KSB Know-how

Submersible Mixers:
Planning Information

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Table of Contents

Page

Preface 2
1.
Definitions 3
2. Introduction to mixing technology
5
3.
Rheology 9

4.
Fields of application 14
5.
Mixer Sizing 16
6.
Flow build-up 19
7.
Theoretical circulation time 22
8. Flow velocities and flow distribution
23
9. Submersible mixer with bottom diffusers
27
10. Transportation of solids in activated sludge
31
11. Flow guidance and mixer positioning
35
12. Typical mixer sizing information and RFQ data sheet
44
13.
References 46

Preface
This know-how brochure gives an overview of how KSB submersible mixers of the small blade (Amamix) and
large blade (Amaprop) variety have been utilized in the past and which applications are possible.
The possibilities of application for submersible mixers are too complex to be fully treated by this document;
therefore, it does not aim for completeness.
For the planning and selection of submersible mixers it is important to consider the criteria identified within
this document. Ignoring these criteria may result in failures of the mixers, installation accessories and
ultimately the overall process.
Should you have any further questions regarding applications that have not been dealt with here, feel free to
contact KSB, Inc. for support ([email protected], 804-222-1818).
Jared S. Wray, P.E.
KSB, Inc. Water & Wastewater Division
Product Manager
Submerged Propeller Devices

Definitions

The terms used in conjunction with mixing and flow technology are defined as follows:
Aeration
Gas (typically air) is introduced to the fluid in order to trigger oxygen
transfer and/or mixing.
For example: Surface aerators, bottom diffusers and nozzles / ejectors are
used for the generation of bubbles and oxygen transfer.
Thickening
Process of moisture removal to concentrate a substance or fluid.
For example: condensed milk, the mixing in of fillers, or the raising of
viscosity, e.g. through polymerization.
Emulsification
This refers to the mixing of two or more liquids, which are immiscible
(un-blendable). Mixtures which after the mixing process do not separate
are termed stable emulsions.
For example: diluted soluble oil, long-life milk
Homogenization
The process of evenly distributing concentrations or differences in
temperature within one or more combined soluble fluids. The mixer has
the task of shortening the time taken to achieve even distribution and
maintaining or establishing a homogeneous state.
For example: Neutralization, pH level adjustment, prevention of layer
formation.
Flow generation
The generation of fluid flows required in process technology.
For example: Horizontal flows in the elimination of phosphate and
nitrogen in sewage treatment.

Definitions

Rheology

The study of the deformation and flow of matter.

For example: Wastewater sludge as found in anaerobic digester has special
non-Newtonian properties that must be studied.

Suspension
Mixing with the aim of generating a uniform concentration of solids
throughout the fluid. The breaking apart and prevention of sedimentation
and floating layers.
For example: Lime milk, sewage sludge, liquid manure. About 95% of fluids
which are agitated by mixing machinery are suspensions.
Improvement of heat
transfer

Through mixer-generated flows heat transfer between warm and cool

surfaces is facilitated and a permanent, uniform temperature can be
established.
For example: all endo- and exothermal mixing processes.

Thinning
Agitation to change concentration/viscosity.
For example: Stirring of paints prior to application.
Activated Sludge
Wastewater with biological floc responsible for treatment, which are kept in
suspension and aerated. For the purposes of this document it shall have a
sludge volume index (SVI) value of 100 ml/g and 80% of the total solids
(TS) shall be volatile solids. Sludge with varying properties will not be
completely mixed due to abundance of inorganics.
For example: Wastewater found within typical oxidation ditch or
sequencing batch reactor (SBR).

Introduction to Mixing Technology

As a leading manufacturer of submersible

greater volume of material needs to be mixed, then

mixers, KSB delivers complete solutions

appropriate mixing machinery should be utilized. The

for mixing applications. Not only have

appropriate machine can vary from a blender used to make a

the submersible mixers themselves been

milk shake to large concrete mixer trucks used to supply a job

developed, but equally the application and

site. This document focuses on submersible mixer technology

system technology as well as the know-

and the applications for which it is appropriate.

how for selecting the mixing equipment.

This know-how is based on mixing
history, extensive research, experience
gained from thousands of field
installations, and a thorough knowledge
of current mixing technology.
In general process engineering mixing
refers to a process achieved through the
use of agitating or mixing machinery
Mixing Basics
Movement within fluids (defined here as
flowing media), is initiated by flow
generation machinery. The flows include

Fig. #1 - Typical WWTP Process Tank (Henderson, NV)

both directed and undirected laminar/

turbulent motion which is utilized to

For the optimization of a mixing process, the complete picture

tackle specific tasks in associated

including all of the parameters affecting the process must be

processes.

known. For example, note the above photograph (fig. #1) which
depicts a typical activated sludge tank in operation. By just

In order to be able to realize the

looking at the surface it is unclear if this is an anoxic, anaerobic,

importance of mixing, one must first be

or possibly even a SBR tank; furthermore there could be

aware that there are very few products

significant flow obstructions sitting just below the water surface.

that do not require mixing during

Therefore it is easy to see that when only surface level

production or subsequent refinement. The

information is provided, the process success is always at risk.

simplest form of mixing can be something

However with the complete picture, economically advantageous

as rudimentary as stirring with a stick or

solutions ensuring good process results can be achieved.

using a cooking spoon for preparation of

food in the kitchen. It shall be noted that
for given applications this is still state-ofthe-art technology. However, if a

Introduction to Mixing Technology

The following sketched action plan has proved itself reliable in the development of new mixing processes.

Introduction to Mixing Technology

Mixer Selection Basics:

For effective analysis and answers to
questions it is necessary to work with a
qualified mixer manufacturer. The use of
all resources achieves necessary
integration of the end user into a trusting,
well-informed working relationship.
To carry out the mixing task an
economical and technically suitable mixer
should be selected, i.e. the mixer with the
best life cycle cost is preferred for
installation. In order to assess the life

cycle costs of similarly suitable mixers;

the capital cost of the machinery, the
maintenance, cost of construction (i.e.
walkways, access platforms), and energy
costs must all be monitored for a given
period of time.
In the field of sewage treatment,
submersible mixers are predominantly
used for the task of suspension.
Visualization of suspension is shown in
figure #2, which demonstrates a typical
settled sludge blanket being mixed into

full suspension. Homogenization and

emulsification are seldom required,
however when required they can be dealt
with alongside suspension. To accomplish
suspension, differing strengths of
turbulence are required based on the
medium to be mixed.

Fig. #2 - Suspension of Activated Sludge

Introduction to Mixing Technology

To accomplish suspension with a

Has a sampling been carried

submersible mixer, a turbulent

out? If yes, what were the

flow (jet stream) can be

results?

generated which incorporates the

Has only a visual inspection

entire contents of the tank.

been carried out to judge the

However a description of

actual condition?

turbulent flows is in no case

Are there any problems with

simple, and can never be

the equipment installed

comprehensive. Turbulent flows

have an irregular pattern with

Fig. #3 - Homogenous (ordered

Mixture

upstream (i.e. screens, clarifiers,

etc.)?

complicated time dependence

Which kind of dry substance

and special variations in speed,

content is not being mixed or is

such that a single measurement

available in excess?

will never lead to a reproducible

etc.

result. Instead it is a random

result.

If clarification through these

In general, turbulent flows show

questions is not possible, then

the following characteristics:

an appointment and on-site

Turbulent flows are swirling

inspection by equipment

flows.
Turbulent flows are three
dimensional flows.
Turbulent flows are temporary
flows.
The above information means

Fig. #4 - Stochastic (Random)

Mixture
Therefore the degree of suspension is more reliably determined by evaluating the
distribution of the of solids
concentration.

that an ideal homogeneity

manufacturer is necessary.
Information Required for
Mixer Selection
As previously mentioned, the
knowledge of all relevant
parameters to the mixing
system is an absolute must for

(ordered mixture) like figure #3

Trouble Shooting

is impossible in a suspension,

If mixing is not being

only a stochastic homogeneity

sufficiently carried out; some

As a rule, even marginal

(random mixture) can be

questions can be asked in order

conditions must be equally

achieved, as shown in figure #4.

to evaluate the situation:

taken into account. The

As you can imagine because this

How have the mixers been

questionnaire provided at the

mixture is random a localized

installed?

end of this handbook will help

velocity measurement is not very

How have the mixers been

guide you to provide all relevant

useful.

positioned?

information.

the selection.

As a general rule one could say that the more data available, the better the selection of the mixing
equipment will be.
8

Rheology

Rheological Properties:
Rheology is a relatively young
discipline which was founded
together with the American
Society for Rheology in 1929
where Professor Bingham gave
the discipline its name. The
discipline centers on the
measurement, description of,
and explanation behind flowing
liquids under the effects of

Fig. #5 - Statically Thickened

outside forces and

Sludge (5% TSS)

deformations.
Rheological investigation is an
integral part of both research
and quality/production control.
Its use in various branches of
industry such as chemistry,
biology, pharmacy, and the
food and beverage industries
underlines rheologys growing
significance. Even in the field of

Fig. #6 - Polymer Thickened

sewage treatment, rheology can

Sludge (5% TSS)

be utilized for the explanation

of different flow behaviors. For
example in wastewater
treatment the behavior varies

Rheology differentiates between

greatly between statically (fig.

three basic properties: viscosity,

#5) or polymer thickened (fig.

elasticity and plasticity. In addition,

#6) sludge. In the pictures you

viscoelastic materials exist

can visually see the differences

possessing a unique combination of

between moistness and

viscous as well as elastic

pourability (note beaker angle

characteristics.

of incline) of the two sludge

samples with similar solids
content.

Rheology

Viscous

Elastic

Plastic

Viscoelastic

Fig. #7 - Rheological Properties Demonstration

Rheological behavior can be demonstrated if a water droplet, steel sphere, ball of clay and silicone
rubber sphere are dropped onto a clean steel plate from a moderate height. Figure #7 and the below
descriptions provide the results of such a demonstration.
(A) Viscous behavior: after impact the water droplet flows outward until it forms a thin film.
(B) Elastic behavior: the steel sphere bounces and eventually comes to rest undistorted.
(C) Plastic behavior: the clay sphere becomes deformed due to its malleability and remains in this
distorted form.
(D) Viscoelastic behavior: the silicone rubber sphere bounces several times like an elastic body, but if left
for a period of time, begins to flow outwards like a viscous body.

10

Rheology

Viscosity:

The force acting upon each

In most mixing applications the

layer is referred to as the shear

working media will be a liquid.

stress (), and the change of

The resistance to flow in a

velocity per layer with regard to

liquid can be characterized in

the distance between the plates

terms of the viscosity of the

as the shear rate (). Isaac

fluid if the flow is not

Newton found a linear

turbulent. In the case of a

relationship between shear

moving plate in a liquid, it is

stress and shear rate

found that there is a layer which

moves with the plate and
another layer which is

Force = Velocity
Surface
Distance

essentially stationary (if it is

next to a stationary plate).

In the case of a Newtonian

There is a velocity gradient as

fluid, viscosity is a material

you move from the stationary

constant being dependent only

to the moving plate, and the

upon pressure and temperature.

liquid tends to move in layers

If the behavior of all fluid

with successively higher speed

material could be explained in

(fig. #8).

Newtonian terms, then

rheology would swiftly become
boring. Moreover, many
Velocity
Moving Plate

Force

Distance

Fluid

Stationary plate

Fig. #8 - Viscosities in Newtonian

Fluids

11

important phenomena which

we all experience in daily life
would cease to exist.

Rheology

Non-Newtonian behavior becomes

(A) Plasticity: These materials have a yield

apparent when a linear relationship

point, i.e. theyonly begin to flow when a

between shear stress and shear rate

certain shear stress has been reached.

does not exist, i.e. a 50% increase in

(B) Shear-Thinning: Also known as pseudo-

shear stress does not result in a 50%

plasticity or intrinsic viscosity. If the shear

increase in shear rate. Furthermore, the

rate is increased, these materials exhibit a large

viscosity value is no longer a material

decrease in viscosity.

constant but it is rather dependent on

(C) Shear-Thickening: Also known as dilatant

the shear rate. Typical shear rate-

exhibits opposite characteristics to shear-

dependent flow behavior is shown in

thinning. An increase in shear rate precipitates

figure #9.

the relativelyrare phenomenon of an

increase in viscosity.

Ne

o
wt

ni

an

Fig. #9 - Non-Newtonian, shear rate-dependent

flow behavior (dotted line = Newtonian)
Newtonian

12

Rheology

Applied Rehology:
A typical example of shear-thinning behavior is displayed by ketchup or whipped cream in a can: if the bottle
is shaken with a reasonably constant motion, then the previously reluctant fluid will begin to flow. Once the
bottle is placed on the table again, the contents return to a more solid state.
This is all very relevant because the majority of municipal and industrial waste sludge exhibit shear-thinning
behavior, and therefore possesses intrinsic viscosity. Such example is shown below in the following figures #10
& #11, which show the affect that mixing has on such sludges.

Fig. #10 - Anaerobic Digester Sludge - No Mixing

Fig. #11 - Anaerobic Digester Sludge - After Mixing

13

Fields of Application

Main fields of application:

Municipal sewage treatment plants
Industrial effluent treatment plants
Agriculture
Water Quality
Submersible mixers are an integral part of the equipment required in sewage and effluent treatment plants. The
universal usage of submersible mixers since the 1960s has led to a broad spectrum of applications; hence, they
are successfully used at many stages of water treatment such as:
Equalizer tank

Activated sludge tank

Nitrification (Aeration)

Thickener

Neutralization

Digestion tank (Anaerobic)

Denitrification (Anoxic)

Phosphate elimination (Anaerobic)

Selector tank

Oxidation ditches

Sand trap

Disinfection

Pump station

Buffer tank

Sludge holding tank

Reaction tank

Storm-water retention tank

Storage tank

Fig. #12 - Hartford County, MD WWTP utilizes > 100 submersible mixers for various applications

14

Fields of Application

The essential submersible mixer

Enhanced Nutrient Removals

mixing efficiency is driven solely

tasks can be described as follows:

(ENR) of Phosphate and

by the mixer selection. In these

Nitrogen are ever important

situations the submersible mixer

1. Sludge Agitation

technologies in sewage or effluent

provides the most flexibility /

Suspending or re-suspending

treatment systems. Generating

options to optimize the system.

viscous media

and maintaining the flow

conditions required by the

Sludges produced in process

biological process is vital in the

engineering are made for further

anoxic, anaerobic and aerobic

use. For example Bentonite

treatment stages utilized for

(drilling mud) is needed for

ENR. In sewage and effluent

sealing soils during drilling, or

treatment plants, submersible

lime milk is used for conditioning

motor mixers are preferably used

sewage sludges. On the other

to produce these flows.

hand sludges are often just waste

products which must be disposed

Pratical Application:

of.

The practical application of

submersible mixers in the flow

For further sludge treatment, it is

reactor (tank, reservoir, channels,

necessary to turn them into

ponds, aeration system, etc.)

pumpable mixtures of

requires an exact knowledge of

homogenous consistency. If they

the effects of flow restrictions to

are thickened for later transport

be expected, both in terms of

it is important that the sludges

quantity and quality, as well as of

that are fed to the dewatering

the fluid mechanics. All of the

equipment (e.g. centrifuge, belt

three elements, the reactor, the

filter or chamber filter press), be

mixer and the medium create one

well mixed. A homogenous

interactive system. A typical

consistency is also required for

design goal is to effectively mix

municipal sludge used in

the system while utilizing

agriculture land application.

minimum power. Assuming one

parameter, the medium for

15

2. Flow Generation

instance, is constant then only

Maintaining certain flow

the remaining parameters can be

conditions and/or pre-defined

modified to increase efficiency.

flow velocities. (Suspending

However more commonly both

solids and sludge flocculants in

the medium and the reactor

water)

cannot be altered, therefore the

Mixer Sizing

Mixer Sizing:

determining factor. Therefore forces or

All processes that utilize mixers

thrusts, which are independent of power,

have a specific mixing result

are the necessary method for mixer

that needs to be achieved.

sizing. For further details of the

Typically desired mixing results

hydraulics required to reach equilibrium,

are complete suspension of

see Flow Build-Up section 6.

activated sludge or a certain

cross-sectional mean flow

Thrust Freq. = F1 + F2 + F3+ F4 + ......

velocity. The energy density

(power per tank volume)

Freq. - required thrust (maintaining the

necessary to acquire such

balancing conditions for a defined

mixing result can serve as an

velocity)

extremely valuable evaluation

F1 - internal friction in the fluid

criterion. This evaluation

(turbulent movement in the fluid,

criteria is supported by the

jet stream vs. bulk flow)

wastewater industry standard

F2 - external friction on the

mixing document VDMA

wetted areas (floor, walls, obstructive

24656 : 2010-03.

installations)
F3 - forces resulting from geometry losses

Energy Density = P1 / V

(tank shapes, deflectors, obstructive

installations etc.)

P1 = electrical power (W) from

[fig #13]

the electrical system at the

F4 - forces resulting from flow streams

operating point (wire to water

(inlets/outlets, air supply during aeration

power)

etc.)

V = tank volume (ft)

Strictly speaking, the forces F3
However energy density varies

and F4 belong to the internal and

greatly from tank to tank and

external frictions F1 and F2 as these

among various mixer designs.

losses mainly derive from flow

Therefore it is valuable to know

separation and are caused by turbulent

how to calculate the power of

flows. Due to the interference effects, the

mixers and the parameters

total flow loss of the resistances in series

involved in the mixing process

is not equal to the sum of the individual

itself. The key to mixer

resistances.

performance is that with

constant flow velocity
(equilibrium) the forces involved
in the mixing process are the

16

Mixer Sizing

Fig. #13 - Example of turbulent flow from obstructive installations

The calculated required thrust is compared with the available thrust of the mixers and provides the required size and
number of mixers to be used. Once the mixers are selected on a basis of thrust, then power requirement can be
determined because the mixers input power (P1) at the operating point (given thrust) is known via factory testing as
shown in figure #14. This factory testing is done in accordance with the relatively new ISO 21630 standards released
in 2007. Note that there is no direct correlation or simple calculation to compare thrust to power; therefore it is not
appropriate to size or compare mixers on a power basis!

Fig. #14 - Thrust measurement

apparatus for testing per ISO 21630

17

Mixer Sizing

The last factor to be calculated is the

The aim of KSB development efforts is to

energy density which can be used to

find favorable solutions in terms of

compare different mixer makes,

energy consumption. Improving the

models, and technologies. Therefore

propeller efficiency leads to a reduction

energy density is a great tool for

of the energy density. If the energy

evaluating various solutions for a

density is specified, it will actually

specific application, however be

impede technically favorable

careful because the specification of a

developments! This also applies to the

pre-determined energy density will not

closely related average velocity gradient

lead to correct results!

(G), which is discussed in the Metcalf &

Eddy Wastewater Engineering Treatment

The energy density is influenced by

and Reuse handbook.

the:
tank geometry
tank volume
obstructions
inlets / outlets
aeration
propeller diameter
propeller speed
propeller hydraulic design
motor efficiency

18

Flow Build-up

Flow Build-up:
After the mixer has started-up and reached operating thrust, the flow will slowly build-up as illustrated
below in figure #15 until it has reached the equilibrium conditions (average flow velocity).

Fig. #15 - Flow Build-Up

The propellers capacity depends on the propeller diameter, the speed and its hydraulic characteristics.
The developing flow (jet stream) which comes in contact with the propellers rotation becomes a farreaching spiral-type jet stream as shown in below figure #16. A shearing stress takes place along this outer
edge of the jet flow; which is the friction between jet stream flow and the slower moving liquid to be mixed
outside of the jet stream.

Fig. #16 - Jet Stream

19

Flow Build-up

Intensive mixing is achieved when the jet flow comprises the entire tank volume and induces a bulk flow
(channel flow). The bulk flow is subjected to swirls induced by the propeller, but certain geometry
dependent fluid dynamics (flow mechanics) will develop in every tank. Typical features are demonstrated
below (fig. #17) in a racetrack type tank equipped with a partition.

Fig. #17 - Flow deviations in a racetrack

The swirl-type flow interferes with the bulk flow (channel flow) in the cross-sectional area of the
partition. The straight channel flow hits the tank wall in the curve, decelerates and is directed to the floor
so that a curved spiral flow develops in the cross-section.
20

Flow Build-up

Furthermore a flow separation develops behind the partition and displays itself as a relatively stationary
flow obstruction to the main flow. The reduced cross-section - due to this separation of flow - accounts for
the majority of the losses with this particular geometry.
The build-up of the flow is terminated as soon as the equilibrium conditions have been reached (fig. #18).
This is achieved when all forces impeding the build-up of flow are effective and there is no further increase
of the bulk flow. It is this equilibrium condition that is most often desired in wastewater applications.

Fig. #18 - Equilibrium Flow Forces

Equilibrium conditions are:

21

Total propeller thrust = Total reaction thrust

Theoretical Circulation Time

Theoretical Circulation Time:

One should not mistake the theoretical circulation time for the

In many applications the

effective mixing time. The actually required mixing time depends on

circulation time is of interest to

the medium to be mixed and its rheological characteristics.

the designer. For example it is

As the rheological characteristics are usually not known, the

common to evaluate the

circulation time is approximately taken as the mixing time.

circulation time in extended

aeration oxidation ditches (fig.
#19). The theoretical circulation
time is the quotient of the tank
volume and the mixers flow
rate. This value gives the
theoretical time it takes for the
mixer to circulate the complete
contents of the tank one time.

V tank
circulation

Q mixer

t circulation

(s)

V tank

(ft3)

Q mixer

(ft3/s)

Fig. #19 Typical Oxidation Ditch (Malatya Turkey)

Furthermore proper mixer quantity and positioning is critical to
ensure that total tank volume is actually circulated, such that flow
paths are not short circuited. Not all fluid must directly move through
the mixer in order to gain velocity. For more detailed information see
further discussion in Flow Guidance Mixer Positioning section
11.

22

Flow Velocities & Flow Distribution

Flow Velocities:

that are currently used in project

The number one question when

specifications have a range

designing is which velocity is

between 0.66 to 1 ft/s. One of the

correct?

Channel Wall Material

Typically the horizontal flow

Velocity

few published guidelines is from

(ft/s)

the Metcalf & Eddy Wastewater

shall be big enough to avoid

sedimentation. The velocity to

Engineering Treatment and Reuse

Sludge

0.33

acquire sediment free operation

depends on the substances in

handbook, which notes typical

oxidation ditch channel velocities

Loose, not yet settled loam

0.50

of 0.8 to 1.0 ft/s.

Fine sane (0.4 mm)

0.50

Flow Distribution:

substances or particles depends

Medium-fine or medium-

0.66

on the type and quality of the

corse sand (0.7 mm)

the liquid (sludge flocs, sludge,

fibers, sand, etc.). Furthermore
the size and abundance of these

Just as important as the velocity

is defined. It is common for

upstream pre-treatment
equipment.

specifications to require a certain

Coars sand (1.7 mm)

1.15

From typical civil/

environmental engineering
literature, we have specified

value itself is the way in which it

velocity (e. g. 1 ft/s) at each

point of the tank, but in practice

Fine gravel (2-5 mm)

2.00

Table #1 - Erosion Velocities

this is not feasible. As mentioned

previously, every tank shape has

maximum velocities to avoid

areas of low-flow; plus regardless

erosion of channel contents

of tank shape the velocities at all

(Table #1). These erosion

walls, floors, and changes of

velocities can be roughly

direction will be zero. From a

applied to the necessary

physical point of view, it is not

minimum velocity for

possible to maintain a defined

horizontal transport of these

flow in these areas; however

same particles.

sedimentation is not expected to

happen.

Past investigations have

For example, in the corners of

revealed that the required

square and rectangular tanks one

horizontal flow for the

can observe a vertical swirl-type

transport of a sludge floc can

low flow zone (Fig. #20). Because

actually be smaller than 0.33

this flow fluctuates and is

ft/s. However, the usual

requirements for flow velocities

Fig. #20 - Corner Low Flow Area

stochastic there are no deposits,

despite the lack of bulk flow
velocity. Low-flow areas such as
this can also be found behind
obstructive installations and
behind inlets and outlets.

23

Flow Velocities & Flow Distribution

Further complicating the situation is the fact that a simple calculation method capable of providing the
velocity at a certain point in the tank does not exist. In fact, it requires a very time consuming and
expensive computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model simulation to solve this problem. KSB provides such
CFD models for very special tank geometries or as requested by the customer, but typically such detailed
local velocities are not necessary to ensure adequate mixing for the process.

Fig. #21 - Localized CFD Flow Velocities

Therefore in practice a hydraulic calculation of the flow which only takes the tank friction losses into
account is utilized. The limitation of this method is that it only provides a value for the mean flow velocity
in the cross-sectional area. Thus only a mean velocity in the defined cross-section can be ensured. Due to
the complex flow processes, another definition is not feasible.
Special Flow Loss Case - air supply (transverse flows):
In applications with air supply, transverse (vertical) flows with regard to the horizontal mixer flow occur
which influence the flow distribution in the cross-sectional area. Therefore in addition to specifying the
guaranteed mean velocity in aerated tanks, it is also necessary to indicate the square footage of aerated
floor area and associated input air volume (SCFM). Since 100 % air supply is typically required only in the
event of a malfunction or accident, it must be defined for which air supply conditions that the specified
horizontal mean velocity is necessary.
24

Flow Velocities & Flow Distribution

For example it seems appropriate to

specify a mean velocity of 1 ft/s without
air supply. However, in the event of a
maximum air supply (malfunction/
accident) a mean horizontal velocity of
0.5-0.66 ft/s should still be available.
The applicable velocities must again be
determined by taking the expected solids
into account. However when combined
with aeration it is also important to
consider typical operating procedure and
how much if any mixing will be
accomplished by the aeration.

Fig. #22 - Schematic of Ring Shaped Test Reactor

Example field test of mixing with aeration:
Ring shaped nitrification/aerobic tank (Fig.#22)
Quantity:

6 mixers

Tank Volume:

1.5 million gallons

Channel Depth:

16.5 ft

Max Air Supply:

7,770 SCFM

Propeller :

8.2 ft

Power (P1):

4.7 hp

Energy Density:

0.10 W/ft3

The flow measurement was carried out at three different

air supply rates (0, 50, & 100% of max air supply). The
change of the flow distribution is displayed in the
following diagrams (fig. #23). Note that as air supply
increases the horizontal velocity becomes more constant
across the tank depth, however the losses from transverse
flow cause the average horizontal velocity to decrease.

25

Flow Velocities & Flow Distribution

Fig. #23 - Velocity Results (0%, 50%, & 10 0% air supply)

26

Submersible Mixer with Bottom Diffusers

Mixing with Diffusers:

Previous section 8 touched on mixing
combined with aeration as shown in
adjacent figure #24. This topic will be
focused in this section, since this is an
increasingly common application, in
activated sludge tanks (nitrification,
SBR, etc.). In particular the
correlation between horizontal flow
generated by the submersible mixer
and vertical flow induced by the
supply of air shall be explained.
Physical fundamentals:
Without the influence of external
forces an air or gas bubble can only
rise vertically in a liquid

Fig. #24 - Combined Mixing & Aeration

Without the influence of external

forces a swarm of bubbles can only

Looking at individual bubbles reveals that a bubble

rise vertically in a liquid

corresponding to its expansion has a defined uplift and rises to

Depending on their direction,

the surface with the corresponding velocity.

existing vertical flows (forces) have a

positive or negative influence on the
upward velocity of the gas bubbles (i.
e. flow directed downwards towards
the tank floor will reduce the velocity
while the flow directed upwards
towards the surface will increase the
velocity).
Existing horizontal flows (forces) do
not have any influence on the upwards
velocity of the gas bubbles
Flows are vectors
Fig. #25 Aeration without Horizontal Flow
The above figure #25 shows bubbles that are injected into the
liquid at equal time intervals as they rise to the surface.

27

Submersible Mixer with Bottom Diffusers

S => Path the air travels in ft

vair

=> Uplift velocity in ft/s

t => Travel time in s

If a horizontal flow is present in the same system, the bubble travel time should not change according to
the physical fundamentals. The following figure #26 shows a horizontal laminar flow with bubbles
injected at equal time intervals as they rise to the surface. If the moving liquid is evaluated in volume
segments per unit of time, it can easily be recognized that the bubbles in the corresponding segment rise
vertically to the surface at the standard upward velocity (vair).

Fig. #26 Aeration with Horizontal Flow

At the same time it can be see that the bubbles follow a diagonal movement along the resultant of upward
bubble velocity and horizontal flow. However vertical path and thus time the bubble takes to rise to the
surface is the same as in figure #25.
However in real world practical applications turbulent flows are present. Therefore the above
consideration with a laminar flow is only a theoretical representation to show that the horizontal flow has
no simple influence on the air/liquid contact time. Based on these finding the following question is raised:
Q: Is there any advantage from a process technology point of view by adding horizontal flows?
A1: Solids and sludge can be kept in suspension with the minimum process required air input.
A2: The bacteria are supplied with the new substrate.
A3: In practice the bubble travel time is actually longer.
Answers A1 and A2 are self-explanatory and shall not be further discussed. On the other hand answer A3
is in contradiction with the previous laminar flow based discussion; thus it must be further evaluated.

28

Submersible Mixer with Bottom Diffusers

In practical applications, the

individual bubble must be
evaluated in conjunction with the
turbulent swarm of bubbles and
associated generation of water
flow. This resulting turbulent
water-air-mixture flow creates
visual proof in the form of a
swell at the waters surface as can
be seen in the following figure
#27. This liquid is moved to the
surface along with the rising air
and equivalent liquid flow is
sucked up from the bottom of the
tank. The following figure #28
shows how a swirl-type flow is
present on all sides of the

Fig. #27 - Aeration Swarming

Affect

aeration, which makes the air

rise to the surface faster. These
swirl-type flows can double that
of the individual bubbles upward
velocity, reaching about 2 ft/s.

Fig. #28 - Aeration Swarming Affect

29

Submersible Mixer with Bottom Diffusers

Aeration/Mixng Flows are vectors:

Therefore as depicted in below Fig. #29 the swirl flow has a postive influence and can be added to the air
lift velocity.

Vair
Uplift velocity of the air

ft/s

Flow velocity of the swarming swirl -type flow

ft/s

Total velocity

ft/s

Fig. #29 Combined swarming and uplift effect

Vliquid

VTotal

The travel time of the bubbles is therefore significantly reduced by the swarming effect. This is a direct result of
the inverse relationship between travel time and total upward velocity.
Now if a horizontal flow is added to these fluid mechanics (fig. #30), the shape of the swirl-type flow will
change. Or in the ideal case, swirl type flow will be completely neutralized and fluid dynamic conditions will
arise which are similar to those of laminar flows.

Horizontal Flow

Fig. #30 Addition of horizontal flow to aeration

The horizontal flow causes the turbulent bubble swarm to drift away with the flow. On the front, the
swirl-type flow is neutralized or nearly neutralized. On the rear side, it is still there, however the
horizontal bulk flow changes the shape and reduces the vertical velocity.
In summary the contact time of the bubbles is increased through the reduction of the vertical swirl
flow! Because of this increased contact time, already efficient diffusers can provide even higher oxygen
transfer rates to reduce operational costs. Furthermore because the mixing and aeration systems are
completely independent, the energy intensive compressors can be turned down to provide only the
aeration required for the biological process.
30

10

Transportation of Solids in Activated Sludge

Solids Transport:

energy density of the mixing

the outlet. This means that the

An extensive separation of

equipment. As can be seen by the

solids must be deliberately

solids is required to optimize

table on page 23 the necessary

transported to the outlet.

sewage treatment plants. The

velocity varies greatly depending

However keep in mind that

quality of the equipment

on solids type.

heavier particles such as sand

installed upstream of the tanks

cannot be lifted with the typical

determines the type, shape,

As previously discussed, when

mixer generated bulk flow

quality and particle size of the

there is no local turbulence

velocities of around 1 ft/s. This

solids in the system. If a typical

sludge flocs can be mixed at a

should be no surprise if you

velocity of 1 ft/s is specified for

velocity of less than 0.33 ft/s.

consider that typical design

the mixers, it means that not

However for sizing the mixer the

guidelines for vertical sewage

only sludge flocs but also non-

non-volatile solids are typically

pipes require much greater

volatile solids have to be moved.

taken into account and a safe

velocities in the range of 6 to 8

The medium flow through the

mean velocity of 1 ft/s in the

ft/s.

different treatment stages must

cross-sectional flow area is

ensure that solids are

assumed so that the power

Following are some examples of

transported to avoid the

required to generate the flow can

how to achieve such solids

buildup of sedimentation. This

be calculated. The alignment of

guidance.

may be accomplished by

the submersible mixers which

physical tank design to guide

vary depending on the tank

the flow through the tanks and

geometry, outlet and

mechanical agitation/guidance

installations/structures in the

via submersible mixers.

tank is considerably responsible

for the distribution of the flow in

Solids transportation cannot be

the cross-sectional area.

defined solely by velocity; the

guidance of the solids in the

A strictly horizontal flow does

system is also highly important.

not have any advantages for the

Furthermore the velocity

distribution of the solids in the

needed for a sediment-free

tank. The horizontal movement

operation (where possible)

does begin suspension by putting

should be determined by the

the solids in horizontal motion;

solids entering the tank and

however specifically heavy

past experience were possible.

particles move around close to

By holding back/removing the

the floor and specifically light

solids at the headworks and

particles are distributed in the

optimizing the flow for

entire cross-sectional area.

biological purposes it is possible

31

to reduce the velocity and,

Simply put; in order for solids to

consequently, the required

leave the tank, they must reach

10

Transportation of Solids in Activated Sludge

Example: Flow through cascades arranged in series

Fig. #31 Cascades with overflow weir

Cascades which are designed such that the flow passes over an overflow structure, as illustrated in above
figure #31, need flow guidance ensuring the solids are transported up to the overflow. Using a defined
horizontal velocity, solids of a certain size, shape and density are moved, however, not lifted to the surface
which means that in the long run a concentration of the specifically heavy solids takes place and
sedimentation is to be expected. For further detail see following Special Concerns portion of this
section.

Under flow

Under flow

Fig. #32 Cascades with underflow wier

Alternatively if the tank flow path is changed as shown in above figure #32 - underflow wier, then the
solids are effectively transported by through flow.
Example: Flow in Round tank In order to remove solids it is possible to transport them to the middle of
the tank through the use of submersible mixers creating a circular type flow (tea cup effect). In the case of
a circular flow, the strongest flow takes effect around the outside of the tank, and weakens closer to the
center, ceasing entirely at the center of the flows rotation. Also the circulation in the tank is decelerated by
the tank wall, resulting in the creation of a swirl-type flow which interferes with the circulatory
movement. On the tank wall, this interfering flow is directed towards the floor and then to the center of
the floor. In the tank center (axis of the circular flow), the velocity is zero and the swirl-type flow in an
upwards direction is too low to lift the solids to the surface. These hydraulic phenomena are depicted in
figure #33. Therefore tank drain/suction shall be placed at the center of the tank in order to remove solids.

32

10

Transportation of Solids in Activated Sludge

Sediments
Solids which are carried to the center by the
flow cannot move away from there
Fig. #33 Hydraulics of round tank
Many times round tanks with center drain are routinely emptied or run at low water levels. In these cases
submersible high speed mixers should be utilized to allow maximum run time during draw down. A
recommended minimum water level will be provided by manufacturer, which gives minimum operating
level for optimum mixing performance without vortex formation. However mixer operation (for propeller
diameters < 24 in.) below this level is acceptable as long as the motor remains submerged.
Taking the tank geometry, the flow pattern and the solids transportation into account, a favorable tank
drain can be designed to ensure the hydraulic transportation of solids out of the tank.
Special concerns regarding tanks with overflow weir outlet
When the outlet is arranged close to the surface (i.e. on overflows or outlet channels of pre-treatment tanks
that have been retrofitted for de-nitrification), a vertical flow higher than the sinking velocity of the
particles is absolutely necessary for the solids transportation (i.e. solids must be forced upwards). With
special care this can be achieved with the use of submersible mixers (figure #34).

33

Fig. #34 Solids guidance with overflow weir

10

Transportation of Solids in Activated Sludge

It takes special care, because

The time it takes for sediments

For optimum solutions it is highly

when the jet flow of the

to form is directly dependent on

recommended that there be design

submersible motor mixer is not

the amount of specifically

co-operation with a competent

exactly directed to the overflow,

heavier particles reaching the

manufacturer of submersible motor

the solids (i. e. more specifically

tank. It may take one to two

mixers.

the heavier solids) cannot be

years or even longer for the

made to flow over the overflow

deposits to develop in low-flow

structure. The result is a

areas. Eventually tanks will

concentration of specifically

need to be cleaned, which

heavier solids in the tank. This

typically requires tank

occurs because the solids are

draining.

horizontally moved by the flow

until a concentration has been
reached for which the flow
velocity (energy) is no longer
sufficient.

34

11

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

Propeller Hydraulics:
As discussed in section 6 the
mixers capacity highly depends
on the propeller diameter, the
speed and its hydraulic
characteristics. Please refer back
to this previous section for
basics regarding propeller
hydraulics.
The running conditions of the
mixer are also highly dependent
on the hydraulic condition of
the tank. The propeller capacity
itself is constant and typically

Fig. #35 Propeller Hydraulics

bigger than the inlet flow

provided to the mixer. Since the

General Positioning Considerations

fluid is not constrained near the

Generally speaking, the flow jet stream (impetus) should start from a

mixer it will flow the way of

hydraulically optimal position (position varies according to tank

least resistance; therefore as

geometry). Therefore with each KSB quote a mixer positioning sketch is

shown in figure #35 the

provided to show the optimal position. Optimal positioning facilitates

propeller will draw in the local

the smooth running of the mixer in order to prolong its service life. At

fluid and create a back flow

the same time, the operational efficiency of the mixing system will

(short circuit flow) to the

increase via a low energy density.

propeller.
KSB verifies all results and positioning guidelines via a combination of
Tank shapes with higher loses

computational fluid dynamics modeling and field verifications. When

will have an increasing amount

positioning the mixer, negative effects on the propeller discharge and

of back flow. This is because

suction sides must be minimized. Sample interference can include:

the back flow is directly related

On the suction side:

On the discharge side:

tank. Thus a reduction of the

Flow stream from inlets and

Disturbance of flow build-up

back flow is only possible by

outlets

to the losses imparted by the

total hydraulic condition of the

decreasing the flow losses

encountered by the mixer. This

Turbulent flows resulting from

Obstructions directly in front of

can be accomplished by

obstructive installation

the propeller

modifying tank obstruction

and/or slowing the mixer speed

Extra air in the area of the

to reduce internal friction

propeller

forces.

35

11

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

In general negative influences on the suction side of the propeller impair its ability to run smoothly, and on the
discharge side increase energy density.
General Tankage Considerations
For process success the tank design is as equally important as the mixer hydraulics and positioning. In particular the
following data clearly shows that tank shape can highly affect thrust, creating over 350% variation. Since thrust is
related to the required mixer power/size; tank selection will directly impact the capital and/or operational cost of the
mechanical equipment.

Tank Shape

Volume Approx.

Needed Thrust

Dimensions Thrust Factor

Round

150,000 ft3

170 lbf

1.00

Ring channel

150,000 ft3

150 lbf

0.88

Rectangular

150,000 ft3

220 lbf

1.29

Racetrack without guide bends

150,000 ft3

530 lbf

3.12

Racetrack with short guide bends

150,000 ft3

250 lbf

1.47

Racetrack with long guide bends

150,000 ft3

220 lbf

1.29

*Standard activated sludge tank geometries of equal volume being mixed to achieve average blulk flow velocity of 1 ft/s.

Round Tanks
In relation to other shapes, round tanks are inexpensive to manufacture. However cost increase when multiple tanks are
required because common wall construction cannot be utilized and there is a larger land space requirement. They also
produce a low amount of tank geometry-related losses. This means that low energy density for mixing can be reached
in these tanks given the same volumes. The flow distribution is problematic though, as incorrect positioning of the
mixer can easily lead to the generation of unwanted flow patterns. The desired flow pattern must be defined based on
the results required.
Possible results:
1. To remove solids from the tank (e. g. the cleaning of storm-water tanks)
2. To hold solids in movement (suspension) (e. g. activated sludge tank, sludge silos etc.)

36

11

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

1. Removing solids from the tank

In order to remove solids it is possible to transport them to the middle of the tank through the use of a circular
jet flow (tea cup effect). If fluid is drained out of the tank from the middle, then the solids will be removed. This
effect finds use in the cleaning of rainwater and sludge tanks, in which mixers establish and maintain a circular
jet flow. This means that before the tank is emptied the solids have been removed, and if the level sinks low
enough, the mixing machinery will surface.
2. Holding solids in motion (suspension)
Solids should be moved by the jet flow
and transported with the fluid. The
difficulty of suspending solids increases
with falling levels of viscosity in the fluid
medium, and increasing solid densities
(i.e. coarse sand laden water). This means
that the sedimentation behaviors, or more
precisely the fluid characteristics, are an
important factor for the level of flow
velocity required in order to keep the
solids in suspension.
Floor/Bridge Mount
Circular (tea cup effect) flows like those
mentioned above are not suitable and
must be avoided.
This is made possible through following
positioning guidelines:
The positioning of the submersible mixer
in the tank
In order to avoid a circular flow (tea cup
effect), the flow impetus is orientated
towards the middle of the tank, thereby
creating a stronger jet flow in this area
which acts to prevent sedimentation in the
center of the tank.

Wall Mount
Fig. #36 Round Tank Positioning for Solids
Suspension

37

11

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

This arrangement of the mixers is

behind the mixer. However when correctly sized and positioned the

also dependent on its accessibility

turbulence created by a submersible mixer is sufficient to keep all

via bridges.

solids in suspension. Typically sedimentation in ring channels is

because of insufficient number of mixers. See below figure #37 for

Installation of the mixer in

examples.

relation to the tank wall

Insufficient Mixing

Sufficient Mixing

The operation of submersible

motor mixers in immediate
proximity to the tank wall is only
possible with fast running
(Amamix) mixers with a small
propeller diameter.
Slow running (Amaprop) mixers

Flow Seperation

with propeller diameters of 5 to 8

Sedimentation

feet and propeller speeds of 15 to

60 rpm require a greater distance
from the tank wall, as
demonstrated in the adjacent
sketches (Fig. #36); meaning
bridges or other means of access
are needed.
Ring Channel:
The fluid mechanics are the same
as with a circular tank, but there
are additional wall surfaces that
depending on dimensions increase
thrust requirements and
associated energy density due to
losses; or reduce thrust and
associated energy density by
helping to guide the flow. The
sedimentation will be at the
intersection of the floor and
center wall structure if there is a
low velocity (horizontal velocity <
particle settle velocity) point
Fig. #37 - Ring Channel Sedimentation

38

11

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

Rectangular
In relation to other shapes, rectangular tanks can offer a
large capital cost advantage when multiple tanks are
required. This is typically because of shared wall and
walkway design as well as reduction of land space
requirements.
However as a result the rectangular tank design does
sacrifice approximately 30% in mixing efficiency. The loss
in mixing efficiency is primarily a result of corner vortices
as can be seen in the adjacent figure #38.
It should be noted that even though these vortices act as a
flow obstruction, there is random localized movement of

Fig. #38 Retangular Tank Corner Vortices

the vortex that provides for deposit free operation. The

complexity of the tank/mixer effects means that the
designer must work with mixer manufacturer to evaluate
the best overall solution on a case by case basis.
Racetrack:
The channel flow of a racetrack provides the same effects
at the floor and water surface as with the circular tanks
and ring channels.
However largely in contrast to the circular tanks and ring
channels, the flow behind the middle wall is obstructed by
a flow separation (fig. #39). This flow separation is a quite
large vortex resulting in a reduction of the flow area
which creates additional flow losses. The additional losses
can result in more than 3 times the mixing thrust as
required for a round tank of similar volume.

Fig. #39 Racetrack Flow Separation

39

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

11

However the mixing energy density in racetrack tanks can be greatly improved by the addition of guide vanes.
These guide vanes located at the bend help to direct flow around the tight turn and minimize the flow
obstructing vortex. Long guide bends, which extend at least one channel width along the downstream side of
the channel, can reduce the necessary mixer thrust by more than 50%. See below figure #40 for a schematic
representation of normal guide bend on the left and CFD analysis vector results for a long guide bend on
the right.

Fig. #40 Racetracks with Guide Bend

Special Case Installation Limits for Long Tanks
Rectangular type tanks:
Fluid mechanic limitations for single mixer are illustrated in figure #41. Note that for tanks with length
width ratio greater than 2.5 the bulk flow is short-circuited and a low flow area is created at the end of
the tank. However by adding additional units the mixers work in series to create good bulk flow
throughout the tank. This is illustrated in figure #42, which shows how the large green arrowed bulk
flow is generated instead of the typical short circuited flow shown by the red arrows.

40

11

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

Fig. #41 - Long Tank Installation Limits

Fig. #42 - Long Tank Mixers in Series

Circular ring tanks or long curved rectangular tanks:

The fluid mechanics are the same in regard to the length-width ratio of rectangular tanks although the
bend does have added negative effect. The flow impetus from the submersible mixer travels only in a
straight direction, i. e. along the mixers axis; therefore the flow will always hit the opposite wall when
the tank is considerably curved. To a certain extent, this can be compensated for by positioning the
mixer(s) such that it is directed towards the inside wall space. See following figures for example of poor
mixing (fig. #43) created by insufficient number of mixers and the good mixing (fig. #44) created by the
addition of another mixer.
41

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

11

Fig. #43 - Poor mixing in long tank

Fig. #44 - Good mixing in long tank

42

11

Flow Guidance and Mixer Positioning

Aeration Special Positioning Considerations:

Due to the added energy efficiency and flexibility, the addition of submersible mixers to aeration tanks is
becoming increasingly common. However care should be taken in regards to mixer/aeration positioning.
If the bubble swarm engulfs the propeller, then air pockets will develop on the suction side of the propeller
blades. These air pockets spread unevenly across the surface of the blades, in effect changing the hydraulic
characteristics of the propeller. In turn this leads to alternating stress and associated vibrations causing
movement of the mixer within its mounting; impairing both its smooth running and inversely affecting the
service life of the machine.
To avoid this effect KSB provides the general positioning guidelines shown in below figure #45. Furthermore
KSB recommends more specific separation from aeration details on a job by job basis.

Fig. #45 Recommend Aeration Free Zone

Applicable for air loads =< then 0.82 SCFM/ft2
Propeller design is equally as important because vibration effects are more prevalent in two-bladed propellers.
Multi-blade propellers become less affected by the above-mentioned influences, so the higher the number of
propeller blades the lower the negative effects. KSB recommends that if bubble-free flow to the propellers
cannot be ensured; then 3 blade propellers with a reduced diameter should be utilized.

43

Typical Submersible Mixer Sizing Information

& RFQ Sheet

12

Sizing Information:
Throughout this document we have stressed the importance of working closely with a competent
manufacturer to select the best mixer for a given application. The particular details and methods oriented
with submersible selections are covered in the Mixer Sizing section 5 of this document. In that section it is
also made clear that the energy density is not a good tool for mixer sizing. However with the better
understanding provided by this document it is possible to use some typical energy density values for
planning purposes. Therefore you will find below a table of typical energy densities for KSB submersible
mixers. Please be sure to consider the associated notes when utilizing these values. Also be sure to note that
the table clearly shows trends such as the inverse relationship between tank volume and energy density.

Notes / Assumptions:
Concrete tank walls
No aeration considered. Typically aeration will increase energy density by at least 5%
Typical activated sludge medium with TSS < 1%
Design criteria is average velocity of 1 ft/s
Race track (oxidation ditch) assumed to have long (extend downstream) guide bends

44

12

45

Typical Submersible Mixer Sizing Information

& RFQ Sheet

13
References
1. International Organization for Standardization, Pumps Testing Submersible mixers for
wastewater and similar applications, ISO 21630, 2007
2. Verband Deutscher Maschinen und Anlagenbau, Agitators in activated sludge tanks of wastewater
treatment plants Information on planning, project design and construction, VDMA 24656, 2010
3. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., George Tchobanoglous, Franklin L Burton, H. David Stensel, Wastewater
Engineering Treatment and Reuse 4th Edition, 2003
4. Fred Koch, KSB Fluid Mixing Manual, 2001

Photographs
All of the photographs for this booklet were taken by KSB or its representatives, unless otherwise noted.

Contributing Authors
Jared S. Wray, P.E., born in 1982 studied Mechanical Engineering at the University of Delaware. After
completing his studies, he became a design engineer for an independent consulting firm. Since 2008 he
has been employed by KSB, Inc. and held positions in both the Energy and Wastewater divisions. Since
2011 he holds position of Product Manager for Submerged Propeller Devices in the USA.
Thomas Koch, born in 1972 studied Civil Engineering and majored in water and sewage management at
the University of Applied Science in Suderburg. Since 2001 he has been employed by KSB
Aktiengesellschaft as the mixer expert. Since 2010 he holds position of Head of Product Management
Submerged Propeller Devices.
Fred Koch, studied Mechanical Engineering. Throughout his career he worked for Pendraulik, Flygt,
and EMU. In 2001 he was employed by KSB as the Head of Product & Application for mixers. Mr.
Koch retired from KSB in 2008.

46

Technology that makes its mark

More space for solutions.

KSB, Inc.
4415 Sarellen Road
Henrico, VA 23231
www.ksbusa.com

15393.0222 / 05.13 / KSB, Inc. 2013

Your local KSB representative: