Appendix I

Introductory
statistics

Statistical
representation
of data
Iln rLf(l ( ir n ir i, lr r r e, , 1 r f on I lj\ ! ! r l
r,,l(
I 'r ( ) t ) c r l r r j . r ( | i , \ ( 1 , , , r f j r \ ( 'n {. s l r u n i r r
l(i,L(j: i: $. 1 lr r o\ , , 1, , \ lir lr \ 1r . Lir r s l , n g r r . r r \ r ( r , , , . l , L r ) r l i r r \ r L h r r f t ! | r f r L
.rt)|..Lriru , ) l nl: , , 1 t ( , , \ l( nr f r igllr ( lir lir
l$hr.hrr,\1,,
rl,(|rlr\r(l
irl\.tiri!.!.,r.
| ()rr(l r ( l r ir r ! f . I t l
i$. r l, r lhL, t , ! l 1 , ) . i l l ) . r \ r ( l r S 1 . r L r : t ( L i r , \ r L \ f l l i . r r , r r t r i
i,l.rlil\ lljr l, ! . LlL( , n ol : i \ . 1 ( ii ( hlf , ,1 l | . \ ( . r 1 . ( ) l I r c . L \ Lr r | n , , 1 r L r ( l l l r r j , r f l r ,
trt \tttL hl, l t ht ilt r r t )
r of r f : r n, , . lhf ( 1, : t \ '\ L ) u r h , L r l
t l l r r r f f i l , r r \ r L r , L l , l r '\ '.
lhc \\rrb ,il\ I r c ( l l( i j. |r . j. r L
lh. r r Lr r r rr r r r 1 r r l t l \ l i ) r i r Ir (, |) Lj Ii , I L, , II i L r r {l\ i r j I c
r("t'c.1r\c l) lhc \ \ r jr h( ' l lor \ iL, r nr . j : I l l , ( \ \ r r r l \ ) l s l i , r j r . j j {1 , 1 , ( (i [ \ i i r 1 i , ) ] r i [ .
, rLrr(lr r . \ t ) er lL\ ( l\ . . r l1hou! h, ,
L\ t , LL . r , L \ . ( l l ) , [ '1 j l I l h i \ b , , ( 'l $ . \ ] l i r l $ , 1 \ \
rL\. L l,(,r. lf 1i( ) r ) / ' l( ) r r r c . I r ir k l . lii r h . s L , j ] r {i r , ( i ( l ( \ l L 1 , ) L l
(i
,, lltr.r rl \ ir., , L.\,,1\
1 ri,i(l
\ ' |( lr \ r ( l
,,
ir l \ r lr e\ . \ \ , \ ,

)_,' ,

t' '

ll

\
'.

Ll l

t()p u h l r()r l \i /. t)j (l rt,r \c1)

t hc \ c c q rL rl l o n srre c rl l e d l h c rr4 1 1 ,/.V rrl rr,!. br.fLri . \\e xfc.l l ecl r\cl t Lrki fg
nr onr enl \,rl th c (trl r rb o u l i r t)o l 1 rll o 1)r.rsurcthc {l i \| .ri i ,i n o\ef thc $l r()l c \.1 ol '
( h1f No l c Ih rl i r th e Yrri rn c c . l h . fo si l r\rr.d n.!r1i \e de\i rl cs\hcn {trLrfcd dri
no1 c lnr cL c rc h o l h e f o L rl b rl Ifo \rc l . r f(tr\erl i Ll nr.l \| l fe ol di spcrsi (rr\hi .h

I
778 Appendix
!r' 1l nc' rs
lLr k c s .rc c o u n to J c \c fv \i n g l e i n d i ridurl i nl hcd' rl nscr' l hcrrnporr' D ceol
\i
l
ul
rro'
r' thc \r1'
conrpl
c\
i
n
I
conrbi
nc
t h. l w h .n i rrd e p cc l e n rs o u tu c so fu tri l bi l i l r
. . . , , .,r.,1\ J " r. ' r . . ' ," r\J l
rt l s
T o c \p fc s s l h c l c rrs ft o l c l i s p crsl oni n th! ori gi nl l scl l c ol rrcl srrrcrncnl
dc$N
l
'
orr:
gi
l
e
l
h'
ni
rndrr(l
1o
l
h
c
\i
rrrttc
us ur l l o l l k . 1 h cn l u rfc r!)l o l
'I
ll li) l l o $ \ l l rrl l h c \rfi ff..

f.l n rl s o hc gi !' n xs

f lld t h e n u .(h fi l ,l .\rfl ro n

rs c o trtrt)nl \ l ri \crrrs

,,

[)-)

hul
h ..rlcrrl i rl c(l trsi rU i n(\l \' rcnl rl i (
lhc s l rl rs ti c :rl
' rl ctrhl
()r:
(l
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ol
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hc
sunr
(hr'
rec
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)(l
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ln g e r.ri rl . l h f l x rg .r
l
0
rl l )Lrls()rnr
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l
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\i
/c
N
*
rnrl
l
(
A
c r lr r i x l !(i n s o l l h e l r)l )rL h l ro rr| rfl tr .l ers
lr 1I rs 1 1 1 0 l )r\.l .rr.(l
'\

datausinghistograms
Representing
ol
(l xl x i \ b) rLsi ngbtrr
A D rl l c e l i !c w x y t)l g | ri rrfi Ig l xrgc xr ounl \ oL
' hrrl \ l h!
rl
)orrl
n ," -' i -rrf" tr n ttl ro .l br N hr!h t() nrxkc r tl rrde h!l ol hcsi s
l, i' r , a ,.r'
(l
rs
l
tb
trl i o n i h c ,l .rrl c o u l tt Li )l l Li rr\ b! i nsN eti ng l hc hrrl ogrrrrr'rl l hoLrgh
t)l
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r
th e r i tre fr.rrri rgl ' s\' l he hrsr r)l ' i s \l \o$n i n l i gufc I xr(l
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cl
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l
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rtl )fcscnl trl i ti n
t,,,,,,i ,* u ,r,rr' u' " ot i scfcLe
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c oll u te rlri n tl rn y
$hir h i s l )fo to rl i o n l l ro th e h c i g hl ol l hc brf
' lh c u * ' ,ri g rrrrL p c o
l r i rr hi stogtrtmfonn tntr\ h' e!$ r or! cl hcrc' rl
d r e l u s .c cdtrl
rrs s h or\D i rr I:i gLrfcI H cr' Ihc ' htl i s xntrl \sd rtrtt
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clas;
Figure2

Appdix| 279

i z s .r s 6 7 8 e 10 l ra iglr-ls
Fl9ur6I Histogram
showing
disaondnuous
ordis(etefiEueicyd6t bution
numbrofdalaclassas
areselected
depcnding
on rhepopulation
size.Carcshouldbe
takcnin rheslecrion
of thenumberoiclassiterv"lr. fio f.* *llGrr"
ilrti ii
someimporrantfeatures
of thedala:too manywill
"n
gir. u
because
thremay be wild fluctuationsin thc i'rcq""""d
""t A ;";;;;;;;:;i;
"1.;;;;.;;;l;;;:
usedformulationsare g.ivenbelow:
t=t+3. 2 2 t o g ro (t r)

(6)

k=tF

(7)

/r
(max- min),\.'r
2(Qt- A)

(8)

Fmquoncy

./1

Chlr llntb

rGtt

t|,.'l

l1t

u.a t+a 4a

loitl

Flgor2 Hrstogram
for goupeddiscEtedata

a.{l

6tl.lt

ao{t

raj

a1t

Vadrble

tt"X,o..n.*

280 AppendixI
PDF
i = classinlerval
N : population
max : maximumvaluein populatron
min = minnnum valuin populahon
0r = medianof uppcr hall ol dala when in asccndingordcr
0r = medianof lower half ofdata when in ascendingorder.
From the data range(mrximum minusminimumvfllue)the optimumclasswidth, r.
can then bc dclcrminedfrom:

(e)
Data canthen bo groupedbetweenthe variousclasslimits. the nominalvalueofeach
group being knowDas thc classmid-mark and the number ol occurrcncsin eflch
group beingthe frequency.as shownin FiSure2. The mean,varianceAnd standard
dcviationofthe data can then be determinedusingthe equationsbelow:

r/= _Li=
,\
\_k
t

Z-t=

f'',

t//x
i \'

_ /r)2

( t0)
( lr )

figure3 5h

and is cas
exampledu

l = frequencY
n = classmid-mark
/i = numberof cl&sses

calledth ..

Agnin. the standarddeviationcan be givenbyl

(1 2 )

The shap{-,
/1= 150 an

The cquati
Probability

Oncethe m

frequcncyll
through
variables

l
AppendixI 281
P DF

100

!: 150

2OO

VarEbte
Figure--3Shapoltheprob.a-qltyderstyflf(oflpDF)foranormatdstributionwilhvaryingnandard
ovErcn,
r, andmean,I= 150
and is.e sily tr ct.rhlcmarhemuticilly.
Typictllrpplicrrion.h.rvebeencired,tbr
e\rmnte L'tmen\rondl
toterince\.ukimareLensilc
strengthxnd !icltl slrcnglhof
somemetallicalloys.
A usefulmeasureof the Normal distributionis derivedliom its parameters.
md is
callcd.the I odli(iat ol vutidtion. Ctl

(r3)
The shapcof thc Normal dislribution is shownjn Figurc 3 for an arbitrary
mean.
/1:150 and varying slandard devialion, d. Notic it is symmelricd ab;ut th;
mcrn rnd rhrr thc dreaundercrlh curveiq cqudlrcpre.enling
I pror,abitirl
of onr.
Ihr.equdrionwhi(h de,cribe\rhe ,hape of
rr,"i."r a;,inr,rrion ljrr"l-ii.
" lty fepre,,rnted "
rronaD rr) uen!l) lunclron tpDf) ar)drs u,u
b] thc lerm /l\,.
or rhellncr(.n ot,. \ her(..r'i, lhe\.rflrbleoirnterc,r
or raruk.
/'!,-

6V ^
t lt

e\p[
\

,2.

':,'

z.-

r'or.r

,r".

( l1)

Oncethe meanand standarddeviatjonhavebendctermined,rhc frequercy

disrribu_
tron determinedliom the pDF can be comparedro rheoriginalhistogranlifone
was
construcred.
byusingascalingfactorin thepDF equation.Forexample.theexpected
frequencyfof th Normal disrriburionis givenby:
/ V\

(\-!),\

n,,/2n

20-

,l

(1 5 )

282 AppendixI

r(')=:""e[eDr ]

Symm.trlcrldlEtrlbutlon

Ars! b.tw..n +1o " 6E.27%

Aro, botwc.n t2o = 95.45%
Aror botwcant3o :99.73%
Arsr b.twc.n t4o = 99.99%

Example

Curv! .xt.n.l. to Infhlty

In both dlrctlon.

4o

-2o
-1o
-3o
Figure4 Propen
esoithe Normaldstribution

Thefollowin
minetheyiel
displ,tyed
in tl

strength
at couldbecxp

482,410,46
495,426,50
445,452,4

+2o

Solution

/ = expectedfrquency
Na = scalingfnctor (population,N. multiplicd by the classwidth. n).

Sortingthe d

If wc plot a Normal distribution for nn arbitrary mean nnd sttndard devialion.r$

shown in Figure 4, it can be shown that al +lo about thc me4n value,the area
under lhc licquencycurve is approximnt{rly68.2701,
of lhe blal, and at a2d. thc
area is 95.45y0ol the total under lhe curve. and so on. This property of thc
Normal distributionthen bcomes
usfulin estirnaringthe proporlion ofindividuals
within prescribedlimits.

401,4t5,42
450.450,45
472.414.
417

Fromequal

Theclasswid
The Normal distributioncanbc fitled to a setofdata by 'standardizing'(i.e.adjusting
the mean to zro and resciling thc standarddeviationto uniry). The enginecring
ulility of rhis procedureis that the proporlion of individuals to be expectedon
either side of a given ordinate,called the Standad Nomal vadar?.:. can be read
from a tablc. which makesnp rhe Stundud Nomdl ,dllibrrtan (SND). Table Lrl
the end of this Appendix providesvaluesfor the area under rhc cumulariveSND
from: = +5 in stepson 0.01. ln engineeringdesign,rhis then givesa connotation
of probabilily. wherethe area under rhe SND curve rpresentsthe probability of
failure,P. determinedfrom:

(1 6 )
P: osND(r)

(1 7 )

Appendix| 283

n = variableof interest
OSND= function of the StandardNormal distribution.

Example
Thc followingsetofdata reprcscnts
the outcomofa tcnsiletestexprimentto determine theyieldstrengthin MP! ofa metal.Thereare 50individualresultsand theyare
displaycdin theordertheywererecorded.lt is requiredto 6ndthe meanand standard
devifltionwhenth data is representcd
by a histogram.l! is alsorequiredto lind the
strengthnt -3o from the meanfor thc metal and the proportion ofindivjduals thal
could be expectedto havea strengthgrerter than 500MPa.
482.470,469, 490,41t , 442.480,472,453,450,4 | 5, 433,420,459,424,444,455,462,
495,426.502,441, 438,436.498,474, 5t 5, 483,454,453,447, 485,456,443.449,466,
445.452.478,407,433,466.428.452,440,4s0, 460.451,496,477.

5olution
Sortingthedatainto ascending
ordergivcs:
407, 415,420,424,426,428.433,433,436,438,440,442,443,444,445,447, 447, 449,
450,450.451.452,452,453.
453.454,455.
456,459,460,462.466,466,469,410.47
t,
472.474,
417.418.480,482.
483.485.490.495,496.498.502.515.
Fromequation6, wecandclermine
theoptimumnumberofclassintcrvalsto b:
= I + 3 . 2 2 1 o g r0 (5 0 )
k= I + 3.22logro (N)
^,6
Thclasswidthis givenby cquadon9 as:
max min 515- 407 : lE
n=-=
6
The classlimits become:

minimum= 407
415+ l8 : 4 2 5
425 + t 8 = 4 4 3
443+ 1 8 : 4 6 1
461+18:4',79
419 + t 8 = 4 9 1
maxi mu m: 5 1 5

I.Ue r A@ udder the cmulariv. Srln<iard NoIml

Dist.ibu(ion 6ND)

.i - di d

li*

,aai

286 appendkI
1a
17
15

12

5
b10

1B

E
5
3
1
0
410

4U

452

470

488

Ylelddrnglh mld-ch.. (MPr)

foryeld
data
Flgure
5 Nstogram
ttrength
valuesfalling
between
theseclass
Fromtheoriginaldata,
thenumberofyieldstrength
anda histogmm
canbegenerated,
asshownin
limih is recorded
to givethefrequency
valuesaredetermined
by takingthemid-pointbetween
each
Figure5.Themid-class
pair of classlimits.
deviationaregivenby equations
l0 and 12respectively:
Themeanandstandard

_ (4 x 416)+ (9 x 434)+ (17x 452)+ (10x 470)+ (7 x 488)+ (3 x s06)

50
= 451.16MPa

4 x ( 416- 457.7
6\2+ g x A34- 451.76\'.
+ t7 x ( 452- 457.7
62
(410
(488
x
x (506- 45i.i5)2
45',1.76)2
+7
-457.76)'?+3
+t0 ><
50

Figlre5 H

distributi

',

To findthr
deviation
uon ls;

Thepropc
500MPar
Equation

The area !
that the yi

we requjr

21.45MPa
We can now plot the Normal frequencydisiribution superimposedover the histogram
usingquation15,wherethe variablesof
barsforcomparison.The curveis generated
intrest,jr, are valuesin stepsof l0 on th x-axisfrom, say,380to 540.The Normal
frquncyequationis givenbelow.and Figur6 showsthe histogramand the Normnl

yield strn

Appendix| 287
18
17

Supr|mpo.od

15

dtstrtbu0on

.
l3
5

t
E

\/
\,

10
9
I
7
6
5

\
\

3
2
1

0
416

434
452 470 48A 5Oo
yt.td .tr.ngthmtd-ch..(Mpr)
Figure6 Histogram
loryed strength
dataw th superimposed
Normal
distibul
on

distributionfor comparison:

(*,-,r,'r)_ 50/ rl
r.r- 4si.76,r\
.*p r_
/ = -e
-rtr3
dt2a \ zs l zt.ts"E exD
-^' /_
\
4"r-r,)
To 6ndthestrength
at -3afrorll themeansimplyrequires
tlat wetakethreestandard
deviations
awayfromthemean.Therefore,
thestrength
at thispointon theJistribu4s7.763(23.45)= 387.41
MPa
Th-e_proportion
ofindividuahthatcouldbeexpected
to havea strength
greaterthan
500MPsrequires
usingSNDrheory.Thevariabte
ofinteresr
is soOlrl'pa.inJ soii'o].
!.qualion
l6:

,= (Y:t\
/1L-asz'tt
\ o ) ' \
2t4s - /'

r ' 80

The areaunderthe curnulativeSND curveat: = 1.80is

equivalntto the Drobabilitv
that the yield srrengrhis lessrhan 500Mpa. Refe.t"g ,"
irUf" i gil",-'-""-"""'
P=O<p(;) : 6315(1.80)
= 0 964070
We rcquireth proportion that hasa strengthgrearerthan
500Mpa, therefore:
t - 0.964070:0.035930
or,.in oaherwords,approximately3.6% ofth populatron
can be expctedto havea
yild strength greater than 500Mpa.

Appendix II
En

Process
capability
studies

Figur eI f r

Process
capability
concepts
A er | rb i l i l r \l u tl ! i s i r j t,rl i n i fl l l o i )l * hi ch rrcrsrrrcsthr:rrr' i ti onr r!L1hIrr nl rnrl
jr c l! r i D g fro e c s s S:rn rIl c s{ ,l l h f
I)rl xl ucl l rc l rkcn. nrcusufc(lrrkl l hc r.trrrl i ()| i \
( or r r trrr(l $ 1 l h i r l o l c rx n c c Ih i !.o frt)rrrl sorr rs u:etl to cstl hl i sI l rru upi rbl c' th(.
t ) n) c f$ rs i r Iro (l u e r! l h c tr(\l u e r Irr(' r1j \\crt)i rl rl i l t rr i rl l rl l ) l l hl c l o r .onrbi rr
lr on,)i l h c y rri rb rL rv i n .rl l o l l h c i rfU ts. N l rrhi . el t.rbi l i l r i s(rl euhl c(l r!h.I l hc
r r \ l ( )l th e In l )u 1 \rrc l i \c d l h l s n rc:rnsrhi rt 1h( tl | occ\\.xt)rbi l i t! rs Iol tl rc srl rc
r usnr tc h i n c e rt)rl )i h l \ A .x fx b rl i l t sl rkl r.cu bc er re{ l o l on i rn! oj thc rnIU l s
b! 1i \i n Sl l l th (,,l h rrs .Al l p ro c e s s c strrrl trl rscri hf(i h\l .rsurcl .\hcrcth((ti stl hrl
lr r D e u rv c l r)f i r t)r,c fs s s h o \.r\l h r ! rri rl nl rl \ ,hr\.1o i l \ l )xrl i .ul xr .l cnrcrl \.
lhc r. rfc l i \( ,)c c rs i o r):!v l rc r)c xtxhi l i l r. sl rkl i .s \hoLrl (ibc crrri .(1 oU L.l hcscufc:
llcl a rc th e ]l rre h i n .rp ro c .s si \ b oU ghl (to sce i 1 rt i s.| fl bl c ol t)rodu.i ng l h.
eo n rto u c ts !o u rc c tu l c rl l o )
. W h c r i t i s i n s ttl l l e d
. A 1 fc g u L i f rn l c f,' i rl \l (r c h e c kl h xr l hc proccssi s 8i !.D l he f.rl i ,rnrnnec fcqLri re(l
. ll
l h c o | )c fu ri n gc o o d i rl (D se h rl lgc (1;r eunrtl c. rrl l l cfi xl s.l ubfi cul i of)
. A s tu rl o j r p J o c e i sc i rtrb i l i l \ rnpr)l ci ncD r

I h( . \ \ r \

( list r ihut i,

Proc

I:

Lt

' I he rrn rs 1 1 )h rl c r p ro c c s s$ ' h crc th!

tfoducl !N nuhi l i l l " i s sul l i ci el rrl ysnral l so
t hr l r l 1 l h e p ru d u c ts p ro d u c c d I' rr \i l hi n rol cI1 rct. S i ncc v| fi ti on crr) never bc
elir in l te d .l h e c o rfo l o 1 !x ri tl ti o n i sthekc)l opfocl uctctunl i tyl ndcrp bi l i ty si udi cs
gr \ , cu s o n e to o l l o rc h i .\e th i s .
lhcfc u rc I$ ' o m ri o k i n c l so l l rri rbi l i Lr:
r

( irrn o n

c rru s co r i n h e fe n t!rri rb i l i rr- i s duc to l hc setofl l cbrs thrr rrc i nherent

ir .t mrc h i .c rp n )c c s sb ! \' i l 1 n eof l ts desi gn.constN cri on rnd rhe nrrufc ol i ts
op c rrrro n . l i )r c x n ' n p l e .p o s i ti o ml fepel tabi l i l !. m chi ne ri gi di ry. $hi ch crLnrol
be re n o v c d w rth o u r u n (l u cc \p cnserrdrof proccssrcdcsi gn.
A s s i g n a b l cc .tu s co r s p c c i ttlc l u se vrri rbi l i ty i s duc to i denti i i .rbl esourccs$hi ch
c a n b e s r-s tc m x rc n l Li "d c n l i l i e drnd el i mi nrted.

I t r ihr esl! l

The m ir
philo! oph)

Appendixtt 289

ORGANIZATIONAL
Environment

PROCESS

TECHNOLOGICAL
Figure1 l trrorjifln1 nrll)r!(ef,(i!atJrl!,
W hor . n l \' d ,rrfj ,)n fl ru s c r x n l h i ti tv i \
| ]r.r(.n1.l fi c p,r)..\s i s t)erti ,rnrig i rt i l s hcst
p$! hl( lsc l
u rj c r l h c c .rl c ' 1 J )ro c . $i l f!!,,," r,n-.* ,,,,' ,," .,,;,,,,,:::,;
,,;,;l l
er ngc ( ) n )l r()Ic n l sl ,) th c r| ^ -e rti c l tj ,,nl.trc \rl
Inc et)r" rD (' r'(" " s( ,,n(lrs\i g,,,rl )tc
( i, , , s c\ N n rr,r,r\ n )u s rh c rc \s rr,l L
,n " ,,,," ," i ]-l

1,,,
c,rr r"\\ !(,r"' ..,,,u,i
e,
.,lHll' ;lli:1li'll::
'
:"
llll
ll
li,ill,ii
,'
'r
(
i,d''(s
xul
( ,, r,,b,rrr,
e,,\c\.
l::;:l..lll:l:i.*.
"rr)xhir'r!,
ir i, rss,,',!(r
'
'
" " ,,,,,,,
r i i ii,' i rd(!rrrrr' r]-rcP fe$trc(l hl rJ)cN or' rrrl
'r,"

, t i*i' lt ' ur u ,' , t,,c .,rp r' " n ,;. i ;

Process
capability
index,Cp
' lhc

I r ( x c s frti rh rti tr i l rl (.\

i \ rLrr.i rr ,)i .qLr

,,e,,swi,hin
he,,,.,:,nc".,,,,n"u,".,,,.,,,",ii'll:illi,iiill:;lllilijll,i::ij

',

''an'

1i l

rhrrc r . uppeftolcltn.ctinlt. 1 . l{ ^\ct tol errnc.

l i nri l . ,
sl xnd!f(t dc!i rri 0r)
li ./.ulsocquntsrhculrtlr.lrl l o l c f xncc,7 W hcft
.r brl l tr| l rl l ol cr!nce. /. i s used
(li)f cIr.rtlc L0.t l]rnr), equ rrt)n(l )s i rnfl i ti .sl o:
(; =

(l )

uhcrc/ bihrcmtlolcm|.c.
n \t'hrcofa.= t.jt\{drldindicrlclhrrlhc{lislrihLrlioDot.thcpioducrcbrfrctcF
co\crs7j'ri,ol rhelolerxn*.I his,vout.jbc s",|.",,
.
'srrcs
,|,,,i,r,.1l.,,lc",_
",,,,1,.

1ospcci'c"'iion
r'. 'uni,",.,,r
;,ii"tli,i;,!il11ii'1;:.il;;','li:i*"il,T""rn

r;;'il,,i*i|xtlti,j:itiliii
IHI#tlit;*lH-.,,"",--"l]]u;tt[:i]tj
l;'-:il'::,i,,,,,,,'.1
,.,,,1l:.1;i'll'li
::l.ii,,ry;Jlii
ll"lill,,":rfi.ill,":1xil
expccrcd
runrbcrof l.ailu,.rir r,+pnn,u, t.,,,r]'p'r)

For oxunrplerrt(r.'

l.l:r.tbc

290 Appendirll

Proce
By ci l l cu l r l r 'l

N o tc.l h i l '
I|) u si n g 1 l r

F igur e2 P ro o i G fJ l )l rvI l ' trrj o 1 l o h trt (r

';lillll"i,.l:
Ill,ili"'rr,,,,,l,il[l,i"l]iil,l:i:1lli'll'l,liiill:l,l'iliili;
li,i:llllli:

xl:
*ii,i"xrl,:ll"lxr,ll'i::l:lll'1,:n"":":li'iii:";l)::',;ii'lli
'Ih i s r c!t'l c\ I

(;cncrrl crfrbrri r! rrfscr !rtrucs

re q u i rc mtn rrrrL rsl r)c ro nv' i (r rr'

; , ; ; ; ; " ; ; ,i ' i ;,h .

r ' . ' . n' .'

,.' ,

' "l'

rr' 1.'
' .J * (:rr" l rh r\
'
L c s s th trrr I l l ' l ' roccssnol cr' frD Lc'

Bc l \\' c c nl l l rn d l 5 -

l h)cri sscl fxD rc

c,rt,:le1:,t:il::f
,s,'nx,rtnc.,
,,f ,oeess
whc,e
iiil:: i.,,,1;
,.i:ltillll"ll,.L::
pfccl
u
'
rn
c c c s sl rrr"
it s hou l d b c D o l c d l h rt l h e

:m:lll.:iIlllli,,'llll;.i:'"ilill",i:;[i'i]i:',i',il1,'l:il]i.:,ll:"i:'l

,,irr,".a,r".ai:,._'il.,-i::l];,,',i..J].;i:ir,i:,jlli.i
"'ril:',lliiJ;i;f:,,.n,.,,.
i"'r'"oi".'r'';''
r""'ri",
ij,JTjl,':iil::ll:':f:iiiii',illll'iil'l'ii';;;'"i'j.,i

il,'ffi'rill;!.il:lo+1",1:r**;*ilt*i::irll$ttllT
*,i*""i'r'"'
r'""''
I' r',,,
lltill'ii:'i:i,;;';
::..i;i,::i:ffi::.:il
,T
prolcccl:
.,..r,;.'r"rs
iii,,'i,,i..

-3.4

"".'."

ii;l*f;
-:lll,:.,.:11,";"i;:1,:'ll:ij,,:if
bJen

lil" l::.ii:' :1,;,';;;i'.'''|np''"!r

l.::j:i'l;'::il.';l:l;'.1"'ll
r'in nr"e<"r'l
rhJ n
, ,:;;u "

"..'

u;rrier'o'

'ren'r

Figure3 Pfo.

Appendix
ll 291

Process
capability
index,CDk
Rt c r lc u l rttx rgl v h c rc th c p rc c e s si s ccnrrcd(rhc rnei rn\!tuc) r| d L!ki ng thi s rrl hcr
t hr n rh c r| rg e t !.rl u c . i L r\ fo s i .i b l eto rccounl tur thc shi tl of a di sl ri buri onw hi ch
would ro x tc r ( r. i n .rc c u rrl c (l c e ti g Lrrc :l ). (1.. i s cal cuhrcd usi Ig rhc Ji ow i l rg
(,*

'l

.1-]l

1tl

whc f c /.,, D e ffrs l l o l c ftn c c l i n ri t l | d /1 nrcxn

Nolc.l h rrl h c /, /.f p rrto l l h rc qul l ri o nrcrnsl hl l thc!rtuci sl l $rLysposi l r\c.
ll- - u s r)g l h c n c .rc n l o l c | 1 i n c cl n ri l , /-,1.$ l ]i ch i \ l l t tol r| .l rncc
trr l t)trysi cuy .t,)scsl
lo lhc ( l i s l fi h tr()nm.rn . I h c w o rs t c rsc sccn| ri o i \ bcrng sc(lcr)suri ngthl l ol crotl r
nr s lr . v l l u c s o l p | 1 )c c s s c rp rb i l i t!l l c rol cnrpl o\f(l Inl ,i A U frl .r
t5oshi tri rstrrvn
lr on t h c l rfg fl v rl u c J a r,r ( fr
I 5 ( r,ri s i r nl l rchInorc!rt l bl c t(r,t th.n ( r, bccrusc
r l c r n h c n tp l i | (l rc c !ri rrc l r rr)s h i l l c ( l(l i sl nbU ri onr.A s r hrS r | cl ccl rx1]cot di \tnbu
1i( ! r s rrc s h i l l c (j .(r,i s l i n Il .(l i n i ts u s (l i rIrcs: tt(,rrsx| rl i c(tl ol l n1' r
\tri trcrl N orIIrl
dinr ibu l i (D . h ! th ( rrrtu rc ,)l i ts l i )rrD U hi l rcl crts to (
r,
A s r i r.l h c n ri Ii n )u II l c !c l o l e l t)i rh i l i l ) rt \4oron)| r tsIg ( j ,r
t5(or-.r.1t)l ) r)
r l lhc r c rrc s l l i n ri l . $ h c rc rl i s x s s rn i(l thc \rrnpl c {1i \tri hul ronrs I | 5' shi tl crth.onr
lhc lx r g c l !x h c l i rrD r l i g u rc l . i l rsc\ i (l (.i rl l hl l xt : I 5d, ttreIU D rbu i )t rl cIrs Ir i nl
{ ) l|1, ) l \trc e i l i c i rl i o no I th (1 )n fo s i tc I nri t i \ C gl i !i bl c 1l o!\cvcr.rl orc t\ti crt rxtl cs
. r . s ho !v n b c l (N ( .r
I l l rs rc g rr(l c(lt,) h( l l j r i rbnrl U tuIIIrnIrnr h! Ir(tusl rl
I hr \ f rl ti l c s l o l l tp n r l l i l rL rc s .x l l h ()U !h i l i s e(,ui rnonl ffoU l l dc(t(l ()w n to r0fprr
( . r i \ i r)l (| p re rc (li n l h r \rn )( $ l v rs (
r,:
l f- tl . r | 11
I' .,..* . r,,,r.. n.rht,
l l e l $ e c n | .l .l l n (l I j

ll

F igur e SP o " .

o " o .o .

l ,roccsscrprbl c

ll
292 Appendix
A gain . fo f ( fr .rrc .tte th
f rn 2 5 . i t s h oLrl dbc .orcd that l he onneccssrrlprccl si onurry

1!

( r 'L : ( f

(ll

l,5

whc n L h cd i s l fi b rrl i o t i s | | 5 ' s h i 1 1 c (l l i oml hcl rrrsct!rl c l i rr rr srrnl pl c\cr ol drtr'

r aI rn (l ( ,r rrl u c c rn b c (l .l c n ri n cd rrl thc sr rc ri nrcrhow c\cr thc scl crti ono1
\ hic h o n c h c n D o (l c l sth e (h l x r\ l cl ctmi nc(l b" l l rc(l cgrccofshi l r Irorrrcqu Li on
( l) . il ( j ,
0 .5 rtf()rc h ts { h c !rl !c ol ( rr crl .,,l ,rr.(l rh.rr l l 5,shi l l r!c\' 1(l cnl rn
t hc s r rrtl . (h s l fi h u l i (tr.In (l (' r,r i s tr nrorc {r,1,,h1.nul .l

andfailureprediction
capability
Example
- process
' I hc c(n n | .o c rl s h o $ ri l r l i g u rc .l i s l spl ccr l l (nt r 1r!nsnri ssi onsr-ncrn Ihc
c or lr I o n c n l rs In rn u l rfl rrfc (l b \l u r i n!i b()ri rrerl l l rc rrl f t)l l \l )00 /),t dr,tr/,r l rr(l
lhc c o | rf(rn c n l c l rrrrc l rri s l i c l (, h c c ,trl hl l crl \ . i : i I n i n | (.| |I . | (l rN nrcl rr'Irrtn l hc
s lr Li: l i (i rl rh l r ri r l l r. l i ,fl r ()l i r h l s l ogr:tnrl i )r 4{) corD f()rrtnl sD rrrrfl rcl ur((1.sh(i $rr
ir l: ig rr\. 5 . \rc (rr c rl c rr| rl cl h . l n r. ss ti r| arhi l rl vr (1i fcs.( . xn(l ( r,r l l l s i rss' rnrc(l
llir l ir N o rn rrl d r\l fi b rrl L o rri rd c (trrl l fl yrrtl .l : l l re strnrl )l c(hl r
lhc s o l u tn rr i s rs l i n l rtw s :

Figure5 r,rl ,

'l
l/i19.95 rli4().')6 rlr.197

r lll \.19.1

:lo

.,\l

.! ' "

00

000

0 000

F igur e4 S p a .e f.c mp o nsehfto l rn qa (tG r:rrrj a.tersin.

Figur e6 Be

Appndix
[ 293
10
I

r(4)

b. 7

fta'
lof

bn

ri

lin
I
I

2
1
tl

i
-xl

h
h
id

49.054S.96
49.0749.984S.9050.0050.0150.0250.0350.0450.05
t\|6a$rcd vaahbta,X(mm)
Flgure5 Measufement
datafor thecharacleistc,
X, n histoglam
form

r 000000
100000
10000
1000
too

0.001
0.0001
0.00001

e-c*
Figur5 Relat
onship
betwen
Cr,Cdandp.r$peFmilton
(ppnr)
faiure

294 Appndix
ll
i (4e.95 ,19.981
96 49.98)r+7 x (.1997 .19.9811
+.1 ! 1,19
9S .199E):- t ! i,19.99 .19.981r+6
! (50 .1998)l
(5i).it
I
-l
I 19.r)8lr
+ l: i50.01 :1998)l

"\

l6: nrnr
(.

(,,r
( ,1

t)05

r r)tl{r

1-

!-

r, i tlttc:
I 0r

Ov

l .0l

i J shi l t
l t)pror.hcs

| 5a

l1 r s c v r(l f| t th rl i rn i rp ti l )\i r)rr1 . I s' rhi ti ci rn bc (1(,tcIni Ic(lti {)Ir th. (tl l l xn(l
! ) lh. (f! !l l u c i s n h rc s L ri trrb l crsi r nro(l ct l ;si rg rhc grrph on Ii rurc 6. w ti ch
nr os s th c i f]l i 1 i o :h i r ( r,. ( j r (rr I| 5' \hi ti )rn(l
fl frsrer nri i ol (fprn) tri l urc
r 1 lhc rc x rc s r l i n It, th c i k c l J " rn Iu rl trrh[c fl tc ot l hc t)rortucl.l I hc crt.Iti rtc(| .
I hc li g u rc h l s h (( .o n s l l re (c (l u si ng l h. S tr (txr{t N ,, nxt t)rstfi hul i on (S N t))
li, r \ r r i o u s h n i i ts . l h ( Iu n )b c r r)t c()rrpoD cntsthl l so l (l tr ()U l ot toterxn!. l t
r hc nc rrc s tl i n rL l ./.,,.rs f()l c n l | l rl l ! r0 0{)0tl )nr ri l (' ,r
0 61. ttrxl i s.750 foIrf()ncn1\
) n rL l u c tu rc (l /,f,
ol lh. l 5 (X){D
d ra rr,. Ol coIrsc. rcl i oI i n thc ti , nr ot i r l )foccs\el f
x hilil! \1 u d ,-s o l (l J rrc v c l ll U rl Ic f ol | 1ot l ol crnnc(.fol rponcnl sl l ()D rbci ng o(tU cc(l
II
r n( 1r r(,(l l h i s l l i h fc rrl c i I l h c l i rt rc rrtrl l l :r' gct(r,r
Irl ,!oukl br rLIne{ tti )l

A. tai

( 85 5160 l,

Descrip
I N41iAr \ il

lr kelilut r l, '

t N{t , A \

lr N4l, A eiL

Placem

I t shoulLllr
l; om r nili! l

Applica
Th. linl( Ni

AppenclixIII

Overview
of the keytools
andtechniques
L]

A. Failure
ModeandEffects
Analysis
(FMEA)
( llS j16 0 . l ()9 1 :( h r\\t.r ( ()rt)()rrl ron,,/,/..
t{)r)j . trc!)n r/ d/. t,)96tti rh,)r. t916)

Description
I M lr\

i\ . r ! : lc nr r lie. t er r ( . I l

b\ c t c ill c l l r L s s e \ n l l c j r lt o h r ! h t j g t r l r l r c . l l c e l s ( r . , 1 ( ( ) . r

r r ( ! ' c r r . r)ro (r!.r.r),()e c $o r \\\trr r:r i rrLr.r() In.(l ,l l rrc rc(rLrr.r)urrs,,r (usr,!r.l
,r
s t ) nr r r e i ,l r()I Ie r(t rg \rL J .t\ t1 trc tfs to i r(ti e.r1(
b\ hi l tr l D i nl s(,f$ l tr(^. ct.D (Ii \
r' r
p ro .c s \.r s\sl crr rc(rri i rn! pfr.ri r\ i r.ri (),
11)rf(r(( l rtr,
rr)()n q rr.rrr(!rl r.r
ll, l,l' on
'.1ri.,,'r.

,r r.-.t,r,.

,1..,,,..

_ . r. . .

",,,.,,..,,.
t , r . . II - . | | | . . | , , , I ,t .1 r..t,.,r.,r, ..I' . rr,,i rl \,r.,..,i rtr..t.,.,Irr
r.,
,r. r.rrtl l
,
,
$ ilr . , _\ l .r' r' ,1 ' .Irl . r, $ t.,t!...rr..ir,t,.,r...Ir....
t J.r,,.rh.r.
I r
\ $.
| | .t ,., ,,, tr I,L , t.\ ..r. ,..r.,...,..,.r,,r
rrr.,rr .rr.. r. rrtl
, r I t ) r ' ei| l ' ()n r"
\ th c I' (l c ,L r.e ].c trl j n i es .h.r),i ert
,rn(tIn.," , ,,,,,n" i ,.," ,tug
lNll, A (x . rtn ) rrft\ ro o i c c p r) (s:(s i ,\
" .,.,,,,.
w crt ,rs rte:i grr,,,,,i ,,,,,,,;t,.,,,;;,;
pf ( , ( \ \ c s . N h i c h l tu th . n l i r i rffi j e l tr )n
rr.,r\.

Placement
in product
development
I t \ h( r ul d b c !ru rl c d l r c l rt! l s
fo \!b tc ().cc rhc co.ccpr (l es' gn\hl vc becnl encfl tc(t
1f , ir ni. lli rl fc q u i fc l rrc n t"!c
. n e fut j l rgi n l i ]| .l rl ro,l ol l the cri ri cl l el cD renl s
ot l hedcsi gn.

of thetechnique
The
.

lxclors ilrr' its\e\scd

rlr IMEA:

IhtcDtial Faihrre Nlodc. Ho$ co ld rhe c(

[,r|u,n."i
;;,;.i ;;;;,*ii:liijnl
"ro''.,''
",,.,,

pnxiL'ct
process
o' svsldn

296 Appendixlll

I
V

Figure
I General
ratings
lorFI,4EA
O(ufierlce,
Sevrityand
Detecrab
tty
. PotentialEfrectsof Fsilure.Whatwouldbe theconsequences
of thecomponenr,
product,process
or system
element
failurel
. Potential
Cruses
ofFallure.Whatwouldmalc thecomponent,
product,process
or
system
fail in thewaysuggesled
by thepotentialfailuremode?
. CurrenfControls,
What is doneat presentto reducthe chancof this failure
occurring'l
. Occurrme
(O).Theprobabilitythat a failurewill takplace,giventhatthreis a
fault.
. Seyerity
(S).Theeffectthefailurehason theuser/environment,
if thefailuretakes
place.
. Det.trbility
(D).Theprobabiliry
$at rhefaulrwiltgoundetected
beforethefailure
takesplace.(Anaddilional
detectability
ratingissometimes
considered
whichrelates
to theprobability
thatthefailurewill go undetected
bforehavingan effect.)
TheOcurrence,
Severity
andDetectability
Ratingsareassessed
on a scaleof I to lO
andarillustrated
in general
termsin FigureL
Note,a comprehensive
list of failuremodesandcauses
of failurefor mechanical
components
is providedby Dieter(1986).Thesetablesareparticularly
usefulwhen
assssilg
thelikelystress
rupturefailuremechanism
for reliabilitywork.
TheRiskPriorityNumber(RPN)is rheOccurrence
(O),Severiry
(S) andDerecr
ability(r) ratingsmultipliedtogether:
RP N= O x s x D
(l)
Thisnumbershouldbeusdasa guideto themostserious
problems,
withthehiglest
(typicallygreaterthan100)requiringthemosturgentaction,particularly
numbers
if
theyhavescoredhighSeverity
Ratings.
For morccomprehensive
FMEA Occurrence.
Severity
and Detectability
Ratirgs,
seeFigure2. Note that Occurrence
can be replaced
by fieldreliabilitydatain the
formof failureralesscaled
to theoriginalratings.Thismaybeusefulwhenassessing
productfamiliesor newdesigns
basedon xistingones.

Benefits
ln the caseof performinga designFMEA, the RPN scorccan:
. Highlighrrheneedfor de,ignimprovemen.
. Highlight pdority areasfor focusinglimited resources

'- tt

7 ; iv I

.i

:1

(O)
Occu.rence

Severiry(S)

(D)
Detectability

Arl('l:EbeuD|6

s4@frnbqd
7h!{ffrn5.@des9ndi'4qd

v!ryhlhFsuy

andDetectability
ratngtlororcunence,
Severty
tigure2 Typca FI\,4EA

298 Appendixlll
. Highlight the need for StatisticalProcssControl (SpC), 100% inspection,
. Idertify parts which haveredundanrfuncrion
. Prioritizthosesuppliersto which attentionneedsto be given
. Providea basisfor measures
ofperformance.
Through its effectiveuse,FMEA hasbeeflfound to reduce:
.
.
.
.
.

Customercomplainh
Late designchanges
Defectsduring manufactureand assembly
Failuresin ihe field
Ijailure cosls(rework.warranD cluims).

Training
Initial res
Team-ba
Can be s
Performe
Linls we
identifie
Support,
lnput fro
Shouldb
Can help

Keyissues

Exampl

. Canbeusedin productdesignor process

development
. Must bemanagement
ledandhavea strategy
of use

The designl
that need s
designinga
to the rlat
analysissh
assemblYi
the reader
the concep

t
a

T
t

o
3

Figor.3 Des9nFMEA
fora bcycle
rearbrakeever

24
I

NPN

10

12b

Figure4 Pa

App.ndhlll 299

F. no

Trainingrequiredto useanalysis
initially
Initial resources
committedminimal
Team-based
application
essential
Can be subjeclive
Performedtoo late in productdevelopmentin manycass
Links well with Fault TreeAnalysis(FIA) whcrcpossiblcausesol failure are
identified
SupportdesignFMEA8 with failuredata whereverpossible
lnput fromthecustomer
andsupplirs
is important
Shouldbereviewed
at regularstages
Canhelpto buildup a knowledge
basefor productfamilies.

Example
rcarbrakelever
- bicycle
Thedesign
FMEA proccss
isshownin a casstudyon Figurc3.It highlights
theareas
that needspecialattention, reficctcdin the highestRisk Priority Numbers,when
designinga bicyclerearbrakelcvcr.Usinga Paretochart,th RPN number,relating
to therclativeriskof eachfailuremodc,canbedisplayed
asshownin Figure4. The
analFisshowsthat designeffortshouldbc focusedon the ffexiblaalementin tle
a$embly,i.e. the brakecable.This perhapssupporhthe personalexperiences
of
thereader,but theFMEA hasshownthisin a structured
andrigorousappraisal
of
theconceptdesign.

PULI.OUT CABLE PTVOT

PIN CLAMP LEVEB LEVER
FFOM SNAPS SHEARSLOOSENSBFEAKS BENDS
NIPPLE
POTENTIALCAUSEOF FALUAE
potentiacauseotfailulorthe
Figure4 Pareto
values
cha(of RPN
against
reafbrakeleverdesign

g
I

F igu re5 Ba rk F Ii EAta b e

tr1 ,=i .--= - , ! + Z : : ; z : z |l i 1t

+it

Appendixlll 301
Figure 5 providesa blank table (completewith designrevisionsection)used to
perform a designFMEA. It forms a tracablerecord of the designand its failure
modesand associated
risks.

(ASI,1987;ASI,
1992;
Clausing,
1994)

Description
ln QFD custorner
requirements
or 'the voiceof the customr'
are cascaded
down
process
throughtheproductdevelopment
phases
in four separate
keepingtheefrort
focusd
on theimpor(antissus,
linkingcustomer
requirments
directlywilh actual
shop"fl
oor operations/procedures,
In summarytheobjectives
ofQFD areto:
a Prioritize
customer
requirements
andrelatethmto all stages
ofproductdevelop. Focusresources
on the aspects
of the productthat are impo ant for customer
satisfaction
. Providea structured,
productdevelopment
process.
team-driven

Placement
in product
development
QFD shouldbe appliedat the start ofproduct developmentro help understandand
quantifycustomerrequirements
and supportthe definitionofproduct rquirements.
giving an ovcrall picture of the requirementsdefinition throughout the producl
developmentprocess.Other tools and techniquescan be usedin conjurction with
it, for examplePartochart, histogram,or data comilg out of the FMEA can be
fed back at an early slage.

Application
of the technique
Thc four phassof QF'D are describedbelowand shownin Figure6:
. Phrs I - Product Plsnning. Customer requirementsfrom market research
information (including comptitor analysis) and product specificationare
rarkd in a matrix againstthc importantdesignrcquirements,
yieldinga numerical
quartificationbetweenthe important customerrequirements
and product design
issues.The quantificationis performedby assessing
whetherthe matdx elements
haveeithera weak,mediumor strongrclationship.Togeiherwith the importance
rating from the customerfor a particular requirement,a points rating for the
designrequiremnts
is thn dtermined.A popularconventionfor QFD Phasel.

J02 Appendix
lll

Oesisn
pl anni ng

a*
lo

l/\
\

l-'

Figure6 TheI.!r fll je! oi QFD(A! r98/)

r h ( t)r(!l rL .l J rl l l n i rg n rrrrl \. i s strN I rn ti gurc 7 (.ri ri cl l t (tcsi snfcqui rcrrl C l r\

ll l t rrc !)n \r(l (r(l l o b c c i th c f erv to I pro(1ucl i.nrporrrrl hr rhc cu* ronrcr.,,r
{ l i J i i c tl l lto p r\l u .c l fr c rrl c (l tarw r| rl t() l hc nc\l phl sc
l' h rs ' r2 l )rs i s r l )c tk rrrn r t. t h( el l i ci rt (tcj 8r | cqul rcnrcnl sti ol r tJhu\( t (1t)(N c
t ! rl l ' I h rg l l ](i i ts rx l rn 8 )x rc rx nkc(t$.i thdc\rg. el xri rcl (fi sl j es$ hcrc l hc rctrl i on
\ h i f h c l w c c l th c r)ri s x g l i n q u l ntj ti fd \i rl (ti ru nt)()rtInt i nl cdl c( i ssU c\
bcl $tur
( l (s r!n rn (l n .U l rc l u rc . l i ! cxl n)pl e th,,sc ehurrcl cri \ti c\
l h l rcqU i rc el (N c
c o n rr()L(l u l rs t)r(!tu c l rl ). l h c crj l i crt dcsrgnehrrxel .ri sl i .s urc l hcn crl i c(l
l' )rn x n l 1 o th c n c \t th i rs c .
I ' h ,rs r3 l ,ro c e s sl ' l .rn n i n s .t h e i nrfonrnr dc\i l l ch mcl cri sl r.si i ,rl l t' hi rsc
I rrc
r t rk e (l $ i l h k c y p r)c c s ! o p c l tl i o s. s hel c rtu ntj ti cl ti on yi ckl sxel i or)st() Imt)r()!c
llrc u n d c rs l u n d i l rgo i rh . p r(i c c s\csi nvotl cd !nd gri n the n.dj ssl fy c\perl rsc
cl rtl
on Ih e c fi ri c l l fro c c s s o p e r!ri o r)shrshl i ght.dri rrrhcnel ni cdti l \rx
tol hrnc\l
ph !\c .
I ' h a s c:1 l ,ro d o c ti (' nPta n n i n s.l hc cri ti cl l pfoccssofcfrt(,rs tfonr I' hl s.
:t i rfc
r rn k c d \\,i l h p rrd u .ri i )n | t!u i fl nre| l rssues.uttj nrrl ct) l frrst ti | g thr i nrpo
unt
c u s L o n rei fi q u rfe n rd rrsl o p ro J uetl l )l rptnnni l rgnnd tsLrbl i stri ngi mpor| rnt reri r)ns

Benefits
I he polcnti.rlbcnenlsot QfD rrc
lr c re rs c d c u n o n rc r s rri s l n c ti o n
I D rp fo v c dffo d u c L q u l l i ty
Rc d u c e dd c s i g nc h rn g e sa n d l rs oci rLcdcosLs
Rcduce.l lcxd tincs
llnpf oved docLrmentlitionrnd lruceabitit,,P ( n n o l e s l c l m ro rk i n g

7
Figure

Appndix
lll l(rl

O stronq

o
]I

(io',!.t

!P
trnd

C!slom.r rr1| rements

. i; ; ; 1, d- ' . ,

i i

no", u. d"i

efr 0"-,r^

j'H v"'"i,.,"

F igur e7 Q F i rrl
l a 5 e fJ : rc \a m p e :.rrto ct!ci i r.!nri rcri A j

19921

lll
104 Appendix

Placem

l' r ) ri c l c s r s l fu c l u rc (lu p p ' o rL c hto p' o(1uc1

I nr rr)!e s e u s l o rn c rrs L l p | l i cfe
r h ti o.shi f

t)t ,\ l)l N

KeytssueS
( l n b c u s c do n n ro d rl c l s s o l L $ffc or scr' \i ccs
Nl tr\l h c n rrn rs c rn c n tl e d rn rl hl i c xn ol cttrl l nf.l cg! l i Jf i mpl cnrcrrl rl ron' nd
r lr r rrrri rg rtq rrrc rl 1 o u s c rrrrl y s i \ r.rrul l !
. N4 u l ti(l l s c i p l i n x r!l c x tr h r\.(l rf l l i crl i ()n csscnl ' rrl
. ( fri h . s u b i c c l i \. rn (t l ((l i o ' rs
. 1) r ' g i rrr/rl i (rrs (l o n o l .\1 rr(l l h . Lrs(,n Ql :l ) ftrsl l hc l i sl l hl st rr{ rN l l \
. llr!o l !c rrc n l ,)l .rL s ro ri i (rsl n (t sul )| l i (1scsscrrl i trl
. llc\i c $ rl rc g rrl .r i rrl c r\trl \s i l h tLrsl omc' srrxl srrtP Lrcrs
l
i nrts
rc q u rfcrl r(.l s(l rl l i cLrls)nrtl
r)! e rrs l ()rD (f
. I ( l L i n l i l i c rl i ()n
. S l | | p ,)rl Ql l ) $ i l h c ri \l i n g (h l r \!hcrcvcr l \rssrbl .
. 1\ fp l i c (l l o ,) l i rl . i r'
' )rrn !.x s c s
. ( , rn h c l t) l ,) b u l l d u t) r In o { l c (l st bxsc l i ,r Iro(l cr l rnri l i (s.

Appli(a

llr r \ . 1
I

lhn( llin

Casestudy
A r ll l L rs l rx l i \ec h :rrlrss h o $! rn l :i g Lrtc7. w hr.h fcl rtl csl o l hc (i c\i gn()l r l oi l el hk reh
:ts
\!i rnl s l ri gu| t 7 errnbc rcgrr' < l ctl
( onlr i n c r. Il (1 ,r' \ n o l rrrc l n rl cx l l l h( crrsl ()rrr(r
(l
c\i
grr
tl
'
1cc
rc'
r:rrD
rr' !
rc(l
ui
rcnre
l
s
l
hc
c
(,\c
r
rng
I
1' hls c
t!1 )(h rtl th rrIi n r
S
LrIi
l i rl
(l
(fn
))n
rc
rrl
.
rnl
l
(l
c
s
i
g
r
rhrrni
ng
rrc
P
1(tl
ttcri
orr
1 )ri ecssP hnIi ns
t ) hxs c :
(sc.
l
))
I
rgtrrc
t)l
thcs.
l
i
i
r
e
rc
h
. hr r l \ rrf e ()n s l r!c l (d
l n)rtscs

(DFA/
for Manufacture
for Assembly/Design
C. Design
DFM)
( l] oo l h r)!(l r/ d /.. 1 9 9 4 .( S(. 1 9 95:H unns. 1996iS hi nrr(h ./ d/

l 9r)l )

Description
Dl- A rL )l \1 r\ ! l e tl n r b x \e d l rr(l u cl dcsi gnc\rhrrrti on tool \thi ch. rhrough si rD pl t
\ Lru.IL rfc drn rl y s i \. g i \.s Ih e i n l i )r mttti onfcqui redbv dc\rgncrsto l !h!' \el
.
.
.
.
.

P x ft c o o n l f.d u c ti d r
( . tl c u h l i o n o fc o m p (' re n t mtrnul rctrrfi ngrLD C.rssembl
r"
cosl s
I
I ] x s eo f p a rl l rro d l rn g
Erie 0l nssembl,!
\i rti sl -!cusl orrr' r
l r- \l i rhoul w .rsrep| (xl ucl s
Ah i l i i r 1 orc p fo d L l c ci c te n ri c rrlrnd
' vhi ch

Figur e8 l

Appendixlll 105

Placement
in productdevelopment
DFA/DFM should be performcdduring conceptdcsign leadinginro
the dcrailed
clesrgn
stageto revisethe productstructure.

and

Application
of the technique(CSC!DFA/MAmethodology)
The analysisis carriedout in tbur main stagcs(seeFigurc 8).
L Functionrl anrlysis, Thc melhodology enableseach part to be clNsified
as
.B
e\jntial A parrsornon-essenrial
nurts.Glvenrh,su"rren..r.,ed.\;;.ac;;
be cvolved around the e\rential componenrs.from which reduccdpari
count
normallyresults.
2. Manifrcturing anrlysb.Componcntcostsarecalculatcdby considcringmaterials,
manul-acturing
proccsses
and aspcctssuchas complexity,volume ancl-tolerancc.
This nllows idasfor part count rcductionto be testcdsincecombininq
Darls
can lcad to more complexcomponcntsand changesto manul.acturing
pro;e;ses,
-.1. Handlinganrlysis.Components
muit be correcrlyorienrutedheforea,semblvcen
takeflrce. Thcdifrculry.rchic\
ing rhi) hy ciLher
munuator me.tun;cut
mennican
be drrc,,redusing rhe Jn.lllsi5. Componenrsreccivinghlgh ratings rhoultl
he
moolrlld lo gr!c an 3lj(cplahlcruting.vrrrake proofing(or poku yoke)
d,:tices

rch
ing
ilar

ANALYSIS

Ple

Figure8 DFA,/MA
llowchad(Csc,199s)

106 A ppen d i xl l l
pft)cc\sesl o hel p cnrufc /cm
c u n b e i n s trl l .c l i n l h c rrl rt u i rcttrfi rg ' tnd rLssernbl r\(l uti c( l l ri .rnrr' r h'
+ . i i tri n g * u t1 " i . l i )r rh rs to b' r' a!hl c Jrr r$drrl ' l \
i
rr
l
h' ' rqr(n' ( r' rrr' r u' rn'
trh
nt
e
nrrl
rl rd l h c (l i l l i c trl l \ of $(rrrhl
c o n s l rL rc t.(l
rntl non-rrttttc
Lrsscrnbl
' " ' r{ sks
I)i
l
l
i
'
ul
L
i h c < l s i g n l i rr Is s c n rh l \ rrn x l \si sr!hl ' s
bv
rc(l
esi
gnS i nl l l c eoD
cofru!ri
orr
l
(i
r
r(i (t.(l tro (c \.ts x fe r.\c trrc or t ' rrrdl (l nr' s
rr(i
rcosrs' r!i ngs
i
n
r
fcsrrl
l
crLn
trrtr
l
l
sh1()rr
fe fl s \tre hrs th c rb i l i l r' L oIs s cr hl ci n rr
rl rcxsurc\ol N rl i )rfrrncc
lh e r" :c n rb l v r l h s rs s l rrg c \I xri (l ' 1 l rrr!t l ht i nl o* i | s
(l
csi
gD
:
ol
i
n
(l
l
c
I
l
i
('
n
i
rs
l
n
soo(l
i! h i .h ri rc rc c tIrc d
l oLl l t)i rtl s 6l )" ' '
. l !rrc l t,trl i rn rl \s rsg i l c s r l )c srr l i l i i ci ctcl l l ss' rrl i xl l Jrnsr
I' rrLl s I i
. rr" rr, l " g a " .rri l ' g " ' c s r IIrn(l l i rrs l l xl i (J l { JrrrlR trti rssrl i sl crrl i trl
tol rl Itrl i | !si l sscn(i ' l l ' trrl s l \
o l ' rrri n g l rrrrl r' r, s i rts l l rl l i ng l l .l l i o

Bene{its
h c t()l c n l i rl h c rrc l i l \o i l )t Arl )l N l rt' c:

l l c ti ' r.((1fx r I c ({ rrr1

l c$cr In!orcc\ rr(nri
l ' c $ c f | rrrl : n rc x rrsi:rIIr(i \c d rcl Li rbi l i l r.l i \vri sl (i ck c()\l \'
(l
Ixl
|
1\
l ]r' )hl t!ns
l c $ c r s n ttl i (rs x rr(lfo \\i h l ! l i ser
()ccss!tu l i orr
l i \ s l .n r.l L ert,rl l r)n e It ( o s l r rrgrrrrl l )r
t (trl c f c o rn fo n c n l rrrl rts s c rl rhl l cr^l s
(l D rel ho{ l s trfl o:s fro(l r(l
SL r .l ,rr,l v c o ry ' rrc n l s . r tsscnrbl ! \cqu' rrel i r
rtl
)fo(l
trci
Ii
l
i
l
\
' l rrl ri l i c 1 l c tt(l rrrg
L o i rn P ro rc(l
IJ .l .r ' r' ' 1 ,..r.1 ' ( l ' rJ ' r ' ' rr' r " l r" " l rrr" " r" \' l
I\' | I" ' | | | ' | ' | I' rr' l
r;rr,,i r_ ,II
l .{ \' ,(.1 ..
" r" * i
A
l
cehn'
qtrcLo (l rl c N rc trpl ' orl
I)l
ol
l
hc
b
rrp
f
l
i
crl
i
on
x
e
h
i
c
l
c
c
i
r.s
trl
l
s
Ifp re rl
I' l | rl s c o L rrrlrc (l u c l i ,)n :5 0 9 1'
A s s c rrrh l lc o s Lre (l u c l i o n i 0' l i '
l ' ro d u c t c o s l !.c l u c L i o rr l 0' rn

.
.
.

Keyissues
.
.
.
.
.
.

leo
NIustbc n)rnrrgeln'rnt
use
btlore
requirccl
l nLll1ilrg
crn bc signillcrnt
delclopmcnL
prodLrcl
ilr
nc'oLrri"sco.'uLrrca
is esscntirrl
r|proach
sr'stemrtic
rnd
Tc.rm brsed npplic.ltion
prcccsses
ttn.tl)r's
lvlrnr subiecrive
solLrtltllsreed
r.i"rri',l*ii" i* .Lr.l ,echnlcrrlfelsibilit'r'ol ne\\'componertdcsign

b] lxtcnr dciccts
. E.rflt life |Lilufes.rrec.Lused

M
td

E:
.a ;i
o!

(a) O.iginal
design

(b) Ieu d6ign

ANAIYSIS RESULTS
E'

RESULTS
SUXTARY
(c) Re3ulb 6ummary
and measuies
ot pertoamance

Figure9 DFA/MA
lrlmrrew example

TdlFr.md
o..4.dnobEa
.ndylis
Toidtu ding ind.r
F..ding.dio
ToElftttg indd
F ing ind.x

OlnGAA
5
ao*

TEW
2
toola

7.s

4.a
a5
2.3
3.a
1.9

aj
133
7

lll
J0ri Appendix

Casestudy

Appl

h' l dl i ghl
, \ lc x \l b i l i rr'" l tr(l \ x i rrr.drl x trt.n rrrl i l rgthc rsscnrbl )ol l ri D rsffc\\\ o l ' rtr
xsscr)rl
rl
!
rn(l
thc
thc
rofrP
()n'
nl
s
fr1)cc\scs
h
rn
d
l
i
ng
i
l
r
,l
i
l
l
i
c
u
l
l
i
c
s
{ 1. ' r!rrr.\c r1 !(l
er ,rrp l c r rrs s trrh l r s l ru (1 rr...c ()rnIl c\ xc.css.l (Lrno\' r ofcrrl i orr:i n(l rrrl ofrrl i ()n

lhf \ l\

l i o(l rk1
I h c tri rn :.rL $ rs s u rrh l \ rri rl .,!i gi nrrl l i )i nr ri \h()$1ri rr I:i !1rfc' r(x) 'A
(l esi grrl hc r(\' Ll l s
l
l
re
l
()
i
rrrrrl
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\
N
IA
rrr.l
ho(l
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ogl
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1
l
.
)l
L
r\.(l
l
(rrl
r
r r r f r{ ,\.rrrrn l
l i st rrrl r $l rrrrreL:' r1
( , l 1 h crr l \s r\ f r. i l r,)$ rr rrr l l rf i r!ufr i rgi rrri slx
' (frrl r()n'
(l c{rrl
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se
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.\r\trng
th
.
rri
rl
\s
t{
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h
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rr!
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, l. n r.rri J l
( or e .t,rrri rl .l l i rrr!t\ 1 (, { rrl l l rt l i rt)1l i {c(l l Lrl r!rrrl ror | r.!l rl rrl i r' $c1' rr\11 1i J
I i !rrrct)(b)
t ' (' rri | r i r l )(l r.r (l c \rl rr \' L !rr,J n \ l i ,' $rr rri
l l ,i n rn rrr" rti l i fL L \ rrrl h f r(( 1.{ si rc(l r(' rl Lrrfrri l o l A i )ror( si nrl )l (l )r(\1rtr1
(\(rri l l conrIoI' rrl
: n(rl rrrc rrr(l ,rr' .i rs .(l r\i trl l n \ (l c!1| r tl h' i (n' ! r' \ul 1' (l
\urri
rrrxru' ! l l r' rcrrrl l \
. r L i (lfs \c i )rl ,l \ t(i n \ $ tr( !!rri l i (i Ln1l ) rc(l Lk.(l l :l i rLrrt()(fl

lhc: l. l

I ) \ 'r l

l) r ii
\ ( lcr
I \ 1.

(DoE)
of Experiments
D. Design
1( ;j ,,\. i rrrl l ),r\i \. l (rL )l :Ktr!)u r. 1L)(rr.l xfrrehr r' ' rl

I 'hisr 2
$or l \
l ' rf' rl

Description
thc
t ) ()1 i .r({ ,n rt,r\i \ .r ri rn g . o l l ft hi r(l rLcsrLst(ll (i .Ixhl c rt bfsi rr(ss1()Lrn(l tr:l i rrl (l
l
l
r\nortrrrl
l
\rr\c'
l
( ll i rl s ,)l rrrrl !f1 rL n 1 \rfl ,rb l c s i tIrol l rL.l trrkl l )f()" s' (l c\cl ' Ir| rr' i rl
rr(i reoj \hrcl '
uh rIi rrrL s ri g rti n s rs i trL rri L )rr$h.r.l h.rexf(sc\crrl !ttfi rbl cs' i rreor
c rl h c f \i rrgl ) t)r i rr r.nrhri rrrl rorr
nr r! r(.rrl 1i n r 1 )l (,h l c rn
l )()l rr "
l r' rrr,rr,r. r. r' ..l '
.
.
.
.

l (l c n l rl -\c ru s c ' o l \J r| rL ro n i n trrti ctrl prodtrclor l R rccssl l rfrnrcl ers

Ii D i rr fh t c l l i c l : o l l h c \rfi l l i ( i ns r(l enri l l ed($hcre thc! crI hc' onl | rnl ' d)
r tsc
! l b ! sl s\ncnr l 1c i )rrn!r\cei n nrurrLrl i rerull n(l
A rL i c \c rc l l f,x l u c rb i l i L ('
(\n i rrri T c tl rc Prtrl u c r o f frl r. css

development
in product
Placement
cfi Lrcnl!hl r!.te11sl ' csel tl ! o' r
QFD. l-Nl EA nDd a A .'rc u \e i Lrli n i cl enl i l -\i ng
pro d u c l d e \tl o p n rc n l 1 n (l L h . fcsul l i fR i nr rhesc .!n bc l c.l i nl o D Otl . D OE
u \e i L rli i n !c \l i g trl i n g .rn d \.rli dl ti D g thcsc cfi l i crtl chufrul cri sti cssi l I fc\pecl
r c c h n i c rlfe q rri cr me n L s.rl l d L h ei fi nl l uenccon pfo(l uct rl l d p' ocessqurl l t\.

B9l9

The po

Appendixlll 309

Application
of the technique
dligh(

Csuhs
irable
iginrl

Thc systematicapplicatiorofDOE shouldbe basedon threedistinctphascs:

Phase 1- Prparrtion.This is otlen referred 1() as th pre-experimental
stnge.
Experimentsclln t.rkeconsiderabletime and rcsources.and good preparalionis all
important.The resLts from other techniquesare imporlant inputs to this phitscof
the methodology,providing focus and priority selectionfiltering- A summaryof
thc slcpsthat shouldbe consideredis givenbelow:
. Definethe problemto b solvd
. Agreethe objectivesand prep&rea proj!'ctplan
. Examineand understandthe situation.Obrainand studyall availabledararelated
to the problem
. Dcfinc what needsto be measuredto satisfythe projectobjectives
. ldcntily both the noiseand factors10 be controlledduring the xperiment8nd
sclcct thc lcvcls to be considered.These should bc reprsentative
of norm&l
opcratingrsngcand sulficientlyspacdto spot changes
. Eslrblish an effectivemeasuringsystm.Understandits varianceand the likcly
clltcls ol rhis apptrcnt variatjonin output
Phssc2 - Expcrimentrtion
andrnalysis,Carryingouttbe plannedtrialsandanalytical
work wjll includthe stpsbelow:
. Selectthe techniquesto bc used.Dccisionson the numberof trinls is invariably
. colouredby cost. bul alwayschcck thcy ar balancedotherwisci! may be false

uscd
'rhich

Plan the tlials. Conseculivetrials shouldnot allcct eachother

Conduclthe trials as planned.Resul$ shouldbe carefullyrecordedin a rablc or
machincalong with uny observations
which may bc rcg{rdedas potntialerrors
Analysissnd reportingof results,includinga conformationrun. The analysisof
resullsshould bc rransparenr.Simpleapproachesshouldbe usedwherepossible
to build confidcnceand Drovidclffitv.
Phase3 - lmpleme[tation.This phaseis often calledth post-experimental
stagc.It is
about nctingon the rsultsand communicatingthc lssons
learnt.Somepointson lhc
processare givenbelow:
. Apply the findingsto resolvethe problcm
. Adopt a procedurefor measDringand moniloring rsultssuchas SPC 10 dctect
future changesthat could influencequality
. Communicatelessonslearnt through the businessand included in training

Benefits
IOE is

The potentialbenefitsof DOE arei

. Improvedproduct qualiry

110 A ppendixl l l
pfoccss
li) c u s c se ffo rtso l 1 c fi l i c .rlI' rc rrsi n thc pl oduct or
ldcntilic.rlion ol citicrl pfoccss l).lrllnlclers
Rc d L ,c c ds c ,tP o r re w o rk
Rc d n c c dn c c d l i n i n s P c c l ro ' r
S y n c L rl i crfP n )L rc hto fr.o c c s sd !cl opnl crr

.
.
.
.
.

l; uf lr ir l\

Keyissues
shoul dbc P hcc
A n o l c i rl l s l trl c s ) l i )l i l s i n rp l c D rcl rtl i ol rl l n(l trppl i crrl ron
'n

q' l n

o' )cs
( irrrbcconrPlc\
Ntlisl B .s i rr o n srrrrl lc\P cti l rrcl tstrn(lthcn cxpl l n(l1ohrgcr
ol rh c c o n ccprsl t(l (rndcrl vi ng rcl hods c! l c' (l l o P d(n
I,(rJrurrdcrsr:rrlirrg
l rs trn(lrsscssi nSl hci f si gntl '
1) r )h l c n rsrs \o c i rtl c i lw i l h i l c rp fcl rl i on ol l hc rcs
.
.

l l rc pr)ccss
I c xD r s h o trl tltrrto l \c l h (\c k ro w l ' (l gcnbl c i rl roul
conrfl
t\i
1! trnd Lc(l rousncss
l
o
r(drrcL
ll\ e \o l l w rr. * h c r.\ff l o s s i b l (

ll

lr lhl

Casestudy
ro rntrxrnri Tc
( o|l\ rl c r l h c c x rtD rl l co l l l L rtl1 l (N fl hfough r l i l l cr' N hcr' thc obi ccri !ci s
i rn(l
vrscosrrv
l
l
u
A * ' ,,,J (h .1 l h . rc l N tr nl conrrol l i tcrofs rrc l i l l cr'
,r.;;
' ,-"

1
3

high
high

5
6
8

6
2
hgh

2
3

I
t0

high

nrgn

a l ller
varrt ofs forlhe I!id l ovrLhr0uqh
figure 10 Erpermn1al

3
6
6
2

Figur 11

Appendix t I I
temperature.
and thar eachcanhavtwo setrings.coarse/fine,
high/lowand high/low
respeclivly.
Figur l0(a) showsa full factorialexperimenrwher;ajl combjnationsof
factorsand levelsarecxploredbasedon eight trials.As touchedon previously,this
approachcan be coslly. White we coutd try varying a singlefactor at a dm;, in
a
more ellectiveexperimnt,the different levelsol eacb faCtorwould occur on the
samenumberof occasions.Figure lo(b) illustratesan OrthogonalArray involving
four trials,Note thal betweenany two columnseachcombinationleveloccurseq
ualli
oflcn. Using thisapproachthe effectof the differentfactorscanbc separated
ou'ianl
their effechestimaled.
manypraclicalcases,
usefulexperiments
canbe carriedout usingonly two levels,
^_In thh can be emploled \rhere
Often
a srnglechtnge rn lerel uill rlluirraLewherhera
trctor is hkelyto be signifcrnlor nnl. Howcver.wherea respon5e
is non-linear,
threeor more levelsmay be nceded.When thc experimentis completeit is time
to
investigatethe significance
ofeach faclor. This can be donewith the aid of stmiehrforward. graphical or statisticalanalysis of variance techniques.The graphical
approachis tarticularly simpleand effectiveand the approachis outlinedi'n iigurc
ll. In this figure, valuesfrom Figure lo(b) are used to generate
Dlots of faciors
{al Indlvldualrults
Th. eEdinlol lh. craphindet.! th. risn I 4n4 ot th. tac((

Thh Chditt Bnr a n..i!

h9hry3ignrfio

A lo, d ftr.n0. hen. ttu

rignruerc!. A z.rc d ihren0.

(b)Comblnauonot r$ult3
Th. or.rioruh p or rh. I N! showt lh. ri!ni0c.n4

of lh. Mb

i.rion

/*^

S snitienr cmb notions or r.d6 *i * indidod wh6n $ tin. shM .

targ difiefnc. in sdionr SbdC alnirica^@ ts ind*r6d *tuElh tine
cross P4aI.l re3 indicst tii . rtsnirincE

Figufell Graphical
analJ6is
ol lhxpermentatrerutts

31) Appendixlll
I$ullr Jnd
(necl' ol borh-rnditr'lual
andle\cl'.Theplor..rreemplrtledlrr stuJ) lhe
rr'.
I
rgurt
rn
Nurelhrr onl) lour nflhe sii frunhs'rrr Included
combinJlions.
drawn
rhe
line
ln the cascof individual lcsults in Figure I l(a)' tbe gradientof
a
measure
lS
betwcenaveragevaluesof the resulisat the levelsunderconsideration
tr'" factor. A hish gradicntindicatesa high signilicance'while
ii ti"-"igtn""'"."
"r
al all Anulysisof the ffectsof 0onbinatiolrs
tinc infen no signilicance
a trorizo-ntat
het$crnthc
i, b"'e,l,.n linc.con*ru(lcda' tho$n in Frfurell(hi The relalronshin
ol rhe rc\ulr\ SisnifitJntio binnrron'1':'11**i
line' inJicaretrhe srgnifr,rrnce
in lrddienl Slfont ngnrlrcanirrr rndrcaleo
dill(renLc
\hott
J
hrge
linc\
\ hcn th!
Notclha(rn lr clronrllaclorrilr
whenbn.:scro*. P r.lllellinerrugge\lno sitsnr6canc(
experimcnls.th mnin eflcctsarc compoundcdby inleraclionellccls'

' lhd
SheetA

SheetB

SheetC

Sheetf

ShetI

Process
capability
maps

fe ned

Indexto maps
ShootA

Crsting procsscs
Srndcfl$ting Srcelrnd iron
S.indcosling (bpper llloys
Slnd cllsling Aluminiumand m gnesiunt
ulbys
Shcll rnoulciing Steel.ircn and coppcrrllols
Shellnroulding Aluminium nd ml|gncsium
olk)ys
CenlrilugrlcastiDg All nrclals

ShcctB

Prcssuredic caslinS
Prcsruredie c.rsting
Prcsruredie cdstiDg
Gravity die casriDg
Gravily die casting

ShcctC

Invcstmenl
cusring All mehls
Ccr.rmicnould c.rsting All merats
Pl.rstermould c.Nting Aluniniunr. magnesjuDr.
zinc and oopper

SheetD

Hot forgiogprocesses
Closeddie lbrging Stccliup ro I kg)
Closeddie lirsing Slccl(1 io 3.2kg)
Closeddie lbrsing Srecl(3.2io l0kg)
Closeddje forging Steel(10 to 50lg)
Slamping Q)pper allols

Sheettr

Cold formingprocesses
Impact ertrusion(radial)
Impacrextrusior (axial base)
Cold heading(radial) Sreel
Cold heading(axial) Stcel

ZiDc llloys
AlLrnriniumrnd magnesiumalloys
Coppcr lloys
lron. copperand zinc alloys
Aluminium .rndnlagnesiumalloys

SIccl
Si { tg i n r

Al ! rn e l l s

Sh(l I

(i,ld dr.r*n"a rnd rolling Droctsses

(i ,l (l d fl r\! r
S te . l
( (rl d d rrw i n g ( o l ll cf l nd coff.rr xl l o\s
( , )1 (l| 1 )1 l r.g Stc e l
( ()l d ro l l i n g ( o fp cr trnrlcoppcl rtLrovs
( { n (l r(n l rrri r A l L rt' rrrr" nrl l l o!s

Sh N( ( ;

ll\lnrtnn Dn,(tss6
rl l ' )\' s
rn(l rD rrgncsi trnr
l l ,)1 c \l a i o rr A l nri rri rri rr
l
h
.rn
rJfhsl
res
l i \1 rrri (,n
Ih s l o r" cfs
l :rl rL \i (ri

S h (l l l

Sh(cl nr(lrhrrrkitrg Prottsscs

Key
l )c ( f (l rtr$ i rrl rrrd 1ro' rrns
Ito l l l i )r]ri rrg

l( r
r h.

Shc(l J
shrct K

\tx(hitrn'g Irotcss6
l )rx tro ' l (l l u rn rn g 'Do'
' nr
( l l i .(h rtrl g rrn (1 rn!

I
LI
r

lll

tl

l )ri l l i ttg

Shctl l.

N !rl l l n g
t-rp p i o g
(
\rl " cs
Vn c h i ri n ! c c n tfc (posi ti orrrtl ) D rrecl .t
Shlrt \I

Shcel N

Po$dcr mclrllurg! Pmccss(s

P o $ d c r rrc l .rl i i n te f i D g (rtdi ri l )
P o N (l .r l n c rrl s i n tefi ng(rxi rl )
P o $ d e r n l .tu l s i z i n g(frrdi .rl )
Plrstic moulding Proctsscs
noul di ng Thefmophst' cs
IDj e c rro n rc o n p re ss1ll )n
Bl o \\n l o u l c l i n g l ' hcrnrophi rrcs
R o ttL L ro n n l mo u l di rg l ' hermoph\ti cs

ing) .

S\\ ili

Th

AppendixtV lt5
ShetP

Elastomr and compositemouldingprocsses

Injectionmoulding Elastomers
Comn'r..ionmuuUing ( omnnsrler
Hand,/spraylay-up Conrposites

ShetQ

Non-traditionrlmachiningprocsscs
Eleclricaldischargemachining
Elecrrochemical
milling
Elclronbeammachining
Laserbcammachining
Ultrasonicmachining

SbetR

Chcmicalmilling Stccl
ChemicalnlillinS Aluminium r oys
Photochemicalblanking Steet
Photochemicalblanking
Coppcr

Keyto maps
l. To determinethc risk vfiluc ..{. look .rlong the horizontal dxis unlil thc
chrLracterisric
dimcnsionis lound. find at thc same time. locate thc lrdjustcd
ktcronce on the vcrriolLlaxis. Readoil lhe ,-r'valuein the zoneat whictrthcsc
linesinters$t on thc mup by interpol.rtingas requiredbetwecnthe zone bands,
A=ltoA=9.
2. ,-1: I corrcspondsto 0 tolcrancethat is ensilyachievedby the mrnufacluring
L Thc internedirlevalucsof.,4 (t= l.l,A=1.3,A= 1.?)correspond
lo incrcas_
ing tcchricaldimcully/cosllo .rchivethe rorrance.
1. A = fto t1= 9 correspondro a loleranccthat is tchnicillyunalhinableusingthe
manufiLcluringproccss.A secondary(and possiblya tertiary) processma-ybe
requiredto achivethe rolerance.
5. Thc two bold linesal ,.{= I and ,t = L? reprcsentthc normal rangcofrolerance
capability for the process under idcal nutcrirl and co,r,pon-entg"n,r"t.y
conditions.This informationc,tn be uscdas knowledgcin thc redesign
iroccssif
6. All tolcrancesare plus or minus udessstaredolherwjsc.
7. Ali dimensionsand tolerancesarc in millimetresand borh axis havelog scaies.
Note: The processcapnbilirymapsfor castingprocesses
(xcludinginvestmentcast_
ing).^closed
dic forging/stampingand ptasric/rubber/composirc
mouldingprocesses
are for tolerancesin onc half ot the die/mould only. Additional allo;ances will
needto be addedlor rolcrancesrhat are acrossrhc die/noutd pnrting line when !h
processcapabililymaps are usedin the rcdesignprocessas a knowiedge
base(see
Swift and Booker(1997)for approximarepartins line allowances).
The map for machiningcentrepositionaltolerancesgivcsCpkvaluesdirectly,and
no other analysisis required.

t16 AppendixlV

Materialkeyfor plasticmouldingptocesses
Abbrcriation Name

ABS
CA
CP
PI]
PBTP
PC
PCTFE
PE
PESU
PETP
PMMA
POM
PPS
PP
PS
PSU
PVC.U
SAN
UP

AcrylonitrileboladicnerlYrene
Celluloseacetate
Ccllulospropiondte
Phenolic
Polyxmidc
tcrePhthalate
PotybutYlcne
Polycarbotratc
PolychlorotrilluorcethYlenc
Polythylene
PolyethcrsulPhone
PolyethylenctercPhthrlAlc
PolymelhYlmethacf
Ylate
PolyoxymelhYlene
sulPhide
Polyphcnylcne
PolyproPYlcne
Polystyrenc
PolvsulTthone
Polyvinylchloride unplasticized
Styreneacryloniltilc
Polyesler

E
I

i=t"l

E
!
I

li*:;i,'sp*;*i**
til**iff*filn-Si:T"*lf

rsHE

c
E

Appendix
lV 117

PROCESSCAPABILITY

Ip

cas.nvcpnoiEEl-iiiiEiiiii uri
-s^tlo
FOR ALUTTIIUU ANO MAONESIUMALIOYg

HE!i.i6iiDrNG-pnocssda-pasrlrry
I

MAPFoR srEEL,rRoNAxo copeEi ALLorc]

l. irr

FOF ILUUINIUM AIID MACI{ESIUMATIOYS

CENIRIFUCAL C^STINO PiOCESS

CA'ABILITY UAP (ALL MEI LS)

ll8

lV
Appendix

sh

(cont?)
SheetB CastingProcesses
i nessunt ore crsrrN c pqocess

In

lineisune ore crirrlc iaoctss

zrNcaq9Ysr
lcAu,L,rYMAPron
r

+w-T:Hl!
-ffl-r

I
!

cR/i Y o,E c^slNc iFocEssl

cAsrNc PRocsa I

c^p^B'L'rY MAp FoR rRoN

L
^ND
coPPEF aND zrNc aLtovs
l

.l

I cnrvni ore

enocessl

aND MAGNESTUM
-irrlc AtLoYs

E
;
:

l"

Appendix
lV 319
;:

it

l|lvESlxEt{t cASTtNo PROCEAS

cAPAltuw MAt (ALL itET LSt

CEFAM|C ||OULO CAAII 0 PFOCESS

caPABlUtY MAF (AL|.
EtAla)

E
t'
I

FLAAIaRltot LD CAATNOtiOCEsg
oAP E[ttY [^P toi Atut l{u||.
MAo E3lut, z[{c aNDcoppEFallitys

E
ao l
I

sheetD HotforgingProcesses

:]

She

l s ra u " ' rc c n o c .s sq " re i i n

mP

AppendixlV 321

l
|rIPACI EXTRUAbT
PAOCESS
CAPABITIIYUAP
IR^D|ALTOLRANCE'S
OI{LY)

rMprcr Exteuslox
I
CAFAS|L|TY I
I FROCESS
TOTEMNCES
I tAxrALBASE
OntYt
^P

:,
:;

colo HEADtt{ctFocE3a c^p Btl|ly IAF

FOA LOW TO iIEDIUI CARBON3TEELA
TOLRAIICE
{RADIAL
ONLN

CO(D HEADINO
PROCEAS
CAP EILI'Y UA'
FORIOIV TO MEDIUM
CAiEONSTEEIS
{AXIALTOLERANCEA
ONLY}

col-D FonorNoPBocEss

E
;

swaolto rnocEsa caPAstliiY MAP

lv
122 Appendix

SheetF Colddrawingandrollingprocesses
coro oaawrlc-iociss

cleraLni

She

un;l

]I
t
3

I1

AppendixlV 123

t:
:t
I

EXTFUIIONPROCES3CAPABILITY
MAP FOR ALUIIINII'MAI{D
IIAGNESIUI{AILOYS

ExtRtiStol{ PhocEgs capABILFY

MAP FHEFI{OPLASIICS}

roYsl
'rrv

EXTRUSION
PFOCEESCAPABIIITY
MAP FOA ELASIOMEFS

colo EltiuatoN PBocEaacApABtLtTy

I
I

324 AppendixlV

sfiEET ETAL PUNCIIII{O

FFOCESSCAPA'IIITY SAP

SHEET IIETAL CUTIINO

cAPAalLlrY llAP
Piocla3

flll!

EEXDTXO
TEOCEAaCApAArr|TYrrAP

Et l{KtNo tFocE33 caP^BllltY llAP

!
t

DEEP DRAWINO AI{D IROTIINO

r|AP
PnocEaS CAPABIrY

ROLL FORXINO PFOCEES

AppendixlV 325

gPI'INII{C PROCESS CAPABILITY

MA-

126 Appendix
lV

processes
SheetK Machining

She
OIAMOI{D IURNING/AORING

['

2..
I

'!.

c v u n o n tc t c i n n n c
mruw crnocessc+ l ounuae

L!91!. 1"q!:i c1111.'" llf

nEAMNC PRocEss caPABlurYf, ei

\
I

AppendixlV 127

PLAlliNO/58rPtl|O PnOCESS
CAPASILITYI'AP

T,ILLINC PROCEASCAPAEIL|TYTiAF

BUFFACE OiINDINC
tFocESS CAPAaTLTTY
ir^t

LATPNO riOCE!

CAPASTL|YY AP

I
I

MACHINII,IO
CEIITREPOSIIIONAL
IOLEAAIICE PROCESSCAPAAILITYI'AP
(DtREClC. VALUS)

a
q

t28 AppendixlV

::,$*t:!!::,,ia6&i:ii|e|til!ryat!:ititlaliaiiiiii]i.i:ittl]]::t:i:ltti:i
METALSINIERIIIG
POWDER
MAP
PROCESSCAPABILITY
OI.ILY)
(MDIAL TOLERANCES

POWDER
METALSINTERING
CAPABILITY
MAP
PROCESS
IAXIALTOLERANCES
ONLYI

trE
-,.
l-'*x!l

"r

E
q
I

{l-

3 "'t
r
T

POWOER
ME'TALSIZING
MAP
PROCESsCAPABILITY
ONLY)
IRADIALIOLERANCES

t----;

I ror:i
I

+
t_
1

c
f;Ni

-l

fr

AppendixlV 129

Seematerialkcy and no1cs.

2. TNJECT|ON/CO
rAE3StOr{ HOULDTNG
PFOOssCAPABILIIYMAP

q
fd l

a. INJECTTOT OUTDTNOPROCSAa
CAPABILITYMAP FOA UGH' CIIOII.IEEFII{O
(ALL TfiERXOrLA3lrCS)

3, 01JECfl Otl/COltPRE3StON
MOULOINO
PAOCES3
CAPABILIIYT'AP

g
!

nol lloNAL ourDrNG

PiocESs caPABrLrTv{AP
(rHEiMOPLAsflcs)

(tHERMoFr^STrcs)

4
t
t'

130 AppendixlV

co PaEsstoNltoulDll{c

Thescpr

PAOCEAA CAPABII.ITYiiAP
FOB CO POaTE tAYEFrAtg

tr.*
""

" '1

-+

3
iT
'1

{
I

TIA D/A'FAY LAY.UP

PFOCISSCAPAS|IIIYltAP
foF co PoStTEit^TlFlal3

tL
I

n 4d+

u1.
fr1

"*,1

131

'I

Tlese procsses
arc no1strictlydimensionaldependenl
ELECTRICAL DISCHANOEIACXIXIIIG
PAOCESS CAPABTI|TYfiAP

EIECTFOCXEMICAL ILLII{G
PROCESSCAPAAIL|TY MAP

E
g

EIECTFO BEA ||ACHtfltNO

PNOCEA'CAFAEIUJYIIAP

IASEF AEll| IACfiNtNO

PROCEAA
CAPAEILITY
MAP

E
I

ULTEASOXIC IICHII{ING
PFOCESS CA'ABIIIIY CAP

processes
(cont'd)
SheetR Non-traditional
machining
CHM'CAL MILLING PNOC;S

PFOCESS C^P;BILITY

Sa
I

eu.Nirnc cnocess

J
I

",,1t",,

t ::

Fl
+-l
l- '

casestudie
s usedtn
Sample
validation

I
cHr87S1018

n,= 13x15= 1,95

gP= 1x 1,1xl xl xl rl -1,1

M6nul6ctunngproc85

Char.ctn{bd63cnpon
Char.dnstlc d m6n3ion

(mm)
122.00

no\0o

=tls^rr-=-"*'

1 2 2 .0 9 1 0 ,0m
5m

Procsscapebilitylndex CDr= 1.79

ProcsscapEbilltylndex Cp :2 1

gn:tptse=1.4!1=1.4

Manulacluringvariabilly risk q. : 1.4

334 Appndix
v

nF= 1.7t1.5= 2,55

gp= 1 x 1 x1 x1,7xl x1.1= 1,87
M.nul&tunngproc3a
Ch.raclriBtrc
dsrtprto.
Charact6.lsrrc
dlm.n!ton

43.6(mn)

aotusrco
= 99!l!!!lg!!!:
rorerancc
nP \ 9P

+0.2

,-=3;lTt

= *o.oo,

tc*,p""""
lT;;-is*
tM"-,d

|ci"*"'"""

I-s,,r*

II
I

q m =i F x ! e =9 x 1 =9

Proc$ cap.bllity Ind.x Cei = O

Proc66 ceplblllv Ind.r Ce = 0

Manul.olurlno
v.rllbltity rt6kqn = S

| *-*"

Compon
nr
orawlng
9e= 1 x1,1x1 x 1 !1.1 xl = 1,21
p.oc.s!
Manulecturlng
Char&l.rlltlcderlptlon Clip 1..!lh
Ch6r.cl6rl.llc dlm.n!lon

55.0(mm)

Adlusr.dtotgranc.=
= --:::1

D'llqn tolr'nc
ncx0c

= +O.t6

qm= tx3,= 1.3x1__1.3

ss' o.zmm I

Pr@$3capablllv Ind6xC,r = 2.14

PreE6s pablllv IndxCp = 2.57

Msnuracrunng
varlabllhynsk qm= 1.3

Ch*"t"tl

o""lr-"1,

Appendix
V 335

9 p =1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 . 1 =1 . 1

proc$3
Manulaclu.lne
OharaclgrlEtic
d$cr pllon
aolulrgc loranc =

Characiedsticdlm6nBlon

Ds on lol.rencs
ncx 0t

qn= rexse= 3x1= 3

57.1* 0.5 mm

Proc.3.olPabttltyIndxcer = 0,85
Proc.!. oapabltlty
Indo(cp = 1,21

Manulacl(rlng
varl.bllllyrl.kqm= 3

N/A
9e= 17x 1,1x 1 i l : 1,1x 1 = 2,06
ManulacturingpfocBg

Charactn3rb
d$crlprion
Chafecr.n!rb dlmontlon

=ffi=+o.oz

6.5+ 0.2mm

g n =, e x s c =1 , 1 x 1 =1 , 1

Procosscapabllityind6xCek: 3.88
ProcosscaPrbilityindexCp :4.

Manulacturino
variabiliry
nskqn = 1.1

ta".p*
tr".'t"l

tr"*
Oh } ilie ,

tah"'"
til'.*

sr ,:' l n r 0 ' s.i

0 5 lm nl

-ldj;5/ 05m
| ,.t.,::\.,liir

f1'j':
l

l:;:

r v n ,n ,r li I

:,#
o,--""4i;l..:Ti.'
Ch a r i,r e , !i.

'"'111i-".
AtltLslcd to era rce

d n r n sr o n

[n*
f.'

Fl*r*:T ,0,..,,,,.
ryheeeei,-f

P o .e ss.r r ld h
Prcc$$apab

nde C .

l ly ndex C

t 4 a n u r a c l ui gr v . r i a b l t y r s k q , . , 1 4 2

AppendixV 337

9p:1!1!1!1!l!1
Manulacluringprocess
Characler sl c descript on

Oeeqn to erance

characler sl c dimension

4!r 9!

:0.071

1/1

Pr.c es s . apabr r y
Prdc es s . apibr r y . dex c ,

lvlanLra.rLr.is v.riab'fiy

I sk q,,j

3 56

rTrrlrril,r!r

137

Cha r ac t er is t c des cPlion

r

Desion to e'ance

ch ar ac ler s t cdim ens ion

nrr ar
17 . 1A 7

Process capab lly

ndex Cpr

P r o ce ss ca p a b lly n d e x Ce

1 33
2 15

'0 424

l M a n u l a c l u r i nv ga r i a bl l y r s k q - : 1 . 4

338 AppendixV

tc..*
I

I y"-

gp:1!11i 1:1i 1!1--11

lManulaclurng process
charactenslicdescr pl on
Charactenslicd mens on

to5*
tch*
I

*o.oru oora

tl
lersr

P r o ce ss ca p a b illy in d o x Cp r

12

Procoss capabilily iidex Ci

I 33

137!1

l
lI

147

M6nu{6ci uri nSvar abi i i y ri sl q-

1 a7

L-

i Pbcos

tc..*
t.
ti/*
f,*

Ma n u la clu , n g p ' o ce ss

C har a. l, is t i.d6s . r pr o.
dimnsion
Charac16ristic

to'";
t;;

o65 025(mm)

r
I
l)65 025{ 0.025mm

Processcapabiity lndex c :4.53

Processcapabiity ndex cp :4.7

qn

tprsp

lrrr

rl

M a n u l a c t u r i nvga r a b l l y r i s k q m : 1 1

I1tt
I

Proce

340 AppendixV

tc".e.

F;,

c lt 1373 - 1 0 2 1

9r:1rl !1:1!r!r'l

Characlorislc descnpnon

A d l l s r e di o e 'a n c e

chafacler slic d menson

to!!

D e s i a nr o e r a n ( e
n, . 9

tooou

tr-;

t=
q,,

Processcapab lly Lnd6rcd

Pr oc es sc apablly indxc r

2 99
3?2

l r!sr

102x1

102

Manulacluringvar ab lly risk q,,,

I 02

I
L

ta.*
F';
11

1!11!l i l r l i l

c har ac ler is t c des c . plon

characlerlslicdimension

A d u s l e dl o l e 'a n c e

="-i

o e s i o nt o l 'a n . e
d! . g!

toooa

F.*
F;
I

I
I
qm-l pxsr-9:1

Pfocss capab lly index Cpk = o

Process capabiiity index Cp = 0

M a n u i a c l u r i nvqa r a b l l Y r i s k q , . : 9

l-

lf-

l=

342 AppendixV
ff.

1 r 1 . 2: 1 . 2
12 = 204

1r 1! 17 ! 1:1x
Manulacluringprocess
Characleristc dscriplion

Oesion rolera.ce

Characteristicdimo.sio.

ta.-

nP '9P
12

Procsscapabilityind6xCer = 0
Procsscapability nd6r Co - 0

!,d.'-

2A 4

--

--

tr-,'r

rn
L\
t_
t-

M a n u r a c r u n nvga n 6 bf t y

'r s t

q-

t-

Prc.6

sKst.7

f-

oe

r\rxr!r7x1!1.1

1.37

Ma.!lactur nq proc6ss
Cha/ ac lers lic des c r ipt on
adiusredloru,rn"" =

Chafacl6r sli. dimens on

2.s5 ! ir7

Du:lan rol6rance
nr\9e

+0'042

t*-

F'*
f--:----

E
E

r
q-:l prsp-9t1

Pr oc es sc apabiit yr ndexCpr : 0
Processcapabiily index Cp :0

Manulaclurinqvar abilily risk qn I

-

l-

Appendix'Y,,

Additional
assembly
process
riskcharts
A, Miscellaneousoperations
Rorenrarion11)

,'+
13 (1 1)

lll

12115)

::1.

ri}

I
)).)

11(17)

II

emnayrequircrcoricmatngfortudh$a\semblyrolnkcprecoradlL,\redto
hre!rhcr.qutred nerfonan..
i:l Helrnsrcoolnle
intlies rlreapplicnronofnca! dr rheparriscstd to.low
qreratrons
subscqucnr
tobctcrtomed,forNanple hcatsh.nhns
Jr Refesto lhc lill,ng or enpq,hg ofluids dnringlhe asscnoryproce$,ror
exahtldlubricariDB
oi1.
'a) Thesenon-ascnblyprocescscdnrangefrch sinpte
mcnsurmenl
tsks rJ
omplcxsennreopcrarions
Theuscrsh.uld\etecranroJropnarcurucr,sutr
1'

Dsassenblyed rcassem
bly proccses (e s selccrilealsenbtrrotshnntec
nor corcrc'l
processconsderatioN bcc.ue lhey ao non valuc addd.t
'n
for clnnralion.
Foce$esandshonldberarseted

Apprdix
vl 345

r. tl. p@[

bs

luiomhd or

Wh.l l. lh. .kllt t v.t EqutEdttf

F.. Ft up* op.Elto.? (2)

f--.--]

M.dlum

Htlh

1,3

1,f

r.0

r. ff, loht .glt

$nd b tE t!. ot r!.t mdon

u..d hr d.bo.!on? (a)

.6.dbr.

I
T:F
E h.n *ndi.F6t
.polt.d b
mp.niob..t bfr.a durti!

h in. d.lbtudon Dbc{.

p.rtoh.d d..tngt. @mron.nl
d d teo (6 n@) diooi.nb

I
ap=ffi'S'E 9,9.8
NoEi
O

Auklid.d lMs
M doF dhl
&ftrE d6, bot po.tr@uS ft,r6

Pl@r do.6'ijty L d.p."d@i d 6. tui-

td.6.
ddirdi@
^w
rod.d od

oflie fr
b !8i,,.

d.6m.rio

i..!*r

Tb. dnnd@
|pptlo&d
olllllllfuirylMh&diorvrl|lid

ot

&ft'b4d
bt i. e Llfu,
aetr,rd F.[io
rhoi]d b.
idatty pFnq
rhourd b!

IbDd

6.

lirl

ot ba drq

Itu d.tuudd or w (q M).o@on@

Sliff'-'*"

or

't"r't""''tu'q u

346 AppendixVl

B
IE

Al

r"r" p.** *r"'"r.a

padomedmanuay7 (r)
-

B I wh., ,ih",k,,,"""i,"q,-db,
p@.$ser{poropomron?(r)

I
10

13

c I A"lh",",",*,,"*"p.*b

Dl

J od d s s "
- *d . . , - "

la)

EI

r,u" 1.,'*" y*-.'0"

F I

Gl
"E
bm9Grurs
dunngrh6pr@ssr^o?
0)
i-

B(unnsnm./prssu,.

,r

rl
H I

k ftopin'dp.3.i

rd ha6h

1. 3

lrr
^,k&rroq4u*qca@u
hi4{ qoh aj dcF ideft{c

. ' 1r : ' J 1* I '

i6)

is(d,@rdrdFiilMudhr

iri

aq*dd--,hru-r-,hdB

:ll',Tr;::,i. ; ,:t

t
f;

,,=E'8"8.8"tr.tr-@"8

"'''l.'"tsj,

,t

mponanrduringassehbly?(6)

bh' hds ord s hrb,

10

L.:)

t;

tl

I
I

.m . d'o ;! .;;';:'

AppendixVl 347

A|

, irr6sNnbvr6quEd rof
B I whor
proc.s

"'"""***"*,*.

s6r-upor operaronT(2)

Manual

c I e* ,,"r"rn
r"
-,,"*" "*"

l-

r,r aos6n
o*a.erms F)

P I

LaP

Ir

Buri

3lF I --=
-

E I r,uep'.r*, y*o*,u"

I
Y$

(r)
^u'ofrdcrr

No

I'm..ss! N

No

rcqud? ()

Y.s

rLok .onrot ur'hns

,,il;.;;;;;,";",
lr)

F pdlp@3sing

"o=E-tr-E'E'tr'E

suda.eerce-Mordrejoii,,(
rcnow o!d$, greN., dc (For b flunmLjc$otrt

i:;;'lrfi:*'"- **"'**''
Q)

v-a.
b".. r"p j"., *
"rd.
hrgeon,ad{crusins
ni $tuns rfsr.lt tuninr

md

pruesiis
'dd0y

0.02m 0d 0.rm,

rhourd b.p'hmed

odwi,e jod srdsrh r

(o Il[$hd]nesnet$qbrcmv.nuBdne!slrcr

tro,n !k,v.

348 AppendixVl

k rh. o6G$ 6u,omdedtr

pedomdmanuay? (t)

Al
-

R I

I
10

17

Cl ,.,**"-*".*-'pr
Lap

A* ,h. . d *,i**
F-.
@nbm n6|on? 12)

Edso

Dl ^* ' ' ' . , "' .

Buh

-a 3 -

P.ol6cton 10

"o=8"tr-tr,8"8

itl

{u!ndd4!$4r!nd!atubrD

o)

v!'eu

r*"ld*roeuFdlrNdcd

G_i

o' dq s' c Lud i' rE rtb

k 64'$r!
'

rd kusi\

di6,o

AppendixVl 349

r, $. werdnoer@ssauromarod,

Al

m6nu.ny?
0)

TI
Aulomsisd Srn surom.tic
10
1. 3

Manusl

.""**."i",
9l **"".",
pD6ss s.!up o. op.ration? (2)
Nigh
10

13

vsr@ of c, retarno lo mat.dsr@mp6ribq for stcld,usionw.a ns p.dcssos

{3)

pRocEss

MM A

MG

T AR BosNrE EL 1 ," i ' "

sreiresssreeLro

?
3
g
f

D I e* rr,"r""r*r-*
r"
'-"

I
F I

r:r;:

ALUM TNTUM 17
Io
c oPPER
I
_l
M AG NESUM
i1, ' o
NEhEL
IITANIUM
I

I ro

k ho |dd *5 v***,ba
ro rhprcc63s?(6)

ap=E,iB-r,
cj,tol,te
-F ,Fl

Blankconformability
analysis
tables
A. Variability
risks(9'nand%) results
table

tl
;A

Ii

i' i

t l 1fl.t IF t
I ; I J!il'I j i
i

I tI

l I
6

Appendix
Vll 351

ii

3g

problems
Assembly
with
two tolerances

Figu

Thc ndl),sis
of assenblyproblcnrs
with iusl lwo r(tcrlncesis commonlnd otlcn
includcsthc rcquircnrcnt
lo lind thc poleDtil iDrcrlcrcnc!
or clcllruncc
bctwecntwo
co|nponcnts.
Tho litlowingis nDcxr|mf,le
olsuch problcrD.
involvingrhciDscrll(nr
ol .rdccpdrtlwnbnssrube nd ll driilcdllloy stcclborc.rheclel itsot whichrre givcn
in FigurcI (Hrugen.l9li0).lt is cvidcntlio|n thcdiDcnsions
sclon rhcrubc nd borc
lhnl lhc tolcrrnces
Lrssignecl
arennlicipaled
io be worslc.lse.
An annlysis
ol thebflrsstubci\ pcrlixmedto sscss
thc likclyc pnbiliryusing( A.
Itelcrringto thc process
c plbility m.rplin deepdr.rwingshownin Figufc2. lrrd
delerniningthc mrrcritll.,70.rnclgcomclry.
gr. v.tri.rhility
risksgivcsi
Designtolcr.rncc
(r)
Adjustcd1oler.rnce..

+0.0-5
(1.7!1.2)x(1.05)

: +0.021mft

Figu

Afiskvalueof,.,l',l.3isinterpohtedfromlhcprocessc.rp.rbititymapabovcand
bcc uselhere.rreno surl:icclinishconstflrinls.4,. : L3. An eslinrarcfcn the shitied
.lrndJrJ Je!ilrion\ r. trv(I rn Cluprer I,r,

,
"

,.r i
i;

u.us^t.:t
_t2
0 0r)-nrn,

Similarly.li)r the ulloy steelbore thc pfocesscrprbilily mnp for drilling is showntn
tigure L Notc thrl thc lolefrncein rhe cascof a drilled djncnsion is given,is a .+'
only:
Adjusledrolerance:

Designlolcrance(I)

+0.05

=
012mrn
(l x 1 . 5 )x (1 . 0 s ) +0

The standarddeviationfor one haif of thc lolerancecan be esrimatedbv:

ItJ 4 ;

o025,1
2,' = n.or:
--

Using the algebraof random variableswe can solverhe probabiliryof inrerferencc

bclween the two tolerrncc distributions,assuminqthat rhe lariables follow a

FigL

AppendixVlll 353
mm
a, : 11s13S

14 5 | 0.05

--) tt t t |
-N.

FigureI Delasof thrubeandbore

DEEP DRAWING AND IRONING
PROCESS CAPABILITY MAP

nd
-9
(mn)
oIAMETER

tigure2 Process
capablry
maplordeep
drawing

DRILLINGPROCESSCAPABTLITYMAP

t
E

ffi

;";ffTf

?rI -Tl l l
Figure3 Process
capabllty
map1ordrllng

1".,"

354 AppendixVlll

#rd*
Figuf4 Sratnc,r
rpreseniatron
of thenrerferenre
probtem
Normaldisrribr]lion
rnd th t lhcyarcstalisricay jndcpendcnt.
The probtenr
is gov(rrn.\i.In lir(r.h) rhr':rnr,,rrnr
nt nc!-.rlr\e
(l!,,rrIl((.Thj, rftn,t:rrc,rnr.,.,.litlcrcrrrc
nL.rw.cn
th. rcrn ,,t thel$,, rrldnm \irntlhlc,./,.
"nd /,, i.cL lilLrrc 41. thc mL
ol thisdiliercncc
distribuli()n,
/r. is givcnby:
tt = t1h. t1t= 525 11.45=0.075mnr

Nor

ThcslrndnftldcviLriion
oflhc differcnce
distribution
berwccn
thcnrndonvarirbtes
is
given byi

":

(;,'+;i l " ' . . ( o . o o+t ro . o t r r ) .=r o o r s r n r n

F.|oInihc StandardNormal Disrdbulton(SND) ii is possible

to detcnnincthe prob.rbilily of ncsrtivc clearance.p.
Thc: (! und(f lhe (urve 1,,rh(.|efi ,t
/,/ /,. Lrdrte\ 1,,rhL Dn,hJbiirl!oi
rrcg.rlrve
\l{:rr,rncc.
Thi\:rreJjJn h( ro nJ froDrlh( S\D trhi.r I1tt. t. qpn.n.ti"
l) by determiningfie SlaDdrrdNormrl varjarc.:, wDerc:

/_ ')

LOg

u ' tr s1
fL
5oo
. u .r ts)

tf,,, ,rn,r h.n(e rh(.pr.h bitir) ot n(pi,r!ectcrrln(L r.

0 rn00u,t
I]'.
"1."
In<rer,trc.
th( prohrbitit\ lhdr lhe na , nrll rnlcrfer(on d*enrhl) r\ pr.crr(:r
)
negligiblc.
Aiso sceHaugen(1980).Kolarik (1995)and Shigley(1986)tor
exampls
ol.this
.
rype.

2-pa

3-p

Properties
of continuous
distributions
!o \ -

Probabllity,
Densityfun&lbns
{pDf}' : ,,,,
Normal
distribution
|
/ I.Yr: __=: cxp I' "-'t\
;_i
\
)
-'
uherc/, - mrrn .rnd
sr.rnJ.rrLt
dc\utrrn
-

Lognormal
distribution
drr

.
'r.r'

I
^

r
erf t

t ln
_ :r'
_ ,| lrr r

^\vzt
where,\ = meanand d = dispersion.

l.l

hrs

0. \.\

2-parametef
Weibulldistribution
/,\rx''
r tr,t,
'''' t;/lui *"( l,'rl

' "

whercd: characterislicvalueand I = shapp ramercr.

0J : l, equivalenlto the Exponentiatdistribuuon_r

3-parameter
Weibulldistribution

.'r'r:(,__a)(ff)'
*( (;;I)

,'>o

156 AppendixlX
where -\":

expecrcdminimum value. p = characlcristicvalue. rnd ,iJ,=shlpe

(il l. and_r, :0. equivalent

b rheExponential
dislribution.
l/: 1.5approxinrates
to thc Lognonruldisrriburion.
3: 3.44approxinates
to the Normatdisrribution.)

Maximum
Extreme
ValueTypeldistribution

(+) "*'((?)))

(;)*,
(
^.):
whcre(9 -. sllle parametera n d
l ocrti on pr.aIncl cr.
' ,:

Minimum
Extreme
ValueTypeldistribution

//, ,,\
,' /r\
(.)-.'((--,')
.*1: ;;

Figurel

3-pa

whcrcO - sc lc purrnrclcrrnd 1,,, locltionp.rrr0tcrcr

Exponential
distribution
Max
/ (r) = (;)".

(;))

.r>(l

whcrcf/: ch racierisric
vrluc.

Mi ni

B. Equivalent
mean(p) andstarrdard
deviaiion{a)
Lognormal
distribution
,:*r(^ .+)

d : (c x p (2 . \ r 2 o r) c x p (r)+ d : ))0 j

2-parameter
Weibulldistribution
I
rt
l l !r.fl '+ ;l

o*r .lr "i26

SceFisurc I for a graph of fll + l/,Jl tbr valucsof ,.j > L

The cu
rbility

AppendixlX 157
099
098
096

092
0.91
09
089
088
087
110

B
Figure1 Thelaclorlll + 1/ l asa fLrnclrcn
ol,

3-parameter
Weibulldistribution
/,!w ,+(r-vr.l [l

.;]

o-tt

\ttt."'\r16

MaximumExtreme
ValueTypeI distribution
tL- t,+ O.5172157C\ d* t.21t25498e)

MinimumExtreme
ValueTypeI distribution
p=t

-0.5712t5'7O d!

1.28t5498O

Note the parxmctcrsfor rhc 3-paramcterWeibull disrribution.jro and al, can hc

estimatcdgiven thc mean.l]. and stand.fd deviarion.d, tbr a Normal dislriburion
(assunring
/J : 3.44)by:
xo ! !

3.1394,1730 /l!p+0.353011t4o

158 Aooendii(
lX

(integrate
Normaldistribution
usingnumerical
techniques
or
use5NDtable)
F,,,

,_ [

.^ " \i _ l' t

ot/2- J,.

",

Maxin

./

wlrcrcp : meanand d: slandarddevi,rtion.

Mi ni

Using thc SND lablc in Appendir I:

r.(r) : o.ND(:)

wn c re ::

/ r' -r\
I

\o ./

(integrate
l-ognormal.d.i<Jribution
usingnumerical
techniques
or
useSND
table)
I
f .\::-_t(\ p t f

t \ . \v z r . r

\ ln \ ' r l,
:i:\
-_
l4'
/

where) : mean1|ndo = dispcrsion.

UsingtheSND t.rblein Appcndixli
r(.r) : o"ND(:)
.
/ln{.rl
wncrc::
I

\\

\ dl

2-parametef
Weibulldistribution
l rr

*"/'

/:) ' )

\d,/,/

whefed: ch.rracterisric
valueand ij = shapep{ramerer

3-parameter
Weibulldistribution
/Jr

I c\p l

l;,,) )

wherc :ro : expecled minimum vaiue. r/ : characlcristicv,rlue, and /t: shape

Expo

AppendixlX 159

Maximum
Extreme
ValueTypeldistribution

nr=*'c*"(
+))

whereO : soaleparamelerand u : locationprramrcr.

MinimumExtreme
ValueTypeI distribution

, r , r = , * o (_ * ' ' ([:))

wheree) = scaleparamererand r) = Iocationparame.er.
I

Exponential
distribution

r,-,= r . * n l, _( i) )
whercd = characterislic
valuc.

Fittingdistributions
to data
usrng
linearregresston
A. Cumulative
rankingequations
t.. . -'
I

rrscdlor vcfy ltlrgc srmplcsi

ol- lhc I
I

..

L ,^

0.5

Hu:( llt tulu rco||:,l|nr.rtrly

usediD cnginccringgiviDgretinbteposit(Jns):
t'

+l
,r?r,rrr,( (canbc usedwirh smrlts.imples,coInmontyuscdlireslinlrting thc melD
nnd sl.rndrrddevi lion)i
t

,.

c.

Norm

t.4

'

N+0.2
., r..r.'n:.hI.i,tpro\Inrlr,,nr.,rrr) dr,r.rhuri^ni
,

,N

0.35

coDmonly usedfor lhe ExtrcnreValuc Type I distribulioni

Logn

-t0.1
' N+0..1
m./rn rd"i (conDlonlyrscd for rhc Weibu disrributjon)i
I 0.ll75
N + 0.365
a reasonable
approximationtbr rhe Normal distriburion;
-.

whercti : rankedvaluclor irh variable.r : cumuiativeliequencyof variable.and

2-pal

Appendix
X 361

ta

otlD(4)
ooio(4)

"(+)
"(+)
-r"'"/l)

MaximunExtrnc ValucTypeI

"(+)
t(r-.,r)

Mininun Ext.m. valu. Typ. I

li

wlcrex/ = ith variable,4 = rankedvaluefor jth variable,

Oai{D= inverse
function
ofthe Standard
Normaldistribution,
andxo = expected
minimumvaluelfor the3parameter
Weibulldistribution).

ttn

Normal
distribution

,=-(#)
"=(+).(#)
lognormal
distribution
,

/.40 \

":\

\A t.l

/ l-A 0 \

2-parameter
Weibulldistribution
td

" : . ' o \ ,,/

A0\

/A0\

/r /+(zli

AoDendix
X

3-parameter
Weibulldistribution(xodetermined
from best
linearfit)

'-"*'(

#) .-

'|t=A1

Maximum
Extreme
ValueTypeI distribution

,:+

(#)

Minimum
Extreme
ValueTypeldistribution

(#)

"l

A. l

Exponential
distribution
,.1

ol rhcli

Supp

Thc r
dislrib

Usingtl

Taking

Solving
thevariance
equation
Whan the function i8 a combinationof morc than two strtisticslly indepandent
vadables_,
.r/, tlFn the varianceequltion bclow(ignoringecoondordeitermsj can be
usdto determincthe variarceand hencethestandarddcviation, of the f;nction:
d,

(p(#l*)'

Irl ordcr !o solvethc cquationfor ro, it i0 only nccaasary

to find thc parlial dcrivadvc
ot lhe tunctronwith rcopectto cachvariable,This may besimplefor oomefunctions,
but i8 Dore dimldt tha more complexthc furction becomciand other techniques
may b moresuitable.
Supp@we arc iDterstcd
itr knowingtle dist ibution of strds associatcd
with th
tensilaBtaticloadi[g ona ractangular
bar(seeFigurel ). Thegovcrningstfcssisgivcnby:

L=+
aa
whereI = stre8s,.F = load, and a and 6 = occtionaldiBcnsioDsof the bar.
Thevariables-F,a andDarall assumd
to landomin aaturafollowingtheNormal
distributionwith paramaters:
r

N(100,10)kN a- (0.03,0.0003)mD tV(0.05,0.0004)

n
Usingthe varianccequation,the standarddcviationof the strcssfulction bcomcs:

.*.(#)'.a.
.,=l(#l
.al"'
(fr1

Takingrach tcrm separatelyj

AL
or

-\ob)
^/F\
ot

I
ab

I
lt"Itt

364 AppendixXl

Ihc stfr

B. l
Subsl

F i g u re1 T e n s l o d dn go na , d a n gar
u bdr

'I hc lln

itl
, l-l
It,
S o b s ti tu ti n gth e s ete rms b rc k i nl o l hc vrfi rncc cqunti oDgi ves:

.,

1 . . ,,1

'1, I

S u b s ti tu ti n gi n v tl l u c sl b f tr n d d l i )r cach v.rfi .rbl cgi vos:

,,
'

1.. ,-'. r)r)\/

.l . t r, ' r, ' rr' .{
\r)nl
\

l t'oo o.rI'

00r.005

I t t u o n ('
':
n . n l . o . 0 \ /|

, ' . , ' , r)l

^ o . o o o| + l'

or : 6.72MPa
Thc nrern stress.lil.. can be rpproximatedby substitutingthe mean\'aluesfof each
vrriablc iDto the original srressfunction.where:

tt , . o (. 1 , p, ,, . , . . . ,r, , )
100000
' ,/.

/,, ./4,

: 66.66MP a

l , l )l . l ' .1t5

figur

App.ndhXl 365
The stresscan beapproximatedby a Nomal distributionwith parameters:
L - N (66.66,6.12)
MPa
Detnnininglhe secondorder terms in the varianccequationwill provide more
accuratcvalucsfor the meanand standarddeviationof the function undercrtain
circumstances.

Substituting
J,= d(rr, 12,. . . ,ro) into the varianceequationfor the outputof th
gives:
funclion.aDdexpanding
for r| variablas

(I(*tlal'

*(#1.r.)"'
t(#l*,*(fr)'.a,*
Thefinitedifferenccmethodcanbeusedto approximaieeachtcm in thisequationby
usiDgthe difrerencequationfof thc first partial derivative(sFigurc2). Thevalues
of thefunctionat two pointseithersidcofthc pointof intercst,&, arcdctermined,
)r+ I and ,r- t, whichare cquallyspaccdby an incrementA.x. Thc finite difference
equationapproximatesthe value of thc partial derivativeby taking tha ditretnce
of thesvaluesand dividing by the incrcmcntrange.The terms subscriptedby i
indicatethat only jrr is incrementedby Axi for calculating/r +I and )r - I, holding
theotherindependent
variables
constant
at thir& valuepoints.

/ 0 v\

(!**r - ,*' t)t

2Axt

iv)

princlple
fig ufe 2 Thefinltedfference

J66 AppendixXl
thc c\pandd rari{nceequ tion !o detcrminc
rheslandardde\iationofihc srress
rn
the rcctangul,rrbar problcn rbolc was:
lt,tL\:

tJL\)

" ' : L \, r F/ " i I \t/

e.(i,'i)'.;]"'

Th e r.r| l ..h 1 ,"/ . .r ..I(t / $ .rc . rr.... .,,,.Iued to b rrndonr

in naruretb owin! thc
N o rn n l d i s tri b u ti o nw i th p a .a D retcrs:

l:(x 1

l - N(100.t0)kN
,/ - N(0.01,0.0003)m , _ N(0.050.0004)nr
(lonsidcrLhepoirt.!i ro bc 1fienrc.rnvaluc
ofa variablernd .!i I and.\i r lhe
cxlremcsof rhc vtlrirbte. Thc exrrcmescrn bc dercrDrnred
f.,
f,u
assuuring
theycxin t4a way tionr rhe nrc|n whichcovers99.99,2,
"".f,.f,;,r",i,,",'
",.i"tf"
For cachvnri blc in thc probtcmabolc,thc cxrrcnicl'
bccomc:
= t000{}0r4(t0000) . I40000Mptl
4
/,i I

t00000 4(t0000)= rr0000Mpll

,lt : 4(t0(Xl0)= 400(X)

Mpl
dr = 0.01+ 4(0.0(x)l)= t).{}3
t2 nl
./i |

0 01

Suhn

.t(0.(X){}t) 0 0288nl

Aa =,1(0.0()03)0.0012
nr
:
,r, | 0.05+ 4(0.t)004)
= 0.05t6Dr
/)i r. 0.05 | 4(0.0004)
-.0.02184ln
A':4(0.0004) .0.0016m
I h cf!

l.'rlhe tr.n \, r.r\lc./:. in rtr r.,ri:,r(ccquliun

/' r ) - 1

'

\' ttr /

l-\F

"

Lettirg the v,uiablc/. be its ln.rxirrum!,atueaDdthc variablesa and ,

kept ar theif
meanvrluesgivesri I whcn applicdto lhe strcssfuDction:

lhcs

140000

6000{J
)r r '. oat 0r5 = el3ll.l33 rnd rr, r - oJ].x0'
( ) 5- :1oo00ooo

9 1 1 3 3 : ] ] 34 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

/rz\

=ooe
ac

\ar'/:For !h secondvarirble, a. in lhc vrrianceequatron:

- ;r n n -

/aL\

(,'^'

,,

)
\a/ - -- rr'' lk-r :

i00000
: 64102564
0.(I]12r o.o5

Sohi

AppendixXl367

100000 =
69444444

( aL\

\a;/

0.0288x 0.05
64 t02 564- 69M4 444
= -2.226x lle
2 x 0.0012

For lhe third vadable,,, in the varianceequation:

(l*+r - Y * -t )
( 0L\
,M
\ab )-

100000 =
64599483
0.03x 0.0516
100000
/* I = oJat 0i4m = 688?0s23
/ 0L\

6459948J- 68870523
= -----ETldiz= - r'rr) IU
\5t/
'
Substitutin8into the expandedvarianceequationgives:
o7 = l(666.662
x tOOOG)
+ (-2.226 x lOrF x O.OO032)

x roe;x o.ooo4'!;;or
+ ((-1.335
oL= 6.72MPa
Again, thc meanstress,pz canbc approximatedby substitutingthe meanvalueslor
eachvariablainto theoriginalstress
functioni
p6Flffu"' p"'... p',)
'
Thercforci
F
100000
u,

nx o6=ffi=diFxoos

II
I
I

Ltt = 66'66MPa
The strcoocan beapproximaiedby a Normal distributionwith parameters:
L - N (66.66,6.72)
MPa
If secondordcr partial delivativesare requiredfot a more accumtcsolutionof the
varianceequation,thcn thasetermscanbe approximatedby:
/ Ai., .
r v, r - ui-r
'

Y\*t -2Yi)t

(A,,),
\ B.{ /r
Solvingfor thescond
ordertermsin thevarianc
quationfor boththemeanand
standarddeviationis sho*'rlblowfo! the abovcexample:
/dL\

\AF/

ldL\
\F/=-

40000000 933333i3 - 21666666661

- -----------4oomi-

6s 444444+ & to25(A- 2(66666666)

= r' 4 a re \ rr'
--

368 AppendixXl

(#)

6iiii70521 I 64599:183 2(66666666)

:5.338E r l0''

Typic

0.0016.

' l' h e v rfi rn c e e q u a ti o nw i th s c c ondofdcf t0ns rs:

(! (.f)'",.i r (,j)'"r)'
Thcrefore.
substituling
in vrlucsgilcsl

Mun\
cillly. Ii

I r r0000:)+(l(6. 2 5! t 0 L l' lr! 1 0 0 0 0 1 )

(j(t 1 8 3 e , r0 " )'
:26x r0")rx 0.0 0 0 1 r)+

tiH

or,rr"
'unuu,',1

l15 ! r0''l:! {).00r),lr)(](5.:]]sN,t0"')]i 0.0004')l

t js i D g th c l i N l l n d s c c o n do rd c r l enns i n l hc !rri ri D cceqnal ()n gi vcscxrctl ! thc s nrc

t ln s $ c r. Ii )f d i l l c re D l c o n d i l ()n s. sl y w hcrc onc vl ri bl e i s not (l orni nrl i ng thc
s t o rl i o n ;rs rh o v c l i )f th c l o (1 .thcn l hc rsc ol l hc vl ri l ncc cqu l i orr w i th sccon(l
or (i c r l c rn rsw i l l h c n r{ )ruc l l c c l i !c
( ()n ti n u i n gl i J r l h c rrrc rnv .l u c:

,,
r,/

i)',;,

.L,,.
-!

'

,
Rcluf i

66.66i r0" I 1l(6.15x l0 "') ! r0000rI (l.4s.re! t0L)

x ()()(X)lr+ (5.|8|l I t0r"l

l,/

'I hcr .

"

0 (xxu'l

66.68MPrl

'I herelbfe.
thestrcss
caDbeapproxinrrtcd
by I Nomul clistihururwilh tlf rneteft:

lhc \

| - N(66.68.6.7:)
MPrl

C. MonteCarlosimulation
M o n l e C a rk ) s n n u l n l i o n i s a Dumcfi c l experi mentari onrcchni quc to obtai n fi e
s t a ti s ti c so f th e o u l l u l v rri l L b lcsol
l uncti on. gi ven rhc s!.rl i sti csof the i nput
v r ri rb l e s . l n e a c h e \p c ri m c n r o r Li i l . thc l rl ues ofthe i npur r.LD donv ri nbl esare
s am p l e db rs e d o n l l rc i r d i s tri b u l i ons.and i he output vari abl cs,rrccl l cul ated usi rg
the computaiionrl model The gcncrition ol tl set of r.rndom numbc$ i! ccnrrai to
the technique. rvhich crn thcn bc uscd 1r)genefrte a rrndom v.rri.tblc lioD a given
distdbulion. Ihe simulation crn onlr- bc pcrli)rmcd using corrputers duc to the
lar g c D u m b c f o l tri d s re q u i re d .
Rathcr !h.rn sdve the varirnce equation for ,t numbef of \arirbles directly. rhis
mclhod allows us to simulate ihe output of rhe vrri,rncc. lbr example the silnularcd
dispcrsid of r stress variable givn thal thr rrndon vari.rbles in the problcm can

bc .r N(

App.ndlx
Xl 369
Tt?ically, the randomvalues,,, from a particular dfutributionare generatedby
invartingthe closcdlorm CDF for the disfiibution F(r) representingthe random
variable,
whcrei
x = F-tel

whe.e! = ndom nurnbcrgcneratcdfrom 0 to L

Many diotributionocan be raprcsentad
in closedform exceptfor the Normal and
Loglormal types,The CDF for thescdistributionscaDonly be determinednumerically, For example,th. 3-pamm.!erWcibull distribution'sCDF is in closedform,

F(,,)= r -

Iie

""e(- ( d_,,ry
)')

wheraxo = cxpectcdminifium valuc,d = characErhticvalue,and B = shapeparametet.

Therefore,for th. 3-parametcr
Weibulldistribution,tle inverseCDF with respccl
to Il is:
/P
x = xo + (0 - xo)I- tn(t - u)11
we canusMonlc Callo simulationto datcrminethemeanatrdstandarddcviatio[ of
a functionwith knowledgeof thcmcanandstandarddeviationofthe input variablcs,
Retumingto thaproblcmof thc tcnsilcstrassdiotributionin the rectangularbar, the
shesswasgivenby:
ab
whcrcl, = 8trc88,
F = load,anda aDd, = sctional
dimensions
oltha bar.
The variablesZ, a and , wereall essumedto be randomin naturefollowing the
Normaldistribution
with paramctcrsi
F- X(100,l0)kN

llr

a - x(0.03,0.0003)m ,-

(0.05,0.0004)m

Because
the Nomal dhtribution i6 difrcult to work with, we can usea 3-paramate!
Weibull distributionas an approximatingmodcl.Given the mean,/4 and standard
deviation,r, for a Normal distribution(assumingB = 3.44),the parameters
ro and
d caDbe determinedfrom:
xox p - 3.1394413o P^!p+0.35301840
However,usingtlese approximations,
it is still assumd
that thr output variablewill
bea Noroal distlibutiotl,
For eachvariableF. d and6 in the6tr$sequation.
thereforel

rhe

=68605.5N
;o6 = 100000
- 3.1394473(10000)
= 103530.2N
,r = 100000
+ 0.3530184(10000)
0r=3aA
= 0.02906
xo" = O.03- 3.139t413(0.0003)
m

370 Appendix
Xl

:0.0101I m
4/ : 0.01+0.3530184(0.01)03)
iJ,,= t 11

Thret

:0.04E71'n
!o/,:0.05 L119447110.0004)
:0.{)5014trt
l/i,: 0.05+0.l5l0lE,l(0.0004)
tJh 1.14
Thc invcrsc('DF is thcn uscdlo generalc
thc rrndom numbcrslinlosingthc l
p.Lrxnictcr
Wcibulldislribution.
rs givenearlier.
Thisis shorvn
bcl(N!in Lhcsubroutinc
li)r r Montc( arlosinrulatrcn
using100(X)
triIls.Thc subfoulinc
is $rillcn in Visurl
BLrsic.
bul c.ur bc ersilylnrnslrledlo olh.r compulcrlirngu:rgcs.
I1 rcqLrncs
rhc
deckrftrlion
of tlvoLrbclobicctst()(lisphylhc nrcrnt|ndslrDdrrddevirlrcn.Itunning
givcslhc mc!n rnd strndxrd(lc!ir1r()n
ol lh! slress
lhc progrtlDr
ls:

Thc !

Th

(li)r onc pxrliculurscl oJ trirls)

/-- N(66.59.6.74)i\41'r
Montc ( rrlo simLrLrtion
ir usclll li,f conrplcxcqLntionsi
howcvcr.whcnpo\sihlcit
shouldbc supporlcdby lhc uscol lrinrlcl)illcrenccMclhods.

Usin

MonteCarloSimulation
code(writtenin VisualBasic)
Sub
(ds.laratron

oJ varrablBs)

(declaration

ol varrables

Ls r F 63605. 5+( 103530

2 6360 5 . s ) r ( ( L o g ( 1 R n d ) ) _ 0 2 9 0 7 )
Let a- 0 02906+( 0. 03011 002e0 6 ) r ( ( L o c ( 1 R n d ) ) _ 0 2 e 0 7 )
Ler b 0 04374+ (0 05014 0 04374)1 (( Log(l Rnd))'0 2907)
L6i L( lll) F/ ( a * b)

This

(equaiions to detfurne

The'

L6i sUY sll{ r L(Ill)

Lt IEAN sUI / 10000
Let VAR=vaR + (L(Ill)

lEn ) _ 2

Let SID= sqr(vaR/ 10000)

Labelr.caption - Fomat(,lL{N, *0.000000,,)
Label2.Caption Forbat(STD, *0.000000")

Thc'

(output stmda

deviation)

App.ndix
Xl 371

3the

Threedifcrcnt methodscan ba usedto solvethe varianccquationas previously

shown,Thevarianc
cquationis al8oa valuablctoot$rl wlictr to ara,, sensitlviii
providingthc contribulion ofcach v&riableto the overallvariabilitya;l
iDferencco.
so determiniDgthc key dcsignvariabl$.
For exmpl, supposewa are intrrcstedin lnowilg thc veriancccontributionof
aachvariablein the dtrcssalsociatcdwith tha tensilcloadingon a rEctangularbar.
The govanritrgstrrsswasdatamincdby:
ab
whret = strcso,F = load, and a rnd b = rctioneldimandionsof the bar.
The variablcsF, o and , haveNolnlal paraEeters:
.F- x(100,10)kN c .V(0.03,0,0003)mD- (0,04,0.0004)m
Uoingthc variancaequation,the standsrddaviationof thc rtressfunction cafl br
foundusingthe mcthodofpaltial dcrivatives:
/ .. \2
{.r
ll r\2
, /
".,,

=
.
" L\ril *,- \-t^) 4- l-ffi) .d)

Substitutingthe valucdiD thc varianoccquahongrvcsi

lTm \'
= f -=1-)' * roooo'+
/- 0.03,
x 0.05/ -- --',- fL\0.03
x 0.05/
\
x o.ooo3':
+ f-+gE=Y'
o,r*'lo'
0 0 3 x 0 0 5 ' z / ---Jr=+.uux

\
l
tor3+ 4.4444
x l0rr+2.8444
x lol

d:45173xlotr
This v&lueaqualstha variancof the stless,or the standarddcviationoquard,The
varianccontribution itr percentof thc load variabtc,F, to the varianceof the
strcEsthenbccomes:
4.4444x l'tt
,^
* 100= eE39%
4JJu; loil
Thc variancccontributionin parcntof thedimcnsionalvariable,a, to thevarianceof
tha otressthanbcomesi
4.tA44x t}tt

-.

a's i tix lo is ' lo 0 = 0 e 8 %

Thevariancecontdbutionirl prccntofthe diDrensional
variable,,, to thevarianceof
tie stressthen becomes:
2.8444x lltl
x 100= 0.63%
4.517x3 l0 rr

Xl
172 Appendix

60
50
(%)

30
2a
10
0
Dimonsiona

Dimension,b

De8ignvarlabla

'I trticrl

f igu reI Pa re to rh a n s h o w fq th e v . i an.oconl rbul Lonol a.hd5i qnvarabei l hel enl onbarprob len'
I ' lol l i n g l h i s d !l r ri s I' t| fc l o c h l n si vesl i surc L II show sl hrl l hc l ()adi s thc donri nr nl v n i rb l c i n th c p fo h l c n n d v) the strcssi s very scrrsi l i vcto chrD gcsi n Lhcl ord,
bur l h c .tu n e rrs i o n t|vl t| fi l | h l c sh r!! c l i l tl c i rl prcl on l hc trobl enr. tj D dcr col rdi l i ons
whc fc l h c s l fl r(l l f(i d c v i l | ti o n o l l l rc di r)rcnsl ()rtlvrri tl bl cs i ncfcnscdl i )f w hrl cvcl
r c r so n . rh c i r i n rtrc r o D th c s rrc ssdrstfi bl ri (rr w oul d i D crurscro thc dcl ri nrcnl ol
lhc c o u i ri b u l i o n n rt| d cb y l h e l o rd i f i ts strrrdl f(l dcvi rtl (Jnrcnrri ncd l hc srD rc.

Siort

linlosr

Figur e1

Simpson's
Rulefor
numerical
integration
'| yfr, Jll) rn

cnein(enng
$c irn'jequjrcd
r.,rinorhe.rrcrunJcf:r(r,fr(u hcr!.| /,rl
nerw(c trnll\.'\ \hoqn iI l ;fure I t)rr(crInr(Arri,,nFs,nr(rjme,Jirh(utr..rnJrhr
rt'e..'lnJncriculinr(grtrri.'n
lc(hnrqu(.hcttr rrrrhr, rr.ncer.
rr,,()i,s nn-,n.Rut((nr,,r(
:l ll:.i,,"i),:tu.crr(hniquc{trijhsi!$hish,,L
.t:,1:1,,:l'"1.)i"
,I Rurc' Hcrcrhc.rr(t,underrh(.(urve,s,r,\,dd rnr,,cqui,l
:ll:::'::'l
\c8nrcnr\
ot $trlth., F.r.rn c\cn nnmberLi :

irricc*rv^x
vr*,r",,,.J",,i".',,";.::":1il:Ji,:';;;;ii:i:ii;li,lllij;.;l

ro1

/\r c,rL'n
,,rd r.rtclh( tuncli,,n,rt
\ irluc\rre llrcnJclLrnrincJ.
t,,re\rmDtcr.. . /,..,,.
ihrun In FigJre) unng ri,ur .cgnrenl.
tn, 4r.
Simpson
s mcthodthen usessecondordcr potynonitltsto connccrscts
ot.thrcc
orornrtes represcntorgsegmcnipnirs t() dlcnninc the conrposite
.t.he
fea.
lotal
.rre.r.,4,un(Grrhe cLrrve.r:l(.r) berwecn
thc timils;",1"" npp.,r";,nrrJty-,fr"
followingcquarion:

*, -i r1,,il
(i) |t,",,.,-1,'rr.,r
+rr,,,,)l
' f^'a,ro,

FigurI Ard,
A, undr
thecurvel llxl bnenthe rmrrs
M N anrtl"1AX
-

xll
3i4 Appendix

I here

Bcc

MAX

[]rN

Figur e2 G r aphc ar epr s ef t a1Dn

oJ S m p s o n sR ue u s n q m u t p s e g m e n t s

:t50N,
MAX

MIN

I h c h i g h c f th c v l | l L rcl i )r,,. th e u rorcxcc tute rhe | csul l w i l l bci how evcr.l hc l i nrel bl
c om p u tu l i (D w i l l i n c re n s c T
. h e ust ol oonrp l crs mtkcs thc l rsk rehl i vcl y si npl c
lho L rg h T
. h c s u b ro l i n c rt th e e nd ol thi s rpper)di xi s w ri l l en l i r V i suul B rsi c. brt
c l|n b c c ri s i l r-trrD s h tc d l o o th c r conrputcfhngul ges. l t rcqui rcsl hr dccl rfrti on ol
lwo tc x l b o x o b j e c l srn d o n c [rb cl obl ecl to di sfl uy thc tl fcr.,.1

integration
of the
Example
I - Numerical
Stress-Strength
Interference
{SSl)equation
I n S e c l i o n4 .,1 .1w c d c s c d b c da mcrns {)l dcl crni ni ng thi j rcl i bi l i l )r. R , w hcn thc
loa d i n g s re s s . ,1 -.i s re p fc s c n l c dby (' D F i D cl oscd l i )rm (l i )r nl l thc di stri buti oD s
S . i s rcprcscD tcdbv
e: \c e p ifo r th e N o l ml | l n d l -o g norD rrlt),pc)and thc s1rcD g1h.
ils P D l r.

n:fo1r1.r1r1,rt
li.lbrcxnmplc.thclo,tdingslr'css.a.\\asgivenbyal-paramererWeibulldisrribulion.
thc CD| wouldbc:

r-(r):l

, ,' ' ,r .) .r \

cxpl
{
'\

\01

:oLJ

an d i h e s rre n g tb ..5 w
. a s rc p fc s cnl edby.t N orrn.l l di stri bul i on.rhe P D F w oul d bcl

'the r(

/, I

which

Usjng

Appendir
X
Therefore,substituiingthcscinto rhe reli.biliry quationgives:

'
R:t

r
.r.

lr
.L

exnt |
\ \ 4/

. t
rv l r

I I
r. l

/ r'

J \ PI

r.,:\

7.i
))' ' '
2".,
wherelhe limitsof integralionorefrom theexpecrcd
minimumvalueol lhe stress.
Becauscthc londing strcssfuDciion trs an oulplrt fro thc varianccaDnlysisis
characlerizcd
by I NornraldiitLibution.il is advanhgeousto cstiIn te thc parnmercrs
lbr r 3-paramcterWeibull distributlon..ro and 1./.given the mclln. /i, and standard
dcviation.o. li)f a Normal dislribution(rssumingi, = 3.44).whcre:
.\o

lt 3.13941710 ti!/r+0.3530184o
('orsidef thc situationwhcrc rhe loadingstresson a componntis givn
as
a-N(150,40)MPa relating10 ll NornrtLldisrribulionwi{h d mean ot./i/.:
l50MPa and standud dclialion r/ :40MPa. Thc srrenglhdistriburionof lhc
conrponent
is S N(500,50)MPa.
ll is rccluired
ro tind thc rcliubiliryunderthesc
From theabovccqu tions:
.1.
.rr/ = 350|194473(4t
J :224A2vp,l
srnrple

/t/ = 350+ 0.351011i4(40)

= 364.t2Mpa
ilt = 144
Thc rlability cqutltionihcn bccomes:

R: [- f'

*'(

(. 64.D

22442
irr 12

( \ 5 o 0 r\ l:
/ -r(5,t

)')lLwr;"0\
I

/l "

which can be simplilicdto:

R I

Jr1

f, .-nf {'
\
r.l
'

2 r 1 4 -j 2' " ] l . r , ) 0 0 7 e b e x o
r i s'rr)"11./,
'' --'\

llrT

/l

n)00

,/

tJling Simpn)ns Ruleourlincdabov.thenrnximunrljnlit. o, isdilticulttowork wilh

aDd an appropriatcvrlue rellccringthe problem should feplaceil. |or argunrcnt.s
sakc,we will givc iln valueof 700MPr. Therclbfe.rhe rctiability n be dtermined
grvcnthat:

5'''
/(\ fr .' n l l' l -l'1!t'"'tl
- - ,\ I '' .r ' nn rl
1o.- / ,l looo;s'.,.
L' - 71
and thelimilsareMIN :224.42 and MAX : 700.
Now applyingSimpson'sRule.let'sstrrr wi!h a relaljvelylow numberofsegmcnts,
: l0:
',
MAX MIN
: 41.56

375

376 Appendix
Xll

sutf
\0 : 12442

MIN

distrib

\L = 2:4.42+,17.56: 2719lJ
r1

271911+47.56: -119.54

dinribr

:MAX

\r,=700
Fr1)mSi
/

,tr,

l ,l l /..

a .l)_tt\

/r'

i)

/.'l

Sl m i l l l l

5 )0 0 7r6 ) I
/47 56\ f0 I,l(0 I 0(x){ )1 5 40I. 0 0 5 9 ij5 + 0 . 0 0 4+101(x
.0.00t75(,r0.007n2t
r 000(xx)31
\ :l ./ l{0 ()(xxx):r
l0.0(x)81t.1)

'lhc ( |

whidr si!c s th c rc l i rb i h l l . I. x s :
0.9lllllr5

/l

r?. Incruuscs
LhcrccuIl cy ur)(lLrsl ng
lDcre .s i D 8 l h cIU n rb c ro 1s c g n rc D (s.
/l
0.990214.
l (X )0l i v c s l h c l | n s wcr
c oc l cl i )r ,,
(i'rrprfing rir)swcfs with lhnt dcfivcd \\dr tbt (.ut)li,r qMtia,.
500

t50

v 50r I 'lol
i nrdcr the curl e.4,(:). rnd henccl hc
lr r ) m l h c SN D . T u b l e I i D Ap p c n di x I. the
^rc.t
The fel i rbi l i ty i s l heo gi l en br-:
pf ob n b i l i L yo l f.ri l u re ./' . i s l i )u D d to bc 0.0(196.12
R .l

P:1

which
r cliNhi

0.0096,12:0.t)90.1511

Sohi|r :

Thc sr

T hc b c D c l l lL rs i n gth e p p ro rc h o l cf orhcr orerhodsi s rhrr i l n be uscdl o sol l c l hc

gc D c rrlrc l i rb i l i r!-e q u rl i o n l i rr c o nbi nari on ofdi stri bori on.i ncl udi ngw h.n thcft l | fc
rn
r r ul ri p l c l o l d l | p p l i c a ti o n sT h i s i s o nl ) possi hl c!l hcnl hc l ondnrgstrcssrsdcscri bed

Subst r

Example
method
2 - lntegraltransform
W e h a v c a n rc a n so l d e te rm i n i n gt hc i ntcfl crcD ccol rw o di srri buti onsi r a si mi hf w arlts thrt gilcn above bnt applying rhc inlegral trarrstbrm melhod describedin Secliolr

l',n'rc

r nd G rhcstrcnglhdislributio.
Nhere H feprcscnls lhc loadrng stressdistribution

Leas !

Appndix
X
Suppose
againthatboththestress
andstrength
distributions
of interestareofthe
Normalttpe,wheretheloadingstress
isgivenasI, 1V(350,40)Mpa
andthestrength
distributiodis
S - 1r'(500,50)MPa.
TheNormaldisrriburion
cannotbusedwirhrhe
integral tr8nsformmethod,but can be approximatedby the 3-parameterWeibull
distributionwhere
theCDFisinclosed
folm,It wasdetermined
abovethattheloading
strcssparameters
for the3-panmeter
Weibulldistribution
werc:
xoL = 22442MPa
0t = 364.l2MPa
0L=344
parameterc
Simila y, thstrngth
for theWeibulldisributioncanbeapproximated
by thesamemethodto:

i't
,03l

'nos= 34303MPa
0s= 5l? 65MPa
9s=344
The CDF for the strengthdistributionis givenby:

I
Pmpurer
I
Fandard
I
I

IFocthe
b bv:

lre tne
Freare
tsibedin
I
I

/ / x -x o'.-'\ dI r\
F(x) = 1 -e x o' |-l ,
I
\ \ts -.rosl /
whichrepresents
the probabilityof failure,P. Theprobabilityof surviving,
or the
reliability,is thereforeI - P, ori
o^=e x D l '

iSection

/ x -x o " \ d " \

-l--l

\ds -.rosl

Solvingfor x to give the inverseof this function gives:

x = xos+ (ds- xas)[- ln clt/tt" or x = 343.03

+ l?4.62[-lnG]o.,er
Thesurvivalequatiolfor thestress
distributionis:
/ /x - 22442\t4\
H =,," ( -(::
':L\'' ) o, rr3 c i /
\ \dL-xo L , l i
' = * e (-(
./
Substituting
theseexprcssions
into equation4.53givesthreliability,R, as:

x = rfurwav

- 224.42)'")
e"e(- /{311!lJ r?462(l:hcln'o')}
/c
I

where the actual furction to be integiated is:

ln Clo:ert) - 224.42
/ 1343.03
\ I4\
- 114.6211-

Lt's use l0 segmenh again, giving:

MAX

MIN

=# =n '

377

378 Appendix
xll

-\o

: MIN

'rr :01
rr:02

: MnX

.\Lo: I

Aptlying Simpson
s Ruleb thc linrcrion/ (O) sjves:

r (-)ri', r++ !

i LI

/tr,r+ l

/ (\ , 1+ / t \ , , J 1

/0 l \ f0 r 4 (0 r 0 .0 0 0 0 0 1+ 0.00001:+ 0.000747.0.0t?96l l l
I\ 1 I
..(n
y,\{,,\
r\rn (rx r< . rr)" t" j
r,r,0l rtr,
R

l l ol -l {' )l {

0.971902

I nc fc rs i | g th c n L rm h c ro l s c g n rcnts.rr. ngl i rr i ncrerscsthc nccur.l l cyl n(l usi g rhc

lor rp u l c f c o d c p ro !rd c d i i r ,,
l (X l 0gi vcsl hcl rrsw cfR {).991l l i 2' l hi scomp!fcs
wc l l rv i rh th c | rs l c fs g i v c l l i I thc prcl i oLrsex | npl c. rl l ho sh w c xrc Lrsi ngl tnr l l i c tc r W c i b u l l d i s l ri b L rti o nto nrodcl l hc strcssl l n(l s(rcngrh.\rher) i n ti rct l hc)
r r u o l th e N o rn l rl l y p c .

Areaundera Function
Calculated
usingSimpson's
Rule
(writtenin VisualBasic)
(declaratron of vaiables)

Let Ax = Text1. Teat

Let IIN = Text2.Tert

(naxiNn liDit
(nilinM liDit

of integratio!)
ol rntegration)

(huber ol ordinats)
(aunber of ssnerts)

L et x ( r ) l) = x r N + ( 1%

1) * ((MAX rijtN) / n)

App.ndlrXll 379

rt r(1) . un
n.Dl! y(i + 1)
F or I X -1 T o !1 1

L.ty(rI).1(:(rx))
I.It

(luctlo!

ol : go.. h.f!)

!(

nDhb (!+ 1 )
lor U. rT o b St.p 2
l.t b(rX) . 4
I.It Ix
F o! I X.3 T o (D -1 )s t p 2

r.t b(rD . 2
x.rt IX
!.! b(1) . I
Lr t b( !+ 1 ).1

R.Db ch + 1)
F o! I ' .1 T 0 !+ 1
. b(IX) . y(IX)
l-t c(I
fl.rt II
F o! I t r.1 T o !+ 1
r.t $n . Stl! + c(IX)

[rx! Itr
Ln t1.(rru-x
!.t L$.l1,Ciptlo!

'$u/

(3+!)

irc.00000000,)
- FoErr(r,

(slrp.o!,. ru].)
(o!rp!r .r.r ud.! tulctlo!)

l
l

II

&mr I
Albin,S

Sizcd I

Thc H

Engia.

PhD T

Desig

uailisa

ASI I98'
ASI 199
ASM lDl

ASM InI

A'ryub,I

Bo@ I

References

Abbol. I f l99r ' lh. ( o\ t

. t ( icl l j r U t \ \ t . n t . t a o . t r r t t t . t t ) t t l j
I lttklit,r,tcbtut\
\'r..1
I r l$h. . . r
llt , ' ,
\ 4 . r '. , i f , , 1 .
, \ r , r , , , . r , 1 {. . t , r , r {. t r \ . \ I f . r L , .
' r ". ll
t.,
llt t t nt t \ nt lt r l \ t t \ l lt t \ ! t \ \ , r r q N r t h
eutit\ thnmj:h Itun\\t
rj /),,,,!,/ r),tcr,
( lr n' : I ls e\ r . r Sc ieI . c I ' uh|\ lc N
A l) r n.S l, r n, l ( r li. lll. t ) . . t L') i ) . 1( i . l l i n ! S t r J l i t
( . o o ( u c n 1l i n f j n c . l n g i i j r , r N , l i t r u
n
Sr lc r l M r nuir c lr r c l . / @ t t dt . l M r n n l t h t t u r t ! s r \ r , , r . I . t ( t ) . l l l 5 l l
Aldr n( lc ' . ( 196, 1N&\ t t h t r r t h . \ i \ , /
/.n,r. (.rrnbrdge. N1 UiIur(t l]rrvernt!
Ar r s lr r . S. l. r jr lll. oNr . t lt . t r ) t 6: Sl r t i s l j q t M e l l d ( t s t i ) r R r t j r h i t i t ! h r p j . v d n ! n t . . t ? {/
.totirtl. 651)1,ti') 16
Ar r ld\ s on. li l! 9r r t ) engr I nr eu r | 1 !
, \ s l r c r e c r v c (ht ! I n r l o s t r ! t r t \ t \ t r t t n u \ I l I . t ) 9 1 ,
lhe lligue. lLlr lll( ,
nd. r s ! ! r . l' . t r ) 9. 1:lir d\ t ) r \ r ! n l , h r \ ( s l r n t t h c i r t t . t c i t ) c {i g n j n r
In. euitrty..rr,,d/,/
/,,r/n., rn( /)iat(,.5(.1), l8.l .lt)ll
r r r er \ ! ir . l) A lt ) t ) 6: l' r r t ( \ \ llt n t u h t o R h r n D . t i ! t , i r t t . . t . t \ l r u n r l t u t q l r . \ i 4 r t , t 1 n r !
l' hl) lhes ls : I ) ef r r lnc nl ( n Vr e h j r c t ) c \ i g n . I u n {t t l s t i l u l e o t t . . h | . t L ) e },
t _ u n d ,S w c d c n .
,
,]n,lrosd
M M l9i)r I)esi8r Mcthodr)t+.\. tdurt
r)l nryn\\\ht
D,,,,g,,, Z1.r1.t:t .rt:.
Ardle.rsen, M M rfd flcjn. L t')Al: t"n,untttt,h\ttnr
Dt,rfl.r,r.r/ Lon(tor: tt.S puf,ticr
I ! ) i\ r nd Sf r ir gc r V. r [ s
An(lrrrs.r. V. NI rrd (ile\en. J. lr)r0: Ihe (i,rccpl .l Drsp.\tti\\s
t.rDrrt .l Dtj:inrrti,1:
/ ) . r , gr . l( l) . l7 16
Af ulou. C. S. , Bc dc de ir Nc r o. H . ( r r j p c o . , \ ( . . S . g , c . l r . M rnd W ri ght,1(
1991 l hc
Ur ili t ion . l Pk duc r l) c ! c t ( ) [ n . n r M e r h o d s : A S u , v e y ol LIK In(l u(ry.
.rr,,d/ ,/

trcrr!14q rr.'/rr.7(.1). :65 trN.

As h b y .\1 . I ri \l J o rc s , t) R .H l r)i i 9rtn!/)rf.r,( illat.ritL

Pot I Ortonl: t,erernllr

As l l 9 rJ l :p r./rrL !D n tn ,i D .rtr rD u LrLrtdnr rrj l r,a A nrcncrnS uppti er

Insti l ure
Ast tt)92 Quttiit rLr(trn Dtrh,urrnt ,trr.nt\t St ,rr Ame,icrtr Su|;lic. tr\r,rute.
ASM rnlcrn.ri()f.l 1997n:ILtntb.ok \o t pturttj.! dntt Sdktn,t. In,^. Stttt.t
tntl
tu l l n Mn L t ,1 l b t:.1 0 1 htd x n nr OH : A S M Ir,e,nl l onar.
ASM Inte.nNlonrl 1991b:Htrdt)ook Na :: rr.ttttB dnt s.t.ttn,t r.t
l.ftrut Alltr'\ tnd
St.L i rl P u r!D \.Mttu n l \.l o th E di l i on OH : A S N I InrcorxLi oD rt.
Arlub, B Nl ard Mccuen. tt. H )r9i: pr.htbilit) Sk i\tn.tort Rrlitbilirt
llt Lnsitl\.
Boc. R.11)n:CRC tlress.

182 Relerences
Lldkh i !r,D F . Ab e l l .T [. L u i . N l . l )c]i /i o. T. L. l nd W hj rncy.D ]. t99l :A n Intel ratct
( dn fu t.r Al d | (r C c .c rrtl n g rnd h\rl !ati ng A $ej nhl y S cquences
to Mechrj rtcrl
P n j l \l c rsIl :t:L l i d ,\r ti t) \ r, R o l rrtr\ I1rk,rnttn,t.7(l l .l a 91.
l] lr c h t.l .N rd Po o l t{ D ..l 1 9 9 :lC: o n c trrentL.ngi rccri ng( ori ceplN ndpfucl tcc/,kr?7r@ n//
.hnllrn nl r'<ttiL I)t:tqn. l5(l 5). 529 5.1i1
B r nr .s .C .1 . l h l g l c i s h .(i ...h R l . (j . sqi Jl . K . c .r(t | atc. S . t9e7:A sscn)bt)
S cqucr,.
S r r u c tu r.\i ri l )c \i g n l i )r r\s s c n rhl !l [: P h\..l nryr It.ttr. I ttrati dLtt S tntfrm,. 1\\\th l \ d tl tt\k I' l tm ti rs .\' l rrrx del l rr!. (rl i l ;mi r. 16.1t69.
I lr ll, n . L . l 9 i rf: S i \ S i g n ,i Pro c c shs) I)r\i !j r l )c\gD rnd l )i D cnsi ons.
(n?,r,V ..rrrri dl
(;j ouf. [,l otofrh trc. S co(1nh]e.
7i,(l a ,/,,q 1l.(l ). (;o !c rrn rc n lU l c ctn)ni .\
A ri rofr
r ler , l h m .Y. l tt)4 :A N o ,rt,,o b fb i l \1 r.( o| ..ft of R cti rhi tr! rr?,rrrl \' .,/,| t4.tt? t:15
B Ljjd .l l r' . Kc l l !..r.. N l .fl ' !. I rn (l S rnrs.I l t)e1:ettti t\ Mtuntrry ttnt M.,j tdl .,
Lo t{ i (i I: (.n l u r\ l l u !r.\\
llc r h rri .l rP rj rd l v rj n o e l .l V l 9 l l l J/,1rd,t\,/snl nl \
tl tuktutr\ Loni l ,,n:t' Ltnrn,,
ll. n$ n . l l 9 L )l l Q M rrh rl { l r.rl .s i li r\t .w rl l cJl n!i t.| s I" l rttt tl ati 1,1211).
t6 11
ljr r N rn rr. l l l t)tl r ' l h c l )r\c l )D n c r l dl l { rrrhi l i t! l c(hfj que\ r rctr(j \tr.ctrve
\LLr!r!
Rtl |t ht lilr t , l lr ! 1,
Sd/ , / f . : t 6. I ( ,
't r t h " n U \ d t r t . \ t t r "
lrrrhclr . . I l{ ) , ) . 1:llI Q r dh^ J l) : . 1 I ) r t u | . j t , ( i r t r \ . l t \ '1 . \ l l n r t \
llifl nr nShr ni: ll\ . ( . I nr , [ \
lfic(lr . . , . r i( llloLbr ooL. Nl l9( r L: llc hx h r l L l ! I l . n i . t r ! r . t t r c R i g h t Wr !
Atnt,itr\ tn,\n\t,|.r
lJiSr'll. V. r r { l l( ir r r Lnc . I L! ( ) l t , t r L t t n r r l n t r s t \ t r t ) t \ t n i t m \
Mri(tre\t.r: M.rr(htnr
( nr er ir t ' lle\ s
lrl(rff . ( ) lt ) s r : an, 4r l/ . r I it L\ l llf ur t t r n t t : ,) n l t t l \ t r [ . N y : , ^ S M t r l l e \ {.
jtttlntn\otut
lrn!ri r . . l NI ( c t l ) l\ ) t \ l: I ' t 1l\ l, ili\ t it l \ o t r t r
I.i i!ur Mrjhntt .1t,!h.dtn,
A n r c r Q r S o r L . l t l , , r 't . \ 1 r n g r L r r l M , L t e ri L t s
,r St t r . t r t nl I ) r i\ r t t r t l l/ / , r r , , , , .
In )hfr . hlLs l. t l r r ( ls l( ) ! ( . 1) l( r ' ) i1l|1 . g r r l t r e l . c h n r ( r l r \ n . r t " - s i \ r r ( t I \ r b l j . v . r t o c \ i I t t s [ br\f( l l) . r i! . n M . r I r n! lt r l l) lt t \ I . . n q h t t r \ d r l . ! r v r , r . \ i r l r / r . 5 9 .
L5t t\9
ln ,L.l in. V V. l9! 4 lr lr gLL. l. iiell. ( |. 1!! r o l S t r u r I
e { l n : S p r n o \ . t '. t ) . r r r i Wu . y ( e d \ , .
l',)l, lr lt t n
, \ t r t u! unt l ll. t l, t Lt t \
ltltd,tr\
S 'r t t r t t t
R r t i n 'i t 1 t t , t r 1 r . , / \
t!!rlLn:
5 1[r g. r V. r hg
'1 t u t r . t t u ! i t t t r
lli)l/. R W . ( c ( lllt ) ll
l\ t \ hk t n, t t \ u r \ \ \
t r t t h @ A , : 't h [ l | t i ( ! r N l :
Ir(1! \ 1ir l l) r . s s lr .
lr.n 'pr \ - Sm r h. . l. ll. l9ll: . V( lr hk t lt t t t r d t
tlIwt)ltttnt,tjt\tutd.t,.ndon:\,rc(;rrwlli
r,.,)kr l. . ' l) . Llr t ) : lPn, t . r t s t , t t ir r t I or Qr t l i t i
Q u \ t n r t u t i t t l r r t r n r 1 \ 'e u n r c r r | | ) S I t L
(jR,. lt ) ?911.s c hoolo1 [ r ! i, r e, ing. l ] n r ! c f s i t ! o l H u l l
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