Introduction To Tropical Cyclones - Evans PDF

Tropical Cyclone Climatology
Introduction
In this section, we open our study of tropical cyclones, one of the most recognizable (and
impactful) weather features of the tropics. In this study, we begin with an overview of what
tropical cyclones are by presenting the most basic of definitions for a tropical cyclone.
Subsequently, the locations in which tropical cyclones form, the paths they take, and the largescale factors that influence their formation are discussed. This overview will motivate future
lectures on tropical cyclone formation and intensity change, enabling us to better understand the
physics and dynamics behind why and how tropical cyclones form.
Tropical Cyclone Definitions
As defined by Holland (1993), a tropical cyclone is a non-frontal synoptic-scale low
pressure system over tropical or subtropical waters with persistent, organized convection and a
closed cyclonic circulation. Tropical cyclones are typically classified by their intensities, with the
maximum sustained surface (10-m) wind speed being the most common measure of tropical
cyclone intensity. Tropical cyclone classifications include:
A tropical depression is a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds less
than 17.5 m s-1 (34 kt).
A tropical storm is a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface wind speeds 17.533 m s-1 (34-64 kt). Near Australia and in the Indian Ocean, tropical storms are
generically referred to as tropical cyclones.
A hurricane is a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds in excess of 33

m s-1 (64 kt). In the Western North Pacific, hurricanes are known as typhoons. Near
Australia and in the Indian Ocean, hurricanes are known as severe tropical cyclones.
In products issued by the National Hurricane Center, Central Pacific Hurricane Center, and Joint
Typhoon Warning Center (e.g., United States-based agencies), the maximum sustained surface
wind speed is expressed as the 1-min average wind speed. In products issued by all other
agencies, the maximum sustained surface wind speed is expressed as the 10-min average wind
speed. The former value is approximately 1.15 times larger than the latter. Thus, care must be
taken when comparing tropical cyclone intensities between individual basins.
Within the hurricane classification, there exist several sub-classifications that vary
between individual ocean basins. Within the Atlantic and Eastern North Pacific basins, the
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale (Schott et al. 2012) is used to classify hurricanes as a
function of wind speed and, subsequently, the damage that such winds can inflict. The categories
of the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale include:
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

Category
Maximum Sustained Wind Speeds
Category 1
64-82 kt
Category 2
83-95 kt
Category 3
96-112 kt
Category 4
113-136 kt
Category 5
>136 kt
Note that category 3 and higher hurricanes are often referred to as major hurricanes. In the
Western North Pacific, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center refers to typhoons with maximum
sustained wind speeds in excess of 130 kt as super typhoons. The Australian Bureau of
Meteorology uses a separate five category scale to express the intensity and expected impacts of
tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity or higher. More details on this classification system
may
be
found
on
the
Bureau
of
Meteorologys
website
at
http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/about/intensity.shtml.
Tropical Cyclone Climatology
On average, approximately 84 tropical cyclones form annually across the globe.
Approximately 45, or 54%, of these reach hurricane intensity at some point during their
existence. The Western North Pacific is the most active of the worlds ocean basins on average,
home to approximately 26 tropical cyclones and 16 typhoons each year. The Eastern North
Pacific is the second-most active basin on average, home to approximately 17 tropical cyclones
and 9 hurricanes each year. Approximately 10 tropical cyclones occur annually in each of the
North Atlantic, Southwest Indian, and Southwest Pacific basins. Slightly more of these tropical
cyclones reach hurricane intensity in the North Atlantic as compared to the Southwest Indian and
Southwest Pacific. The Southeast Indian basin experiences approximately 7 tropical cyclones
and 3 hurricanes per year. The North Indian basin experiences approximately 5 tropical cyclones
and 2.5 hurricanes per year. Tropical cyclone activity is rare, though not unprecedented, in the
Eastern South Pacific and South Atlantic basins.
Tropical cyclones are seasonal phenomena. Most basins experience peak tropical cyclone
activity during the late summer and early fall months. In the Southern Hemisphere, this
corresponds to January through March. In the Northern Hemisphere, this corresponds to July
through September. Tropical cyclone formation occurs at lower latitudes early in the tropical
season, spreads northward thereafter, and only returns to lower latitudes at the very end of the
season. Tropical cyclone activity is possible year-round if the conditions which promote tropical
cyclone development are present; however, this is most commonly true only in the Western
North Pacific basin. The seasonal distribution of tropical cyclone activity is strongly influenced
by the seasonal evolutions of sea surface temperatures and the location/presence of the
phenomena that give rise to tropical cyclones.
Tropical cyclones typically form within the deep tropics between 10-20 latitude. To first
order, tropical cyclones move in a direction and at a rate of speed approximated by the mean
wind over a vertical layer that varies with cyclone intensity. Put more simply, tropical cyclones
are typically steered by the flow associated with subtropical anticyclones and mid-latitude
troughs. As a result, in the majority of the worlds ocean basins, tropical cyclones move slightly
poleward of due west in the deep tropics at a rate of speed of approximately 10-15 kt. Thereafter,
as they reach the periphery of the steering subtropical anticyclone, tropical cyclones acquire a
significant poleward component of motion. They subsequently accelerate and recurve poleward
and eastward into the mid-latitudes. Exceptions occur with tropical cyclones that make landfall
or, in the Eastern North Pacific basin, with tropical cyclones that dissipate over the cool waters
of the subtropical Eastern North Pacific Ocean. Significant intraseasonal variability in tropical
cyclone tracks is largely a function of intraseasonal variability in the large-scale weather pattern
across the subtropics and mid-latitudes.
In the following, we consider unique characteristics associated with the climatology of
tropical cyclones within each of the ocean basins in which tropical cyclones occur. The
exception to this is the North Atlantic basin, which is covered separately within its own section.
Eastern North Pacific
The majority of tropical cyclones in the Eastern North Pacific basin form within a fairly
localized region to the west of Central America, where sea surface temperatures are typically
well in excess of 29C during the tropical season. It is in this narrow region where the worlds
highest frequency of tropical cyclone genesis per unit area occurs. Tropical cyclone formation
becomes progressively less likely with westward extent into the Central North Pacific. Tropical
cyclone season lasts from June to October, concurrent with the northward shift in sea surface
temperatures and ITCZ associated with Northern Hemisphere summer. Tropical cyclone activity
peaks in late August. Many tropical cyclones that form in the Eastern North Pacific owe their
origins to African easterly waves that did not spawn tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic
basin.
Western North Pacific
As compared to the Eastern North Pacific basin, tropical cyclones form over a large area
(in terms of both latitudinal and longitudinal extent) across the Western North Pacific. As noted
above, tropical cyclones can form throughout the year in the Western North Pacific. However,
tropical cyclone activity is maximized between June and November and minimized during
February and March. Within the tropical cyclone season, tropical cyclone activity is
characterized by successive relatively active and relatively inactive periods with a period of
approximately 30-45 days. This implies a potential control on tropical cyclone activity by the
MJO, as briefly alluded to in our earlier lecture on intraseasonal variability. The Western North
Pacific is particularly noted for the relatively high frequency of very large and very intense
tropical cyclones. The former has origins in the size and characteristics of the disturbances
(particularly the monsoon trough) which spawn tropical cyclones in the Western North Pacific;
the latter has origins in the relatively large extent of very warm (~30C) sea surface temperatures
during the peak of the tropical season.
North Indian Ocean
Although less than 10% of the global tropical cyclones occur in the North Indian Ocean,
they are the most deadly. This is because of a number of factors: the shallow waters of the Bay of
Bengal promote the development and propagation of large trapped-fetch waves; low, flat coastal
terrain promotes the inland spread of waves as they reach the coast; the funneling shape of the
coastline promotes the amplification of wave heights over a narrow, focused area; and the
presence of a large number of people in a relatively small, third world area promotes heavy
casualties from such events. Within the North Indian Ocean, tropical cyclone activity is much
more common in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea, possibly because of the lack of
seedling disturbances and the relatively dry middle tropospheric environment found in the
Arabian Sea. Tropical cyclones most commonly form between April and June and October
through December when the sea surface temperatures are warm enough to support their
formation and while the monsoon is relatively weak. During monsoon season, monsoon
depressions (or weak, very large tropical cyclone-like disturbances with no inner core structure)
are the preferred mode of cyclone development across the basin.
Southwest Indian Ocean
Tropical cyclone activity is most prevalent in the Southwest Indian Ocean between
November and April with maxima in mid-late January and mid-late February. Tropical cyclones
in this basin primarily form in two distinct geographic locations: over the open waters of the
Indian Ocean between 8-12S latitude and near Madagascar (15-20S) in the far western portion
of the basin. Apart from the seasonal variability in sea surface temperatures, activity in this basin
and particularly near Madagascar is controlled by seasonal variability in the surface trades.
During tropical cyclone season, the typical southeasterly surface trades reverse and acquire a
northerly component. It is this reversal that appears to be crucial to tropical cyclone development
near Madagascar, although the reasons for this are not entirely clear.
Southeast Indian and Southwest Pacific Ocean Basins
Tropical cyclone activity in these basins preferentially occurs near the northern coast of
Australia in three specific regions: the northwest coastline, the Gulf of Carpenteria, and the Coral
Sea northeast of Australia. Of these regions, weaker tropical cyclones occur most commonly in
the Gulf of Carpenteria while stronger tropical cyclones occur most commonly off of the
northwest coast of Australia. Most tropical cyclones in these basins form from disturbances in
the monsoon trough, though some over the eastern reaches of the Southwest Pacific Ocean form
from disturbances in the South Pacific Convergence Zone or from equatorial wave forcing.
Tropical cyclone season in both basins lasts from December through mid-April with a relative
maximum in mid-late February. Tropical cyclone activity is suppressed during the midst of the
season while the monsoon is over land. Thus, compared to the North Indian Ocean, tropical
cyclones and the monsoon typically co-exist with one another in the Southeast Indian and
Southwest Pacific basins.
Other Ocean Basins
As noted above, tropical cyclone activity is rare, though not altogether impossible, in the
Eastern South Pacific and South Atlantic basins. Though sea surface temperatures are
occasionally supportive of tropical cyclone activity within these basins, strong vertical wind
shear and the lack of coherent lower tropospheric disturbances from which tropical cyclones can
form inhibit such activity. That said, in a subsequent lecture on the tropical transition process, we
will examine the physics and dynamics of a tropical cyclone formation event that occurred
within the South Atlantic basin in 2004.
Tropical Cyclone Development in the North Atlantic Basin
Though it was previously thought that the North Atlantic was the only one of the worlds
tropical cyclone-supporting ocean basins to not have a monsoon trough, more recent studies have
highlighted the presence of a monsoon trough along the western coast of Africa associated with
the West African monsoon. That said, though this monsoon trough acts as a locus of cyclonic
vertical vorticity and deep-layer moisture, tropical cyclone development in the tropical North
Atlantic most often results from African easterly waves. Note also that while the North Atlantic
basin is unique amongst the worlds tropical cyclone-supporting ocean basins to have a seasonal
mean westerly vertical wind shear, such shear typically reverses in direction (to easterly) prior to
individual tropical cyclone developments.
Tropical cyclone season in the Atlantic lasts from June through November, peaking in
mid-September. Minor peaks occur in mid-October and, to a lesser extent, late June. Tropical
cyclone development is typically confined to tropical latitudes early and late in the season while
it expands north and eastward during the middle of the season as sea surface temperatures warm
and vertical wind shear lessens. Owing to the relatively large range of latitudes at which tropical
cyclones form in the North Atlantic (as well as the Western North Pacific) basin(s), there exist
multiple types of disturbances that spawn tropical cyclone development. As noted above, many
developments in the tropical North Atlantic occur in conjunction with African easterly waves.
Such tropical cyclones form to the south of the African easterly jet and at the southern boundary
of the Saharan air layer. A small fraction of tropical cyclones arise from non-easterly wave
disturbances in the ITCZ or, in rare instances, the West African monsoon trough. Other
disturbances have direct and/or indirect origins with baroclinic systems.
The wide variety of incipient disturbances for tropical cyclone formation in the North
Atlantic is captured by the climatology of McTaggart-Cowan et al. (2008). Based off of the
evolutions of large-scale forcing for ascent and lower tropospheric thickness prior to tropical
cyclone formation, McTaggart-Cowan et al. (2008) developed six unique pathways for tropical
cyclone formation in the North Atlantic basin. These pathways include:
Non-baroclinic, accounting for 40% of all tropical cyclone formation events. These are
the traditional tropical cyclones, forming most often in the deep tropics from African
easterly waves. It is this pathway to genesis that we will examine most closely in
subsequent lectures.
Low-level baroclinic, accounting for 13% of all tropical cyclone formation events. These
tropical cyclone formation events preferentially occur at low latitudes near the west coast
of Africa and in the western Caribbean, both locations where substantial lower
tropospheric temperature gradients exist. Near Africa, these are associated with the
African easterly jet and Saharan air layer; in the western Caribbean, these are associated
with land-sea temperature contrasts.
Transient trough interaction, accounting for 16% of all tropical cyclone formation events.
These tropical cyclone formation events preferentially occur early in the tropical cyclone
season, when transient mid-latitude troughs impinge upon the still relatively cool sea
surface temperatures of the tropics. Most of these developments occur in the Gulf of
Mexico or central tropical North Atlantic.
Trough-induced, accounting for only 3% of all tropical cyclone formation events. These
tropical cyclone formation events preferentially occur in the Gulf of Mexico or off of the
east coast of Florida during the peak of hurricane season. At this time, lower tropospheric
temperature gradients are weak but large-scale forcing for ascent can be strong in the
presence of a mid-latitude trough.
Weak tropical transition, accounting for 13% of all tropical cyclone events. These
tropical cyclone formation events occur in environments of strong large-scale forcing for
ascent and medium to large lower tropospheric temperature gradients. Such conditions
are most commonly found across the Gulf of Mexico and off of the east coast of Florida
throughout the tropical cyclone season, although a relative maximum in such events is
noted during June.
Strong tropical transition, accounting for 15% of all tropical cyclone events. Such tropical
cyclone formation events most commonly occur late in the season at higher latitudes (at
or above 30N) in the western and central North Atlantic basin. These tropical cyclones
are most sensitive not to sea surface temperatures but to the relatively cool temperature of
the outflow layer of the cyclone in the upper troposphere. How and why this is the case
will be discussed in a subsequent lecture on tropical cyclone intensity change.
In addition to the geographic and seasonal distributions referenced above for the six
tropical cyclone development pathways, there exists substantial variability in the peak intensity
of tropical cyclones forming along each of these pathways. Trough-induced, weak tropical
transition, and strong tropical transition tropical cyclone formations tend to have greater numbers
of weaker tropical cyclones and fewer numbers of stronger tropical cyclones as compared to the
set of all tropical cyclone formation events. Most of the strongest tropical cyclones are of nonbaroclinic or low-level baroclinic origin, although a non-insignificant number of tropical
cyclones that develop along the transient trough interaction pathway do go on to become tropical
cyclones.
Large-Scale Conditions Necessary for Tropical Cyclone Formation
Gray (1968) highlighted six necessary large-scale conditions for tropical cyclone
formation:
Large cyclonic vertical vorticity in the lower troposphere, such as is often associated with
the ITCZ, an African easterly wave, or the monsoon trough.
A distance at least several degrees latitude poleward of the equator, such that sufficiently
large planetary vorticity is present.
Weak vertical wind shear of the horizontal winds (typically less than ~10 m s-1), so as to
promote the development of an upright vortex that is resilient to the infiltration of cool,
dry air from the external environment.
Sea surface temperatures exceeding 26C, preferably over a relatively large depth, to
provide the necessary heat energy for tropical cyclone development to occur.
Conditional instability through a deep tropospheric layer, so as to promote the

development of deep, moist convection in the vicinity of a tropical disturbance.
Large values of relative humidity in the lower and middle troposphere, so as to negate the
destructive potential of convectively-generated downdrafts upon the lower tropospheric
circulation of a tropical disturbance.
Of these factors, the first three are said to be dynamic parameters whereas the last three are said
to be thermodynamic parameters. Each factor is multiplicative, meaning that all must be present
in order for tropical cyclone formation to occur. The thermodynamic parameters are slowly
varying; indeed, with localized exceptions, the three thermodynamic parameters are all generally
favorable for development over a large area throughout the peak of the tropical cyclone season.
The same cannot be said for the dynamic parameters, however, and Gray (1968) thus
hypothesized that tropical cyclone activity occurs only during periods in which the dynamic
parameters are perturbed to more favorable values above their local climatological means.
Frank (1987) noted that some of Gray (1968)s six environmental parameters are not
independent of one another. In the tropics, where horizontal temperature gradients are typically
weak, regions of high sea surface temperatures are typically also associated with the presence of
conditional instability. From this, Frank (1987) proposed removing the fifth criterion from the
Gray (1968) list. Frank (1987) also suggested that the two vorticity-related factors could be
combined into a single, more general absolute vorticity criterion and that mean upward vertical
motion could be added to the relative humidity criterion so as to better reflect the necessity of
deep, moist convective activity to the tropical cyclone formation process. Thus, in the context of
Frank (1987), the following four criteria are said to be the necessary conditions for tropical
cyclone formation:
Large cyclonic absolute vorticity in the lower troposphere, such as is often found away
from the equator in association with the ITCZ, an African easterly wave, or the monsoon
trough.
Weak vertical wind shear of the horizontal winds (typically less than ~10 m s-1), so as to
promote the development of an upright vortex that is resilient to the infiltration of cool,
dry air from the external environment.
Sea surface temperatures exceeding 26C, preferably over a relatively large depth, to
provide the necessary heat energy for tropical cyclone development to occur.
Large values of relative humidity in the lower and middle troposphere in association with
mean ascent, so as to negate the destructive potential of convectively-generated
downdrafts upon the lower tropospheric circulation of a tropical disturbance
In addition to the aforementioned requisite factors for tropical cyclone formation, the
following characteristics have been shown by observational studies to be important to the
tropical cyclone formation process:
The presence of a pre-existing, convectively-active disturbance, such as an African

easterly wave, monsoon trough, or other similar disturbance.
The transformation of the disturbances initially cold-core thermal structure into that of a
tropospheric-deep warm-core thermal structure. Precisely how this occurs is detailed in a
subsequent section on tropical cyclone formation.
The accumulation (increase, spin-up, etc.) of lower tropospheric cyclonic relative

vorticity on the synoptic-scale in the presence of the disturbance.
Weak vertical wind shear of the horizontal winds in the environment of the disturbance
(typically less than ~10 m s-1), so as to promote the development of an upright vortex that
is resilient to the infiltration of cool, dry air from the external environment.
The development of curved banding features associated with active convection, often a
signature of intensifying rotation found in association with the disturbance.
The presence of synoptic-scale upper tropospheric divergence, so as to promote lower

tropospheric convergence and tropospheric-deep ascent in the environment of the
disturbance.
It should be noted that, as with the Gray (1968) and Frank (1987) conditions, these are all
necessary but insufficient conditions for tropical cyclone development. Furthermore, missing
from the above discussion are considerations of precisely how the tropical cyclone vortex
develops, the role that deep, moist convection and its organization play in the tropical cyclone
formation process, and the precise energetics of the tropical cyclone. The physics and dynamics
of these processes are discussed in subsequent lectures on tropical cyclone formation.
References
Elsberry, R. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone motion. Global Perspectives on Tropical

Cyclones, R. L. Elsberry (ed.). World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,
Report
No.
TCP-38.
[Available
online
at
http://derecho.math.uwm.edu/classes/TropMet/GPTC/tcmotion.pdf].
Frank, W. M., 1987: Tropical cyclone formation. Chapter 3, A Global View of Tropical
Cyclones. Office of Naval Research, Arlington, Virginia, 53-90.
Gray, W. M., 1968: Global view of the origin of tropical disturbances and storms. Mon.
Wea. Rev., 96, 669-700.
Holland, G. J., 1993: Ready Reckoner. Chapter 9, Global Guide to Tropical Cyclone
Forecasting, WMO/TC-No. 560.
McBride, J. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone formation. Global Perspectives on Tropical

Report
No.
TCP-38.
[Available
online
at
http://derecho.math.uwm.edu/classes/TropMet/GPTC/tcclimo.pdf].
McTaggart-Cowan, R., G. D. Deane, L. F. Bosart, C. A. Davis, and T. J. Galarneau, Jr.,

2008: Climatology of tropical cyclogenesis in the North Atlantic (1948-2004). Mon. Wea.
Rev., 136, 1284-1304.
Schott, T., and coauthors, 2012: The Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale. [Available
online at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/sshws.pdf].
Tropical Cyclone Formation

Introduction
Previously, we discussed large-scale (or climatological) conditions believed to be
necessary for tropical cyclone development to occur. Now, we focus on describing two physical
processes: the development of the tropical cyclone vortex and the acquisition of a warm-core
thermal structure by an initially cold-core incipient disturbance. Thus, we define tropical cyclone
formation as the initial development of a tropical cyclone. In subsequent lectures, we will discuss
processes that influence the intensity of an existing tropical cyclone, focusing upon both external
and internal influences upon tropical cyclone intensity.
Observational Perspective on Tropical Cyclone Formation
Presuming that a pre-existing synoptic-scale tropical disturbance of some form (e.g.,
African easterly wave, monsoon trough, the ITCZ, or an equatorial wave) exists in an
environment conducive to tropical cyclone development (e.g., as described in the lecture on
tropical cyclone climatology), the tropical cyclone formation, or tropical cyclogenesis, process
can broadly be described as a two stage process (Zehr 1992). In the first stage, deep, moist
convection is triggered by persistent lower tropospheric convergence associated with the preexisting disturbance in a modestly unstable environment. Over a period of several hours, such
convection grows upscale, resulting in the formation of a mesoscale convective system (MCS).
Middle tropospheric warming via latent heat release and lower tropospheric cooling via
the generation of evaporatively-driven downdrafts accompany the MCS. This thermal structure
promotes greater packing of isentropes in the vertical in the middle troposphere. Relating this to
potential vorticity, this is associated with high potential vorticity in the middle troposphere, thus
highlighting the development of a middle tropospheric mesoscale convective vortex (MCV) in
the vicinity of the pre-existing disturbance.
The generation of evaporatively-driven downdrafts acts to stabilize the boundary layer
and weaken the large-scale boundary layer convergence driving the deep, moist convection. Over
time, these processes result in the erosion of the MCS, though not before significant moistening
of the middle troposphere has occurred. The end result of the first stage of tropical cyclogenesis
is thus a middle tropospheric MCV devoid of most if not all deep, moist convective activity. The
middle tropospheric is moister but the boundary layer is cooler and drier than prior to the onset
of the first stage of development. In all, this first stage encompasses a time period of
approximately 12-24 hr.
Prior to the onset of the second stage of tropical cyclone development, the boundary
layer must be sufficiently warmed and/or moistened so as to permit the renewed development of
deep, moist convection. Over warm oceans, this is typically accomplished by the flux of latent
heat energy from the underlying surface into the boundary layer. As this occurs, the environment
Tropical Cyclone Formation, Page 1
in the vicinity of the MCV can again support deep, moist convection. Such convective activity is
triggered by forcing for ascent triggered by balanced lifting associated with the MCV and/or
large-scale convergence associated with the MCV or remnant tropical disturbance. The
redevelopment of convection signals the onset of the second stage of tropical cyclone
development, a series of processes that, over the span of approximately 12-24 hr, can lead to the
development of a tropical cyclone.
This round of deep, moist convective activity differs from that in the first stage of tropical
cyclone development in two important ways. First, the presence of the MCV increases the
inertial stability (related to the absolute vorticity), thereby reducing the Rossby radius of
deformation, itself approximated by the ratio of the static stability to the inertial stability.
Reducing the Rossby radius of deformation acts to laterally constrain the radial extent of the
heating associated with the convection, the implications of which will be discussed shortly. Note
that we are not yet ascribing such heating to a particular physical process; rather, we are merely
stating that it occurs in environments of deep, moist convection.
Second, the middle troposphere is significantly moister as compared to the first stage of
tropical cyclone development. This mitigates the intensity and development of evaporativelydriven downdrafts. If the middle troposphere is entirely saturated, assuming minimal water
loading in regions of active precipitation, then downdraft activity is entirely suppressed. In such
an environment, the atmospheric lapse rate is typically said to be moist neutral, describing a
situation in which parcels are neutrally buoyant to vertical parcel displacements. Such conditions
have been found in observational and numerical modeling studies to be favorable for the efficient
development of a cyclonic circulation within the boundary layer, such as is associated with a
tropical cyclone. Note, however, that we are not yet describing precisely how this cyclonic
circulation forms.
In a quiescent environment, or one that is altogether favorable for tropical cyclogenesis,
this observational perspective elucidates the basic physical characteristics and applicable time
scale(s) of the tropical cyclogenesis process quite nicely. However, as noted above, it does not
address the two fundamental questions associated with precisely how tropical cyclogenesis
occurs. Namely, it does not provide insight into how the tropical cyclone vortex is constructed
within the boundary layer, nor does it provide insight into whether the tropical cyclone warm
core is a response of convective heating or some other thermodynamic process. To address these
questions, we must turn to other resources.
The Development of the Tropical Cyclone Vortex
The development of the tropical cyclone vortex is fundamentally dependent upon the role
of the middle tropospheric MCV in the lower tropospheric vortex development process. There
are two theories that attempt to address this issue. The first emphasizes the downward
development or penetration of a middle tropospheric MCV into the boundary layer (Bister and
Emanuel 1997; Ritchie and Holland 1997) whereas the second emphasizes the development and
eventual organization of deep, moist convective towers within the embryonic environment
provided by the middle tropospheric MCV (Montgomery et al. 2006). The former has been
studied extensively from observational and numerical modeling perspectives whereas the latter
has largely only been studied extensively using numerical model simulations. We now turn to
describing the salient physical and dynamical processes associated with each of these two
theories.
Downward MCV Penetration
Much of the following discussion follows from Bister and Emanuel (1997), though it
should be noted that the results of Ritchie and Holland (1997) are largely consistent with their
findings. Utilizing a combination of observational analysis, numerical model simulations, and
theory, Bister and Emanuel (1997) suggest that tropical cyclone development occurs in response
to the downward development of a middle tropospheric MCV into the boundary layer. This
process can be briefly summarized as follows. A middle tropospheric MCV forms in the
stratiform rain region of an MCS associated with a pre-existing tropical disturbance. Evaporation
of rain in the environment of the MCV increases lower tropospheric relative humidity and leads
to a downdraft that advects the vortex downward into the boundary layer. Subsequently, deep,
moist convection redevelops, leading to the increase of cyclonic vertical vorticity in the lower
troposphere via vorticity tilting and stretching processes.
Bister and Emanuel (1997) argue that the initial cold-core structure of the MCV is crucial
to the subsequent development of a tropical cyclone as such a structure reduces the value of
boundary layer equivalent potential temperature necessary for deep, moist convection to occur.
Furthermore, increased lower to middle tropospheric relative humidity associated with
evaporative moistening associated with initial convective activity mitigates evaporatively-driven
downdrafts associated with subsequent convective activity. As the cold-core structure of the
MCV implies relatively cool boundary layer conditions, such a structure in and of itself further
mitigates against the deleterious impacts of downdraft activity upon the near-surface profiles of
convergence and vertical vorticity. Finally, the boundary layer gradually warms and moistens as
the MCV's circulation penetrates into the boundary layer. This enhances fluxes of latent heat
energy from the underlying ocean surface, allowing the boundary layer value of equivalent
potential temperature to rise to the reduced level necessary for deep, moist convection to
redevelop.
The downward development or advection of the cyclonic circulation of the MCV takes as
long as it takes air to descend through the layer of evaporational cooling. This downward
extension mechanism thus requires precipitation to last sufficiently long, whether in one or more
episodes, so as to moisten/humidify the entire lower to middle troposphere (i.e., the entire layer
of evaporational cooling). The relevant time scale for such activity can be as short as a few hours
or as long as a couple of days. It should also be noted that the downward development process,
and thus tropical cyclogenesis as a whole, is significantly hindered by relative flow through the
MCV. This is most often attributable to vertical wind shear, which forces the vortex to become
tilted vertically and is often associated with the import of dry air into the vortex's circulation. As
a result, the relative flow through the MCV and associated precipitation system must be small so
as to promote a humid, upright vortex core favorable for subsequent tropical cyclone
development.
Convective Tower-Driven Development
Much of the following discussion follows from Montgomery et al. (2006) and Dunkerton
et al. (2009). It should be noted that the results of multiple recent numerical modeling and
observational analyses provide evidence to support the simulation- and theory-driven hypotheses
of both Montgomery et al. (2006) and Dunkerton et al. (2009). Utilizing output from highresolution idealized numerical simulations of tropical cyclogenesis, Montgomery et al. (2006)
suggest that tropical cyclone development occurs in response to cycles of deep, moist convective
activity, termed vortical hot towers, and the gradual upscale growth of cyclonic vertical vorticity
from the cloud-scale to the vortex-scale. Such development is said to occur in the unstable,
cyclonic vorticity-rich environment of the middle tropospheric MCV embryo, colloquially
referred to as the "pouch" (e.g., Dunkerton et al. 2009). While the MCV plays an important role
in focusing deep, moist convection within a laterally-confined region, its downward development
is de-emphasized in this paradigm in favor of the upscale growth of tropospheric-deep towers of
cyclonic vertical vorticity.
Specifically, within the pouch environment, cloud-scale cumulonimbus towers possessing
intense cyclonic vertical vorticity in their cores emerge as the preferred coherent convective
structures. Such cyclonic vertical vorticity is generated through two processes. Initial cyclonic
vertical vorticity, particularly in the lower troposphere, is generated through the tilting of
horizontal vorticity associated with the vertical wind shear of the horizontal wind. This is most
generally associated with the cold-core structure of the middle tropospheric MCV. Thereafter,
cyclonic vertical vorticity is amplified through the stretching of both the MCV-scale and
convective tower-scale vertical vorticity. These convective towers exhibit lifetimes on the order
of 1 h. Repeated cycles of convective tower activity act to overcome the adverse effects of
evaporatively-driven downdraft activity by reducing the amount of available buoyancy,
humidifying the middle and upper troposphere, and merging with neighboring convective
towers. Such merger processes act to increase the horizontal scale of the vortices associated with
the convective towers.
While each individual convective tower is short-lived, the aggregate of towers about the
pouch mimic a quasi-steady heating rate on the scale of the middle tropospheric MCV. For
thermal wind balance to be maintained, a thermally-direct circulation with lower and middle
tropospheric convergence, tropospheric-deep ascent, and upper tropospheric divergence must
develop in response to this heating. Over a period of 6 h or greater, the convergence associated
with this circulation converges the convective tower-generated near-surface and MCV-associated
middle to upper troposphere cyclonic vertical vorticity, building the tropospheric-deep tropical
cyclone vortex. Such development typically occurs near what is colloquially known as the
"sweet spot," or intersection of the wave's critical latitude (i.e., the latitude at which the
horizontal velocity vanishes) and trough axis as viewed within a reference frame moving with
the developing disturbance (Dunkerton et al. 2009).
Summary
As noted by Dunkerton et al. (2009), the downward MCV penetration and convectivetower driven development paradigms are not necessarily at odds with one another. Both
paradigms emphasize the presence of a middle tropospheric MCV and a role of deep, moist
convective activity toward building the lower tropospheric tropical cyclone vortex. They differ in
the spatiotemporal scales emphasized within each paradigm. The downward MCV penetration
paradigm emphasizes processes occurring on the meso- and larger scales of the middle
tropospheric MCV. Conversely, the convective tower paradigm emphasizes processes on the
cloud scale and, subsequently, the upscale growth of the vortices resulting from such processes
to larger scales. Depending on the spatial and temporal scales that one uses in a budgetary
analysis of tropical cyclogenesis, support for both paradigms can be obtained. Therefore, it is
possible that both paradigms may be at least partially correct or, conversely, may be entirely
incorrect! in their depictions of tropical cyclogenesis. This emphasizes the need for further
research into the tropical cyclogenesis process.
Independent of how the near-surface tropical cyclone vortex is built, neither theory is
meant to address the underlying energetics of tropical cyclone development. In other words,
these theories are not meant to be used to elucidate the source of the heating that drives tropical
cyclones. This problem is addressed in the following section.
The Development of the Tropical Cyclone Warm Core
Tropical cyclones are driven by heating, particularly heating found in the middle to upper
troposphere and constrained to near the center of the cyclone by sufficiently strong rotational
forces. From thickness arguments, heating maximized in the middle to upper troposphere will
result in lower pressure beneath the level of peak heating. When constrained to near the center of
the cyclone, the strong, localized heating can result in a strong area of low pressure at the
surface. Precisely how this is manifest will be discussed in the context of the Sawyer-Eliassen
non-linear secondary circulation model in future lectures on tropical cyclone structure and
intensity change. Before delving into such material, however, we wish to describe the source for
such heating, or in other words, is such heating associated with latent heat release within deep,
moist convection or is it merely transported to the middle and upper troposphere by convective
updrafts?
The currently-accepted theory for the source of this heating and, by extension, the
development of the tropical cyclone warm core is given by the non-linear wind-induced surface
heat exchange (WISHE) theory of Emanuel (1986) and subsequent works. In the presence of a
pre-existing tropical disturbance over a sufficiently warm ocean surface, WISHE states that
latent heat release in the free troposphere is governed by the evaporation of moisture from the
underlying ocean surface as determined primarily by the magnitude of the surface winds. In
other words, latent heat energy used to fuel the tropical cyclone and build the tropical cyclone
warm core is obtained from the underlying surface and not through convective heating processes.
The tropical cyclone warm core is constructed aloft as updrafts within deep, moist convection
carry this latent heat energy from the boundary layer to the middle and upper troposphere.
Several assumptions are implicit to WISHE theory. First, the inner core environment of
the developing tropical cyclone vortex must be nearly saturated (i.e., nearly moist neutral) so that
evaporatively-generated downdrafts do not import low equivalent potential temperature into the
boundary layer. As previously discussed, this occurs via moistening processes associated with
cyclic convective activity in the early stages of the tropical cyclogenesis process. Similarly, the
atmosphere is assumed to be neutrally stratified along angular momentum surfaces. Within the
inner core of a developing or mature tropical cyclone, such surfaces are generally verticallyoriented with a slight outward tilt. Therefore, this assumption is equivalent to saying that there is
no slantwise instability present. There may be a small amount of upright, or traditional,
instability present within the environment (i.e., slightly departing from moist neutrality),
however. Third, WISHE assumes that deep, moist convection is ongoing and acts to mix air in
the vertical direction. Fourth, and perhaps key, WISHE assumes that deep, moist convection
does not impact temperature in the absence of surface fluxes. Therefore, surface fluxes are
critical to the development of the tropical cyclone warm core. Without them, not only would the
tropical cyclone warm core not be able to develop, but the boundary layer would never be able to
recover sufficiently so as to permit deep, moist convective development in the pre-genesis
period!
It should be noted that surface fluxes, whether of sensible or latent heat energy, are
dependent upon the wind speed. To first order, at sub-hurricane intensities, surface flux
magnitudes increase as wind speed increases. (We will consider the impact of surface fluxes on
continued tropical cyclone development in a subsequent lecture.) As a result of this dependence,
WISHE can be viewed as a non-linear feedback loop. The weak winds associated with a preexisting tropical disturbance act to induce weak surface latent (and sensible) heat fluxes. Such
fluxes slowly warm and moisten the boundary layer, enabling it to recover from earlier cooling
associated with evaporatively-driven downdrafts. Deep, moist convection acts to transport this
heat and moisture energy vertically to the upper troposphere, where it is accumulated beneath the
tropopause. The radial extent of this heat accumulation is controlled by the radial extent of the
pre-existing disturbance and accompanying middle tropospheric MCV (i.e., by the Rossby radius
of deformation).
As noted above, heating released aloft acts to lower the pressure at levels beneath and
raise the pressure at levels above that of the peak heating. In time, the wind fields respond to this
forcing upon the mass (pressure) field, resulting in an increase in the magnitude of the cyclonic
surface winds of the vortex. This acceleration in the surface wind speed acts to enhance the
magnitude of the surface heat fluxes. Enhanced heat energy is carried aloft by deep, moist
convection, resulting in a further increase of the temperature aloft. This results in an enhanced
response in the mass and, subsequently, wind fields above and below the level of peak heating.
The feedback loop continues from here through at least the tropical cyclogenesis process and,
perhaps, through the entirety of the tropical cyclone lifecycle. The net result of these processes is
two-fold. First, a substantial warm anomaly constrained to the inner core of the tropical cyclone
develops in the middle to upper troposphere. Second, a strong near-surface cyclone and modest
anticyclone at the level of the tropopause develop. These are both characteristics of warm-core
cyclones.
The feedback loop associated with the WISHE paradigm describes the Carnot cycle
approximation to the secondary circulation of a tropical cyclone. This representation of the
tropical cyclone secondary circulation is comprised by the four branches of the secondary
circulation itself. First, there is isothermal inflow toward the center of the cyclone in the lower
troposphere. Typically, the temperature of inflowing parcels is approximately 1C less than the
local sea surface temperature, a necessary requirement for the flux of heat and moisture energy
from the underlying surface. Second, moist adiabatic ascent occurs near the center of the
cyclone. Moist adiabatic ascent implies the conservation of equivalent potential temperature.
Indeed, equivalent potential temperature is nearly constant in the vertical within the inner core of
tropical cyclones. Such moist adiabatic ascent transports latent heat energy to the middle and
upper troposphere. Compared to larger radii, where ascent is not entirely moist adiabatic, the net
result is a warm anomaly within the inner core of the cyclone. Third, there is moist adiabatic
outflow away from the center of the cyclone near the tropopause. Finally, there is descent at
large radii from the center of the cyclone. As parcels quickly become subsaturated upon descent,
whether forced or unforced in nature, such descent is predominantly dry adiabatic in nature. This
implies that the parcels approximately conserve potential temperature as they descend to the
boundary layer.
Also tied to WISHE and the Carnot cycle approximation is the concept of a maximum
potential intensity, or MPI, of tropical cyclones. We will consider MPI more closely in a
subsequent lecture on tropical cyclone intensity change.
References
Bister, M., and K. A. Emanuel, 1997: The genesis of Hurricane Guillermo: TEXMEX
analyses and a modeling study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 2662-2682.
Dunkerton, T. J., M. T. Montgomery, and Z. Wang, 2009: Tropical cyclogenesis in a

tropical wave critical layer: easterly waves. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5587-5646.
Emanuel, K., 1986: An air-sea interaction theory for tropical cyclones. Part I: steady-state
maintenance. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 585-605.
McBride, J. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone formation. Global Perspectives on Tropical

Report
No.
TCP-38.
[Available
online
at
http://derecho.math.uwm.edu/classes/TropMet/GPTC/tcclimo.pdf].
Montgomery, M. T., M. E. Nicholls, T. A. Cram, and A. B. Saunders, 2006: A vortical

hot tower route to tropical cyclogenesis. J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 355-386.
Ritchie, E. A., and G. J. Holland, 1997: Scale interactions during the formation of
Typhoon Irving. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 1377-1396.
Zehr, R. M., 1992: Tropical cyclogenesis in the western North Pacific. NOAA Technical
Report NESDIS 61, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, DC, 181pp.
Tropical Cyclone Intensity Change

Introduction
To this point, we have discussed the dynamics and thermodynamics of the tropical
cyclogenesis process. Now, we wish to consider what impacts the intensity of the tropical
cyclone after it has formed. In so doing, we will consider a wide array of factors, both positive
and negative, that are known to exert a significant control on the intensity of the tropical cyclone.
Some of these, such as vertical wind shear and dry air intrusion, are well-known. Others, like
trough interaction, are less well-known but nevertheless important to the study of tropical
cyclone intensity change.
Maximum Potential Intensity
The idea that a tropical cyclone can be approximated as a Carnot cycle enables us to
determine a relationship for the maximum potential intensity (MPI) of a tropical cyclone. For a
system in which dissipative heating is included, we first define an efficiency :
(1)
Ts To
To
Ts is the surface temperature whereas To is the temperature at the outflow layer just below the
tropopause. For a difference of 75 K between Ts (~300 K/27C) and To (~225 K/-48C), the
efficiency of the system is on the order of 0.33. Efficiencies of 0.3-0.5 are common in the
environments of most tropical cyclones. Though higher efficiencies are possible for greater
differences between Ts and To, such conditions are often not realized in the nearly saturated
environments of tropical cyclones unless the tropopause is substantially elevated as compared to
normal.
The rate of input of available potential energy from the underlying surface can be
expressed as:
(2)
G = C k Vs k o* k a Ts
where Ck is the enthalpy transfer coefficient, Vs is the surface wind speed, ko* is the enthalpy of
the ocean surface, and ka is the enthalpy of boundary layer air near the ocean surface. For G to be
positive, the enthalpy of the ocean surface must be higher than the enthalpy of the boundary
layer near the ocean surface. This describes the scenario in which enthalpy is being transferred
from the ocean's surface to the boundary layer near the ocean's surface. The rate of input of
available potential energy increases linearly as a function of the maximum sustained surface
wind speed.
The rate of dissipation can be expressed as:
Tropical Cyclone Intensity Change, Page 1
(3)
D = C d Vs3
where Cd is the drag, or momentum transfer coefficient. The rate of dissipation increases
exponentially with the maximum sustained surface wind speed.
Typically, the input of available potential energy from the underlying surface exceeds
dissipation. The maximum potential intensity of a tropical cyclone is reached when the rate of
dissipation becomes equal to the input of available potential energy, a condition that becomes
reached at high wind speeds. Thus, setting G equal to D and solving for Vs, we obtain an
expression for the maximum possible sustained surface wind speed of a tropical cyclone:
(4)
Vs2 =
Ck
Ts k o* k a
Cd
The maximum sustained wind speed is a function of:

1. The enthalpy and momentum transfer coefficients, themselves a function of wind speed.
2. The sea surface and outflow layer temperatures, primarily as viewed in the context of
efficiency.
3. The transfer (e.g., surface flux) of enthalpy from the underlying ocean into the boundary
layer.
Factors (2) and (3) vary with environmental conditions; factor (1) varies as a function of
the intensity of the tropical cyclone itself. With respect to (1), note that the ratio between Ck and
Cd increases linearly with wind speed at low wind speeds but levels off (i.e., begins to remain
constant with increasing wind speed) near 30 m s-1.
Of particular interest is factor (2), involving both the surface and outflow layer
temperatures. This has important implications for variability of tropical cyclone activity in a
warming environment (e.g., even if sea surface temperatures increase, increases in the outflow
layer temperature will counteract the otherwise-expected increase in MPI) and for tropical
cyclone activity at higher latitudes (as will be discussed in greater detail in our lectures on
tropical transition).
If we assume cyclostrophic balance, a fair assumption at hurricane-force wind speeds, we
can obtain a relationship for the lowest-possible sea level pressure of a tropical cyclone:
(5)
Vs2
p c = p m exp
2 Rd Ts
where pc is the pressure at the center of the tropical cyclone, pm is the pressure at the radius of
maximum winds, and Rd is the dry air gas constant. A similar expression may be derived using
gradient or even geostrophic balance; however, as we are typically interested in the maximum
possible intensity for a given tropical cyclone, cyclostrophic balance is typically the most
appropriate choice.
As may be inferred from the above, MPI theory does not provide a pathway by which
tropical cyclones intensify. Rather, in the context of WISHE theory, it provides insight as to the
maximum intensity a given tropical cyclone can reach in a perfectly ideal, quiescent
environment. Note the vast majority of storms do not reach their MPI. Departures from the
aforementioned ideal environment, such as manifest via physical processes such as dry air
intrusion, vertical wind shear, interaction with land, and/or cooler sea surface temperatures, are
the primary causes behind this failure to reach the MPI. A small percentage of storms on the
order of 1% or less reach and/or exceed their MPI. Given that the MPI is supposed to provide a
maximum possible intensity, how can this be?
For some tropical cyclones, the impacts of asymmetric forcing unaccounted for by MPI
theory are the culprit. Examples of asymmetric forcing are manifest via radial momentum flux
sources such as mid-latitude troughs and vortex Rossby waves. We will discuss these phenomena
in more detail in this and subsequent lectures. For other tropical cyclones, the evolving
energetics of tropical cyclones undergoing extratropical transition are the culprit. As a tropical
cyclone undergoes extratropical transition, it begins to draw energy from the vertically-sheared
midlatitude flow (e.g., the conversion of available potential energy to kinetic energy) rather than
from the underlying oceanic surface. This typically allows a tropical cyclone to maintain its
intensity, particularly in terms of the minimum sea level pressure of the cyclone, even as surface
fluxes wane as the tropical cyclone moves over sub-critical sea surface temperatures (with no
accompanying change in outflow layer temperature).
Three charts related to MPI are included within the lecture materials. The first of these
charts depicts the minimum-possible sea level pressure as a function of surface and outflow
temperatures. Holding surface temperature constant, values of sea level pressure decrease for
decreasing outflow temperature (i.e., increasing the efficiency of the system). The second of
these charts depicts the maximum-possible surface wind speed as a function of surface and
outflow temperatures. Holding surface temperature constant, values of maximum surface wind
speed increase for decreasing outflow temperature. The third chart utilizes the climatological
atmospheric and oceanic conditions for September to construct spatial maps of the climatological
minimum-possible sea level pressure. MPI is at a maximum across the Western North Pacific
warm pool north of Indonesia, near the southern Mexican coastline in the Eastern North Pacific,
and across the central Gulf of Mexico in the North Atlantic. It decays rapidly away from the
tropics.
Global
maps
of
daily
http://wxmaps.org/pix/hurpot.html.
MPI
values
are
available
online
at
The Importance of WISHE at Higher Wind Speeds

Traditionally, WISHE has been viewed as an "exponential instability," meaning that as a
tropical cyclone becomes more intense, the magnitude of the wind-induced heat and moisture
fluxes increases, subsequently leading to the non-linear intensification of the tropical cyclone.
However, recent work by Montgomery et al. (2009), though still the subject of much heated
debate within the tropical cyclone community, challenges this viewpoint. In the Montgomery et
al. (2009) work, they demonstrate that an intense tropical cyclone develops even when the
surface latent heat flux is capped at less than 150 W m-2, approximately equal to the trade wind
value associated with the easterly 5-10 m s-1 trades flowing across a sufficiently warm oceanic
surface. They argue that while surface fluxes remain important prior to tropical cyclogenesis (to
enable boundary layer equivalent potential temperature to rise sufficiently to permit convective
redevelopment), the exponential instability associated with WISHE does not drive the
subsequent intensification of the tropical cyclone.
Instead, Montgomery et al. (2009) pose that local buoyancy within individual convective
towers serves as the energy source for deep, moist convection and, by extension, the tropical
cyclone itself. In this framework, cyclonic vertical vorticity is generated within these towers and
subsequently grows upscale through vortex merger and filamentation processes. The resultant
upward cascade of energy, rather than the vertical lofting of increasingly large heat and moisture
fluxes, leads to the intensification of the tropical cyclone. It should be noted that such convective
processes occur within all tropical cyclones and thus, in and of itself, such a condition does not
disprove WISHE theory. Rather, Montgomery et al. (2009) argue that the development of an
intense tropical cyclone despite capped surface latent heat fluxes is what acts to disprove WISHE
theory. As many in the community remain skeptical of the Montgomery et al. (2009) claims,
however, more research is necessary to precisely identify and isolate the intensification
mechanism(s) for tropical cyclones.
Oceanic Upwelling and Localized Oceanic Eddies
The cyclonic circulation associated with a tropical cyclone acts to upwell water from
beneath the ocean's surface. The magnitude of this upwelling is a function of the structure of the
cyclone's wind field. Typically, stronger, larger tropical cyclones result in greater upwelling
compared to their weaker, smaller counterparts. As a tropical cyclone typically moves at a rate of
speed of 2-3 m s-1 or greater, the overall magnitude of such upwelling is generally weak ( 1C
cooling of the sea surface temperature). Thus, to first order, upwelling is generally only
significant for slow-moving or stationary tropical cyclones. Examples of upwelling exerting a
substantial influence on the intensity of a nearly-stationary tropical cyclone include Hurricanes
Roxanne (1995) and Ophelia (2005), both in the North Atlantic basin.
A notable exception to this statement is found with tropical cyclones that follow closely
in the path of an earlier tropical cyclone. For an eighteen-year composite of Northern
Hemisphere tropical cyclones, Hart et al. (2007) demonstrate that the sea surface temperature in
the wake of a tropical cyclone remains below normal for approximately one month after its
passage. The greatest impacts are felt within ten days after tropical cyclone passage. Thus, in
situations where a tropical cyclone follows a similar path to that a preceding tropical cyclone, its
intensity may be limited to some extent by the upwelling of cool water induced by the preceding
tropical cyclone.
Conversely, localized oceanic warm eddies can exert a positive influence on tropical
cyclone intensity. Such eddies are common within the Gulf of Mexico and are associated with
the Loop Current that extends from the Caribbean Sea northward into the Gulf of Mexico. These
eddies are characterized by locally warm water over a large depth and an above-normal sea
surface height anomaly. As a result, they provide a substantial source of heat energy to fuel a
tropical cyclone. There may also be a contribution to tropical cyclone intensity from the
mesoscale baroclinic zone (i.e., temperature gradient) that develops on the periphery of the warm
eddy. Regardless, some of the most intense tropical cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico in recent
years, including both Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, passed over or near such a warm eddy
during a period of rapid intensification. Global maps of real-time oceanic heat content and sea
surface height anomalies are available online at http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/cyclone/data/.
Ventilation of the Tropical Cyclone Inner Core
The ventilation of a tropical cyclone's inner core refers to the dynamic and
thermodynamic impacts of vertical wind shear upon the tropical cyclone (Tang and Emanuel
2010). The dynamic component deals with how the tropical cyclone vortex interacts with the
environmental vertical wind shear. Implicit to this is the tilt of the vortex due to differential
vorticity advection by the vertically-sheared background flow and the resulting asymmetric
structure (e.g., Jones 1995). The thermodynamic component concentrates on the impact upon a
tropical cyclone's intensity resulting from the import of low entropy air (i.e., low equivalent
potential temperature air) from the ambient environment into the tropical cyclone's inner core.
Two ways exist by which low entropy air can infiltrate the tropical cyclone inner core:
1. The lower tropospheric ingestion of low entropy air resulting from downdrafts formed in
response to the interaction of the tropical cyclone with vertical wind shear (Riemer et al.
2010).
2. The direct middle tropospheric import of low entropy air into the tropical cyclone's inner
core.
Dynamical Effects of Vertical Wind Shear
Dynamically, vertical wind shear acts to vertically tilt the circulation of the tropical
cyclone. At the onset of the vertical wind shear, this results in the tilt of the vortex in the
downshear direction. For westerly vertical wind shear, the upper tropospheric vortex will be
tilted to the east of the lower tropospheric vortex. The opposite is true for easterly vertical wind
shear. However, after a very short period of time (on the order of one hour), the situation
becomes much more complex. In this discussion, we will highlight the resultant mutual rotation
of the upper and lower tropospheric vortices; the development of asymmetries in the
environment of the tropical cyclone and their role in modulating its vertical tilt; and the
sensitivity in these processes to the structure of the vertical wind shear and, in particular, the
vortex itself.
As noted above, vertical wind shear initially acts to tilt the vortex downshear in the
vertical. This results in the misalignment of the lower tropospheric and upper tropospheric
vortices. From potential vorticity arguments, the lower tropospheric vortex can induce a cyclonic
circulation at higher levels whereas the upper tropospheric vortex can induce a cyclonic
circulation at lower levels. The strength of these circulations at any given level decays with
increasing distance from the inducing vortex and is a function of the Rossby penetration depth.
For a rapidly rotating vortex, the Rossby penetration depth can be expressed as in Jones (2004)
and references therein:
(6)
2vT
f + r ( f + )
HR =
N
1/ 2
where f is the Coriolis parameter, vT is the tangential wind, r is the radius, is the vertical
component of the relative vorticity, L is the horizontal length scale of the vortex, and N is the
square root of the static stability. Therefore, a stronger and/or larger vortex, larger Coriolis
parameter, or reduced static stability all result in a larger Rossby penetration depth. As might be
expected, a larger Rossby penetration depth implies a larger depth over which a given vortex
may induce a meaningful circulation. Note that diabatic processes, such as associated with deep,
moist convection, generally act to locally reduce the static stability and increase the rotation,
thereby acting to increase the Rossby penetration depth.
The circulations associated with the vertical reflections of the upper and lower
tropospheric circulations act against the vertical wind shear in two ways. First, the flow
associated with these circulations is also vertically sheared, with stronger winds found near the
level of the PV anomaly and decaying away from there. This can either add to or oppose the
environmental vertical wind shear. Similarly, the circulations induced by these vortices act to
influence the motion of the other vortex. This mutual rotation of the vortices can also bring them
into configurations in which the environmental vertical wind shear can act to either reduce or
further enhance the tilt of the vortex.
Vertical wind shear acts to destroy thermal wind balance in the environment of the
vortex. In order for balance to be restored, a transverse (i.e., vertical) circulation must develop,
the strength of which is directly proportional to the strength of the vortex. From quasiTropical Cyclone Intensity Change, Page 6
geostrophic omega arguments, differential cyclonic vorticity advection leads to ascent while
differential anticyclonic vorticity advection leads to descent. Thus, ascent occurs downshear
while descent occurs upshear. Vertical motions subsequently force the development of potential
temperature anomalies via vertical advection, with a cold anomaly forming at the location of
ascent and a warm anomaly forming at the location of descent. If potential temperature is
(approximately) conserved, vortex-relative flow through these anomalies forces ascent 90
downstream of the warm anomaly and descent 90 upstream of the cold anomaly.
From continuity considerations, the forced vertical motions are associated with
divergence and convergence. In regions of ascent, there is lower level convergence and upper
level divergence. The inverse is true in regions of descent. The cross-vortex flow from the
location of divergence to the location of convergence is noted to counteract the vertical shear
within the inner core of the vortex. Thus, the tilt of the inner core of the vortex is typically
observed to be less than that of the outer core of the vortex. The subsequent interaction of the
outer core of the vortex with the vertically-sheared flow results in the development of large-scale
asymmetries at large radii from the center of the vortex (Jones 2000a) that may also act to
counterbalance the environmental vertical wind shear.
In the analytical framework of Jones (1995), the 90 out-of-phase relationship between
vertical motion and potential temperature anomalies develops within the first six hours of the
imposition of vertical wind shear. This relationship is noted to remain robust after the first six
hours even as the anomalies and upper and lower tropospheric vortices continue to rotate
cyclonically about the middle tropospheric vortex (which, to first order, propagates with the
middle tropospheric flow). However, in observed tropical cyclones, the region of ascent is
typically found in the downshear-left quadrant (i.e., to the left of the shear vector) of the cyclone.
This implies that an approximate steady-state solution for vortex tilt and mutual rotation exists
that is not addressed in the framework of Jones (1995).
The resiliency of a tropical cyclone to vertical wind shear also depends in large part upon
the radial structure of the tropical cyclone's tangential wind profile, as highlighted by Reasor et
al. (2004) and Mallen et al. (2005). Tropical cyclones in which the tangential wind profile only
decays gradually with increasing radius away from the inner core of the storm are better able to
resist the deleterious effects of vertical wind shear. The reasoning behind this relates to vortex
Rossby wave theory, whereby Rossby waves about the vortex at some critical radius from the
center act to counteract the vertical wind shear. While the dynamics of vortex Rossby waves are
beyond the scope of this course, Reasor et al. (2004) argue that the vortex Rossby wave
paradigm provides a more complete framework by which vortex resiliency to vertical wind shear
can be understood than does the Jones (1995) framework. This is particularly true in terms of
addressing the reduction of vortex tilt and the aforementioned approximate steady-state structure
of the tropical cyclone under persistent vertical wind shear.
To summarize, we present a hypothetical thought experiment. By itself, the imposition

across the tropical cyclone of a 10 m s-1 tropospheric-deep vertical wind shear leads to the
horizontal displacement of the lower and upper tropospheric circulation centers by 864 km over
one day. As this is generally not observed, other processes must counteract this tilt. As described
above, the frameworks of Jones (1995, 2000a,b) and Reasor et al. (2004) describe physical
mechanisms by which this shear-induced tilt is (generally) reduced. The precise details of this
reduction in the tilt of the vortex depend most significantly upon the radial structure of the vortex
and the Rossby penetration depth.
Note that the studies considered to this point are all studies of tropical cyclone-like
vortices in dry dynamical frameworks. It is true that a tropical cyclone-like vortex can be
maintained for some time in a dry, vertically-sheared environment (e.g., Jones 2004). However,
as observed tropical cyclones are, to first order, thermodynamically-driven heat engines, it is also
important to consider the effects of vertical wind shear upon the thermodynamics of a tropical
cyclone. This is the focus of the next section.
Thermodynamic Effects of Ventilation and Vertical Wind Shear
Thermodynamically, the general impact of low entropy air upon the intensity of a tropical
cyclone can be viewed in terms of the Carnot heat engine analog to the tropical cyclone (Tang
and Emanuel 2010). The import of low entropy air into the inner core of the tropical cyclone,
whether in the lower or middle troposphere, results in a local decrease in the entropy along the
ascending branch of the Carnot heat engine. Over a sufficient length of time, convective motions
act to spread this low entropy air through a deep, slantwise layer within the inner core. This
weakens the differential in entropy (or, alternatively, equivalent potential temperature) between
the eyewall and ambient environment, reducing the amount of energy available to the tropical
cyclone. Concurrently, the implied loss of buoyancy corresponds to a decrease in the height of
the outflow layer and an increase of the temperature at the outflow layer. As the efficiency of the
tropical cyclone heat engine is a function of the difference between the surface and outflow layer
temperatures, this results in a reduction of the efficiency of the tropical cyclone.
Mechanically forcing low entropy air into the tropical cyclone's inner core in the middle
troposphere is more deleterious upon the intensity of a tropical cyclone than is importing low
entropy air into the tropical cyclone's inner core in the lower troposphere. In contrast to the lower
troposphere, where entropy may partially be restored via surface fluxes from the underlying
ocean, no such recovery is possible in the middle troposphere. As a result, tropical cyclones are
substantially less resilient to the direct import of low entropy air (most commonly associated
with colder, drier environmental air) via vertical wind shear in the middle troposphere than they
are to the import of low entropy air along the radially inflowing branch of its secondary
circulation in the lower troposphere.
The precise impact of ventilation upon the intensity of the tropical cyclone depends in
part upon a substantial number of factors. Three such factors are highlighted by Tang and
Emanuel (2010). These include:
1. How low is the entropy of the air that is imported into the inner core?
2. How strong is the import of the low entropy air into the inner core?
3. How favorable is the ambient environment (e.g., warmth of the sea surface)?
Lower entropy air, stronger import, and marginal or unfavorable ambient thermodynamic
conditions have a more substantial deleterious impact upon the intensity of the tropical cyclone.
As shown by Tang and Emanuel (2010), this impact can lead to a nearly 60% reduction in the
maximum attainable intensity of a given tropical cyclone. If the magnitude of the ventilation is
sufficiently large, tropical cyclone dissipation and/or mitigation are also possible. Conversely,
only slightly reduced entropy air, weaker import, and favorable ambient thermodynamic
conditions may lead to little if any deleterious impact upon the intensity of the tropical cyclone.
Riemer and Montgomery (2011) suggest that the impact of ventilation upon the intensity
of a tropical cyclone also depends in large part upon the strength of the tropical cyclone, as
manifest by the magnitude of its tangential winds. The strong inertial (or rotational) constraint
exerted on a fluid in a region of strong rotation acts to dampen the rate at which asymmetric
flows impinge upon the vortex. As a result, as the intensity and/or size of the tropical cyclone
increases, the magnitude of the vertical wind shear that is necessary for the interaction of both
the eyewall and outer rain bands with environmental air (whether drier or not) also increases.
Furthermore, they suggest that the ability of dry environmental air to enter into the circulation
and impact the intensity of a tropical cyclone is dependent upon its location with respect to the
vortex and the direction of the vertical wind shear. For easterly vertical wind shear, the lower
tropospheric storm-relative flow in the environment of the vortex is westerly. This would act to
advect the dry air away from the vortex. Conversely, for westerly vertical wind shear, the lower
tropospheric storm-relative flow in the environment of the vortex is easterly. This would act to
import the dry air into the circulation of the tropical cyclone.
Trough Interaction
The interaction of a tropical cyclone with an upper tropospheric trough can lead to both
strengthening and weakening of a tropical cyclone. The strong vertical wind shear associated
with such a trough can result in the weakening of the tropical cyclone via the mechanisms
described above. This is particularly true for upper tropospheric troughs of large horizontal scale
(i.e., bigger than that of a tropical cyclone).
Conversely, however, there are two pathways by which an upper tropospheric trough may
lead to the intensification of a tropical cyclone (Hanley et al. 2001). The first pathway is
associated with quasi-geostrophic forcing for large-scale ascent that accompanies such features.
As such forcing spreads over a tropical cyclone, stronger ascent is promoted within the inner
core of the tropical cyclone. From mass conservation arguments, this is associated with enhanced
divergent outflow and convergent inflow into the tropical cyclone. If the vertical wind shear (or
cross-cyclone flow) associated with the upper tropospheric trough is relatively weak ( 10 m s-1)
in the environment of the tropical cyclone, the resultant enhancement to the tropical cyclone's
secondary circulation promotes its intensification. Conversely, if the vertical wind shear is
relatively strong ( 15 m s-1), its deleterious effects upon the intensity of the cyclone dominate
and the cyclone weakens.
The second pathway is associated with the superposition of the cyclonic potential
vorticity anomalies associated with the upper tropospheric trough and the tropical cyclone. If the
upper tropospheric potential vorticity anomaly is of similar horizontal scale to that of the tropical
cyclone, the magnitude of the vertical wind shear is relatively weak. In such a scenario, as the
upper tropospheric anomaly approaches the tropical cyclone, the superposition and interaction of
the two distinct anomalies is favorable for the deepening of the tropical cyclone. With time,
however, the anomaly associated with the upper tropospheric trough weakens, presumably as a
result of stronger diabatic heating that takes place with the tropical cyclone at lower altitudes.
Hanley et al. (2001) suggest that trough interaction is more often favorable than
unfavorable to tropical cyclone intensification. Specifically, over a ten year sample of storms
across the North Atlantic basin, they suggest that 78% of cases fitting into the second pathway
and 61% of cases fitting into the first pathway led to the intensification of the tropical cyclone.
These percentages are likely at the high end of expectations, however, given that they excluded
tropical cyclones near land and/or over sub-26C waters (e.g., likely undergoing extratropical
transition). The precise dynamics of how the aforementioned forcing can result in the
strengthening of the tropical cyclone's secondary and, subsequently, primary circulation(s) will
be explored in the forthcoming lecture on tropical cyclone structure.
References
Emanuel, K., 1986: An air-sea interaction theory for tropical cyclones. Part I: steady-state
maintenance. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 585-605.
Hanley, D., J. Molinari, and D. Keyser, 2001: A composite study of the interactions
between tropical cyclones and upper-tropospheric troughs. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 2570
2584.
Hart, R., R. Maue, and M. Watson, 2007: Estimating the atmospheric and SST memory
of tropical cyclones through MPI anomaly evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 135, 3990-4005.
Jones, S. C., 1995: The evolution of vortices in vertical shear. Part I: Initially barotropic
vortices. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 121, 821-851.
Jones, S. C., 2000a: The evolution of vortices in vertical shear. Part II: Large-scale
asymmetries. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 126, 3137-3159.
Jones, S. C., 2000b: The evolution of vortices in vertical shear. Part III: Baroclinic
vortices. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 126, 3161-3185.
Jones, S. C., 2004: On the ability of dry tropical-cyclone-like vortices to withstand

vertical shear. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 114-119.
Mallen, K. J., M. T. Montgomery, and B. Wang, 2005: Reexamining the near-core radial
structure of the tropical cyclone primary circulation: implications for vortex resiliency. J.
Atmos. Sci., 62, 408-425.
Montgomery, M. T., V. S. Nguyen, J. Persing, and R. K. Smith, 2009: Do tropical

cyclones intensify by WISHE? Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 135 (644), 1697-1714.
Reasor, P. D., M. T. Montgomery, and L. D. Grasso, 2004: A new look at the problem of
tropical cyclones in vertical shear flow: vortex resiliency. J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 3-22.
Riemer, M., and M. T. Montgomery, 2011: Simple kinematic models for the
environmental interaction of tropical cyclones in vertical wind shear. Atmos. Chem.
Phys., 11, 9395-9414.
Riemer, M., M. T. Montgomery, and M. E. Nicholls, 2010: A new paradigm for intensity
modification of tropical cyclones: thermodynamic impact of vertical wind shear on the
inflow layer. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3163-3188.
Tang, B., and K. Emanuel, 2010: Midlevel ventilation's constraint on tropical cyclone
intensity. J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 1817-1830.
Tropical Cyclone Structure

Introduction
To this point in the semester, we have only briefly touched upon the salient structural
features of a tropical cyclone. Now, however, it is worth describing these in greater detail.
Included in this are structural aspects of both the primary (horizontal) and secondary (vertical)
circulations and the axisymmetric and asymmetric structure of a tropical cyclone. We begin by
introducing the basic structure of a tropical cyclone, using that as a launching point for exploring
the tropical cyclone secondary circulation and asymmetric structure in greater detail.
Tropical Cyclone Structure: Overview
Tropical cyclones, as areas of low pressure, are characterized by cyclonic tangential and
inflowing radial winds. The cyclonic winds associated with a tropical cyclone can extend out to
over 1000 km from its center in the lower troposphere; this radial extent decays with increasing
height. Tropical cyclones are warm core features, meaning that their intensity (as measured by
the magnitude of the cyclonic tangential wind) decreases with increasing height. A tropical
cyclone is most intense just above the top of the boundary layer, where frictional dissipation is
minimized, and weakest in the upper troposphere, where the winds become anticyclonic and
evacuate mass outward. Radial inflow is typically maximized within the boundary layer with
weaker inflow observed into the middle troposphere. The radial inflow rapidly decelerates upon
reaching the eyewall of the tropical cyclone. The resultant convergence leads to ascending
motion over a deep vertical layer within the eyewall. Compensatory descent for such strong
ascent occurs in a concentrated manner within the eye and in a diffuse manner at radii larger than
the radius of maximum winds.
The warm core structure of a tropical cyclone can be viewed as the hydrostatic response
to a radially-constrained warm potential temperature anomaly near the center of the tropical
cyclone. This warm anomaly primarily results from latent heat energy extracted from the
underlying surface that is released in the upper troposphere by convective updrafts. A small but
non-negligible contribution to this warm anomaly is also observed from subsidence warming
within the eye.
In a planar view, a mature tropical cyclone is characterized by a nearly cloud-free region
near its center, termed the eye. The minimum sea level pressure of the cyclone is found at the
center of the eye. For weaker tropical cyclones without eye features, the minimum sea level
pressure is typically found at the location of the greatest vertically-integrated potential
temperature (i.e., where the warm anomaly associated with the tropical cyclone is strongest). The
primary eyewall is found at the outermost radius of the eye. Here, intense convection and
modestly strong updrafts (~5-10 m s-1) are often found. The eyewall is often the location of the
radius of maximum winds, or the radius at which the wind field associated with the tropical
cyclone is at its most intense. On average, the eyewall and radius of maximum winds are
Tropical Cyclone Structure, Page 1
typically found approximately 35 km from the center of the tropical cyclone; however, much
smaller and much larger radii have been observed.
The eyewall region of a tropical cyclone is characterized by a local maximum in
equivalent potential temperature. Isosurfaces of equivalent potential temperature are nearly
vertical within the eyewall, implying that equivalent potential temperature is nearly constant with
increasing height. Above the level of non-divergence, these surfaces flare radially outward. A
local minimum in equivalent potential temperature is found in the middle to upper troposphere
within the eye itself, reflecting drying associated with the aforementioned concentrated descent
into the eye.
The eyewall and radius of maximum winds within a mature tropical cyclone slope
outward with increasing height at an angle approaching 45. This implies that the outward
displacement of the eyewall in the upper troposphere is approximately equivalent to its height
above the sea surface. The physical reasoning behind this sloping structure lies with the
conservation of angular momentum and the warm core structure of the tropical cyclone. As air
parcels ascend within the eyewall, angular momentum is approximately conserved. Recall that
angular momentum is both a function of the radius from the center of rotation (r) as well as the
tangential wind speed (v), i.e.,
(1)
fr 2
m = rv +
2
Thus, since v decreases with increasing height with a warm-core cyclone, r must increase for m
to remain constant.
A moat region, or region of predominantly stratiform precipitation, is found radially
outward of the eyewall. Continuing radially outward from the moat region, mature tropical
cyclones often possess secondary eyewalls. Most generically, secondary eyewalls form in
response to the accumulation of heat energy, angular momentum, and vertical vorticity at some
critical radius. The precise dynamics behind secondary eyewall formation remain unclear,
however. Kossin and Sitkowski (2009) suggest that secondary eyewall formation is associated
with high values of maximum potential intensity, small values of vertical wind shear, weak upper
tropospheric zonal winds, a deep layer of underlying warm water, and high middle to upper
tropospheric relative humidity. In other words, the factors that promote tropical cyclone
intensification also tend to promote secondary eyewall formation.
The formation of a secondary eyewall temporarily halts the intensification of a tropical
cyclone. The formation of a secondary eyewall effectively cuts off radial inflow into the inner
eyewall. As the secondary eyewall matures and begins to contract, or move inward toward the
center of the cyclone, compensating descent acts to erode the inner eyewall and clear out the
moat region. After approximately 1-2 days, the inner eyewall has completely dissipated, leaving
the tropical cyclone in a modestly weaker state. The larger eye and broadening of the tropical
cyclone's wind field that result from this process, however, result in a stronger storm (as assessed
by area-integrated kinetic energy). Re-intensification of the tropical cyclone is possible after the
culmination of an eyewall replacement cycle assuming an otherwise favorable environment and
the delayed formation of a new secondary eyewall.
Beyond the secondary eyewall are found the rain bands of the tropical cyclone. Such rain
bands can be characterized as primary, secondary, or distant. Distant rain bands are composed of
deep, moist convection along confluence lines in the outer regions (e.g., radii > 200 km) of the
tropical cyclone. Distant rain bands occur primarily where the environmental convective
available potential energy (CAPE) is largest. Significant vertical motions (on the order of tens of
meters per second in both upward and downward directions) and lightning activity are often
found along distant rain bands, implying a predominantly convective nature to these features.
Tornadic activity is possible along distant rain bands, particularly with those found in the rightfront quadrant of the tropical cyclone.
Secondary rain bands are typically found somewhat radially inward of a principal rain
band. Often, the two intersect one another. Secondary rain bands are believed to be
manifestations of vortex Rossby waves. They propagate cyclonically and outward at a rate of
speed much less than the mean tangential flow of the tropical cyclone. Wave energy associated
with a vortex Rossby wave accumulates at what is called a stagnation radius, whereby the strong
tangential flow of the tropical cyclone shears and mixes the energy about the tropical cyclone.
This shearing and mixing process is often referred to as the axisymmetrization process.
The principal rain band of a tropical cyclone lies predominantly within its inner core
region (e.g., radii < 200 km). Principal rain bands tend to remain stationary in a storm-relative
reference frame (i.e., they don't rotate around the cyclone to a significant extent). The precise
dynamics behind their formation are unfortunately unclear, however. A principal rain band is
characterized by new convective on its upwind flank, mature convection in its core, and more
stratiform-like precipitation on its downwind flank. Principal rain bands are typically found
radially inward of a localized middle tropospheric jet, termed a secondary horizontal wind
maximum. Convective activity within principal rain bands slopes radially outward, as seen with
eyewall convection, but is generally constrained to within the lowest 8-10 km of the atmosphere.
Individual convective elements within principal rain bands are associated with both
updraft and downdraft structures. Downdrafts are typically found radially inward of updrafts and
result in a sharp horizontal edge to the region of precipitation associated with the rain band. Low
entropy (or low equivalent potential temperature) air associated with such downdrafts can
subsequently interact with the eyewall convection and act to reduce its vigor, as described in our
earlier lecture on tropical cyclone intensity change. Updrafts act to transport high entropy (or
high equivalent potential temperature) air upward within the rain band. Dynamically, updrafts act
to tilt and subsequently vertically stretch horizontal vorticity found beneath the secondary
horizontal wind maximum. Vertical advection of the newly-generated vertical vorticity acts to
accumulate vertical vorticity within the middle troposphere, subsequently intensifying the
secondary horizontal wind maximum.
In the remainder of this lecture, we endeavor to describe the secondary circulation of a
tropical cyclone via the use of the Sawyer-Eliassen non-linear balance framework. We do so in
order to better describe the evolution of a tropical cyclone in response to localized heat and
momentum forcing.
Secondary Circulation: Sawyer-Eliassen Framework
As we have inferred numerous times previously throughout this class, the secondary
circulation of a tropical cyclone is characterized by radial inflow at low levels, ascent near its
center, and radial outflow near the tropopause. Colloquially, this is sometimes referred to as the
in-up-out or axisymmetric circulation of the cyclone. This circulation is thermally direct in
nature; i.e., as a tropical cyclone is associated with localized warmth at its core, the ascent occurs
where it is warm. Compensating descent occurs at larger radii where it is relatively cooler. The
exception to this, as discussed above, is within the eye, where locally warm air descends.
The Sawyer-Eliassen non-linear balance framework enables us to analytically describe
the structure of this circulation as a function of the structure of the tropical cyclone and its
environment. Furthermore, it also enables us to describe how this circulation evolves to the
imposition of external heat (e.g., latent heat release) or momentum (e.g., trough interaction)
forcing. In the following, we derive this equation from first principles of the atmosphere in a
radial coordinate system.
Herein, the heat forcing is given by a prescribed heating Q. The momentum forcing is
given by a prescribed momentum source (or sink) F. Both Q and F can take any desired form;
however, in most analytical studies of the tropical cyclone secondary circulation, they take forms
akin to such features within observed tropical cyclones. We will consider several structures for
both Q and F when considering solutions to the Sawyer-Eliassen diagnostic equation.
Next, we introduce the governing equations. These are the governing equations
represented in a two-dimensional (z,r) cylindrical coordinate system. In this regard, we are
viewing the secondary circulation as an axisymmetric feature. The governing equations are as
follows:
(2)
(3)
m2 = r 3
dm 2
=F
dt
(4)
g
=
dz 0
(5)
1
w
(ru ) +
=0
z
r r
(6)
d
=Q
dt
(7)
= +
(8)

z = 1
0
(9)
f 2r 2
8
c p 0
1 m 2 g
=
r
r 3 z
Equation (2) reflects gradient wind balance. Recalling that angular momentum is a
function of the tangential wind v, equation (3) is thus a generic form of the tangential momentum
equation. Equation (4) is the hydrostatic equation. Equation (5) is the flux form of the continuity
equation. Recall that u denotes radial and not zonal wind. Equation (6) is the thermodynamic
equation representing prescribed heating. Equation (7) is the definition of the geopotential.
Equation (8) defines the pseudoheight vertical coordinate, used to simplify the mathematics of
the system and interpretation thereof. The exponent K is equal to Rd/cp. Finally, Equation (9) is
the thermal wind relationship, relating the vertical wind shear to horizontal temperature
gradients. In (2)-(9), except as described above, all variables have their standard meteorological
meaning. Subscripts of 0 denote base-state values.
First, expand the total derivatives in (3) and (6) to obtain:
(10)
m 2
m 2
m 2
+u
+w
=F
t
r
z
(11)
+w
=Q
+u
r
z
t
Next, take the partial derivative of (10) with respect to z and multiply the result by 1/r3:
(12)
1 m 2 1 F
1 m 2 1 m 2
3
+ u 3
=
+w 3
t r z z r r
r z r 3 z
Similarly, take the partial derivative of (11) with respect to r and multiply the result by
g/0:
(13)
g g
g g Q
+ u
=
+w
t 0 r r 0 r
0 z 0 r
Note that in obtaining (12) and (13), the partial derivatives with respect to time have been
commuted with the partial derivatives with respect to z and r, respectively.
Before proceeding, it is useful to define several additional terms so as to enable the
simplification of (12) and (13). These are as follows:
N2 =
(14)
B=
(15)
I=
(16)
g
0 z
g
1 m 2
= 3
0 r
r z
1 m 2
1 (rv )
2v
= f +
f +
3
r r
r
r r
Equation (14) defines static stability. Equation (15) defines baroclinicity. Equation (16) defines
the inertial stability. Applying these definitions to (12) and (13) results in the following:
(17)
( B ) + (Iu Bw) = 13 F
z
t
r z
(18)
( B ) + Bu + N 2 w = g Q
0 r
t
r
Next, subtract (17) from (18) to obtain:

(19)
g Q 1 F
N 2 w Bu + (Bw Iu ) =
0 r r 3 z
r
z
Equation (19) describes the response in the zonal and vertical motion fields to imposed
heat and/or momentum forcing. However, as there are two unlinked unknowns given by u and w,
this equation is difficult to solve. To link these two variables and thus make solving the
diagnostic equation simpler, the definition of the streamfunction is used. The definition of the
streamfunction in this z-r coordinate system is given by:
(20)
u=
1 (r )
,w =
r r
z
Substituting (20) into (19) results in the following:

(21)
2 1 (r )
+B
N
r
z
r r
1 (r )
+I
+ B
z
z r r
g Q 1 F
3
=
0 r r z
Equation (21) is the Sawyer-Eliassen non-linear secondary circulation diagnostic

equation. It highlights the relationship between the specified heating Q and the streamfunction
as modulated by coefficients representing static stability, inertial stability, and baroclinicity. The
streamfunction attempts to restore the thermal wind balance that the specified heating and/or
momentum forcing destroys. While thermal wind balance restoration is never truly achieved, the
concepts of balance destruction and restoration nevertheless enable us to consider how radial and
vertical motions (i.e., the strength of the secondary circulation) are impacted by prescribed
heating and/or momentum forcing.
Solutions to the Sawyer-Eliassen diagnostic model are contained within the lecture
materials. Herein, we focus upon describing these solutions and other salient characteristics
related to the tropical cyclone secondary circulation. Both heat and cyclonic momentum sources
drive localized vertical circulations. These vertical circulations can be characterized by the
streamfunction, itself representative of the vertical and radial structures of vertical and radial
motion.
A localized heat source forces ascent through the region of heating. This promotes
convergence beneath and divergence above the heat source. Compensating descent occurs at
larger radii. A localized cyclonic momentum source forces enhanced radial outflow through the
region of cyclonic momentum. The totality of the resultant streamfunction response takes on a
dipole structure in the vertical. Beneath the momentum source, ascent (descent) is promoted
radially inward (outward) of the momentum source. The opposite is true above the momentum
source: ascent (descent) is promoted radially outward (inward) of the momentum source.
Enhanced radial inflow is promoted both above and below the cyclonic momentum source.
For both localized heat and cyclonic momentum sources, such motions are constrained in
the vertical for weak inertial stability (small I) and constrained in the horizontal for strong
inertial stability (large I). For a barotropic vortex (zero B), the forced vertical and radial motions
are predominantly upright; for a baroclinic vortex (non-zero B), they are tilted somewhat in the
vertical. The vertical extent of a given streamfunction response is restricted for large static
stability (large N2). For small static stability (small N2), however, the vertical extent of a given
streamfunction response is much less restricted.
Physically, localized heat and cyclonic momentum sources destroy stability, as assessed
via thermal wind balance. In order for thermal wind balance to be restored, the effects of the heat
or cyclonic momentum source must be mitigated, through a balanced response in the cyclone's
secondary circulation. For the heat source, this occurs via adiabatic cooling associated with the
forced ascent. For the cyclonic momentum source, the radial outflow through the cyclonic
momentum source acts to erode it and expel it from the tropical cyclone.
To first order, localized heat and cyclonic momentum sources within the upper
troposphere act to enhance the secondary circulation of a tropical cyclone, particularly when
each are located within the middle to upper troposphere. Strengthening the secondary circulation
of a tropical cyclone enhances the rate of heat energy accumulation within the upper troposphere.
Hydrostatically, this leads to the intensification of the primary circulation of the tropical cyclone
via reduced surface pressure and, with gradient balance adjustment, enhanced surface winds.
More specifically, a localized heat source leads to enhanced cyclonic tangential flow near and
just inside of the radius of maximum heating. Weakened cyclonic tangential flow is found closer
to the center of the tropical cyclone. A localized cyclonic momentum source results in enhanced
cyclonic tangential flow radially inward of the radius at which the cyclonic momentum source is
found.
The aforementioned impacts upon the intensity of the tropical cyclone are greatest for
relatively small, relative intense tropical cyclones. Weaker and/or larger tropical cyclones exhibit
a positive yet somewhat weaker response to such forcing. Localized heating located at or inside
of the radius of maximum winds (RMW) is most efficient at intensifying the tropical cyclone;
expanding the horizontal extent of the heat source and/or moving it radially outward of the
RMW is less efficient at doing so. Similarly, localized cyclonic momentum forcing located at or
inside of the RMW is most efficient at intensifying the tropical cyclone; expanding its horizontal
extent and/or moving it radially outward of the RMW is less efficient at doing so.
With respect to the impact of cyclonic momentum forcing upon the intensity of a tropical
cyclone, it is important to keep in mind that such forcing is often associated with an upper
tropospheric trough, itself often accompanied by vertical wind shear and dry middle and upper
tropospheric air. Previously, we discussed the impacts upon the intensity of the tropical cyclone
secondary circulation (as manifest via the Carnot heat engine approximation for a tropical
cyclone) of dry air import and vertical wind shear (e.g., ventilation). Therefore, a tropical
cyclone will only intensify if the positive impact of the cyclonic momentum source exceeds the
magnitude of the negative impact of dry air import and vertical wind shear. This is best
highlighted by the Hanley et al. (2001) work that we discussed in the Tropical Cyclone Intensity
Change lectures.
The radial structure of the primary circulation response to heat forcing provides a nice
context from which the contraction of the RMW often observed with mature tropical cyclones
can be explained. As the maximum acceleration in the tangential flow of the tropical cyclone is
found radially inward of the RMW, the RMW will tend to move inward until equilibrium
between the RMW and the radial location of the maximum response to the heat source is
achieved. As the above implies, this context also makes clearer the process by which the primary
(or interior) eyewall is eroded by heat forcing found in association with a maturing secondary
eyewall at larger radii.
References
Houze, Jr., R. A., 2010: Clouds in tropical cyclones. Mon. Wea. Rev., 138, 293-344.
Kossin, J. P., and M. Sitkowski, 2009: An objective model for identifying secondary
eyewall formation in hurricanes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 876-892.
Pendergrass, A. G., and H. E. Willoughby, 2009: Diabatically induced secondary flows in

tropical cyclones. Part I: quasi-steady forcing. Mon. Wea. Rev., 137, 805821.
Shapiro, L. J., and H. E. Willoughby, 1982: The response of balanced hurricanes to local
sources of heat and momentum. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 378-394.
Sitkowski, M., J. P. Kossin, and C. M. Rozoff, 2011: Intensity and structure changes
during hurricane eyewall replacement cycles. Mon. Wea. Rev., 139, 3829-3847.
Vigh, J. L., and W. H. Schubert, 2009: Rapid development of the tropical cyclone warm
core. J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 33353350.
Willoughby, H. E., 1995: Mature structure and evolution. Global Perspectives on

Tropical Cyclones, R. L. Elsberry (ed.). World Meteorological Organization, Geneva,
Switzerland, Report No. TCP-38. [Available online at http://www.meteo.physik.unimuenchen.de/~roger/Tropical_Cyclones/global_perspectives_ch2.pdf].
Tropical Cyclone Motion

Introduction
To this point in our survey of tropical cyclones, we have discussed their climatology,
their structure, how they form, and how they intensify and weaken. Chief among the topics that
we have yet to discuss is that of how they move. To first order, tropical cyclone motion is largely
modulated by the large-scale flow. In the following, we aim to describe this influence both
conceptually and mathematically. Additional contributions to tropical cyclone motion arise from
meso- to synoptic-scale asymmetries driven by a multitude of factors. This lecture closes by
describing such asymmetries as well as discussing how and why they impact tropical cyclone
motion.
Climatological Perspective on Tropical Cyclone Motion
To first order, tropical cyclones follow tracks around the periphery of subtropical
anticyclones. In this sense, tropical cyclones originate in the tropics and either 1) track westward
to landfall and ultimate dissipation or 2) turn poleward and eastward (in other words, recurve)
into the middle latitudes, ultimately dissipating or undergoing extratropical transition over land
or water. The global mean latitude of recurvature, defined as the latitude at which the tropical
cyclone no longer has a westward component of motion, is approximately 25 N/S. The
meridional component of motion of tropical cyclones is typically poleward from genesis and
increases in magnitude as tropical cyclones enter the midlatitudes. Average translation speeds are
quite low in the tropics (~10 kt) but increase rapidly with increasing distance from the equator;
note, however, that there is greater variability in translation speed for eastward-moving tropical
cyclones as compared to westward-moving tropical cyclones. Given that forecast errors are
proportional to translation speed, this implies that larger forecast errors may be expected for
tropical cyclones recurving into the midlatitudes.
There exists significant intraseasonal and interseasonal variability that influences tropical
cyclone tracks across the globe. On time scales of 1-3 weeks, the evolution of the Rossby wave
train across the midlatitudes exerts a significant influence on tropical cyclone motion. When
synoptic-scale ridging is promoted across the subtropics, tropical cyclones tend to move more
westerly; when a synoptic-scale trough is promoted across some portion of the subtropical
oceans, tropical cyclones tend to recurve into the midlatitudes. On seasonal time scales,
recurving tropical cyclones occur more frequently early and late in a given season owing to the
seasonality of the midlatitude storm track (i.e., as manifest by equatorward intrusions of
midlatitude troughs). In the Indian Ocean, the evolution of the monsoon has been shown to
impact both tropical cyclone activity as well as tropical cyclone motion. On annual and longer
time scales, modes of variability such as ENSO favor preferred longwave patterns across the
tropics, subtropics, and midlatitudes that can exert a significant influence on mean tropical
cyclone activity and motion within a given season.
Tropical Cyclone Motion, Page 1
Large-Scale Influences on Tropical Cyclone Motion

Let us conceptualize a tropical cyclone as a solid body, here given by a rotating cylinder.
The approximate horizontal and vertical scales of the cylinder are approximately 500-1000 km
and 10-15 km, respectively. A tropical cyclone is embedded within an atmospheric flow of much
larger horizontal scale (O(1000-10000 km)). As a result, a tropical cyclone may be viewed as an
object that moves largely with the surrounding flow. Such a surrounding flow, often represented
by the air flow found 5-7 latitude/longitude away from the center of the tropical cyclone, is
referred to as the steering flow. As our focus is on the large-scale flow, the appropriate steering
flow here is that with the flow associated with the tropical cyclone itself partitioned out of the
total flow.
Dynamically, this can be viewed in terms of the absolute vorticity tendency equation. The
local time rate of change of absolute vorticity is a function of horizontal advection, vertical
advection, stretching (e.g., divergence multiplied by the absolute vorticity), tilting, and frictional
processes. In a cylindrical framework, this can be expressed by:
(1)
u v
+F
= v ( + f ) ( + f )( v )
+
t
p p r p r
where derivatives taken with respect to (r) are taken in the azimuthal (radial) direction.
Velocity vectors are two-dimensional, as defined by (u,v) = (radial flow, tangential flow). Other
variables have their standard meteorological meaning. Terms on the right-hand side of (1) are
horizontal advection, stretching, vertical advection, tilting, and friction, respectively. Chan
(1984) demonstrated that the local absolute vorticity tendency is dominated by the horizontal
advection of absolute vorticity. If the tropical cyclone moves toward the area of maximum
increase in absolute vorticity, it is then displaced toward this maximum (or, in other words, is
steered forward).
As the large-scale flow in the real atmosphere is not vertically uniform, defining the
large-scale flow that actually steers the tropical cyclone can be challenging. To overcome this
problem, a vertically-integrated flow is often considered. In this framework, the horizontallyaveraged large-scale flow between two vertical levels is integrated to obtain an estimate of the
large-scale steering flow. The precise bounds, particularly the upper bound, on this integral are a
function of the intensity of the tropical cyclone. To first order, with increasing intensity, the
vertical depth of the steering flow increases. This follows from the depth of tropical cyclone's
cyclonic circulation and its associated deep, moist convection, with deeper tropical cyclones
tending to be more intense than their shallower counterparts. Thus, the vertical structure of the
horizontal winds and its variability across the tropics, subtropics, and midlatitudes exert a
significant influence upon tropical cyclone motion.
As noted above, approximately 50-80% of the variance in tropical cyclone motion can be
explained by this relatively simple concept of a steering flow. A number of other physical
processes act to result in deviant motion from that expected exclusively from the large-scale
steering flow. These are discussed next.
Other Influences on Tropical Cyclone Motion
Beta Effect
The concept of the effect stems from the meridional variation in the Coriolis parameter
f. More specifically, the effect is said to describe the deviant motion of a tropical cyclone from
that expected from the steering flow alone. This effect, sometimes referred to as the drift,
superposes a weak northwestward (southwestward) steering current upon the tropical cyclone in
the northern (southern) hemisphere.
The effect can be viewed in the context of the barotropic vorticity equation, i.e.
(2)
= v ( + f )
t
Or, equivalently, in a linearized form,

(3)
= v v
t
In (3), the first term on the right-hand side is an advection term. The second term on the
right-hand side of (3) depicts the linear interaction of the meridional variation in Coriolis (i.e.,
f
=
) and the meridional wind.
y
We first desire to consider a symmetric vortex on a plane (i.e., = constant) with no
mean environmental flow. At the initial time, the streamfunction (defined by the two horizontal
wind components u and v) and the relative vorticity will initially be concentric. As a result, there
is no horizontal advection of the relative vorticity and, thus, the second term on the right-hand
side of (3) is the only term impacting the local time rate of change of relative vorticity.
Note that is positive-definite for the northern hemisphere while v is positive (negative)
for northward (southward) motion. For a tropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere, this term
will result in a positive (negative) time rate of change of relative vorticity to the west (east) of a
tropical cyclone. Physically, this can be viewed from the perspective of the conservation of
absolute vorticity: southward (northward) motion is associated with decreasing (increasing)
Coriolis parameter and, thus, planetary vorticity. For absolute vorticity to be conserved, the
relative vorticity must increase (decrease) to the west (east). Assuming that a tropical cyclone
moves toward regions of increasing relative vorticity and away from regions of decreasing
relative vorticity, this gives a westward translation of a tropical cyclone.
This effect is strongest not in the inner core of the tropical cyclone, however, but outside
of the radius of maximum winds, where environmental (large-scale) influences may exert a
greater relative influence upon the structure of an intense feature such as a tropical cyclone. This
results in the westward expansion and eastward contraction of the circulation envelope of the
tropical cyclone. Subsequently, this leads to the westward displacement of the location of
maximum streamfunction from the location of maximum relative vorticity. To this point,
however, this only provides another perspective on the westward movement of the tropical
cyclone in response to a meridionally-varying Coriolis parameter. How do we get from here to
the observed northwestward drift?
With non-overlapping streamfunction and relative vorticity maxima, the advection term
in (3) can no longer be neglected. The flow associated with the streamfunction (recall its
definition above) is now able to advect relative vorticity. With southerly flow atop the maximum
in relative vorticity, cyclonic relative vorticity is advected poleward. This results in cyclonic
(anticyclonic) relative vorticity tendencies to the north (south) of the tropical cyclone. Assuming
again that a tropical cyclone moves toward the location of the maximum cyclonic relative
vorticity tendency, the advective effect leads to the northward displacement of the vortex. In all,
the northwestward motion of the vortex is driven by the superposition of the westward
displacement resulting from the meridional variation in the Coriolis parameter and the northward
displacement that arises when horizontal advection associated with the westward-distorted
streamfunction is able to act upon the eastward-lagging cyclonic relative vorticity maximum.
Alternatively, the effect can be viewed as a combination of asymmetric and symmetric
processes. At the initial time, the streamfunction is entirely symmetric. The symmetric
streamfunction acts upon the asymmetric vorticity, given entirely at the outset of the analysis by
the meridional variability in the Coriolis parameter, to distort the vortex. This distortion
subsequently manifests itself via asymmetries in the streamfunction, which then act upon the
symmetric vorticity, or that associated with the tropical cyclone. The combination of the two
processes is identical to that described above and presents an alternate perspective on the driftinduced northwestward motion of a tropical cyclone in the northern hemisphere. Similar
arguments can be made for the southern hemisphere, noting that the only fundamental difference
from the northern hemisphere is the direction of the gradient of planetary vorticity.
Under the effect, enhanced cyclonic relative vorticity and tangential winds are found to
the northeast of the center. Conversely, weakened cyclonic relative vorticity and tangential winds
are found to the southwest of the center. These are often referred to as gyres. Further, as one
might expect from the above, there exists some sensitivity in the precise magnitude of the
effect to the structure of the outer core of the vortex. In general, however, it imparts a 1-2 m s-1
steering current upon the tropical cyclone and accounts for approximately 10% of the variability
in tropical cyclone motion. It should be noted that while observational evidence for the effect
exists, the signal is difficult to extract from the data given the dominance in the flow by that of
the tropical cyclone itself.
Non-Uniform Horizontal Flow
In the above discussion on the effect, we have considered the case where there is no
environmental flow. Now, we wish to consider the impact of non-uniform, non-zero horizontal
flow upon tropical cyclone motion. In general, non-uniform horizontal flow acts to horizontally
distort the vortex via horizontal advection and deformation processes. This results in cyclonic
(anticyclonic) relative vorticity tendencies downstream (upstream) of the vortex for a given
horizontal flow. The anomalous cyclonic (anticyclonic) flow induced downstream (upstream)
acts to impart a weak localized steering current upon a tropical cyclone. The precise impact of
this current depends significantly upon the structure of the horizontal flow, however.
To illustrate this, let us consider two conceptual examples. In the first example, there is
easterly flow to the north of the vortex, westerly flow to the south of the vortex, with each
maximized at large radii from the center of the tropical cyclone. The magnitude of the flow
changes in a linear fashion between the northern and southern extent of the vortex such that there
is no horizontal flow through the center of the tropical cyclone. In this case, the northern
semicircle of the vortex will be distorted westward whereas the southern semicircle of the vortex
will be distorted eastward; in both cases, this is downstream. Anomalous cyclonic (anticyclonic)
relative vorticity will be found northwest and southeast (northeast and southwest) of the center of
the tropical cyclone. This results in a weak large-scale meridional deformation flow at large radii
but no induced motion across the center of the tropical cyclone. By itself, linear horizontal shear
cannot impact the motion of the tropical cyclone.
In the second example, there is westerly flow to the north of the vortex that decays to
zero south of the vortex. In this case, there is modest westerly flow through the center of the
tropical cyclone. The northern semicircle of the vortex is again distorted downstream (here,
eastward); however, there is little to no distortion of the southern semicircle of the vortex.
Cyclonic (anticyclonic) relative vorticity tendencies and, thus, anomalies are promoted
northeast (northwest) of the cyclone. The result is a southward-directed steering current that
encompasses the center of the tropical cyclone. Note that more complex horizontally-sheared
flows do exist and can influence tropical cyclone motion; their precise impact is left as a thought
experiment for the interested reader.
To this point, for simplicity, we have considered the effects of non-uniform horizontal
flow in isolation from the effect. In the real atmosphere, however, the horizontal shear-induced
pattern(s) of relative vorticity tendency superpose upon those associated with the effect.
Depending on the structure of the horizontal shear, this can strengthen or weaken the flow
associated with the effect (described above), thereby modifying its impacts upon tropical
cyclone motion.
Non-Uniform Vertical Tropical Cyclone Structure
To this point, we have considered cases where the tropical cyclone has uniform vertical
structure. Now, we wish to consider how the effect is different when the tropical cyclone
structure is baroclinic in nature, i.e., where it decays with increasing height. Recall that a key
component to the effect is the horizontal advection of the relative vorticity associated with the
tropical cyclone. For a barotropic structure, the magnitude of this effect is equivalent at all
altitudes. For a baroclinic structure akin to that of a tropical cyclone, however, the magnitude of
this effect is much greater in the lower troposphere (where the vortex is strongest) than it is in the
upper troposphere (where the vortex is weakest).
This results in vertical variability in the intensity of the effect and resultant gyres.
Subsequently, the lower tropospheric portion of the vortex is advected to the northwest more
rapidly than it is in the upper troposphere, resulting in a faster-than-before northwestward motion
of the tropical cyclone. It also results in a tilted structure to the tropical cyclone. Recall that the
quasigeostrophic omega equation enables us to diagnose vertical motion as a function of the
differential advection of cyclonic relative vorticity. In this scenario, forcing for descent (ascent)
is promoted to the northwest (southeast). The resulting secondary circulation, including flow
from the northwest to the southeast in the lower troposphere and flow from the southeast to the
northwest in the upper troposphere, works to counteract the vertical tilt and tropical cyclone
motion impacts that arise from allowing the intensity of the tropical cyclone to vary in the
vertical.
Non-Uniform Vertical Flow
Consider again a tropical cyclone with a warm-core structure, with maximum cyclonic
relative vorticity in the boundary layer that decreases with increasing height until anticyclonic
flow is found near the tropopause. For simplicity, let us consider the case of superposing a purely
westerly vertical wind shear atop this tropical cyclone. This has the effect of displacing the upper
tropospheric anticyclone to the east of the lower tropospheric cyclone. Utilizing again our
potential vorticity-based action at a distance or vertical penetration ideas, we know that the
anticyclone will induce anticyclonic flow at lower altitudes and that the cyclone will induce
cyclonic flow at higher altitudes from the level at which the intensity of each is maximized. The
combined effect of these induced flows leads to the northward displacement of the entire
vertically-sheared tropical cyclone. Similar arguments can be made for more complex shears;
again, these are left as a thought experiment for the interested reader.
Special Cases: Fujiwhara Interaction
Fujiwhara interaction describes the mutual rotation of two vortices, whether tropical
cyclone or otherwise, about a common center. This center typically refers to the massweighted centroid of the two vortices; if they are of equal strength, this center is precisely the
middle point between the centers of the two vortices. Let us consider the case of two vortices of
equal intensity. The flow around each acts as the steering flow upon the other. In the absence of
the effect, the two vortices rotate around each other relative to the fixed center of rotation. In
the presence of the effect, the two vortices still rotate around each other relative to the center of
rotation; however, this center of rotation is no longer fixed and, instead, moves northwestward in
response to the effect. If the two vortices are not of equal strength, the center of rotation is
closer to the stronger vortex such that the weaker vortex gradually becomes enveloped by its
stronger counterpart.
References
Chan, J. C.-L., 1984: An observational study of the physical processes responsible for
tropical cyclone motion. J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 1036-1048.
Chan, J. C.-L., 2005: The physics of tropical cyclone motion. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 37,
99-128.
Elsberry, R. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone motion. Global Perspectives on Tropical

Report
No.
TCP-38.
[Available
online
at
http://derecho.math.uwm.edu/classes/TropMet/GPTC/tcmotion.pdf].

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Tropical Cyclone Climatology

A hurricane is a tropical cyclone with maximum sustained surface winds in excess of 33

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

Maximum Sustained Wind Speeds

Conditional instability through a deep tropospheric layer, so as to promote the

The presence of a pre-existing, convectively-active disturbance, such as an African

The accumulation (increase, spin-up, etc.) of lower tropospheric cyclonic relative

The presence of synoptic-scale upper tropospheric divergence, so as to promote lower

Elsberry, R. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone motion. Global Perspectives on Tropical

McBride, J. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone formation. Global Perspectives on Tropical

McTaggart-Cowan, R., G. D. Deane, L. F. Bosart, C. A. Davis, and T. J. Galarneau, Jr.,

Tropical Cyclone Formation

Tropical Cyclone Formation, Page 5

Tropical Cyclone Formation, Page 7

Dunkerton, T. J., M. T. Montgomery, and Z. Wang, 2009: Tropical cyclogenesis in a

McBride, J. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone formation. Global Perspectives on Tropical

Montgomery, M. T., M. E. Nicholls, T. A. Cram, and A. B. Saunders, 2006: A vortical

Tropical Cyclone Formation, Page 8

Tropical Cyclone Intensity Change

The maximum sustained wind speed is a function of:

Tropical Cyclone Intensity Change, Page 3

The Importance of WISHE at Higher Wind Speeds

Tropical Cyclone Intensity Change, Page 7

To summarize, we present a hypothetical thought experiment. By itself, the imposition

Tropical Cyclone Intensity Change, Page 8

Jones, S. C., 2004: On the ability of dry tropical-cyclone-like vortices to withstand

Montgomery, M. T., V. S. Nguyen, J. Persing, and R. K. Smith, 2009: Do tropical

Tropical Cyclone Intensity Change, Page 11

Tropical Cyclone Structure

Tropical Cyclone Structure, Page 4

Tropical Cyclone Structure, Page 5

Next, subtract (17) from (18) to obtain:

Tropical Cyclone Structure, Page 6

Substituting (20) into (19) results in the following:

Equation (21) is the Sawyer-Eliassen non-linear secondary circulation diagnostic

Tropical Cyclone Structure, Page 7

Pendergrass, A. G., and H. E. Willoughby, 2009: Diabatically induced secondary flows in

Willoughby, H. E., 1995: Mature structure and evolution. Global Perspectives on

Tropical Cyclone Structure, Page 9

Tropical Cyclone Motion

Large-Scale Influences on Tropical Cyclone Motion

Tropical Cyclone Motion, Page 2

Or, equivalently, in a linearized form,

Tropical Cyclone Motion, Page 5

Tropical Cyclone Motion, Page 6

Elsberry, R. L., 1995: Tropical cyclone motion. Global Perspectives on Tropical

Tropical Cyclone Motion, Page 7

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