Wieferichs and The Problem (P) : Norwich University, Northfield, VT 05663 (Submitted January 1982)

WIEFERICHS AND THE PROBLEM *(p2) = z(p)
JOSEPH J. HEED
Norwich University,
(Submitted
Northfield,
VT 05663
January 1982)
INTRODUCTION
1. Let z{ri) be the index of the first Fibonacci number divisible by the natural number n. At this writing, there has not been found a prime p whose square
enters the Fibonacci sequence at the same index as does p. This does not occur
for p < 10 6 [2],
The problem is related to the following one. For what relatively prime p ,
b9 is it true that p2\bp~1
- 1? Apparently, this question was first asked by
Abel. Dickson [1] devotes a chapter to related results. For b = 2, the conforming p 2 values are the well-known Wieferich squares, which enter in the solution of Fermat's Last Theorem. The only two Wieferich squares with p < 3 10 9
are 1093 2 and 3511 2 [6, p. 229]. These phenomena are rare but, to a degree,
predictable. An investigation of this predictability sheds some light on the
Fibonacci phenomenon.
2.1
Notation. Define n\bx
- 1 as meaning n\bx
(i.e., b belongs to the exponent x> modulo ri) .
1, and n\by
- 1 for y < x
2.2 The following are well known. For p prime, (b, p) = 1; if p\\ba - 1, then
p\bB
- 1 if and only if 3 = k a. Since p\bp x - 1 (Fermat), it follows that
a\p - 1. For q prime, (b, q) = 1; if q\\by - 1, then pq\\blcm(a'Y)
- 1 . The multiplicative properties are similar to those of the Euler <j) function. Indeed,
p2\bpcL
- 1 as (j)(p2) = pc()(p). However, here we have a deviation: p2\\bpa
- 1,
unless p2||â - 1. (In terms of decimals of reciprocals of integers, the first
prime > 3, such that 1/p2 has a period the same length as 1/p, i.e., p 2 | 1 0 p ~ 1 ,
is 487. Its period is of length 486.) It can be shown that this deviation occurs if and only if p 2 | & p _ 1 - 1. If such is the case, and imitating Shanks f s
flair for coinage of such terms, we say p is a wieferich, modulo b.
2.3 Consider the solutions to xp~1 E 1 (mod p 2 ) . Gauss [3, art. 85] assures
us that there are p - 1 distinct solutions, xs between 1 and p 2 - 1.
For each b, 1 < b < p , there is a distinct k such that
(b + kp^'1
= 1 (mod p 2 ) .
These provide the p - 1 solutions:

(b + kp)p~1
- 1 = bp~x
- 1 + (p - l)bp~2kp
(mod p 2 )
and
(-
- b~Xk
= 0 (mod p ) , yielding k = b{~
(mod p) .
If x is a solution, so too is p - x.
x = 1 is always a solution; therefore, (p - 3)/2 solutions are scattered from x = 2 to x = (p 2 - l)/2. If randomly distributed, the probability that a particular x = b is a solution is
116
[May
VIEFERICHS AND THE PROBLEM s(p2) = z(p)

(p - 3)/(p2 - 3). Holding b fixed and letting p range, the expected number of
solutions encountered < P is Ep(p - 3)/(p2 - 3). Since the series is divergent
(p<J7p = In In x + c + 0(l/log x) [5, Th. 50, p. 120]), but diverges slowly,
the relative scarcity of these wieferichs, modulo b9 is not surprising.
THE MAIN THEOREMS
3.1 In [4], information about the entry points of the Fibonacci sequence was
obtained by imbedding the sequence in a family of sequences with similar properties. Specifically, let {Tn} be a linear recursive sequence with nth term
given by
f (c + rq)n - ( g - r q r
xyn _ xyn
?n(c>
<7) =
for q % e
(mod 4)
for q - c
(mod 4)
l/q
JaY
(H^r r- (^)
~~~R
yielding the sequences defined by
oT
q -
g2
with initial values 1, 2c or 1, c.

For c = 1, q = 5, we have the Fibonacci sequence .
Let e = (q/p) be the Legendre symbol.
With q ? o2, c ? 0, q $ 0 (mod p ) , we have p|r p _ e .
If p | | r a , then p | r 6
i f and only i f g = ka.
Also, a | p - ,
[4].
3.2 Theorem:
Let p | | r a .
Then, p 2 | | r a i f and only i f p2\Tp.e
(paralleling the
r e s u l t mentioned i n 1f2.2). Proof i s by means of Lemmas 3 . 2 . 1 , 3 . 2 . 2 , and 3 . 2 . 3
below.
3 . 2 . 1 Lemma:
sider:
r
Since p 2
/ca
I f p 2 | | r a , t h e n p2\Tx
\jjka
_ vpka
i f and o n l y i f x i s a m u l t i p l e of a .
- ^ct\Îi(k-i)a
Con-
y(fc-2)cnjr + ... + " y ( k - 1 ) a ) .
\|/a _ Y a
J
/n
"
, and
+ W n and ( W ) n are integers, it follows that

R
pz\Tk
Suppose p2|rfca+ P , 0 < r < a, and that this is the smallest such index not
a multiple of a. Dividing Tka + r by Tka , we obtain
y/ca + r1 _ Tyka + 2
, f r/ fcg - ? fea \
rfco+I. - * %
1984]
^r*r - r \
+ârr.
117
WIEFERICHS AND THE PROBLEM s(p2) = z (p)

From 3.1, q ^ c2 (mod p ) , so p|^fea and, thus, p2\Tr.
hypothesis that a was the smallest such index.
3.2.2
Lemma:
Noting that Rp~1
If p||Ta, thenp 2 |r p a .
But this contradicts the
Consider:
is an integer,
P-i
i?^ ^)^ =^
p
^JL-+- (-1)*(OT)*"(P)[^
yP a
d i v i d e s a l l terms b u t
_ lJFPa
= Tpa , so i t must d i v i d e i t
-J.
also.
3 . 2 . 3 Lemma: I f p\\Ta b u t p 2 | | r t a , 1 < t < p , t h e n , s i n c e p2\Vkta

and p2\Tpa
(from 3 . 2 . 2 ) , i t f o l l o w s t h a t t\p; b u t p i s p r i m e , so
p 2 ||r a
or
(from 3 . 2 . 1 )
p2||rpa.
In the former case, p\Tp1;

in the latter, since p i 1 is not a multiple of pa,
p 2 |r p 1 . This establishes the result.
3.3 We next consider , with c = c + E,p and q = q1 + p, expand and reduce
\j/Pi _ lpi
5
(mod p ) . The result is linear in and . Thus, for given c, q,
for
yPi
ypi
= 0 (mod pA) , each , 0 < ^ < p, generates one , 0 < < p.
Fix e. Let q range from 1 to (p - 1). One of these pairs (c, q), that with
q= c2 (mod p) , will produce a sequence not containing an entry point for p [4].
The other p - 2 pairs will each generate a solution = 0, = 0 yielding a sequence with associated with c + /<7 + 0p such that s(p) = s(p 2 ). When c = I,
q = 5, we have the Fibonacci sequence. If the solutions 0 are randomly distributed over 0, 1, 2, ..., p - 1, the probability 0 = 0 is 1/p. The expected
number of such phenomena, p < P, is E p 1/p, whose series diverges (2.3). On
the basis of random distribution, the phenomenon should occur before p > 10 6 .
On the other hand, In In 106 is not yet 3, perhaps not too wide a miss?
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
118
L. E. Dickson. History
of the Theory of Numbers, Vol. I. New York: Chelsea
Publishing Company, 1952.
L. A. G. Dresel. Letter to the Editor. The Fibonacci
Quarterly
15. no. 4
(1977):346.
C. F. Gauss. Disquisitiones
Arithneticae.
New Haven: Yale Univ. Press,
1966.
J. J. Heed & L. Kelly. "Entry Points of the Fibonacci Sequence and the
Euler cj) Function.11 The Fibonacci
Quarterly
16, no. 1 (1978) :47.
H. Rademacher. Lectures
on Elementary
Number Theory.
New York: Blaisdell
Publishing Company, 1964.
D. Shanks. Solved
and Unsolved
Problems
in Number Theory,
2nd ed. New
York: Chelsea Publishing Company, 1978.
*****
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WIEFERICHS AND THE PROBLEM *(p2) = z(p)

These provide the p - 1 solutions:

= 0 (mod p ) , yielding k = b{~

VIEFERICHS AND THE PROBLEM s(p2) = z(p)

yielding the sequences defined by

with initial values 1, 2c or 1, c.

i f and only i f g = ka.

y(fc-2)cnjr + ... + " y ( k - 1 ) a ) .

+ W n and ( W ) n are integers, it follows that

WIEFERICHS AND THE PROBLEM s(p2) = z (p)

Noting that Rp~1

But this contradicts the

3 . 2 . 3 Lemma: I f p\\Ta b u t p 2 | | r t a , 1 < t < p , t h e n , s i n c e p2\Vkta

In the former case, p\Tp1;

= 0 (mod pA) , each , 0 < ^ < p, generates one , 0 < < p.

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