traditionally simulated with quite simple mathematical models. The most
commonly used model is the one proposed by Karra [24], where the screen efficiency is
determined by a number of independent factors. A more detailed model has been proposed by
Soldinger [7] where stratification between particles is estimated in order to calculate
screening efficiency.

4.2 CRUSHING PLANT SIMULATION

Research on numerical crushing plant simulations has been conducted since the 1970s, by
researchers such as Lynch [25] and Whiten [22] (JKSimMet at JKMRC), King [26]
(MODSIM at University of Utah) and Svedensten [14] (PlantDesigner at Chalmers University
of Technology). These software, as well as Bruno (Metso Minerals) and Aggflow (BedRock
Software LLC), are all steady-state simulations packages which are industrial standards for
evaluating plant performance in both the aggregate and the mining industries.
Steady-state simulations have been used with great success for plant analyses and
optimizations [14, 27]. However, these simulators lack a certain perspective of the operation,
namely, changes in the system over time and performance at non-ideal operating conditions.
The development and the use of continuous-time simulation (or dynamic simulation) has been
increasing worldwide in aggregate and mineral processing.
The most commonly used platform for dynamic modelling is the MATLAB/Simulink
software. However, other commercial software packages are available such as SysCad and
MetProSim as previously mentioned.
In Sbarbaro [28], semi empirical models are used and modified to give the plant a dynamic
response. This is done by including accumulation of mass, time delay and simple mixing
models to enable model-based control system design. Sbarabro states that even though
12

mechanicals models are used to describe the factors affecting the unit, the empirical models
are more feasible since they provide a reasonable compromise between representability and
simplicity. However, no consideration is given to dynamic response of the actuators, gradual
changes due to wear or discrete events.
Similar to Sbarbaro, Liu et al [29], adds accumulation of mass, time delay and mixing models
to empirical models. The focus is only on a simple grinding circuit to visualize the
possibilities of using dynamic simulation, where the mill is equipped with a constant
residence time. The equipment used in this study only includes a mill and a hydrocyclone
where even the model for the hydrocyclone does not include any dynamics, thus limiting the
general purpose use of dynamic simulation.
In Itvuos work [30] the base for the dynamic modelling is the mechanistic crusher model
developed by Evertsson [5], with the addition of the effects from material properties studied
by Ruuskanen [31]. Itvuo estimates the response of the actuators under different condition to
be able to estimate the actual response of the crusher when discrete changes are initiated such
as changing the CSS. These simulations are computational heavy making the simulation time
long and not suitable for all purposes, however these simulations are able to supply qualitative
information about the process response and are therefore well suited to the development of
control system.
Evaluating long-term availability of production units in comminution has been done by
Herbst et al [32]. In their work a continuous-time simulation was run together with a Discrete
Event Simulation (DES) in MetProSim to include the impact of discrete events such as
scheduled and unscheduled maintenance. The unscheduled maintenance was random
stochastic events generated from the specific mean time between failures and a probability
distribution for the time between failures, while scheduled events occur at a predetermined
instance. This data is usually gathered from historical data from the plant such as from
equipment logs and plant data, but estimating this information for a non-existing plant is
difficult since no data is available. Also, since the events are randomly generated the results
will differ in each individual simulation.
The use of dynamic simulators is still not generally common in aggregates and mineral
processing. The use of dynamic simulators within other industries is usually tied to control
system development. By using a dynamic simulator, the control system can be designed and
tuned without access to a physical plant as illustrated by Sbarbaro [28], Itvuo [30] and
Herbst [28, 30, 33].
The operators are an essential part of the process but are often overlooked [34]. Even though a
major part of the process is controlled by automation the operators are still interacting with
the process on different levels. Very few cases have been documented where a dynamic
simulator has been connected to Human-Machine Interface (HMI) to train operators to control
the simulated process [35, 36]. This procedure is standard within other industries such as in
power plants and aviation [37, 38].

4.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING PLANT PRODUCTION

Every production process experiences dynamic behavior as a result of internal and external
disturbances. The process can be sensitive to wear, segregation, natural variations and more.
Wear on equipment and machine parts in comminution is extensive due to the characteristics
of the crushing process and will have different effects on the process depending on the
machinery and rock material. Studies on wear in comminution is a reoccurring subject both
13

due to the fact that it affects the production [10, 11, 39] and because of the environmental
impact [40]. The wear in compressive crushers, such as cone crushers, is typically categorized
as only abrasive [11], this causes changes in the liner profiles and in turn affects the crushers
performance. The amount of wear in a cone crusher depends on a number of factors such as
material properties, particle size distribution [41] and moisture [42].
Research on wear on screening media is not as comprehensive as the wear in crushers and
mills but as pointed out by Svedensten [43], wear on screens does cause larger aperture on the
cloth and therefore alters the particle size distribution of the screened product. This is a large
problem when considering quality of the aggregate production where production of a
particular particle size is important because of quality requirements.
Segregation and inadequate material handling can reduce plant performance and product
quality. In Powell et al. [44], several problems are identified that are considered to be a direct
consequence of segregation and inadequate material handling in a dry crushing section in a
mining application. If not attended to, these problems can cause reduced plant performance
and could even cause premature equipment failure. Even though segregation is often possible
to observe with the naked eye it is usually studied with a Discrete Element Method (DEM)
and in Quist and Evertsson [45] segregation in cone crushers is studied. Factors such as lower
product quality, uneven wear, high stress amplitudes and premature equipment failure are
considered as consequences of segregation and misalignment of crusher feed.
One of the challenges in plant simulation is the estimation of natural variations and variations
are everywhere, both in the production units and in the rock material itself [46]. Continuous
monitoring, such as mass-flow meters [10] and image analyses of particle size distribution
[47] can provide helpful information about the process variations but certain information can
still only by gathered by manual sampling from the process (material properties and often
particle size distribution). This is not ideal as the samples are small compared to the amount
of processed material and only reflect a momentary state at a certain part of the process.
Several factors that affect equipment performance with specific focus on cone crushers have
been discussed from a holistic perspective by Evertsson [5] and from a time-dependent
perspective by Bearman & Briggs [48]. The effect of varying feed by, for example, feed
grading, crushability, moisture content and more has been described in detail by Ruuskanen
[31] but most of the data has been gathered when studying one factor at a time, therefore not
taking into consideration the possible effects of interaction.

5 MODELLING OF CRUSHING PLANTS

The aim of this chapter is to:
Introduce the characteristics of dynamic modelling.
Explain the modelling approach adopted in this thesis.
Present the different elements needed for dynamic modelling of crushing plants.
Modelling and simulation of industrial processes, such as crushing plants, provides an insight
in the process which would be difficult to obtain otherwise. However, the modelling process
is a complex task involving different systems that requires different modelling techniques
depending on the characteristics of the problem. In general, dynamic plant simulations include
a number of different factors that needs to be included which affect the dynamic performance
of the system. The process can be sensitive to startups, discrete events, wear, segregation,
natural variations and other factors that common during operation. All depending on
interaction between single production units, plant configuration, plant control and diverse
events and disturbances that can influence the process, see Figure 8.

Figure 8. Plant dynamics can originate from different sections in the process operation.

Changes and variations occur everywhere in the process and can be both discrete and gradual.
Figure 9 illustrates factors that can affect the total performance of the plant in one way or
another, ranging from different settings of production units to unavoidable consequences of
the process such as wear and segregation. How these elements affect the process is dependent
on multiple factors involving both the rock material itself and the utilized production units.

Figure 9. Cause-and-effect diagram over factors that can influence plant performance.

5.1 MODELLING APPROACH

A crushing plant is a system of different production units and components connected together.
The modelled system is built up in a similar manner as with multiple principal subsystems
connected together to build a plant model. With a well-defined system the performance of the
plant can be predicted. The accuracy will be dependent on how well the model is able to
replicate the real conditions of the plant.
For the modelling of the system a modular approach has been adopted. With a modular
approach the modelling is done with a top down design perspective. In other words, the
system is divided into smaller subsystems or models, denoted the equipment level. Each
subsystem can be further divided into smaller modules to represents the functional level of
that particular subsystem. Each subsystem is built as an individual model and can therefore be
handled separately. Figure 10 illustrates the hierarchal structure of the modelled system.
Plant

Other

Conveyor

Plant Level

Screen

Crusher

Capacity

Size Distribution

Equipment Level

Functional Level

Figure 10. Illustration of the system hierarchy.

Since each equipment model is an independent entity, the communication between models
needs to be standardized. The data flows from one model to another and is transformed as it
moves through the plant model. This data contains important information about the material
which determines the performance of the system. This includes information about the particle
size distribution (PSD(t)), the mass-flow ((t)) and properties of the material ((t)) as
16

illustrated in Eq. 5.1. Each models output is bundled together into a vector which is the
communicated as an input signal to the next model which in turn extracts the necessary
information.

PSD(t )
Material signal = m (t )
(t )

(5.1)

Each module is expressed as a set of mathematical equations which are used to predict the
performance of the system. The mathematical equations can be derived from fundamental
principles of the physical behaviour of the system or empirically from experiments which aim
to explain the correlation between different parameters. Simplifications and qualified
assumptions are often needed in order to assure the level of fidelity of the simulation results in
respect to the required computational time.
MODELLING THE PLANT
The plant model is constructed as a flowsheet, as depicted in Figure 11. In comparison with
traditional steady-state flowsheet models more units are included representing the conveyors,
bins and other time-dependent units. Each involved subsystem is placed accordingly in the
process and connected to sequential models. Once the process has been defined, the process
settings are configured according to user preference. Appropriate material properties are
specified and operating conditions are defined. Finally, control loops of the material flow are
created. These factors will determine the predicted performance of the system.

Material Source

Conveyor 1

Bin

Crusher

Conveyor 3
Conveyor 2

Screen

Conveyor 4

Product Coarse

Conveyor 5

Product Fine

Figure 11. Flowsheet of a single crushing state in MATLAB/Simulink with a simplified layout of the plant in the
embedded picture. The broad signal lines between the production units represent the material signal presented
in Eq. 5.1 while the thin signal lines are process values (ypv(t)) explained in Eq. 5.11.

The modelling work has been performed with two different simulation platforms. The work
was initiated with the simulation software SysCAD which is a commercial simulator with a
built-in equipment library. The modelling work continued with MATLAB/Simulink in order
to enable a more detailed level and flexibility of the models. MATLAB/Simulink is a
commercial simulation software developed for simulating and analysing dynamic and discrete
systems. It is widely used within the industry as well as within academia for representing
process behaviour and control systems. MATLAB/Simulink provides a graphical
programming user interface with block-oriented modelling.

5.2 MODELLING SYSTEM DYNAMICS

The essential modelling principle in traditional steady-state simulation is that the system is
simulated until equilibrium is achieved as stated in Eq. 5.2, with all derivatives equal to zero.
This means that mass-balance needs to be in all points. In Eq. 5.3 a general mass-balance
equation for a three stream connection point is illustrated where aSR is the split ratio of the
incoming mass-flow, min, to the two outgoing mass-flows, m1,out and m2,out.
dxi (t )
= fi ( x1 (t ),..., xn (t ), u1 (t ),..., um (t )) = 0
dt

(5.2)

m1, out = (1 a SR ) min

min = m1, out + m 2, out
m 2, out = a SR min

(5.3)

In a dynamic system, the system experiences different operating conditions when changes
occur in the system. This results in the time-derivative not being equal to zero as defined in
Eq. 5.2. These dynamics are usually consequences of an altered state of the plant over time
due to factors such as natural variations, unmatched, inappropriate or degrading equipment
performance and stochastic events. It is the authors opinion and experience that crushing
plants seldom operate under steady conditions during longer time periods. The production
should therefore be considered to be a time-dependent instead of being constant.
In Figure 12 a general representation of a dynamic system is illustrated. The input u is an
input parameter into the model which includes information about the material characteristic
and the design parameters. The material characteristic information fed into the model is the
cumulated particle size distribution, mass-flow and material properties as illustrated in Eq.
5.1. While the design parameters are the settings of the production unit involved, these can be
constants, such as throw in a crusher, or variables which can change over time, such as CSS.
The disturbance, denoted with w, illustrates the external changes in the process causing both
gradual and discrete changes in the performance. The output y is the performance of the
model. The output signals are constructed in the same way as the input signals as they are
often further communicated to a sequential model. The internal state variable x and the
differentiation of variable x describe the state of the system such as the accumulation of mass.

Figure 12. General representation of a dynamic system. The output y and dx/dt are functions of the input u, the
disturbance w and the internal variable x, with respect to time t.

CONSERVATION OF MASS
One of the fundamental principles of simulating dynamic systems is the conservation of mass.
In the mass-balance equation previously presented (Eq. 5.3) it was presumed that the total
mass-flow into the system was equal to the mass-flow out of the system. In a dynamic
simulation these constrains do not need to be fulfilled to have a system in mass-balance.
Instead the material can accumulate according to Eq. 5.4.
t

m(t ) = (mi ,in (t ) m j ,out (t ))dt + m(t0 )

(5.4)

The mass in the system, m(t), is therefore a result of the mass-flow into the system (mi,in(t)),
the mass-flow out of the system (mj,out(t)) and the mass that was in the system at the start of
the simulation (m(t0)). Mass cannot disappear nor be created, except in the source material
block. The properties of the material ((t) in Eq. 5.5.), such as density, moisture and work
index, are retained within the bulk material with a perfect mix model that is dependent on the
accumulation of material and the mass-flow into the system (mi,in(t)) as illustrated in Eq. 5.6.

1 (t )
(t )
(t ) = 2

n (t )

(5.5)

d i (t ) mi ,in (t )
=
( i ,in (t ) i (t ))
dt
m(t )

(5.6)

As an example of material handling in Paper E, a bin model was developed which was able to
represent the actual process more closely and to approximate the natural behaviour which
occurs within a bin. This bin model was needed to increase the fidelity of the simulation due
to process disturbance from uneven material flow. The developed model is depicted in twodimension in Figure 13 where the bin is divided into several segments n in order to simulate
19

the flow within the bin. A third-dimension can be included with additional modelling and
constraints to further increase the fidelity of the flow.
The model is defined by the number of segments (y1 (t), y2 (t), yn (t)) within the system and
the feed (if) and product (ip) placement are positioned in an appropriate section according to
the reference. The basic measurements for the bin are entered: length, width and height (l, w
and h) in order to estimate the available space within the system. Looking closer into a single
segment, the volumetric flow (qin (t), qin,Left (t), qin,Right (t), qout (t), qout,Left (t) and qout,Right (t))
within that particular segment can be described by Eq. 5.7.

dyi (t ) n
=
(qin (t ) + qin, Left (t ) + qin, Right (t ) qout (t ) qout , Left (t ) qout , Right (t )) + yi (t0 )
dt
wl

(5.7)

Figure 13. Principle idea with the developed bin model.

During operation, as well as in simulations, the material focus is always on the total mass of
the transported material. This is easily measured during operation with belt scales but this has
to be changed into volumetric flow to be able to calculate the amount of space that a specific
mass occupies. Volumetric flow rate (q(t)) is defined in Eq. 5.8, where V(t) equals the
change in volume, m(t) equals the change in mass, t is the time interval for the mass and
Bulk is the density of the bulk material.

q(t ) =

V (t )
m(t )
=
t
t Bulk

(5.8)

The flow of material within the bin will determine the material flow from the bin. Since the
material is segmented into n number of segments, the flow between segments is constrained
by conditions that dependent on the volume available in neighbouring segments, the angle of
repose () and the section placement of the feed inlet (if) and product outlet (ip) respectively.
In Eq. 5.9 the fundamental constraints of the flow are given and in Figure 14 a representation
of flow during different conditions is illustrated.
20

(5.9)
l
tan( ) i p i
n
l
if y (i p ) y (i ) > tan( ) i p i
n

qin (t )

qin (i ) =
l
qin (t ) / ( y (i p ) y (i ) < n tan( ) i p i )

if y (i p ) y (i ) <

qout (t )

qout (i ) =
l
qout (t ) / ( y (i f ) y (i ) > n tan( ) i f i )

if y (i f ) y (i ) >

l
tan( ) i f i
n
l
if y (i f ) y (i ) < tan( ) i f i
n

Figure 14. Representation of the flow under different conditions.

VARIATIONS
One of the many factors that affect the plant performance is variation. Since the material is
blasted from the bedrock the size distribution and mechanical properties of the rock is
dependent on the blast formation pattern and the geological formation of the bedrock.
In Papers A and B disturbances were included in the simulations in the form of variations in
the incoming feed material. For Paper A only a variation in the incoming particle size
distribution was included while for Paper B both mass-flow and particle size distribution was
varied. The particle size distribution is generally presented as a cumulative percentage passing
a specific size (see the generated feed curves in Figure 15) and can be estimated using a so
called Swebrec function [49]. In this function (Eq. 5.10) the xmax represents the top size of the
material, i.e. the size of the largest particle, x50 the size of the 50 % passing, x the defined rock
size intervals and b defines the shape of the curve.

xmax
ln
x
f ( x) =

ln xmax
x50

(5.10)

Particle Size Distribution

100
90

Cumulated Weight Fraction, [%]

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,1

100

Particle Size, [mm]

Figure 15. Variations of the particle size distribution for the incoming feed in a crushing plant simulation using
the Swebrec function. The generated curves vary between 40-60 mm for x50 and 210-250 mm for xmax.

TTF

P
op roces
era
tio s
n al

M
bre achin
ak d e
ow
n
Re
per
sta ation
rts

TTF

Ca
lib
Ini ratio
tiat n
ed
P
op roces
era
tio s
n al

Ca
lib
Ini ratio
tiat n
ed
Pro
op
era cess
tio
n al

EVENTS
During operation, plants usually operate at or near full capacity. But due to different units
reliability and maintenance strategy there are always disturbances in the process due to starts
and stops of individual units which will affect the process. In worst case scenario the
disturbance may cause a considerable down time (DT) for the entire plant. The reasons for
stopping the process can be anything from scheduled maintenance to sustain product quality
to a total machine breakdown as depicted in the two scenarios in Figure 16.

TTR
DT

TTF

Figure 16. Two different example scenarios for discrete events. The scenario above illustrates the calibration
process as an event while the scenario below illustrates the consequence of machine breakdown.

The length of each downtime is determined by how well the plant is prepared to handle
particular events. Events can be entered manually into the simulation as a single event or for
deeper analyses, a DES can be performed creating a hybrid simulation with discrete and
continuous simulation running simultaneously. The DES is used to represent batches and
events which can in turn be used to automatically generate events that can disturb the process.
The output from a DES would therefore be the time-to-failure (TTF), waiting time (WT) and
time-to-repair (TTR), all being dependent on the probability of the event occurring and the
severity of the problem [50].
DES can be roughly classified in two categories, deterministic and probabilistic. With
deterministic events the time and length of events are determined in advance which will give
the same results every time, given that the initial conditions are the same. With probabilistic
events however, the time and length of each event is not predetermined, instead the events
occur depending on the selected probability distribution [12]. A discrete event model for
simulating mechanical breakdown, modelled in SimEvents, is illustrated in Figure 17.
SimEvent is a toolbox of MATLAB/Simulink for performing DES.

Number of Entities
in Que BD
#n
OUT

IN
OUT

Breakdown

Breakdown Active

FIFO breakdown

OUT
Average Breakdown Time

Single Server
Breakdown
IN

Length of
each breakdown

in
Number of Breakdowns

Figure 17. Event generated with SimEvents for representing a mechanical breakdown.

CONTROL
Due to the characteristics of dynamic simulation the material stockpiles, bins and flows need
to be controlled. In crushing plants, different types of control systems are used to ensure safe
operation while striving for high product quality and high production throughput. The most
common form of control is the feedback control loop as illustrated in Figure 18.

Figure 18. General representation of a feedback control loop. Modified from Marlin [51].

The feedback control loop works by manipulating variables (mv(t)) to change the measured
control variable to a desired level in order to minimize the error (e(t) in Eq. 5.12), which is the
difference between the process value (ypv(t)) and the desired process value (ysp(t)) (Eq. 5.11).

e(t ) = ysp (t ) y pv (t )

(5.11)

lim t e(t ) = 0

(5.12)

The controller usually regulates the process in order to compensate for the effect of
disturbances in the process (w) or an altered reference value (ysp). The most commonly used
controller is the proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller Eq. 5.13). The
PID controller, as the name indicates, uses these three mathematical functions to regulate the
process and compensate for the error.

mv(t ) = K Pe(t ) + K I e(t )dt + K D

d
e(t )
dt

(5.13)

With the proportional part, the adjustment output is proportional to the calculated error,
denoted with a KP. This part will however not eliminate the error completely. With the second
part of the PID controller, the integral, a zero error can be achieved by calculating the
adjustment output which is proportional to the integral of the error (KI). The last part of the
controller, the derivative, provides rapid adjustments based on rate of change of the error (KD)
[51].
A PID controller, such as illustrated in Figure 19, has been applied in Papers A-D for many of
the needed control loops. The controller compares the set point (ysp(t)) and the actual process
value (ypv(t)) of the corresponding level and regulates the process accordingly. The level
signal which is a function of the mass-flow and the geometry of the production unit is sent
from the monitored production unit model to the controller model as a scalar signal. How the
controller reacts to changes in the process is dependent on the value of the parameters KP, KI
and KD in Eq. 5.13.
1
Level PV
2
Level SP

PID(s)
Feed
Controller

1
Feeder
Frequency

Figure 19. PID controller for the feeder frequency in MATLAB/Simulink.

DYNAMIC SYSTEM RESPONSE

How a model responds to a change in operation is crucial for the dynamic behaviour of the
system. One way of simulating the step or impulse response of a system is with a differential
equation or with a corresponding transfer function which can be derived analytically or
empirically. Step responses from a first order system, second order system and a pure delay
are illustrated in Figure 20 and given in Eq. 5.14-5.19.

<1
>1

Figure 20. Step response for first order system (a), second order system (b) and a pure time delay (c). Modified
from Marlin [51].

The response of the first order system (Figure 20a) is usually given by a simple first order
differential equation or by the corresponding transfer function which is illustrated in Eq. 5.14
and Eq. 5.15. The time constant, which is denoted with a , is the time which the system takes
to reach 63.2% of the final steady-state value which is equal to the steady-state process gain
(Kp) and the difference in the forcing input (u(t)).

dy
+ y (t ) = K p u (t )
dt

G ( s) =

Kp
Y ( s)
=
U ( s) s + 1

(5.14)

(5.15)

Similar to the first order system, the second order system is described with both a second
order ordinary differential equation (Eq. 5.16) and the corresponding transfer function (Eq.
5.17). A second order response can also be achieved by having two first order systems in a
series. As with the first order system, the second order system is described with a time
constant and the forcing function Kpu(t). However, an additional factor is included, the
parameter which is termed the damping coefficient. The damping coefficient determines if
the step response which is depicted in Figure 20b, is overdamped ( > 1), underdamped ( <
1) or critically damped ( = 1). If the parameter is too low the system will continue
oscillating over a long time.

d 2 y (t )
dy (t )
+ 2
+ y (t ) = K p u (t )
2
dt
dt

G ( s) =

Kp
Y ( s)
= 2 2
U ( s) s + 2 s + 1

(5.16)

(5.17)

The third part illustrated in Figure 20c is the dead time or transportation delay of the system.
The dead time is the delayed step response of the system, the change in the input parameter u
does therefore not affect the system output y(t) until after the determined delay time has
passed, as illustrated in Eq. 5.18 and Eq. 5.19.

y (t ) = u (t )
G (s) =

(5.18)

Y (s)
= e s
U ( s)

(5.19)

In Paper B and C, a first order transfer function with delay was applied to the feeders installed
throughout the circuit. In Figure 21 the MATLAB/Simulink model for representing the
system response is illustrated. However, as previously discussed the dynamics of the system
are often represented with an ordinary differential equation. In Figure 22 the differential
equation for representing the second order system is demonstrated as a model in
MATLAB/Simulink.

Kp(s)

1
Feeder
Frequency

t.s+1
Transport
Delay

Transfer Fcn

1
Mass
Flow

Figure 21. Dynamic response of a feeder which is a first order system simulated by a transfer function and a
delay.

1
u(t)

Kp
1/ta^2

x_dd

1
s

x_d

Integrator 1

Damping

1
s
Integrator 2

1
y(t)

2*Eta*ta

Figure 22. Representation of Eq. 5.14, the second order system without delay as a differential equation in
MATLAB/Simulink.

WEAR
The crushing process is constantly affected by wear which causes gradual performance
deterioration. How the wear affects the process is dependent on multiple factors. These
include the characteristics of the equipment subjected to wear, the geometry of affected
components and the properties of the rock material: mineral content, particle size distribution,
moisture and more. In Section 4.3 a handful of research work is presented which has focused
on wear in comminution circuits and on specific equipment.

In Paper A, a specific focus was on the effect gradual wear has on a cone crusher and how it
affects the product mass-flow in the crushing circuit. The studied plant was an aggregate plant
80 km north of Gothenburg, which produces high-quality aggregate products from granitic
gneiss, ranging in size from 0-2 mm to 16-22 mm. All 10 conveyors in the tertiary phase of
this plant were equipped with power meters that monitored and logged the electrical power
draw. From these data, the mass-flow could be calculated and changes in the particle size
distribution estimated.
In Figure 23 and Figure 24 the calculated change in particle size distribution, due to wear, is
expressed as the change in the size of the 50 % passing (x50) and the shape of the particle size
distribution curve (b) as a result of a fitted Swebrec function to the logged production data. In
Figure 25 the calculated change in the x50 parameter is displayed together with interpolated
data between the measured CSS. Approximately one hour separated each measurement.
Figure 26 shows the collected data, which is presented as a change at defined intervals, from
the calibrations. Fitting a linear regression to the data points provides a simplified indication
of the wear trend that occurred during the experiments. Looking at the wear rate in each single
run, the rate varies between 0-3 mm/hour but when calculated together the wear rate becomes
close to constant just below 1 mm/hour.

X50

b
6

20
15
10
5

X50

0
11:00

11:26

11:51

12:17

12:42

13:07

13:34

13:59

Product distribution slope

Product size, [mm]

4
3
2
1

0
11:00

14:27

11:26

11:51

12:17

12:42

13:07

13:34

13:59

14:27

Time, [hh:mm]

(a)

(b)

Figure 23. Calculating the change in the particle size distribution, x50 (a) and b (b), over time from the logged
process readings.

X50

Product distribution slope

Product size, [mm]

25
20
15
10
5

X50

0
10:10

10:36

11:02

11:27

11:52

12:19

12:44

13:16

13:41

5
4
3
2
1
0
10:10

14:06

10:36

11:02

11:27

Time, [hh:mm]

11:52

12:19

12:44

13:16

13:41

14:06

Time, [hh:mm]

(a)

(b)

Figure 24. Calculating the change in the particle size distribution, x50 (a) and b (b), over time from the logged
process reading.
CSS & X50

Product size, [mm]

25
20
15
10
5
0
10:10

CSS & X50

10:36

11:02

11:27

11:52

12:19