`

In active instruments, the

external power source is
usually in electrical form,
but in some cases, it can
be other forms of energy,
such as a pneumatic or
hydraulic one.

PassiveandActiveInstruments
9 instrumentoutputisproduced
entirelybythequantitybeing
measured
9 thequantitybeingmeasured
simplymodulatesthemagnitude
ofsomeexternalpowersource.

InstrumentTypes

17Mar15

InstrumentTypesandPerformance
Characteristics

Atungstenresistancethermometerwitharangeof270C
to+1100Chasaquotedinaccuracyof1.5%offullscale
reading.Whatisthelikelymeasurementerrorwhenitis
readingatemperatureof950C?

(a)zeroorder instrument
(b)firstorderinstrument
(c)secondorderinstrument

Howistheaccuracyofaninstrumentusuallydefined?
Whatisthedifferencebetweenaccuracyandprecision?
Toillustratethedynamiccharacteristicsofthefollowing:

Ingeneral,nulltype
instrumentsaremoreaccurate
thandeflectiontypes,
butdeflectiontypeinstrument
isclearlymoreconvenient

nulltypeinstrument
pressuremeasurementismadein
termsofthevalueoftheweights
neededtoreachthisnullposition

thevalueofthequantitybeingmeasuredis
displayedintermsoftheamountof
movementofapointer.

deflectiontypeinstrument

NullTypeandDeflectionTypeInstruments

Questions

AnalogueInstruments
outputthatvariescontinuouslyas
thequantitybeing measured
changes
DigitalInstruments
outputthatvariesindiscretesteps
andsocanonlyhaveafinite
numberofvalues.

Accuracyofmeasurementisthusoneconsiderationinthe
choiceofinstrumentforaparticularapplication.
Otherparameters,suchassensitivity,linearity,andthe
reactiontoambienttemperaturechanges,arefurther
considerations.
Valuesquotedforinstrumentcharacteristicsinsuchadata
sheetonlyapplywhentheinstrumentisusedunderspecified
standardcalibrationconditions.

StaticCharacteristicsofInstruments

AnalogueandDigitalInstruments

10

DataSheet(Example)

Instrumentsthathaveasignaltypeoutputareusedcommonlyaspartof
automaticcontrolsystems.

IndicatingInstrumentsInstruments withaSignalOutput

IndicatingInstrumentsandInstrumentswithaSignal
Output

Percentageofthefullscale(f.s.)readingofaninstrument

1bar,wewouldnotuseonewithameasurementrangeof010bar.

ifwearemeasuringpressureswithexpectedvalues between0and

measurementuncertainty,inaccuracy

Anindicatorofhowclosetheoutputreadingofthe
instrumentistothecorrectvalue.

Whenusedcorrectly,tolerancedescribesthemaximumdeviation
ofamanufacturedcomponentfromsomespecifiedvalue.

themaximumerrorthatistobeexpectedinsomevalue.

13

Example

Tolerance

11

Example

Accuracy

12

Repeatability:closenessofoutputreadingswithconstant
measurementconditions.
Reproducibility:closenessofoutputreadingswithvarying
measurementconditions.

spreadofreadingsofthesamequantity.

14

percentageoffullscalereading.

readingsmarkedofromthisstraightlineandisusuallyexpressedasa

Nonlinearityisdefinedasthemaximumdeviationofanyoftheoutput

Linearity

theminimumandmaximumvaluesofaquantitythattheinstrumentis
designedtomeasure

Range

Range(Span)andLinearity

Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility

theslopeofthestraightlineofbestfit

ameasureofthechangeininstrumentoutputthatoccurs
whenthequantitybeingmeasuredchangesbyagivenamount.

17

Summaryofnonlinearties

15

Example

Sensitivity

16

roundanironcore.

containelectricalwindingsformed

magnetic hysteresis:instrumentsthat

anddecreasingcasesofmeasuring.

Differentcharacteristicsforincreasing

Hysteresiseffects

isnochangeinoutputvalue.

valuesoverwhichthere

therangeofdifferentinput

Deadspace

Theminimumlevelofinputleadstoachangeintheinstrumentoutput

Threshold

sensitivitydrift

18

zerodrift(bias)
9

ambientconditionsareusuallydefinedin theinstrumentspecification.

controlledconditions oftemperature,pressure,andsoon.Thesestandard

Allcalibrationsandspecificationsofaninstrumentareonlyvalidunder

EffectsofDisturbance

quantitythatproducesanobservablechangeintheinstrumentoutput.

alowerlimitonthemagnitudeofthechangeintheinputmeasured

Resolution

ResolutionandEffectsofDisturbance

Threshold,DeadSpaceandHysteresisEffect

21

Example:ZeroDrift+SensitivityDrift

19

EffectsofDisturbance

22

Thestaticcharacteristicsofmeasuringinstrumentsare
concernedonlywiththesteadystatereadingthatthe
instrumentsettlesdownto,suchasaccuracy ofthereading.
Thedynamiccharacteristicsofameasuringinstrument
describeitsbehaviorinthetimeintervalbeforethe
instrumentreachesasteadyvalueinresponse.

CharacteristicsofInstruments

20

Example:ZeroDrift

23

MeasurementInstrumentsare
notperfect:steadystate(static)
andtransient(dynamic).
Calibration:toobtainthe
relationbetweenthemeasured
variableandinstrumentoutput
variable.
Typesofcalibrations:staticand
dynamic
Sensitivity:thesmallestchange
inaquantitythataninstrument
candetect

25

Example

StaticResponseCharacterization

Static calibration curve

Calibrationaccuracy:
whenthecharacteristicsoftheinstrumentwillhavedrifted
fromthestandardspecificationbyanunacceptableamount.
Whenthissituationisreached,itisnecessarytorecalibrate
theinstrumentbacktostandardspecifications.

26

Significant figures = 3

Solution

E2

Relativeerror:

24

Absoluteerror:

CalibrationAccuracy

27

30 s

<1s

29

3 minutes

Inpractice,thereisatimedelayandamplitudedifferencebetween
themeasuredvalueandtruevaluefortimevaryinginputvariableat
agiventime.Thisdifferenceisreferredtoasthedynamicerror.
Ingeneral,thedynamicresponseofameasurementinstrumentcan
bedescribedbyazero,1st or2nd ordersystem.

IntroductiontoMatlab andSimulink

DynamicResponseCharacterization

Firstorder:
Secondorder:

Clicking the Simulink icon

To start

28

Zeroorder:

Help icon

Window for interactive commands

Timeinvariantmeasuringsystem,

DescriptionofDynamicBehaviour

Input

Select the objective block in the

Simulink Library Browser, then
drag it to the model window.

To add blocks to your model

Creating a New Model

Simulink forclassical
controlsystem
analysis

New file

Connecting Blocks in the Model Window

1. Position the mouse pointer over an input/ output port.
2. Drag a line from the input/output port to a desired
output/input port (press and hold the left button, drag
and release).
Note that the pointer changes to a cross hairs (+) shape
while over the port

To weld a connection to an
existing line:
(Drawing a Branch Line)
1. Position the mouse pointer on the
line.
2. Drag a line from the desired point
using the right mouse button.

Double-click the Scope block in the

model window. The Scope window
displays the simulation results.

Figure ScopeEditor

set simulation options such as the

start and stop time, and the type
of solver that Simulink software
uses to solve the model at each
time step.You specify these
options using the Configuration
Parameters dialog box.

39

OutputyisdirectlyrelativetoinputF(t)byconstantgaina0
Example:anelectricalresistancestraingage
aninputstraindirectlycausesachangeinthe
gageresistance

41

Thefirstlawofthermodynamics
Energystoredwithintheliquid=convectiveheatthansfer

DynamicofaThermometer

DynamicTimeResponse(zeroorder)

ForF(t)beingastepfunctionofunitAandy(0)=y0

F ( s)

Timeconstant:responsetimefor
datameasurement(2%errorts =
4W)
`

42

Steadystategain:accuracy
`

W s 1
t:timeconstant
K:systemgain

Y (s)

ByLaplacetransform

Determinesystemtimeconstantbystepresponse

40

DynamicTimeResponse(1st order)

43

x =5t,Tx =10 0.05t

45

ResponsetoSinusoidalInputForce(1st ordersystem)

Example
Time

46

where
`

System Gain

Dynamicerror

Temp
error
0.000
0.365
0.552
0.648
0.698
0.723
0.750

W
W s 1

10.000
9.865
9.552
9.148
8.698
8.223
-39.250

Temp reading

I
uT
2S

I 2S
u
2S Z

I
Z

=10  0.75e t /15  0.05(t  15)

Dynamic errors are function of frequency

10
9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
-40

L(e  t /W )

Temp

0.75et /15  10.75  0.05t

0
50
100
150
200
250
5000

Altitude

tr (t )

0
10
20
30
40
50
1000

Phaselag:I radiansandphaselaginsecond

DynamicError

44

Tr ( s )

11.25 10.75 0.05


 2
s
(15s  1)
s

1
1
15( sTr ( s )  10)  Tr ( s ) 10  0.05 2
s
s
1
1
(15s  1)Tr ( s ) 150  10  0.05 2
s
s
150
10
0.05
Tr ( s )


(15s  1) s (15s  1) s 2 (15s  1)

W ( sTr ( s )  tr (0))  Tr ( s ) Tx ( s )

Laplace Transform

W tr (t )  tr (t ) t x (t )

Solution

49

Sincepowerisasquaredquantity,Decibelisdefinedas

P
Bel log10 2
P1

ForZW =1,themagnituderationequals0.707(dynamicerror
of29%)andthephaseshiftequals45.
Themagnituderatiooftenisexpressedinunitsofdecibels
(dB),whichisoriginatedfrompowerratio

FrequencyResponse

47

DynamicErrorduetoPhaseLagandGainRation

Phaseplot

50

CutoffFrequencyandSystemBandwidth

48

Magnitudeplot

c
D
ZW
I(Z) tan1 tan1 3 tan1

1
E
c2

Forsteadystateresponsetoasinusoidalinput(t)

FrequencyResponse

53

Timelag

c
D
ZW
I(Z) tan1 tan1 3 tan1

c
E
1

2

Dynamicerror

Example(cont.)

51

Example

54

DynamicTimeResponse(2nd order)

52

Unit :

Unit : mV

Solution:
Assumption:E(0)isthevoltageoutputcorrespondingtofluidtemperature
att=0,i.e.,

Example

57

TimeResponseof2ndorderSystems

55

TimeResponseof2ndorderSystems

58

TimeResponseof2ndorderSystems

56

CharacteristicEquationandTheirRelationshipto
Damping

59

] =0Nodamping
] <1Underdamping
] =1Criticaldamping
] >1Overdamping

61

(2). peak time (time to max. overshoot) tp: y(tp) = ymax

(3). frequency of oscillation of the transient Zd: 1/(2tp) Hz
(4). rise time tr: tr t2  t1 , y (t1 ) 0.1 and y (t2 ) 0.9
(5). settling time ts: | y (t )  1 |d 2%, for t t t s ,
(6). time constant W: t t W , | y (t )  1 |d 0.368

StepResponsePerformanceSpecification

DampingRatio

62

Settling time of 2% is
generally used in control
system study and settling
time of 10% may be used in
measurement field.

TimeResponseofa2nd OrderSystemwith]=0.2

60

(1). Peak overshoot (percent of overshoot P.O.) Mp:

Mp = 100%(ymax y())

The desired performance characteristics of a tracking

system may be specified in terms of the transient response
to a unit step function input. Some qualities for evaluating
system performance are defined as follows. For y ( f ) 1 ,

StepResponsePerformanceSpecification

1] 2

u 100%

)  1) u 100%

S
Zd

1  e ]Znt

1  e ]Znt

Zn2
s  2]Zn s  Zn2

1] 2

40
s 2  2 s  40

6.3623

2S

Zn 1  ]

X: 1
Y: 1.897

X: 0.5004
Y: 4.814

X: 2
Y: 2.594

poles : -]Zn r jZn 1  ] 2

2S

pole
65 location : 1 r j 6.2832

1, Zd

]
0.1572, Zn

G( s)

Zn

]Zn

tp =0.5sec,
Zd =2Srad/sec=1Hz
ts =3.912sec(2%error)
P.O.=60.5%
Timeconstant=1sec

Y ( s)
R( s )

X: 4
Y: 3.055

-]Zn r jZd

RelationBetweenPoleLocationtoSystem
Specification(standard2ndorderSystem] <0.707)

63

e ]S /

 ]Zn t p

Zn 1  ] 2

]Zn

P.O. ((1  e

tp

ts

3.912

0.02 e
ln 0.02 ]Zn ts

 ]Zn t s

Atthetimeof2%errorts

RelationBetweenPoleLocationtoSystemSpecification
(standard2ndorderSystem] <0.707)

]Zn

-]Zn r jZd

peaktime: t p

Zn 1  ] 2

Damped/ringingfrequency:rad/sec
Zd Zn 1  ] 2

whereV iscalledthedamping(time)constant.

settlingtime(2%ess ): ts

3.912

poles : -]Zn r jZn 1  ] 2

66

ResponsetoSinusoidalInputForce(2nd ordersystem)

64

Zn2
s 2  2]Zn s  Zn2

equivalenttimeconstant:W

Y ( s)
R( s)

RelationBetweenPoleLocationtoSystem
Specification(standard2ndorderSystem] <0.707)

 G ( s )Z
s  jZ

G ( jZ )
j2

2j

G ( jZ ) e jI

2j

G ( j Z ) e  jI

69

FrequencyResponseof2nd OrderSystem

67

jZ

 jZ

G (  jZ )
 j2

b1
b
b0
 2  "" 

s  a1 s  a2
s  jZ s  jZ

G ( s )Z
b0 *

s  jZ s

b0

Y ( s)

b0*

apartialfractionexpansioncorrespondingtoY(s)is

Considerthesystemresponsedescribedby Y ( s) G ( s)

Example
Z
s Z2
2

? A(Z )

y (f )

Re( G ( jZ ) )
tan 1

Im( G ( jZ ) )

G ( jZ ) and I (Z )

G ( jZ ) sin(Z t  I )
G ( jZ ) 

for a stable system

ResponseofHigherOrderSystems

68

sin(Z t  I )

y (t ) b1e  a1t  b2 e  a2t  ""  G ( jZ ) sin(Z t  I )

e j (Z t I )  e  j (Z t I )
2j