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THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 15, 2011

DIAGRID : THE LANGUAGE OF MODERN DAY BUILDER

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ABSTRACT
Design and construction of artificial infrastructure on the lines of biomimicking principles requires the development of
highly advanced structural systems which has the qualities of aesthetic expression, structural efficiency and most
importantly geometric versatility. Diagrids, the latest mutation of tubular structures, have an optimum combination of the
above qualities. In this paper, the peculiarities of the Diagrid, its structural behavior under loading and the design and
construction of diagrid nodes are described. A case study of some recent diagrid tall buildings, namely the Swiss Re
Building in London, the Hearst Tower in New York, and the West Guangzhou Tower in china is also presented.

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION

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2. THE TRIANGULAR DIAGRID

MODULE
2.1
2.2
3.

4.

INTRODUCTION
MODULE GEOMETRY

STRUCTURAL ACTION OF A DIAGRID

MODULE
3.1 EFFECT OF GRAVITY LOADING
3.2 EFFECT OF LATERAL LOADING
3.3 EFFECT OF SHEAR LOADING
3.4 EFFECT OF NON-APEX LOADING
3.5 EFFECT OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVATURE UNDER VERTICAL LOADING
3.6 EFFECT OF HORIZONTAL CURVATURE UNDER HORIZONTAL LOADING

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF DIAGRID NODES

4.1
4.2

MATERIALS USED FOR DIAGRIDDS

DIAGRID NODE DESIGN

4.3

NODE CONSTRUCTION FOR DIAGRID STRUCTURES

4.4

ERECTION OF DIAGRID NODES

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5. CASE STUDIES
5.1
SWISS RE BUILDING
5.2 HEARST TOWER
5.3 GUANGZHOU WEST TOWER
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STONE MASTIC ASP

6.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF

DIAGRIDS
6.1 MERITS OF DIAGRIDS
6.2
DEMERITS OF
DIAGRIDS
7. CONCLUSION

TENSEGRITY
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DEMOLITION OF

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

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The Diagrids are perimeter structural configurations characterized by a narrow grid of diagonal members which
are involved both in gravity and in lateral load resistance. Diagonalized applications of structural steel members for
providing efficient solutions both in terms of strength and stiffness are not new ,however nowadays a renewed
interest in and a widespread application of diagrid is registered with reference to large span and high rise buildings,
particularly when they are characterized by complex geometries and curved shapes, sometimes by completely free
forms.
Among the large-span buildings some examples are represented by the Seatlle Library, the London City Hall,
the One Shelley Street in Sydney, and more recently by several outstanding Pavilions realized at the Shanghai 2010
Expo, (e.g. France, UAE) as well as by some dazzling projects like the Astana National library. Among tall buildings,
noteworthy examples are the Swiss Re building in London, the Hearst tower in New York, the CCTV headquarters
building in Beijing, the Mode Gakuen Spiral Tower in Aichi, the Cyclone Tower in Asan, the West tower in Guangzhou,
the Lotte super tower in Seoul, the Capital Gate in Abu Dhabi, the Bow project in Calgary, the Building of Qatar Ministry
of Foreign Affairs in Doha.
.
The diagrid systems are the evolution of braced tube structures, since the perimeter configuration still holds
for preserving the maximum bending resistance and rigidity, while, with respect to the braced tube, the mega-diagonal
members are diffusely spread over the faade, giving rise to closely spaced diagonal elements and allowing for the
complete elimination of the conventional vertical columns. Therefore the diagonal members in diagrid structures act
both as inclined columns and as bracing elements, and carry gravity loads as well as lateral forces; due to their
triangulated configuration, mainly internal axial forces arise in the members, thus minimizing shear racking effects. To
begin with the behavior of basic
Diagrid module is discussed, followed by construction process. Then the merits and demerits of Diagrids are
listed.

TUNNELS
BURJ
KHALIFA
LIST OF SEMINARS
POLYMER
MODIFIED FIBRE
REINFORC
CONCRETE
EARTHQUAKE
RESI BUILDING
CONST
DIAGRID : THE
LANG MODERN
DAY BUI
LIST OF
SEMINARS DRIP
IRRIGATION LIST
OF SEMINARS
SIGNIFICANCE OF
NANOTECHNOL
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CONSTRUCTION
October (3)
November (2)
December (2)

CHAPTER-2

THE TRIANGULAR DIAGRID MODULE

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Diagrid structure is modeled as a beam, and subdivided longitudinally into modules according to this repetitive
diagonal pattern. Each Diagrid module is defined by a single level of diagonals that extend over n stories.

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Figure 1: 8 storey Diagrid with 60 degree diagonal

angle

2.2 MODULE GEOMETRY

Diagrid structures, like all the tubular configurations, utilize the overall building plan dimension for counteracting
overturning moment and providing flexural rigidity through axial action in the diagonals, which acts as inclined columns;
however, this potential bending efficiency of tubular configuration is never fully achievable, due to shear deformations
that arise in the building webs; with this regard, diagrid systems, which provide shear resistance and rigidity by means
of axial action in the diagonal members, rather than bending moment in beams and columns, allows for a nearly full

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a
triangulated
configuration of

structural members, the geometry of the single module plays a major role in the internal axial force distribution, as well
as in conferring global shear and bending rigidity to the building structure. While a module angle equal to 35 ensures
the maximum shear rigidity to the diagrid system, the maximum engagement of diagonal members for bending stiffness
corresponds to an angle value of 90, i.e. vertical columns. Thus in diagrid systems, where vertical columns are
completely eliminated and both shear and bending stiffness

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must be provided by diagonals, a balance between this two conflicting requirements should be searched for defining
the optimal angle of the diagrid module. Usually Isosceles triangular geometry is used.
i. OPTIMAL ANGLE:

FOLLOWERS

As in the diagrids, diagonals carry both shear and moment. Thus, the optimal angle of diagonals is highly dependent
upon the building height. Since the optimal angle of the columns for maximum bending rigidity is 90 degrees and that
of the diagonals for maximum shear rigidity is about 35 degrees, it is expected that the optimal angle of diagonal
members for diagrid structures will fall between these angles and as the building height increases, the optimal angle
also increases. Usually adopted range is 60 -70 degree.

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ii. MODULE DIMENSIONS:

Height of the module: It depends on the number of stories stacked per module. Usually 2 6 stories are stacked
per diagrid with average floor height varying from 3.5 -4.15 m on an average.
Base of the module: It depends on the height and optimal angle (apex angle) of the diagrid.

CHAPTER-3
STRUCTURAL ACTION OF A DIAGRID MODULE

3.1 EFFECT OF GRAVITY LOADING

The diagrid module under gravity loads G is subjected to a downward vertical force,
NG,mod, causes the two diagonals being both in compression and the horizontal chord in tension.

Figure 2: Effect of Gravity Loading.

3.2 EFFECT OF LATERAL LOADING

Under horizontal load W, the overturning moment MW causes vertical forces in the apex joint of The diagrid modules,
NW,mod, with direction and intensity of this force depending on the position of the Diagrid module, with upward /
downward direction and maximum intensity in modules located on the Windward / leeward faades, respectively, and
gradually decreasing values in modules located on the Web sides .

Figure 3: Effect of Lateral Loading.

3.3
EFFECT
LOADING

OF

SHEAR

The global shear VW causes a horizontal force in the apex joint of the diagrid modules, Vw,mod, which intensity
depends on the position of the module with respect to the direction of wind load, i.e. the shear force VW is mainly
absorbed by the modules located on the web faades, i.e. parallel to the load direction .

Figure 4: Effect of Shear Loading

3.4
EFFECT
LOADING

OF

NON-APEX

For deriving internal forces in the diagrid elements, it has been implicitly assumed that the external load is transferred to
the diagrid module only at the apex node of the module itself. However, since the triangle module usually expands over a
certain number of stories, transfer of loads to the module occurs at every floor level, thus also concentrated loads along
the diagonal length are present ; as a consequence, bending moment and shear force are expected due to this load
condition. However the introduction of a horizontal member at each floor girder to diagonal intersection allows for the
absorption of the force component orthogonal to the diagonal direction, thus preserving the prevailing axial force
condition.

Figure 5: Efect of non-apex loading.

3.5 EFFECT OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVATURE UNDER VERTICAL LOADING

The above simplified analysis of the diagrid module has been carried out implicitly assuming that the plane of
the triangular module coincides with the vertical plane; however, recent Applications often concern buildings
characterized by curvilinear, non prismatic forms, which require the study of the diagrid curvature effect on the internal
force distribution. In particular, by considering that the single module may be inclined of an angle with respect to the
vertical direction, the effect of both gravity loads and overturning moment gives rise to an additional horizontal force, in
the direction Orthogonal to the module plane. Therefore the chords of the diagrid modules, continuously connected
Each other along the building perimeter
at the diagonal intersections, also act as hopping elements or Ring beams, for absorbing these horizontal forces.

Figure 6: Efect of vertical and horizontal curvature.

3.6 EFFECT OF HORIZONTAL CURVATURE UNDER HORIZONTAL LOADING

When the building has a nonrectangular, rounded plans, similar effects due to this horizontal curvature develop under
the action of Lateral shear, and the ring beams also collect these outward forces arising in the horizontal plane.

Figure 7: Effect of horizontal curvature.

4.1 MATERIALS USED FOR DIAGRIDDS:

Material selection for a Diagrid construction is based on the following
factors . They are:
a) Unit weight of the
material. b) Availability of
the material. c) Lead Time.
d) Erection
Time. e)
Flexibility.
f)
Durability.
g) Labor cost.
h)
Fire
resistance.
The basic materials used in Diagrid construction are Steel, Concrete and Wood. The relative merits and demerits
of using them are discussed below.
I. STEEL :
Steel is by far the most popular material for Diagrid constructions. The typical steel sections used are Wide
flanges, Rectangular HSS and Round HSS.

Steel
Wide
Flanges:
Advantages- The weight and Size of wide flanges are optimized to resist the high bending loads many of the
members experience. Thus use of wide flanges results in reduced structure weight and flexibility of size. The sections
can be prefabricated in multi-panel sections, allowing quick erection by crane, reducing labor costs in the field.
Disadvantages- Pre-fabrication of the Diagrid sections takes a longer lead time.
Rectangular and Round
HSS:
Advantages- As with wide flanges, HSS sections can be prefabricated in multi-panel sections, allowing quick
erection time, also reducing labor costs in the field.
Disadvantages- Use of HSS sections will need a change in floor layouts as the beams will need to frame into
the node points. This reduces the floor flexibility and efficiency.

II. CONCRETE:
Concrete is another widespread material for Diagrid constructions. It is used both in Precast and Cast-in-situ
forms.
Precast concrete:
Advantages-The flexibility of precast sections allows them to fit to the complex building geometries. Concrete
also offers extreme safety against structural fire damage.
Disadvantages- The use of Concrete increases the dead load on the foundations, deflections of long spans,
etc. Creep in concrete is also an issue.
Cast-in-situ Concrete:
Under an Efficient material management system, cast-in-situ concrete is the best material in terms of material cost.
Lead time is virtually nothing as cast-in-situ is available on demand.
III. TIMBER:
Timber is the
constructions.

least

popular

material

for

Diagrid

Advantages- Multi-panel sections can reduce erection time and labor

cost.
Disadvantages Timber cost, both for material and connection, are much higher than the traditional
structural materials of steel and concrete. Owing to its lesser material strength, the member sizes would be very large
and hence is not

preferred for major construction works. Durability and weathering of timber are other major issues.
4.2 DIAGRID NODE DESIGN

Figure 8: Load path at Node

The diagrid segments are planned to minimize onsite butt welding and the welding locations illustrated in Figure 9. The
load path can be divided into two main scenarios, vertical load and horizontal shear their combination), as shown in
Figure 8. The vertical load will be transferred in the form of an axial load from the diagrid members above the node to
the gusset plate and stiffeners, then to the diagrid members below the nodes as shown. The horizontal shear will be in
the form of axial loads in the diagrid members above the node with one in compression and one in tension to the gusset
plate and stiffeners. The force will then be transferred as shear force in the gusset plate and then to the other pair of
tensile and compressive forces on the diagrid members below the node. From this load path, the shear force at the
location of bolt connections is high under lateral loads. Because this may create weak points at the node particularly
during earthquakes, the strength of the bolts should be designed carefully.

Figure 9: Node Design

Plan

4.3
NODE
STRUCTURES

CONSTRUCTION

FOR

DIAGRID

Constructability is a serious issue in diagrid structures because the joints of diagrid structures are more complicated
and tend to be more expensive than those of conventional orthogonal structures. In order to reduce jobsite work,
prefabrication of nodal elements is essential. Due to the triangular configuration of the diagrid structural system, rigid
connections are not necessary at the nodes, and pin connections using bolts can be made more conveniently at the
jobsite. If considerately designed using appropriate prefabrication strategy, constructability will not be such a limiting
factor of the diagrid structures. Prefabrication of diagrid nodes for conventional rectangular shape buildings can be done
relatively easily and economically because many nodes of the same configuration are required in this case.
The Hearst Headquarters in New York is the typical
case.

Figure 10: Node detail for the Hears t Tower

The prefabricated nodes are connected to the large built-up diagonal members by bolts at the jobsite. As building form
becomes more irregular, generating appropriate construction modules is critical for better constructability. Though it is
possible to produce any complex shape construction module using todays CAD/CAM technology, it is not the most
economical solution. Extracting regularity from an irregular building form, and then adjusting the building form following
the extracted regularity could be one approach. Another approach could be to make the construction modules relatively
regular and design universal connections so that they can accommodate any irregularity.

Figure 11: A Diagrid node after fabrication

4.4ERECTION
NODES

OF

DIAGRID

During construction, the stability in the in-plane direction can be provided by the modules themselves and in the out-ofplane direction can be provided by the tie beams at the node. The temporary restraint to the diagrid and the
construction may be minimized. The various steps in the Diagrid erection process include :
In-place steel shop welding
Lifting up piece by piece.
Trial shop assembly of parts with high strength bolts.
In-place welding.
High strength bolts assembly.
Setting up perimeter girders

Figure 12: Cons truction Plan of Diagrid

Figure 13: Diagrid Erection Proces

s

CHAPTER-5
CASE STUDIES
5.1 SWISS RE BUILDING

Figure 14: Swiss Re Building, London

30 St. Mary Axe also known as the Swiss Re Building in London, is the first modern application and the most
representative example of diagrid structure. Designed by Sir Norman Foster, with 40 stories and an inter-story height of
4.15 m, the tower is 180 meters tall. The building is circular in plan with diameter changing along elevation, equal to 56
m at its widest point, at the 20 story, reducing to 49 m at ground level, and to 30 m at the 38 level, where a steel and
glass dome tops off the building. The diagrid structure is generated by a pattern of intersecting diagonals which follow
the helical path of the so called light wells, created for enforcing natural light and air circulation. It is formed by a series of
steel triangles, two-story high and 9 m wide, with an intermediate tie connecting the two diagonals, which gives to the
module the aspect of a A-shape frame. The diagonals are CHS members, with cross section between 508 x 40 mm at
the lowest floors and 273 x 12.5 mm at the top, while the chord members have RHS, 250 x 300 mm with wall thickness
of 25mm. The circular central core, which has constant diameter along elevation, does not contribute to the lateral
resistance and rigidity, being a simple frame structure.
5.2
HEARST
TOWER
The Hearst Tower in New York was designed by Sir Norman Foster; the building, 46 stories and 183 meters tall, has a
prismatic form and a rectangular floor plan, 48 x 37m and is built on an existent 6 storey building. The diagrid
structure, creating the characteristic diamond effect in the faade, rises from 12 composite columns, which reach the
tenth floor starting from the ground level. The diagrid module is 12.25 m wide and 16.54 m high, and covers four stories.
The diagonal cross section are I shape, with maximum size W14x370 at the base of the diagrid (tenth level), while
the megacolumns between the tenth and the ground level are concrete filled box section 1100 x 1100 x 10m.

Figure 15: The Hears t Tower, New York.

5.3 GUANGZHOU WEST TOWER

The Guangzhou West Tower, designed by Wilkinson Eyre architects, London with 103 stories and a height of 440m, is
the tallest building in China and one of the tallest in the world. The building has a curvilinear shape along elevation and
the floor plate is an equilateral triangle with round-corners, with side 65 m at the base, increasing to a maximum value
of 65 m at approximately 1/3 of the way up the building, at which point the side begins to reduce, up to 43.5 m at the
top. It has a composite structure, made by a central concrete core and perimeter diagrid structure, with the diagrid
module expanding on six stories, 12.4 m wide and 24.8 m high. The diagonals are steel tubular members filled by
concrete (CFST), with size ranging between 1080 x 55 mm at the first floor and 700 x 20mm at the top. The concrete
core has a triangle shape with chamfered corners and fully participates to the lateral resistance up to the seventh floor,
where it is eliminated, leaving place to a central giant atrium for the hotel which occupies the upper floors.

Figure 16: Guangzhou Wes t Tower, China

CHAPTER-6
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DIAGRIDS
6.1 MERITS OF DIAGRIDS:
Some major benefits of using Diagrids in structures are discussed
below.
1) The Diagrid structures have mostly column free exterior and interior, hence free and clear, unique floor plans
are
Possible.
2) The Glass facades and dearth of interior columns allow generous amounts of day lighting into the
structure.
3) The use of Diagrids results in roughly 1/5th reduction in steel as compared to Braced frame
structures.
4) The construction techniques involved are simple, yet they need to be
perfect.
5) The Diagrids makes maximum exploitation of the structural
Material.
6) The diagrid Structures are aesthetically dominant and
expressive.

7) Redundancy in the DiaGrid design is obvious. It is this redundancy then that can transfer load from a failed
portion of the structure to another. Skyscraper structural failure, as it is such an important/ prominent topic, can be
minimized in a DiaGrid design A DiaGrid has better ability to redistribute load than a Moment Frame skyscraper.
Thus creating a deserved appeal for the DiaGrid in todays landscape of building.

6.2
DEMERITS
OF
DIAGRIDS:
Some demerits of using Diagrids are mentioned
below:
1) As of yet, the Diagrid Construction techniques are not thoroughly
explored.
2) Lack of availability of skilled workers . Construction crews have little or no experience creating a DiaGrid skyscraper.
3) The DiaGrid can dominate aesthetically, which can be an issue depending upon design
intent.
4) It is hard to design windows that create a regular language from floor to
floor.
5) The DiaGrid is heavy-handed if not executed
properly.

CHAPTER -7
CONCLUSION
We are at a time when the global population is inching the 7 billion mark. Around the globe we witness frequent
recurrence of natural calamities, depletion and degradation of vital life supporting systems, all presumed to be the
impacts of Global warming, making life miserable on earth. It is high time for humanity to switch to sustainable and
eco-friendly lines of infrastructure development. The construction industry, the greatest contributor to green house
emissions, has the moral obligation to play the lead. The most stable and sustainable of ecosystems is the natural
ecosystems. Attainment of sustainability goals would require sound knowledge and understanding of natures
mechanisms and modeling of all artificial infrastructure in close resemblance to it. Owing to the complexity due to size
and geometry of the natural systems, development of artificial infrastructure on the lines of biomimicking principles, is in
fact the greatest challenge the modern day builder would have to confront with. Thus a modern day structural system
should have extreme efficiency in terms of strength, expression, and geometric versatility. Most of the present structural
systems are highly advanced in terms of structural efficiency and aesthetic quality, but lacks the much needed
geometric versatility. As we have seen, the diagrids, the latest mutation of tubular structures, has in addition to strength
and aesthetics, that extra quality of geometric versatility, making it the most suited structural system to this respect.
Thus the diagrid, with an optimal combination of qualities of aesthetic expression, structural efficiency and geometric
versatility is indeed the language of the modern day builder.

REFERENCES
1. MOON, K., CONNOR, J. J. and FERNANDEZ, J. E. (2007). Diagrid Structural Systems for Tall Buildings:
Characteristics and Methodology for Preliminary Design, The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, Vol.
16.2, pp 205-230.
2. MAURIZIO TORENO (2011).
Congress
2011.

An overview on diagrid structures for tall buildings, Structural Engineers World

3. KIM JONG SOO, KIM YOUNG SIK, LHO SEUNG HEE(2008).Structural Schematic Design of a Tall Building in
Asan using the Diagrid System, CTBUH 8th World Congress, 2008.
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Shahe ra Ahme d May 2, 2013 at 9:48 AM
thankx a lot that is very helpful to me
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