RTO-MP-25

AC/323(AVT)TP/13
in

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

CM

Q.
1

O
l-

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY ORGANIZATION

BP 25, 7 RUE ANCELLE. F-92201 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE CEDEX, FRANCE

RTO MEETING PROCEEDINGS 25

New Metallic Materials for the Structure

of Aging Aircraft
(les Nouveaux Materiaux metalliques pour les structures des
aeronefs d'ancienne generation)

Papers presented at the Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) Workshop, held in Corfu,
Greece, 19-20 April 1999.

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A
Approved for Public Release
Distribution Unlimited

Published April 2000

Distribution and Availability on Back Cover

20010131 073

RTO-MP-25
AC/323(AVT)TP/13
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY ORGANIZATION

BP 25, 7 RUE ANCELLE, F-92201 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE CEDEX, FRANCE

RTO MEETING PROCEEDINGS 25

New Metallic Materials for the Structure of

Aging Aircraft
(les Nouveaux Materiaux metalliques pour les structures des aeronefs
d'ancienne generation)

Papers presented at the Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) Workshop, held in Corfu,
Greece, 19-20 April 1999.

^0qVALm

f\q foi-o^r- ots*i

The Research and Technology

Organization (RTO) of NATO
RTO is the single focus in NATO for Defence Research and Technology activities. Its mission is to conduct and promote
cooperative research and information exchange. The objective is to support the development and effective use of national
defence research and technology and to meet the military needs of the Alliance, to maintain a technological lead, and to
provide advice to NATO and national decision makers. The RTO performs its mission with the support of an extensive
network of national experts. It also ensures effective coordination with other NATO bodies involved in R&T activities.
RTO reports both to the Military Committee of NATO and to the Conference of National Armament Directors. It comprises a
Research and Technology Board (RTB) as the highest level of national representation and the Research and Technology
Agency (RTA), a dedicated staff with its headquarters in Neuilly, near Paris, France. In order to facilitate contacts with the
military users and other NATO activities, a small part of the RTA staff is located in NATO Headquarters in Brussels. The
Brussels staff also coordinates RTO's cooperation with nations in Middle and Eastern Europe, to which RTO attaches
particular importance especially as working together in the field of research is one of the more promising areas of initial
cooperation.
The total spectrum of R&T activities is covered by 7 Panels, dealing with:
SAS
Studies, Analysis and Simulation

SCI
SET
1ST
AVT
HFM
MSG

Systems Concepts and Integration

Sensors and Electronics Technology
Information Systems Technology
Applied Vehicle Technology
Human Factors and Medicine
Modelling and Simulation

These Panels are made up of national representatives as well as generally recognised 'world class' scientists. The Panels also
provide a communication link to military users and other NATO bodies. RTO's scientific and technological work is carried
out by Technical Teams, created for specific activities and with a specific duration. Such Technical Teams can organise
workshops, symposia, field trials, lecture series and training courses. An important function of these Technical Teams is to
ensure the continuity of the expert networks.
RTO builds upon earlier cooperation in defence research and technology as set-up under the Advisory Group for Aerospace
Research and Development (AGARD) and the Defence Research Group (DRG). AGARD and the DRG share common roots
in that they were both established at the initiative of Dr Theodore von Krmn, a leading aerospace scientist, who early on
recognised the importance of scientific support for the Allied Armed Forces. RTO is capitalising on these common roots in
order to provide the Alliance and the NATO nations with a strong scientific and technological basis that will guarantee a
solid base for the future.
The content of this publication has been reproduced
directly from material supplied by RTO or the authors.

Printed on recycled paper

Published April 2000

Copyright RTO/NATO 2000
All Rights Reserved
ISBN 92-837-1029-0

Printed by Canada Communication Group Inc.

(A St. Joseph Corporation Company)
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New Metallic Materials for the

Structure of Aging Aircraft
(RTO MP-25)

Executive Summary
Military hardware is very demanding on structural performance. Advanced materials and processing
methods are providing new options for materials selection and component design. The papers presented
showed how new metallic alloys and composite materials can improve the performance and life of airframe
structures. Larger units can be manufactured by improved processes such as investment casting, welding,
creep-age forming and high-speed machining. This reduces the parts count and reduces assembly costs.
Life can be extended by new corrosion resistant coatings, but these must be environmentally friendly.
The round table discussion closing the meeting focussed on three main issues requiring further work:
integrating sub-structures into larger structures, cost-benefit issues of applying new materials and cost
reduction through "Qualification by Analysis".
Larger structures were discussed under the aspects of inspectability and damage tolerance. They may be
easier to inspect since they have less fasteners, less holes etc. However, large unit constructions do not
contain the crack stoppers inherent in smaller riveted components. This must be considered carefully in
design. Also the load path during failure will be different in these new units so substitution needs careful
stress analysis and full understanding of the failure modes.
However, these large parts will undoubtedly require coatings to protect them from corrosion and care
should be taken to ensure that this does not impair inspectability. Discussion raised the point that civil
aircraft experience more corrosion damage, although they are usually manufactured from similar materials.
For example, Dassault Aviation see more corrosion problems in business jets than in the Mirage, but
business jets fly about twice as many hours per year. British and Canadian experience has shown a high
incidence of corrosion in transports and maritime patrol aircraft, although this is often linked to poor design
and coating technology which reflects the age of the systems.
The balance of cost against benefit is an important issue. With the small fleet sizes of European airforces it
is difficult to introduce new materials to overcome ageing problems. The cost of re-certification testing is
too high for the potential benefit. Substitution only becomes an option when there is a serious problem
which would require part replacement several times through the life cycle of the aircraft. Since this
represents a significant barrier to the application of new materials, the options for removing this barrier
were discussed.
A change to a system of "Qualification by Analysis" would provide the step change necessary for materials
substitution. This topic has already been raised as a potential AVT Technical Team activity under ageing
systems. Certifying authorities insist on full structural tests for new flight-critical components. However
there is already some shift away from testing since new versions of aircraft can be approved if they are
extrapolations of existing designs and have appropriate laboratory and analytical data to support the new
design. Numerical stress analysis of designs is now relatively easy and accurate. However there is still poor
quantitative understanding of the effects of ageing and the definition of failure. Qualification by analysis
will need a full identification of all the possible failure modes and a risk assessment which quantifies the
most important areas of concern. These may change with time as the aircraft role is changed and if damage,
such as corrosion or inelastic strains start to affect the load paths in the structure. These are issues which
should be addressed in the life cycle management of the system.

les Nouveaux Materiaux metalliques pour les

structures des aeronefs d'ancienne generation
(RTO MP-25)

Synthese
Les performances structurales du materiel militaire doivent etre exceptionnelles. Or, les nouvelles methodes
de traitement et les materiaux avances offrent de nouvelles opportunites pour le choix des materiaux et la
conception des composants. Les communications presentees ont montre les possibilites des nouveaux
alliages metalliques et des materiaux composites pour 1'amelioration des performances et du cycle de vie
des cellules. Des elements plus grands peuvent desormais etre fabriques par le biais de procedes avances
tels que le moulage de precision, le soudage, le formage qui anticipe les effets du fluage et du
vieillissement, et l'usinage ultra-rapide. Ces procedes permettent de reduire le nombre de pieces et de
diminuer les cots de montage. Les nouveaux revetements resistant la corrosion permettent de prolonger
la duree de vie, mais doivent etre sans danger pour l'environnement.
La table ronde qui a cloture la reunion a porte essentiellement sur trois grands domaines pour lesquels il y a
lieu d'entreprendre des travaux supplementaires, savoir: l'integration des sous-structures dans des
structures plus grandes, la comparaison cots-avantages de la mise en oeuvre de nouveaux materiaux et la
reduction des cots par la qualification par l'analyse .
Les elements de grande dimension ont ete examines du point de vue de leur controlabilite et leur tolerance
l'endommagement. S'ils sont plus faciles controler (absence de fixations, moins d'ouvertures etc.), les
grands elements n'ont pas les arrets de crique habituellement integres aux composants rives plus petits. II
faut en tenir compte lors de la conception. De meme, les voies de contrainte en cas de defaillance seront
differentes pour les nouveaux ensembles ; par consequent tout remplacement doit etre precede d'une
analyse poussee des contraintes et les modes de defaillance doivent etre bien appreciees.
Cependant, ces grands ensembles devront certainement etre revetus d'une protection afin de les proteger
contre la corrosion, et cela ne doit pas compromettre leur controlabilite. II est ressorti des discussions que
les aeronefs civils subissent plus d'endommagements ds la corrosion que les avions militaires, bien
qu'en general, ils soient fabriques partir de materiaux analogues. A titre d'exemple, la compagnie
Dassault Aviation a releve plus de cas de corrosion sur les avions d'affaires reaction que sur les Mirages,
meme si les avions d'affaires effectuent deux fois plus d'heures de vol par an que les Mirages. L'experience
des britanniques et des canadiens montre que la corrosion se produit frequemment sur les aeronefs de
transport et de patrouille maritime, meme si ce phenomene est souvent lie des defauts de conception et
des technologies de revetement qui temoignent de l'ge des systemes.
Le compromis entre cots et avantages demeure une question importante. Etant donne les flottes
relativement reduites des armees de l'air europeennes, il est difficile, pour resoudre les problemes de
vieillissement, de mettre en place des nouveaux materiaux. En effet, les cots des essais en vue d'une
nouvelle certification sont trop eleves par rapport aux avantages possibles. Le remplacement ne peut etre
propose qu'en cas de problemes importants, necessitant le remplacement de pieces plusieurs fois pendant le
cycle de vie d'un aeronef. Etant donne que cel represente un obstacle serieux la mise en oeuvre des
nouveaux materiaux, les differentes possibilites d'elimination de cet obstacle ont ete abordees.
L'adoption d'un Systeme de Qualification par l'analyse serait un premier pas vers le necessaire
remplacement des materiaux. Ce sujet a dej ete propose pour une eventuelle activite d'une equipe
technique AVT dans le cadre des systemes vieillissants. Les autorites de certification imposent des essais
structuraux complets pour tout nouveau composant indispensable la securite. Cependant, les fabricants
font de moins en moins appel aux essais, puisque de nouvelles configurations peuvent etre approuvees dans
la mesure o il s'agit d'extrapolations d'etudes dej realisees et que la nouvelle conception soit etayee par
des donnees analytiques et des resultats d'essais en laboratoire. L'analyse numerique des contraintes est
aujourd'hui precise et simple realiser. Cependant, il n'existe que peu de donnees quantitatives sur les
effets du vieillissement et la definition de la defaillance. La mise en oeuvre generalisee de la qualification
par analyse passe par 1'identification detaillee de toutes les modes de defaillance possibles et une evaluation
des risques qui quantifie les domaines les plus preoccupants. Ces domaines risquent de changer avec le
temps, au fur et mesure que le role de 1'aeronef evolue, et en particulier si l'endommagement, par la
corrosion ou les contraintes inelastiques, commence modifier les voies de contrainte dans la structure.
Toutes ces questions sont aborder dans le cadre de l'examen de la gestion du cycle de vie d'un Systeme.

Contents
Page
Executive Summary

iii

Synthese

iv

Theme/Theme

vii

Publications of the RTO Applied Vehicle Technology Panel

viii

Workshop Programme Committee

Reference
Technical Evaluation Report
by M. Winstone

General Keynote
by P. Santini

SESSION I: OVERVIEW
The Need for New Materials in Aging Aircraft Structures
by R.J. Bucci, C.J. Warren and E.A. Starke, Jr.

1*

Implementation of New Materials on Aging Aircraft Structure

by L.K. Austin, M. van den Bergh, A. Cho and M. Niedzinski

2*

Technology Trends for Future Business Jet Airframe

by A. Rouquet and D. Chaumette

SESSION II: ALUMINUM ALLOYS AND COMPOSITES

Future Aluminium Technologies and their Application to Aircraft Structures
by J.B. Borradaile
Paper 5 withdrawn
Paper 6 withdrawn
RRA Heat Treatment of Large Al 7075-T6 Components
by R.T. Holt, M.D. Raizenne, W. Wallace and D.L. DuQuesnay
Paper 8 withdrawn
SESSION HI: PROCESSING, FATIGUE AND DURABILITY
Paper 9 withdrawn

* Paper was prepared in time for the meeting but was not presented.

Improved Durability Aluminium Alloys for Airframe Structures

by T. Warner, R. Dif, J.C. Ehrstrom and P. Lassince

10*

Studies on Long Term Durability of Aluminum Airframe Structure Made by Affordable

Process
by H. Hirohito and Y. Yasuaki

11

Plastic Envelope in Propagating Crack Wake on AI-Li Alloys Subjected to Fatigue Cycles
and to Different Heat Treatments
by S. Corradi, M. Marchetti and W. Stellino

12

Paper 13 withdrawn
A Framework for Corrosion Prediction and Management
by T.E. Steyer

14*

Advances in Protective Coatings and their Application to Ageing Aircraft

by CJ.E. Smith, M.S. Higgs and K.R. Baldwin

15

Paper was available at the time of the meeting but not presented.

Theme
Structural components of aging aircraft can be replaced with components manufactured from materials with
specifications of a higher qualification, thus enhancing various parameters including overall life cycle cost
(LCC). Recent research has led to development of several new materials, heat treatments and processing
technology which can be used for the replacement of components prone to corrosion, stress corrosion and
fatigue. Specific examples include: a new T77 heat treatment for 7150 alloy; a new alloy 7055, and new
processing to control composition and microstracture, e.g. 2524. New alloys have been developed, e.g.: high
strength aluminium lithium alloy 2195; fatigue resistant aluminium lithium alloy 2097; laminated hybrids of
aluminium and titanium alloys; Timetal 1100 for up to 1100-F; Ti62222 alloy; lower oxygen versions of
Ti-6A1-4V; new beta titanium alloys; improved metal matrix composites; high strength, high corrosion resistant
steels; improved Ni-Co alloys and low carbon steels.
These new materials and processes may add significant life to aging aircraft that form the backbone of the NATO
operational force structure: the KC-135, introduced more than 40 years ago; e.g. the F-15 air superiority fighter,
operational 20 to 25 years ago; the F-16 KC-10 became operational at least 15 years ago. Many are expected to
remain in service an additional 25 years or more. Maintaining them is based on economic and safety
considerations. Retrofitting damaged components with new advanced materials can considerably reduce life
cycle cost. NATO must consider the use of these new materials and the proposed workshop provides a unique
forum to discuss and further promote common approaches necessary for keeping international fleets.

Theme
Les composants structuraux des aeronefs en service depuis longtemps peuvent etre remplaces par des
composants fabriques partir de materiaux avec de meilleures specifications, en vue d'ameliorer certains
parametres tels que les cots globaux de possession (LCC). Les travaux de recherche recents ont conduit au
developpement de materiaux, de traitements thermiques et de technologies de transformation, dont la mise en
oeuvre permettrait de remplacer les composants sujets la corrosion, la corrosion sous contrainte, et la
fatigue. Parmi d'autres exemples il faut citer : un nouveau traitement thermique pour l'alliage 7150, un nouvel
alliage 7055, et de nouveaux traitements pour le controle de la composition et de la microstracture, par exemple
le 2524. Des nouveaux alliages ont ete developpes, par exemple l'alliage aluminium-lithium haute resistance
2195 ; l'alliage aluminium-lithium 2097 resistant la fatigue ; des hybrides stratifies d'alliages d'aluminium et
de titane; le Timetal 1100 pour des temperatures allant jusqu' 1100 F; l'alliage Ti62222 ; des versions de
Ti-6A1-4V teneur en oxygene reduite ; de nouveaux alliages beta titane ; des materiaux composites matrice
metallique ameliores ; des aciers anticorrosion haute resistance ; des alliages Ni-Co ameliores et des aciers
bas carbone.
Ces nouveaux materiaux et traitements devraient permettre de prolonger de facon appreciable la duree de vie des
aeronefs en service depuis longtemps qui composent l'essentiel des forces operationnelles de l'OTAN. Le
KC-135, dont l'entree en service date de plus de 40 ans, le F-15, avion de superiorite aerienne, operationnel
depuis 20 25 ans ; et le F-16, et le KC-10 entre en service il y a au moins 15 ans. Bon nombre de ces appareils
devront rester en service pendant encore 25 ans au moins. Leur maintenance\est tributaire de considerations de
securite et d'ordre economique. Le remplacement de composants endommages par des materiaux avances
permettrait de diminuer les cots globaux de possession de facon considerable. L'OTAN doit reflechir
1'utilisation de ces nouveaux materiaux et 1'atelier propose represente un forum unique pour la discussion et la
promotion continue d'approches communes du probleme de la conservation des flottes aeriennes internationales.

Publications of the RTO

Applied Vehicle Technology Panel
MEETING PROCEEDINGS (MP)
Design for Low Cost Operation and Support
MP-37, Spring 2000
Structural Aspects of Flexible Aircraft Control
MP-36, Spring 2000
Aerodynamic Design and Optimization of Flight Vehicles in a Concurrent Multi-Disciplinary Environment
MP-35, Spring 2000
Gas Turbine Operation and Technology for Land, Sea and Air Propulsion and Power Systems (Unclassified)
MP-34, Spring 2000
New Metallic Materials for the Structure of Aging Aircraft
MP-25, April 2000
Small Rocket Motors and Gas Generators for Land, Sea and Air Launched Weapons Systems
MP-23, April 2000
Application of Damage Tolerance Principles for Improved Airworthiness of Rotorcraft
MP-24, January 2000
Gas Turbine Engine Combustion, Emissions and Alternative Fuels
MP-14, June 1999
Fatigue in the Presence of Corrosion
MP-18, March 1999
Qualification of Life Extension Schemes for Engine Components
MP-17, March 1999
Fluid Dynamics Problems of Vehicles Operation Near or in the Air-Sea Interface
MP-15, February 1999
Design Principles and Methods for Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
MP-8, February 1999
Airframe Inspection Reliability under Field/Depot Conditions
MP-10, November 1998
Intelligent Processing of High Performance Materials
MP-9, November 1998
Exploitation of Structural Loads/Health Data for Reduced Cycle Costs
MP-7, November 1998
Missile Aerodynamics
MP-5, November 1998
EDUCATIONAL NOTES
Measurement Techniques for High Enthalpy and Plasma Flows
EN-8, April 2000
Development and Operation of UAVs for Military and Civil Applications
EN-9, April 2000
Planar Optical Measurements Methods for Gas Turbine Engine Life
EN-6, September 1999
High Order Methods for Computational Physics (published jointly with Springer-Verlag, Germanv)
EN-5, March 1999
Fluid Dynamics Research on Supersonic Aircraft
EN-4, November 1998
Integrated Multidisciplinary Design of High Pressure Multistage Compressor Systems
EN-1, September 1998

TECHNICAL REPORTS
Recommended Practices for Monitoring Gas Turbine Engine Life Consumption
TR-28, April 2000
Verification and Validation Data for Computational Unsteady Aerodynamics
TR-26, Spring 2000
A Feasibility Study of Collaborative Multi-facility Windtunnel Testing for CFD Validation
TR-27, December 1999

Workshop Programme Committee

Programme Committee
Chairman
Dr. E. Starke Jr
Materials Science
UVA Light Metals Center
Thornton Hall, Room B102
VA 22903-2442, USA

Programme Committee
Co-Chairman
Dr. J. Waldman
Dept. of Materials Engineering
Drexel University
32nd and Chestnut Streets
Charlottesville, Philadelphia
PA 19104, USA

CANADA
Dr. J-P. Immarigeon
Chief, Materials
Institute for Aerospace Research
National Research Council of Canada
Montreal Road
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6

PORTUGAL
Enga. Helena de Melo Carvalho
INETI - Department of Materials
Azinhaga dos Lameiros
A Estrada do Paco do Lumiar
1699 Lisbon Codex

FRANCE
I.P.A. P. Armando
Adj. Chef Dept. Etudes Generales
et Materiaux, DCAe/STPA
4, Av. Porte dTssy
00460 ARMEES

SPAIN
Dr. E. Sanchiz
Jefe Aerea de Programas
Subdireccion de Programas y
Sistemas Aeronautico - INTA
Carretera Torrejon-Ajalvir, Km 4
28850 Torrejon de Ardoz (Madrid)

Mr. Y. Barbaux
Chef Service Materiaux Metalliques
Aerospatiale
Centre de Recherches Louis Bleriot
12, rue Pasteur, B.P. 76
92152 Suresnes Cedex

Mr. R. Servent
Div. de Estructuras y Materiales
Laboratorio de Diseno y Analisis
Estructural - INTA
Carretera Torrejon Ajalvir, Km.4
28850 Torrejon de Ardoz (Madrid)

Mr. D. Chaumette
Chef Etudes Generales
Direction Technique Aeronef
Dassault Aviation
78, Quai Marcel Dassault
92214 Saint-Cloud
Dr. A. Lasalmonie
Departement YKO - SNECMA
Etablissements de Villaroche
77550 Moissy Cramayel
GERMANY
Dipl.-Ing. G. Gnther
Daimler-Benz Aerospace LMT 22
Postfach 80 11 60
81663 Munich
ITALY
Prof. M. Marchetti
Universita "La Sapienza"
Dipartimento Aerospaziale
Via Edossiana, 16
00184 Roma
Lt. Colonel G. Zennaro
c/o D.G.C.A.A.A.S.-13, DIV.
Viale dell'Universita, 4
00185 Roma

UNITED KINGDOM
Prof. R. Potter
Technical Directorate
Al Bldg, Room G030, CODY RLDC
DERA Farnborough
Hampshire GU14 0LX
Dr. M. Winstone
Technical Manager, SM2
Structure Materials Centre
Room 2008, Griffith Building (A7)
DERA, Ively Road
Farnborough, Hampshire, GUI4 0LX
Dr. T. Ronald
Deputy Director
Hypersonic Technology
Programme Office
WL/POP(HyTech)
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433-75433
Dr. D. Viechnicki
Chief Materials Div. US Army Re.Lab
Weapons & Materials Research
Directorate Attn: AMSRL-WM-M
Aberdeen Proving Ground
MD 21005-5069

T-l

Technical Evaluation Report

Dr. M. Winstone
Structural Materials Center
Room 2008, Griffith Building (A7)
DERA, Ively Road
Farnborough, Hampshire, GU14 OXL, United Kingdom
Summary
Due to the political situation the number of presentations was reduced from 15 to only 6, and the
audience for each session was smaller than expected, only 25-30. However, a very high quality of
papers was maintained and the technical content covered new alloys, processes, composites and
coatings, including both military and civil experience. Additional time was available for discussion of each
paper and the subsequent 'round table' discussion.
Advanced materials and processing methods are providing new options for materials selection and
component design. The papers presented showed how new metallic alloys and composite materials can
improve the performance and life of airframe structures. Larger units can be manufactured by improved
processes such as investment casting, welding, creep-age forming and high-speed machining. This
reduces the parts count and reduces assembly costs. Life can be extended by new corrosion resistant
coatings, but these must be environmentally friendly.
Round Table Discussion.
The discussion raised the important issues of NDE, inspectability and damage tolerance. Larger
structures may be easier to inspect since they have less fasteners, less holes etc. However, large unit
constructions do not contain the crack stoppers inherent in smaller riveted components. This must be
considered carefully in design. Also the load path during failure will be different in these new units so
substitution needs careful stress analysis and full understanding of the failure modes.
However, these large parts will undoubtedly require coatings to protect them from corrosion and care
should be taken to ensure that this does not impair inspectability. Discussion raised the point that civil
aircraft experience more corrosion damage, although they are usually manufactured from similar
materials. For example, Dassault Aviation see more corrosion problems in business jets than in the
Mirage, but business jets fly about twice as many hours per year. British and Canadian experience has
shown a high incidence of corrosion in transports and maritime patrol aircraft, although this is often linked
to poor design and coating technology which reflects the age of the systems.
The balance of cost against benefit is an important issue. With the small fleet sizes of European airforces
it is difficult to introduce new materials to overcome ageing problems. The cost of re-certification testing
is too high for the potential benefit. Substitution only becomes an option when there is a serious problem
which would require part replacement several times through the life cycle of the aircraft. Since this
represents a significant barrier to the application of new materials, the options for removing this barrier
were discussed.
A change to a system of 'Qualification by Analysis' would provide the step change necessary for
materials substitution. This topic has already been raised as a potential AVT Technical Team activity
under ageing systems. Certifying authorities insist on full structural tests .for new flight-critical
components. However there is already some shift away from testing since new versions of aircraft can
be approved if they are extrapolations of existing designs and have appropriate laboratory and analytical
data to support the new design. Numerical stress analysis of designs is now relatively easy and accurate.
However there is still poor quantitative understanding of the effects of ageing and the definition of failure.
Qualification by analysis will need a full identification of all the possible failure modes and a risk
assessment which quantifies the most important areas of concern. These may change with time as the
aircraft role is changed and if damage, such as corrosion or inelastic strains start to affect the load paths
in the structure. These are issues which should be addresses in the life cycle management of the
system.

K-l

AGING SYSTEMS IN AERONAUTICS AND SPACE

DAMAGE TOLERANCE IN HELICOPTERS
Paolo Santini
A Keynote Lecture
Spring 1999 Meeting on Aging Systems
North Atlantic Treatise Organization
Applied Vehicle Technology Panel
Corfu, Greece, April 1999

INTRODUCTION

coming needs and future trends in the area of

interest: for this kind of presentation it would

The aim of this keynote lecture should be that

be necessary to be able to predict the future,

of introducing the main (or, at least,the com-

because it happens very often that the future is

mon) features of the papers that will be pre-

not so smooth as everybody may imagine at the

sented during the Workshops that will take place

time of the lecture, and so, after a few years, or

in Corfou this week: Aging Aeronautical Systems, Life Extension for Helicopters,Propulsion

even a few months, needs and trends are com-

and Gas Generators for aerospace vehicles.

uous series of war actions in the Balkans and in

A keynote lecture may be given in several ways.

the Middle East, that may have a strong impact

The most obvious form is probably an overview

on the policy of the aeronautical production.

of the subjects that are to be discussed, trying

I have chosen another approach. When AGARD

to connect them together, so as to prepare the

was established, I had the chance to take part in

audience to a more detailed knowledge of them.

the first meeting in 1952, and I can well remem-

However, in this way one runs the risk of saying

ber the great expectations resting on the new

something that will be repeated much better

structure.

by the specific Authors, (and, often in a much

out the decades, attending many meetings of

poorer way than the Authors themselves), also

the Structures and Materials Panel, until I be-

because the time is in general very short.

came Panel Member in 1975 and, eventually,

Another way is to address and illustrate forth-

Panel Chairman during the period 1986-1988.

pletely different: a good example is the contin-

I then followed AGARD through-

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

K-2

I think therefore that it might be of some inter-

nized and allowed them rapid strategic move-

est to look to the past, in order to trace back the

ments of great armies. More recently Germany

historical development that led from the early

had a great advantage over the Allied Forces at

scope of AGARD to the current situation.

the beginning of the war, and when the technological supremacy passed on the other side,

THE HISTORICAL ROLE

OF THE TECHNOLOGY

Germany lost the war. And from this we learn

a lesson: technology is not only a matter of scientific advance, but also of capability of mass

In order to understand clearly the development

production and of organization.

of AGARD we must before all else try to recall

However the effect of technology on history is

some general circumstances, summarizing them

in two axioms.

not confined to military superiority only. Its

effect upon the quality of life is even more ev-

The first axiom is that HISTORY IS DRIVEN

ident.

BY TECHNOLOGY. This stems from two his-

The so-called neolithic revolution, producing a

torical facts.First of all, political supremacy is

much improved technology of stone artifacts,

retained by the States and by the political enti-

caused better methods for the stone-age man to

ties having a technological superiority with re-

acquire food, to cook it, to have better shelters,

spect to other groups.

whose consequence was a lengthening of the av-

There are several examples of this in history.

erage life expectation. Some historians consider

The Hittites of Asia Minor were a very small

the replacement of the double rigid yoke by the

nation, but they were subjugating and over-

single flexible yoke in the Middle Age as a very

whelming some much greater political groups,

since they were able to master iron metallurgy,
so that their carts were definitely superior to

import technological advance: as a matter of

fact, it caused an increase of agricultural efficiency by a factor of 3 to 5.

those of other surrounding populations.

Ac-

There is no need to emphasize the scientific and

cording to some historians, the military supe-

technological discoveries of the Renaissance, or

riority of the Spartans was in part due to the

the tremendous progresse that created a com-

fact that the waters of their rivers were colder

pletely new world in the 19.th century in the

than those of other regions of Greece, so that

wake of the Industrial Revolution. And what

their quenching gave better manufacts.

The

about present times where we have a continu-

Romans had a very efficient technology, in par-

ous increase not only of technological progress

ticular in civil engineering; they were first-class

but of its rate of growth. We live today in a

bridges and roads constructors, so their trans-

way which is completely different from what it

portation systems was exceptionally well orga-

was fifty, forty, and even thirty years ago: long

Again here we have several examples.

trips are possible almost for everybody, every

K-3

family has one or two cars, TV and radio keep

us informed in real time of the most extraordi-

THE DEVELOPMENT OF
AGARD

nary events: ladies at the age of 50-60 years are

still charming (due to the much reduced work

AGARD seems to have been well aware of, and

at home caused by modern appliances), and so

to have applied, the two axioms above.

on.

In 1949, in connection with the 'warmest' pe-

The second axiom is : TECHNOLOGY IS NOT

riod of the 'cold' war, NATO was founded (called

CULTURE. By no means do I mean that the

at that time the Atlantic Pact) with a declared

level of Technology is lower, but simply that

feature of military deterrent as a reaction to the

Technology and Culture are two different ex-

increasing armament of the Eastern Block. The

pressions of the human imagination, and must

first axiom was immediately clear to the top

be treated and considered differently. Culture is

men of the Western World; and, of course, one

a free expression of what the mankind feels, ei-

of the main concerns was relevant to Aeronau-

ther by reaction to the external world, or through

tics (Space at that time was almost unknown).

an internal elaboration: the best examples for

For this reason, some of the top scientists of

the latter being music (whatever music) and

the NATO countries were asked to meet and

mathematics. Neither stem from external stim-

to propose which kind of organization would

uli.
By contrast, technology cannot be free; it stems

have been most adequate to improve the level of

from human needs although in many cases industry creates those needs and imposes them:

field in western country.

There was a large meeting in Rome at the end

fifty years ago, nobody missed TV broadcast-

of 1952, attended by a great number of scien-

ing, today nobody could live without it.

tists; among them probably the most outstand-

Technology is not applied science, but an appli-

ing one was Theodore von Karman, a man of

cation of science, which is culture. That is the

great scientific prestige and great cultural level.

difference and there is a continuous transforma-

A typical mitteleuropean gentleman, he was the

research and of technology in the aeronautical

tion moving from science to technology: a vivid

Chairman of the Meeting. I am proud to say:

example is provided by the history of space-

I was there, and I took part, although unof-

flight, synthetized by this sequel: Tsiolkowsky,

ficially, in the foundation of AGARD. During

Oberth, Goddard, von Braun.

those days, I had the opportunity to talk several times with Karman; especially at lunchtime
we often sat together with Professor Broglio,
my mentor, and Karman illustrated us his ideas
on what the new organization should have been
like. In industry at that time there was very lit-

K-4

tie research, also because the requirements were

velopment of the basic sciences of Aeronautics,

not so stringent as today: and he thought that

and the beginning of the attention for Space.

a field such as aeronautics, in order to be com-

I will give just some examples. In 1957 there

petitive, should have been fed by science, by

was a famous Meeting of SMP in Copenhagen

culture. In thinking so, he applied the second

where the foundations of modern structural dy-

Axiom.

namics were laid down. In 1960 a Meeting of

Theodor von Karman was a volcano: every time

the same SMP in Rome was one of the first

we met he came out with new ideas. I saw him

Meetings dealing with the effect of kinetic heat-

personally drawing on a blackboard the word

ing upon structures, with special attention to

AGARDograph:

he drew up a first draft of

reentry: and it should be remembered that we

the future organization; he also chose the men

were in the very era of space challenge between

who should have been the leaders of AGARD,

USA and URSS, with the latter well ahead of

and most of them were scientists or Univer-

the former. And, again, a basic step in Flu-

sity Professors. Let me remember just some of

idodynamics was the famous meeting of FDP

them: Frank Malina, Frank Wattendorff, Luigi

in Scheveningen, Netherlands, with the first re-

Broglio. Antonio Ferri. Karman transferred the

sults and methodologies in hypersonics, again

same imagination to the other bodies he cre-

with an eye to Space; of particular interest were

ated in subsequent years and which are still in

the discussions and the forecast for future high

existence and florishing: ICAS (International

speed experimental facilities. And let me also

Council for Aeronautical Sciences), IAF (Inter-

remember the wonderful results in the field of

national Astronautical Federation), IAA (International Academy for Astronautics).

The following year AGARD was formally es-

Aeroelasticity, an activity that lasted for decades,

and that became a kind of permanent institution in SMP: and the great cooperative effort

tablished and the first Panels were formed. I

in this area, with the contribution of all the

remember the early steps of SMP, in 1955 with

Nations under the leadership of giants such as

Broglio as Chairman, and four members only;

Ashley, Kussner, Mazet; the discussions among

among them was Thurston, recently dead. A

them became a kind of social event!

great number of Members of the Panels came

I was appointed an official Member of SMP in

from the Universities, and brought their Uni-

1975, and since then I took an active role in

versity mental attitude into the activities which

proposing activities: I must say that AGARD

were being proposed.

was for me an invaluable vehicle of contact-

Thus the birth of AGARD was, in agreement

ing outstanding personalities in the aeronauti-

with Karman's ideas, almost an academic institution, where basic research had a very impor-

cal world. Also, my Department and my University took advantage,at a large extent, from

tant role. The 50's and the 60's saw a terrific de-

the exchange of ideas and of personnel through

K-5

the Support Program which I believe was very

day aviation practice.

This is an example of

beneficial not only to the supported nations but

what I believe was the invaluable contribution

to the supporting nations as well.

of AGARD.

However I noticed that the twenty years elapsed

In today's world much progress has been made

since the establishment of AGARD had basi-

in the past to improve our products. Now we

cally changed the objectives and the general

also have another need: preserve what we have

frame. Most of the Panel Members came from

acquired, avoiding wast. AGARD and, subse-

industry or from Air Force, and the subjects of

quently, RTA have followed such requirement;

investigations had gradually shifted towards ap-

this is the reason for the present Meeting on

plications: or, if you wish, towards Technology

aging aircraft.

or Engineering. I consider that a very positive

circumstance, since people like me were put di-

AGING AIRCRAFT

rectly in contact with the realities of the world

of production. At every Meeting I learned a les-

The age of the current aeronautical fleet can

son; and I hope that some of my colleagues of

best be appreciated by referring to statistical

the Panel also learned something from me.

value. Most of them refer to US data, which

I proposed several activities in SMP, also grad-

are probably the most updated and complete.

ually shifted from science to Technology. Not

In 1997, 46% of the commercial aircraft were

everything, of course, was quite satisfactory:

over 17 years of age, 28% over 20 years: the

one of my criticisms concerned the fact that an

average age for the major companies is reported

Aero- Space Panel had very minor Space Activ-

in Tab.I (from Ref.l).

ities. This was true also of other Panels. I was

invited once to chair a session in a meeting of
TAB: I

FMP centered on Space Flight and I was surprised to discover that the subjects were not as
up to-date as I would have thought.

Airline

Average Aircraft Age

(years)

As a Panel Deputy Chairman I was for two

years the Chairman of the Program Commit-

Alaska

7.6

tee, and thus I had the opportunity to have a

American

10.0

clearcut idea on what the general trend was,with

American West

11.0

an increasing shift towards more and more ap-

Continental

14.4

plied technology. F.i., I was rather surprised

Delta

12.2

when a subject like 'Painting Removal' was pro-

Northwest

19.9

posed. Now I am well convinced that Paint-

Southwest

8.8

ing Removal is of prime importance in every-

TWA

17.0

K-6

United

10.8

In 1996 another most famous accident occurred

US Airways

12.8

with the flight 800 TWA: the airplane was a Boing 747, 25 years old, 90000 flight hours, 18000

The expectations for the near future are of an

cycles, vs.the original design life of 60,000 hours,

increase of 70% in the next ten years, with a

and 20,000 cycles (Ref.(l)).

total of 12,000 new airliners to meet the demand

cause was attributed to an electrical malfunc-

in 2015, for a typical design life of 60,000 cycles.

tion followed by a spark in the fuel compart-

Probably already in 2001 2,500 US commercial

ment. This was followed by a five year project

airliners will be flying beyond the original life

to investigate and check nonstructural parts of

In this case the

span.

the airplanes, such as wiring, hydraulics, avionThe definition of 'aged' or 'aging' structure and/or ics, etc. Especially wiring seems to need careful
system would need a clear definition, which, on
maintenance and inspections (almost zero until
the contrary, is rather vague.We report, (from

few years ago). Now in a commercial airplane

Ref.2) two definitions as provided by ESA: Aged

there are miles and miles of wires and care-

Structure - A structure which may have struc-

ful and systematic inspections may cost several

tural degradation or damage as the result of

million dollars to a Company. Yet they are nec-

being exposed to the combined effects of the

essary.

environment.

On the other hand, it must be recognized that

Aging - The process of the effect t on mate-

maintaining old aircraft in service is a definitely

rials of exposure to an environment (elevated

positive factor from an economic viewpoint; f.i.,

temperature, ultraviolet radiation, moisture or

the current cost of an Airbus 300 would be of

other hostile environment) for a period of time.

the order of 100 million dollars, while refurbish-

The problem of aging aircraft has attracted the

ing an old airplane of a comparable capacity

attention of civil and military authorities since

could only cost 4 to 5 million dollars.

more than a decade. In general, the attention

Very similar problems apply to military fleets

and the need for new studies are prompted by

also. F.i., the United States Air Force has many

some spectacular accidents, which have a strong

old (20 to 35 years) aircraft that are the back-

impact on the public opinion.

bone of the total operational force, some of which

In 1988 a Boeing 737 of the Aloha Airlines, 19

will be retired and replaced with new aircraft.

ys.old, suffered from an accident caused by a

However, for the most part, replacements are a

fatigue failure in a panel of the fuselage: a flight

number of years away: for many aircraft, no re-

attendant was killed, and 171 passengers were

placements are planned and many are expected

injured .This accident was almost immediately

to remain in service for another 25 years or

followed by an action from FAA who established

more.

the NAAR (National Aging Aircraft Research).

considered likely to encounter aging problems,

Such aircraft have encountered or are

K-7

such as fatigue cracking, stress corrosion crack-

has hitherto been given by fatigue people, such

ing, corrosion and wear.

as structural dynamics and dynamic response.

For these reasons, Committees and Working Groups But it must be a completely new structural dywere formed within the Air Force scientific frame-

namics, not based on the conventional anality-

work, with the following objectives: (i) Iden-

cal methods, eigenfrequencies and modes, but

tify and correct structural deterioration that

rather on the need of predicting stress concen-

could threaten aircraft safety; (ii) prevent and

trations arising from dynamic effects and fol-

minimize structural deterioration that could be-

lowing cracks under dynamic conditions. I am

come an excessive economic burden or could ad-

sorry for not being able to illustrate other im-

versely affect force readiness, in terms of perfor-

portant suggestions that can be derived from

mances; (iii) predict, for the purpose of future

the list for lack of space.

force planning, when the maintenance burden

But the subject of aging aircraft is so impor-

will become so high or the aircraft availability

tant that there is a sure need in the future of

so poor that it will no longer be viable to retain

specialized technical staff in this area. Appro-

the aircraft in the inventory.

priate courses of formation have been designed,

The Committee arrived at Near Term and Long

with the aim of providing the attendees with

- Term Research Recommendations, and pro-

the necessary knowledge: an example is given

duced a rather lengthy list of items to address

in Ref. (4-5). Specialists in aging airplanes will

the attention to.

become in the future a new professional profile.

This list can be found in

Ref.(3) (it would be too long to reproduce it

here): looking at it, we can see that there is
room not only for technology, but also for basic research, and for items that are prone to be

DAMAGE TOLERANCE ISSUES

completely re-invented.

The life of a structural component is limited

It is very instructive to have a look at the items

by the effects of its usage history, which may

of the list. First of all we have the confirma-

consist of cyclic loads, fluctuations in tempera-

tion of the prime role of corrosion in defining

ture,etc. In the past, and also today , several

the lifetime of an airplane.This well known to

design philosophies have been introduced into

everybody, except perhaps for the 'size' of this

current practice, and among them damage tol-

role. As a matter of fact, corrosion is a social

erance has probably become one of the most

problem : it costs about 100 billions USD per

prominent in aircraft industry (Ref. (6)).

year to United States, almost 300 dollars per

I shall not dare to give a general overview on

citizen. And USAF is responsible for about 10%

what damage tolerance concept is. I just will

of this figure. Furthermore we see other fields

confine myself to recall - or try to imagine- why

to which, in my opinion, insufficient attention

K-8

there is a special need to treat damage tolerance

supplement mathematical models, providing in-

as applied to helicopters in a very special way.

formation that no theory whatever can provide

As said, the life of a structural component de-

: theory must provide detailed information that

pends on its usage, which varies from one type

no experiment can provide.Although the last

of flying machine to another. There is however

statement is more difficult to accept, there are

a general agreement that critically loaded com-

several examples validating it (e.g., in Fluid Dy-

ponents such as engine rotors or landing gears

namics) .

can have shorter replacement intervals. In any

And again, I must say, damage tolerance in he-

case, the usage profile must describe the vari-

licopters is a good example on how increasing

ous flight conditions, and the amount of time

industrial needs stimulate basic research.

spent at each gross weight, speed, and altitude,

which define the load factor spectrum, and subsequently dictate the inspection intervals.

PROPULSION

There is no need to illustrate how much the en-

I am not an expert in Propulsion: I am simply

vironmental spectra for an helicopter is different

an admirer of it. I have already mentioned the

from that of an airplane. Considerable effort is

names of the pioneers of Spaceflight, which is

needed on loads generation, and determination

one of the top conquests of man : for all of them

of material data. Also, this is a field where the-

Spaceflight was identical with Propulsion. And,

oretical investigation must also be accompanied

by experimental data.

possible when sufficient thrust was made avail-

Let me clarify this concept in some detail. In

the past there has always been a dichotomy:

able to scientists. This is very often, not to say

too often, forgotten today.

theory vs. experiments, the former being looked

Most recently, because of economic problems,

as a matter of fact, space activities only became

at rather suspiciously. The two activities were

as happens more and more frequently today, the

almost independent of each other, and the opti-

subject of small rocket motors has become in-

mum was reached when there was a satisfac-

creasingly popular. In this Symposium atten-

tory (not always well-defined) agreement be-

tion is focused on the specific goals of NATO

tween the two results. With the advent of com-

and on the relevant applications. All the main

puters, 'theory' has been replaced by 'mathe-

features of the problems are examined with re-

matical model'and everybody is happy, but the

spect to weapon systems. And here a further

dicotomy has not yet been fully overcome. It

remark is appropriate: in the history of techno-

is my opinion that the two activities must be

logical development, military applications have

viewed not from the point of 'mutual check' but

very often led the way to a more general use

from that of 'mutual integration'. Experimen-

of the progress achieved.My hope and my mes-

tal data for a specific problem or design must

sage is that this will be the case also for this

K-9

4. UCLA University "Structural Integrity of

Conference.

New and Aging Metallic Aircraft"

CONCLUSION

We have two main conclusions to draw. The

5. Fatigue Concepts "Aging Aircraft Course,

FAX: +1 (916) 933-3361 1 (800) 342-7225

first that we are at an era in which we redis-

6. M.P.Kaplan, T.A.Wolff "Life Extension

cover a new feature of Technology: the Tech-

and Damage Tolerance of Aircraft, ASM

nology of restoring, refurbishing, reusing the

Handbook, Vol.19, Fatigue and Fracture,

system created by the human imagination in

pp.557-565, 1996.

the recent past. Second, that such operations

of re-whatever we must use Science and Culture again, although in a different (and probably more advanced) way than in the past.

Paolo Santini

references
1. "Aging Aircraft In Our Skies", Internet
Address airtravel.about.com., Jan-10-1998
2. AA.VV. " Structural Materials and Space
Engineering", ESA, PSS-03-121, issue 1
3. Committee on Aging of U.S Air Force Aircraft, National Materials Advisory Board
" Aging of U.S. Air Force Aircraft", National Academy Press, Washington D.C.
1997

1-1

THE NEED FOR NEW MATERIALS IN AGING AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES

R.J. Bucci and C.J. Warren
Aluminum Company of America
Alcoa Center, PA 15069 USA
E.A. Starke, Jr.
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, VA 22903 USA
SUMMARY
The end of the Cold War and political and economic considerations has resulted in an
effort to extend the life of many aircraft that are the backbone of NATO operational
forces. Although some are designated to be replaced with new aircraft the replacement
schedule of many often requires an unprecedented life span of between 40 to 60 years
before retirement. Many of the older aircraft have encountered, or can be expected to
encounter, aging problems such as fatigue cracking, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion
and wear. In order to ensure continued airworthiness and flight safety the structural
components undergoing these problems will have to be repaired or replaced. Alloy
development that has taken place since a large percentage of the older aircraft were put
into service has resulted in several new materials, heat treatments and processing
technology that can be used for appropriate longer lasting and higher performing airframe
components thus reducing life-cycle costs. This paper describes some of these materials
and their advantages over those suffering from "aging problems."
1.

INTRODUCTION

In 1996 the U.S. Air Force requested the National Research Council (NRC) to identify
research and development needs and opportunities to support the continued operations of
their aging aircraft. The results of this study, which was undertaken by a committee
selected by the National Materials Advisory Board of the NRC, were published in the
Committee's final report in 1997.1 Among the many recommendations made by the
Committee, one was to develop guidelines to broaden the application of improved
materials as substitutes for incumbents with low damage tolerance and corrosion
resistance. Such substitutions must make good business sense with respect to reduction
in life-cycle costs and materials availability. Examples of reducing the life-cycle cost by
implementing new materials on aging aircraft structure are given in the paper by Austin
et al in this proceedings.2
The U.S. Air Force, as well as the air forces of other NATO countries, has many old
aircraft that form the backbone of the total operational force structure. Many of these,
e.g. the KC-135, the B-52, and the C-141were introduced into service in the 1950s and
1960s. Even the F-15 air superiority fighter became operational 20 to 25 years ago and
the F-16 and KC-10 jet trainer at least 15 years ago. The extended use of these aircraft,
Paper prepared for the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

1-2

in conjunction with frequent changes in mission requirements, results in increased

maintenance and repair costs associated with structural cracking and corrosion problems
which are, in most cases, associated with aluminum alloys and tempers developed prior
to 1960.
Structural (fatigue) cracking is a direct result of aircraft use; i.e. load or stress cycles, and
will eventually occur in all aircraft. Corrosion results from the exposure of susceptible
materials to various corrosive environments, e.g. humid air, saltwater, sump tank water
and latrine leakage, and to inadequate or deterioration of corrosion protection systems. In
the case of aluminum primary structure, numerous service difficulties have been
documented on components manufactured from alloys 2024-T3, 7075-T6, 7178-T6 and
7079-T6. For example, in order to minimize structural weight and thus maximize
payload capability of the KC-135, the Air Force elected to use 7178-T6 in the lower wing
skins and 7075-T6 in other locations in the aircraft. These alloys were designed to
emphasize strength and have low damage tolerance. In 1977 the Air Force recommended
that the wings be redesigned using more damage tolerant 2024-T3 and also recommended
cold working fastener holes in the remaining 7178-T6. However, there is currently
concern about the long-term effectiveness of the cold worked fastener holes and
structural deterioration of the 2024-T3 due to exfoliation corrosion and multi-site
corrosion-fatigue damage.1
Research since 1960 has led to the development of several new aluminum alloys, heat
treatments and processing methods that offer more damage tolerant and corrosion
resistant alternatives for airframe components than those that were used in the older
aircraft. The overaged T73 and T76 tempers were developed in the early 1960s to make
7075 more corrosion resistant to stress corrosion cracking and to exfoliation corrosion:
however, the improvement obtained is at the expense of strength. In 1974 Cina obtained a
patent3 specifically targeted at 7075, for a heat treatment procedure to provide stress
corrosion resistance equivalent to an overaged T73 temper while maintaining the peakaged strength. Although the concept, called retrogression and re-aging (RRA). seemed
industrially impractical at the time, derivative tempers have been taken to practice as will
be discussed in the paper by Holt et al in this proceedings.4 In the 1970s alloy 7050-T74
was developed to fill the need for a material that would develop high strength in thick
section products, good resistance to exfoliation corrosion and stress corrosion cracking,
and adequate fracture toughness and fatigue characteristics. Also, in the 1970s a
derivative of 7075, i.e. 7475, was developed that provided improved fracture toughness
compared with 7075. In the 1980s a new generation of low density Al-Li alloys, e.g..
2090, 8090 and 2091, was developed that offered alternatives, other than increasing"
strength, for reducing structural weight. During the past decade new improvements have
evolved to address the alloy limitations found in pre-1980s aircraft and if used in
retrofitting will result in maintenance schedules similar to that required for new aircraft.
The purpose of this paper is to review some recent advances in derivative alloys that have
occurred primarily through the use of a very large scientific knowledge base and tighter
chemistry and process controls. The newer alloys offer useful improvements in product

1-3

performance, quality and reliability and can be applied to aging aircraft problems to
dramatically reduce maintenance costs.

2. RECENT ADVANCES IN DERIVATIVE ALLOYS AND TEMPERS

2.1 Improvements in Strength, Corrosion Resistance and Toughness
During the retrofitting of aging aircraft the substitution of alloys with equivalent strength
but with higher corrosion resistance and fracture toughness will extend maintenance
schedules, decrease down time, and reduce costs. As mentioned previously, RRA offered
promise to achieve this goal. In the 1980s work by Wallace and co-workers5"7 showed
that beneficial retrogression and re-aging (RRA) effects can be obtained in large
components if the retrogression temperatures are below 200 C for 7075. Hepples et al
showed that RRA 7150 using commercially viable thermal process routes can provide
material with peak strength and high resistance to SCC and exfoliation corrosion. Based
on the RRA concept, Alcoa developed the T77 temper for 7XXX alloys, e.g. 7150. The
improvement in the increase in combination of strength/corrosion resistance via the T77
temper process is illustrated in Figure 1.
Alloy 7150-T77 has higher strength with durability and damage tolerance characteristics
matching or exceeding those of 7050-T76. Boeing selected extrusions of 7150-T77 as
fuselage stringers for the upper and lower lobes of the 777 jetliner because of the superior
combination of strength, corrosion and SCC characteristics and fracture toughness. Alloy
7150-T77 plate and extrusions are also being used on the new C17 cargo transport.
Improved fracture toughness of 7150-T77 products is attributed to the controlled volume
fraction of coarse intermetallic particles and unrecrystallized grain structure, while the
combination of strength and corrosion characteristics is attributed to the size and spatial
distribution and the copper content of the strengthening precipitates.9 The improvement
in properties using the new temper, relative to older alloys and tempers, is illustrated in
Figure 2.
Alloy 7055 was developed by Alcoa for compressively loaded structures.10 Alloy 7055T77 plate and extrusions offer a strength increase of about 10% relative to that of 715016 (almost 30% higher than that of 7075-T76). These products provide a high resistance
to exfoliation corrosion similar to that of 7075-T76 with fracture toughness and resistance
to the growth of fatigue cracks similar to that of 7150-T6. In contrast to the usual loss in
toughness of 7XXX products at low temperatures, fracture toughness of 7055-T77 at
-65F (22K) is similar to that at room temperature. Resistance to SCC is intermediate to
those of 7075-T6 and 7150-T77 products. A comparison of properties of these 7XXX
alloys is given in Table 1. The attractive combination of properties of 7055-T77 is
attributed to its high ratio of Zn:Mg and Cu:Mg. When aged to T77 this composition
provides a microstructure at and near grain boundaries that is resistant to intergranular
fracture and to intergranular corrosion. The matrix microstructure is resistive to strain
localization while producing a high strength. Alloy 7055-T7751 is used for the skin of
the upper wing surface of the Boeing 777. The improved strength-toughness properties of
newer alloys and tempers, relative to the older ones, are illustrated in Figure 3.

1-4

2.2 Improvements in Damage Tolerance and Multiple Site Damage

The service life of an airframe can potentially introduce multi-site damage (MSD) states
such as widespread fatigue or widespread corrosion that may imperil the structural
integrity of the aircraft. For this case, the inspection intervals set by standard residual
strength and damage tolerant design that are normally directed at the presence of a single
crack, are inadequate. This realization and the desire for reliable, longer lasting aircraft
with lower maintenance costs has given rise to requirements that non-pristine or aging
structure be accounted for in maintenance strategies.11 This philosophical shift creates the
opportunity for affordable, replacement materials that can not only resist the occurrence
of multi-site damage, but which offer improved structural damage tolerance when MSD
is present.
The occurrence of widespread damage sites can be associated with the intrinsic
characteristics of the material microstructure.12 Material microstructural sites prone to the
development of crack-like damage, attributable to corrosion or fatigue, can be associated
with particles, inclusions, pores, and grain boundaries.13 While these features are
necessarily a part of the material, the character of these features can be altered through
composition and process modifications while still meeting the required material strength
performance characteristics.14
Machined structures from plate thicker than three inches is often used to reduce part
count and assembly costs associated with built-up components manufactured from
thinner material. However, since the thicker plate undergoes less work than thin products
there is a higher probability that porosity developed during the casting operation will not
be sealed. Obviously, the high porosity material has a poorer fatigue performance than
low porosity material. There has been continuous process refinement in the production of
thick plate since the early 1980s that has reduced porosity as well as particle and
inclusion size. Consequently, the fatigue lifetime of products produced from the more
recent material, even for a one-to-one substitution, should be longer than products
produced from pre-1980 material. The effect of the process refinement on the fatigue
lifetime of 7050-T7451 is illustrated in Figure 4.
Alloy 2024-T3 sheet is often selected for wing and fuselage skins for its superior damage
tolerance properties when compared to higher strength 7XXX products. A derivative of
2024-T3, 2524-T3, was recently developed by Alcoa15 and offers improvement in
strength/fracture toughness (approximately 15-20%) and fatigue crack growth resistance
(2X) over 2024-T3, Table 2. The improvement was achieved through very tight controls
on composition and processing based on the knowledge that constituents associated with
Fe and Si impurities lower fracture toughness16'19 and have an adverse effect on both
fatigue crack initiation13 and fatigue crack growth resistance.20 Coarse primary phases
formed when solubility limits are exceeded at the solution heat treatment temperature (or
those formed during hot rolling and not re-dissolved during subsequent processing) have
a similar effect.21 Consequently, tight controls on chemistry, i.e. low levels of Fe and Si,
balancing the Cu and Mg content to produce maximum strength without exceeding
solubility limits at the solution heat treatment temperature,22 and a controlled processing
schedule are all necessary.21 In controlling the Cu and Mg contents, the levels of Fe, Si

1-5

and Mn in the alloy have to be considered since the constituent phases in 2X24 are
usually Al7Cu2Fe, AIi2(Fe,Mn)3Si, Al6(Fe,Cu) and the dispersoid is Al20Cu2Mn. The
effect of fewer and smaller constituent particles on fatigue initiating corrosion pits is
illustrated in Figure 5.
The fatigue crack growth advantage that 2524 has over 2024 enables an increase in
operating stress, which offers a weight saving opportunity that may also accommodate
mission changes that have occurred in older aircraft. This improvement also allows for
an increase in inspection interval which translates to lower operating costs. Inspections
are easier since larger crack sizes can be tolerated and longer critical crack lengths
translate to an increase in safety. The effect of skin alloy and operating stress on
inspectable crack growth life is illustrated in Figure 6 for a longitudinal fuselage skin
crack under an intact frame. Also, 2524 body skin offers substantial residual strength and
cyclic life improvements over 2024 in multi-site damage scenarios, Figure 7. The fatigue
advantage of 2524 over that of 2024 caries over to corroded material as illustrated in
Figure 8. The higher toughness and greater resistance to fatigue crack growth of 2524
resulted in the elimination of tear straps in a weight-efficient manner on the Boeing 777.
2.3 Reductions in Density and Improved Fatigue Crack Growth Resistance
The second generation of Al-Li alloys (the first being the Alcoa alloy 2020) were
developed in the 1970s (alloy 1420 in Russia) and the 1980s (alloys 2090, 2091, and
8090). The Al-Mg-Li alloy 1420 and the Al-Li-Cu-X alloys 2090 and 8090 are now in
service in the MIG 29, the EH1 helicopter and the C17 transport. Alloy 1420 has only
moderate strength and the Al-Li-Cu alloys (which contain approximately 2% lithium)
have a number of technical problems, which include excessive anisotropy of mechanical
properties, crack deviations, a low stress-corrosion threshold and less than desirable
ductility and fracture toughness. Newer Al-Li alloys have been developed that have
lower lithium concentrations than 8090, 2090 and 2091. These alloys do not appear to
suffer from the same technical problems. The first of the newer generation was Weldalite
049 (2094) which can attain a yield strength as high as 700 MPa and an associated
elongation of 10%. A refinement of the original alloy, 2195 which has a lower copper
content, is now being used for the U.S. Space Shuttle Super-Light-Weight Tank. Alloy
2195 replaced 2219 and, along with a new structural design, saved 7,500 pounds on the
60,000-pound tank. This allows an increased payload for the Shuttle and reduces the
number of flights necessary for the construction of the International Space Station, thus
saving millions of dollars.
Three other recent derivatives of the third generation of Al-Li alloys are 2096, 2097 and
2197. They contain lower copper and slightly higher lithium content compared to 2024.
Alloys 2097 and 2197 contain a very low Mg content to improve SCC resistance and Mn
to prevent strain localization normally associated with the shearable ALjLi present in the
higher Li-containing alloys. Alloy 2097/2197 was recently selected2 for replacing 2124,
which had fatigue problems, for bulkheads on the F16. Alloy 2097 has a 5% density
advantage over 2124 and at least 3 times better spectrum fatigue behavior or
approximately 15% higher spectrum fatigue stress allowable. Although Al-Li alloys are
more expensive than conventional aluminum alloys, the replacement of 2124 by 2097 for

1-6

the BL 19 Longeron of the F16 doubles the service life of the part, saving over twentyone million dollars for the fleet of 850 USAF aircraft.2 Engine access cover stiffeners,
currently made from 2124, are also being replaced by Al-Li alloys due to their better
fatigue life. This is an excellent example of retrofitting with improved materials for
reducing life-cycle costs as described by Austin et al.2
3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Older aircraft can be retrofitted with new materials providing improved DADT when
compared to the materials used during the original manufacture of older aircraft. A few
scenarios for exploiting the potential benefits of new material replacements are given in
Table 3. Continuous improved and derivative variants of existing alloys have the
broadest utilization potential. Many of these materials are already flying on new aircraft,
e.g., the Boeing 777 and/or have been used for retrofitting aircraft e.g. the F-16. Some
alloys may be considered as "preferred equivalents*' to their predecessors regardless of
application, e.g., 2524 for 2024, and others may be considered "preferred replacements"
within limits, e.g. 7XXX-T7X for 7075-T6. However, in order to facilitate retrofitting of
aging aircraft with new materials, a generic material substitution system is needed for
rapid/broad implementation of the best material solutions. This system should include
ways to improve the efficiency of the substitution process by substantiating new materials
as "preferred replacements," by approving the alloy substitution matrix, and by defining
opportunities and cost/benefit trades for replacement scenarios. In addition, the repair
and maintenance centers should stock qualified substitutes in order to reduce down time
for retrofitting.

REFERENCES
1. Aging of U.S. Air Force Aircraft, Final Report, Publication NMAB-488-2, National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1997.
2. Austin, L.K., B. Van den Bergh, A. Cho, and M. Niedzinski, "Implementation of
New Materials on Aging Aircraft Structure." This Proceedings.
3. Cina, B.M., U.S. Patent No. 3,856,584, 1974.
4. Holt, R.T., M.D., Raizenne, W. Wallace and D.L. DuQuesnay, "RRA Heat Treatment
of Large 7075-T6 Components," This Proceedings.
5. Rajan, D., W. Wallace, and J.C. Beddoes, J. Mater. Sei., Vol. 17, 1982, p. 2817.
6. Islam, M.U. and W. Wallace, Metals Techn.. Vol. 10, 1983, p. 386.
7. Islam, M.U. and W. Wallace, Metals Techn. Vol. 11, 1984, p. 320.
8. Hepples, W., M.R. Jarrett, J.S. Compton and N J.H. Holroyd, in EnvironmentalInduced Cracking ofMetals, eds. R.P. Gangloff and M.B. Ives, ASM, NACE, TMS,
1988, p. 383.
9. Starke, E.A., Jr. and J.T. Staley, Progress in Aerospace Sciences, Vol. 32, 1996, p.
131.
10. Lukasak, D.A., and R.M. Hart, "Aluminum Alloy Development Efforts for
Compression Dominated Structure of Aircraft,'* Society of Allied Weight Engineers,
Inc., Paper No. 1985, 1991.
11. Bray, G.H., R.J. Bucci, M. Kulak, C.J. Warren, A.F. Grandt, Jr., P.J. Golden and D.G.
Sexton, "Benefits of Improved Fuselage Skin Sheet Alloy 2524-T3 in Multi-Site

1-7

Damage Scenarios," to be published in the proceedings of The Second Joint

NASA/FAADoD Conference on Aging Aircraft, 1998, Williamsburg, VA.
12. Gran, R.J., F.U. Orazio, Jr., P.C. Paris, G.R. Irwin and R.W. Hertzbert, "Investigation
and Analysis Development of Early Life Aircraft Structural Failures," AFFDL-TR70-149, U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, Wright Patterson AFB, OH.
13. Bucci, G. Nordmark and E.A. Starke, Jr., ASM Handbook, Vol. 19, Fatigue and
Fracture, 1996, p. 771.
14. Magnusen, P.E., R.J. Bucci, A.J. Hinkle, J.R. Brockenbrough and H.J. Konish, Int. J.
Fatugue, Vol. 19, Supp. No. 1,1997, p. S275.
15. Colvin, E.L.. J.J. Petit, R.W. Westerlund and P.E. Magnusen. U.S. Patent No.
5,213,639,1993.
16. Quist, W.E., -'Effect of Composition on the Fracture Properties of Aluminum Alloy
7178," MSc Thesis, University of Washington, 1993.
17. Anderson, W.E. and W.E. Quist, U.S. Patent No. 3,284,193,1996.
18. Carmen, CM., ^Fracture Toughness of High Strength Materials: Theory and
Practice," Iron and Steel Institute Publication 120, 1970, p. 110.
19. Staley, J.T., "Fracture Toughness and Microstructure of High Strength Aluminum
Alloys," The Metallurgical Society of AIME, 1974.
20. Carmen, CM., D.F. Armiento and H. Markus, Proc. First Intl. Conf. On Fracture,
Japan, BIII-4, 1965.
21. Hyatt, M.V., "Program to Improve the Fracture Toughness and Fatigue Resistance of
Aluminum Sheet and Plate for Airframe Applications," Boeing Commercial Airplane
Company, Technical Report AFML-TR-73-224, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
1973.
22. Cassada, W.A. and M.F. Bartholomeusz, Materials Science Forum, Vol. 217-222,
1996, p. 1765.

Table 1. Longitudinal Property Comparison in One Inch 7XXX Plate

sec
Alloy
Temper
7075-T651
7150-T7751
7055-T7751

UTS TYS CYS

(ksi) (ksi) (ksi)
76
69
66
84
78
77
89
86
85

El
(%)

6
8
7

Kic
ksi(in)172
20*
22
21

ASTM
Exco
rating
ED*
EB
EC

ASTM
G47@ 20
days (ksi)
10*
25
15*

Typical

Table 2. Typical Mechanical Properties for 2524-T3 and 2024-T3 Sheet in the Longtransverse Direction.
Alloy

2524-T3

2024-T3

Thickness
(mm)

UTS
(MPa)

TYS
(MPa)

Elong

0.81-1.59
1.60-3.26
3.27-6.32
0.81 - 1.59
1.60-3.26
3.27-6.32

420
441
441
427
448
448

303
310
303
296
310
310

19
21
22
18
19
19

(%)

Kc
MPaml/2
174

da/dN@AK-33b
(mm/cycle)

141

6.9x10--

2x10-3

a) M(T) specimen, T-L orientation, W = 40.6 cm (16 inch), 2ao= 10.2 cm

(4 inch) tested per ASTM B 646.
b) T-L orientation, tested per ASTM E 647 under constant A K conditions,
R = 0.1, relative humidity > 90%.

1-9

Table 3. Possible Scenarios for Exploiting the Potential Benefits of New Materials
Repair
Option
Identical
component/
material
replacement
Form-fit
function
(material
upgrade)
Re-optimize
with material
upgrade

Primary
Requirement
Maintain safety

Potential
Benefits

&

Straightforward

get it flying

Potential
Disadvantages
"Prolongs the
agony" with high
repeat repair costs

Requires M&P,
Reduce cost of Some capture of
design and analysis
new materials
maintenance,
expertise
benefits
improve
readiness
All of the above Greater capture of Requires extensive
M&P, design,
new materials
plus
fabrication,
analysis
benefits
performance
expertise
Full capture of
Total redesign Maximize lifeRequires full OEM
best available
with new
cycle economics
capabilities
concept
technology
& performance

Time/Risks
Resources
Lowest

Moderate

Moderate

to
high

Highest

Strength/corrosion standard 7xxx

Strength/corrosion
7XXX-T77

Corrosion resistance increasing -

Figure 1. Improvement in strength/corrosion combination due to the T77 temper.

1-10

100
7055-T7751
777
77
7178-T651
/
707
7150-T651
/r7150-T7751
pf *
157/761 D^D _ C17
7075-T651
7075-T651
J7150-T6151
B29
^47X
^T7Jf1#A3MMMDH
2324-T39
779-T6S2D B ^Q.23
B737
B52
7075-T7651
7075-T735l/ L10U

90
S 80 -

70

9
a

60

"S

Corrosion Resistance
O Low
Medium
High
p Low toughness

DC10

55 50-

Q 2024-T3
DC 3

40

2017-T4
Junkers F13

30
1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Year first used in airplane

Figure 2. Comparison of strength and corrosion resistance of various aluminum
aerospace all as a function of year first used in airplane.

200
Fuselage (777)
2524-T3 0

150 -

2024-T3
2024-T351

n
^SL

737/757/767

"Better

.747-
- 777

2324-T39/2224-T3511
-O

3 Z5,

% 100 -

50 -

7150-T651
O
7075-T651
Older Products
O Recent Products
p.

40

UPP^Wing

-757/767
- 737-300/400/500
- 747-4W

50

7178-T651'

v
70

60
80
Tensile Yield Strength, ksi

- 777
- 737-700/80

7055-T7751
O
D
7150-T77511
Body stringers
-777

Courtesy of Boeing

90

Figure 3. Comparison of fracture toughness/yield strength of older products with

newer aluminum products.

100

1.0

7050-T7451
.
0.8 thick plate
Early
80's
0.6
am= 35 ksl

0.4

nCO
n
o
hm

OL

CO
3

1-11

Thin plate
ij} (upper limit)
45 ksl

05"

0.2

2J0"

6J-H

iuai.v-3om

U Orientation
172 Location

0.0
10<

*6
10

105

10'

108

Fatigue Lifetime (cycles)

Figure 4. Improvement in fatigue lifetime of 7050-T7451 due to process refinement.
100-,
9080200

7060-

8150
3

50-

1a 100

40-

3
Z

3050 -

2010125

225

Particle Size (urn2)

Comparison of constituent particle
distribution In 2024 and 2524 sheet
(0.125 In. thk.,L^ST plane)

0.010

1
I ' ' ' ' i
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
Failure Initiating Pit Depth, ia

Cumulative failure-initiating pit-depth*

distributions In 2024 and 2524 sheet
* measured In plan of specimen fracture

Figure 5. Effect of constituent particle distribution on fatigue-initiating pits.

1-12

Example: Longitudinal fuselage skin crack under Intact frame

T

7075-T62 frame
/

17

*f>

|+- 16 In. -t\

inrtSfLi

-"f

'- 2a-V
- 2524-T3, or 2024-T3 skin
Fatigue crack grows due to
hoop prassurtzatlon stress
Max cyclic stress (Omax) a
12 to 15 ksi, R 0,1
Initial damage 2ao a 2 In.

-L
8
12
No. flights (thousands)
A

16

Figure 6. Effect of skin alloy and operating stress on crack growth life.

1 20

'" -*\ hotel V32 In. dla.,

0.05
0.1
MSD flaw size (in.)

0.15

0.05

MSD Flaw Size (in.)

Figure 7. Residual strength and cyclic life capabilities of 2524-T3 and 2024-T3 skin
sheet (clad, 0.05 in. thk.) in wide, multi-holed panels with central lead crack and
varying size MSD cracks (two per hole).

0.1

1-13

2524 uncorroded

60

2024 uncorroded
50

Uncorr. 2524, 2024, Fat. Str. = 51ksi

40

2524 corroded
2024 corroded

Cn_2524, FatS tr. * 34 ksij,

30

Corr. 2024TFt."Sfr! 30 ksi"

20
10000

....

100000

1000000

Cycles to Failure
Figure 8. Axial S/N fatigue performance of 2024-T3 and 2524-T3 bare sheet (0.124
in. thk.) with and without prior corrosion.

2-1

Implementation of New Materials on Aging Aircraft Structure

L.K. Austin, Lockheed Martin Tactical Aircraft Systems
Box 748, Mail Zone 1720, Ft. Worth, TX 76101, USA
M. van den Bergh, DWA Aluminum Composites, Chatsworth, CA
A. Cho, McCook Metals Ltd, Chicago, IL
M. Niedzinski, McCook Metals Ltd, Chicago, IL
Numerous advances in new materials such as aluminum-lithium alloys, discontinuously
reinforced aluminum composites, elevated temperature alloys, and other materials have
occurred over the last several decades by academia, industry, and government laboratories
around the world. However, implementation of these materials for primary aircraft
structure have been infrequent due to several key issues, including alloy suitability for the
required service environment, deficiencies in microstructure/properties, implementation
timing, as well as end-user/customer acceptance of new materials. Two material systems
that have been implemented through a team of Lockheed Martin Tactical Aircraft
Systems, DWA Aluminum Composites,McCook Metals Ltd (formerly Reynolds Metals
Co.), and U.S. Air Force engineers include 6092/SiC/17.5p-T6 Discontinuously
Reinforced Aluminum (DRA) sheet and 2297-T861 Aluminum-Lithium plate. This paper
provides a background on successful technology transitions in the commercial sector,
descriptions of the development and building-block testing of the DRA and AlLi
materials, and lessons learned on the successful implementation of these two materials on
existing aircraft structure.
Introduction
High performance aircraft require a myriad of materials technologies to meet the
performance, weight, and affordability standards required by the end-user. Over the past
thirty years, the number of new materials systems that the materials industry designs has
surpassed the available resources to qualify and/or implement these materials into aircraft.
Some systems did not live up to the projected expectations. Early disappointments with
aluminum alloys containing relatively high lithium contents (>2%) created a significant
impediment to qualifying new lithium containing alloys. Similarly, reinforced powder
metallurgy alloys experienced several early set-backs arising from scale-up and property
shortfalls in the area of fracture toughness. High temperature aluminum alloys have not
yet enjoyed the success of high volume usage on aircraft systems. In general terms, the
road to implementation seems rather long, as illustrated in Table 1. ("Bringing New
Materials to Market", Tech. Review, Feb/Mar 1995, pp43-49)

Paper prepared for the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

2-2

Table 0-1. 20 Years from Invention to Commercialization

^..^.^....^....^^v

"T"

|
i

Materials
Technology

,,.,.-,,.,.-,.

Invention

* * . * .^., ->

i
Widespread
S Commercialization

1839

Late 1850*8

1886

Early 1900's

1938

Early 1960's

MW1940's

Early 1960's

Valero

i
1

Early 1950's

Early 1970's

Polycarbonate pullet Proof Glass)

19S3

I
!

About 1970

!
S

GaUtum Arsenide

MM 1960's

Mk)1980'8

Diamond-Like Thin Films

1!

Earty 1990's

Early 1990's

Early 1990's

'

i
i
j

Vulcanized Rubber

Teflon

Titanium (Structural Uses)

Low-Cost Aluminum

Amorphous Soft Magnetic Materials

I
I..,

Early 1990's

With the materials in Table 1, it took on average twenty years from invention to
widespread commercialization. Today, materials producers can expect a ten year cycle to
fully qualify a material system for structural applications. As mentioned previously,
several new systems that showed promise were dropped from implementation
consideration. Figure 1 shows a schematic criteria map for materials from initial research
and development through production implementation.
Initial R&D
Lab Scale Performance Evaluation
Production Scale-Up

Examples of
Why Technology
Was Dropped:
Concept Not Valid
Deficiency Found
Not Amenable to Scale Up
Program Need Goes away
Niche Material
Missed Implementation Timing
High Cost

Figure 0-1. Examples of Techology Downselection Criteria

Technology
Succeeds:
Valid Concept
Scale Up Success
Funding Available
Real Problem Exists
Customer Acceptance
ROI Acceptable

2-3

The list of materials implementation challenges seems rather ominous, however, successful
implementation of new materials have occurred recently on Lockheed Martin fighter
aircraft. These technology insertion opportunities have been an excellent example of
industry/government/producer team work. The materials for discussion include a
moderate strength Al-Li alloy (2297) and a moderate strength discontinuously reinforced
aluminum alloy (6092/17.5p/SiC). Each of these materials are in either full-scale
production or are in the process of being qualified for a Lockheed Martin Tactical Aircraft
System aircraft.
Discussion
Al-Li Alloy 2297
2297 was initially developed in 1988 under a cooperative research arrangement between
Lockheed Martin and McCook Metals, LLC (formerly Reynolds Metals). The impetus
for the development was to produce a thick section, reduced density material that had the
strength, thermal stability, fracture toughness, isotropy, and corrosion resistance of 2124
plate alloys up to 6 inches. While organic composites have eclipsed metals in two
dimensional loading applications such as fighter aircraft skins, acceptable composites for
three dimensional loading has proven to be a difficult challenge. Therefore, investing in
new metallic structure for highly loaded bulkheads seemed a promising area of research
and development. Following several years of alloy development, coupon testing,
corrosion testing, and scale-up activities, structural testing was conducted on the main
landing gear bulkhead for the F-16 Block 25. Figure 2 shows the outstanding spectrum
fatigue behavior demonstrated in the full scale test articles.
0.5
0.4

Correlated Life Prediction

(Aft Inboard Stiffener)

CO

M<J

a o.3
o
g 0.2
J
u.
u
2 01
U
0.0

5K

10K

15K

20K

25K

Flight Hours to Failure

Figure 0-2. F-16 Bulkhead Spectrum Fatigue Results for 2297 Plate

Another key aspect of this testing was to demonstrate that the material behavior was
congruent with current fatigue life prediction methodologies. As shown in Figure 3, the
coupon testing and component testing resulted in higher stress allowables for the 2297
material compared to even higher strength alloys like 7050-T7451.

2-4
" ^Sanflt'ni'l^piiiutU Ir^tlft fcweicirowtr Bit
In 4" 9. 21 7 TS plilt tn t-T

*BAII4M1<*I
i

i 1111

'ITIIIII

r"

Mixed Mode Fracture Toughness

11 Spec
3 Lot
All Orientations

Spectrum Crack Growth

>2* Spootmen*
All Orientation

Data K (pat >}

da/dN

Static Properties

18-JO00#Lot
>BOSpatimm
All Orientation

>2OO2000 ut*
>6,000 9peclmani
All Orientation

82OQ0#Ut
>40 Specimen
SKtLeveb
All Oriontation
4 2000 Lots
>50 Specimen
All Orientation

DaDT Allowables Example

L/T=20%
t = 0.2tf'
holedla = OJ25"

Forman Equation
LOOPIN
Retardation Factors I
F-16 Component
Correlation

28.9 ksi
23.5 ksi
% Load Transfer

Figure 0-3. 2297 Demonstrated Predicable Fatigue Performance

In addition to the main landing gear bulkhead component testing, full-scale aircraft strain
surveys and flight evaluation was conducted at Hill Air Force Base as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 0-4. Strain Survey of AI-Li Bulkhead at Lockheed Martin TAS

All of the testing was successful and resulted in additional testing for other bulkhead
applications such as the aft-most bulkhead on pre-block 40 F-16's as shown in Figure 5.
Testing of this bulkhead in a fully-reversed aircraft spectrum resulted in similar 3 to 5X life
improvements as shown in Figure 2.

2-5

Figure 0-5. Aft Bulkhead Spectrum Fatigue Testing.

As a result of this successful product development program, over 2 million pounds of

2297 plate have been manufactured for use on F-16 spares and new production. ROI
discussions will be provided in a later section.
6092/17.5p/SiC Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum
At the same time as the development of the Alii alloy, Lockheed Martin was pursuing
high stiffness materials for use in secondary structure applications. DRA materials
produced via the powder metallurgy route as shown in Figure 6, offertailorable properties
depending on reinforcement type and amount.
Blend
Raw Materials

Vacuum
Hot-Press

Secondary
Processlna

Discontinuously Reinforced
Aluminum (DRA)

Extrude
Roll
Forqe
Al Powder

Extrusion Ratio = 373:1

Figure 0-6. DRA Processing Schematic

Other DRA materials have been developed over the years, but the toughness and
elongation-to-failure were always a concern for safety-of-flight applications. Lockheed
Martin and DWA Aluminum Composites participated in a joint development program to
produce a moderate strength, higher toughness material that would meet most secondary
structure applications. Following a successful development effort, the 6092 chemistry was
selected for scale-up under a "Title IIF program under Air Force direction. The Title III
program provided allowables testing, fatigue testing, and corrosion testing of production

2-6

material to provide an "on-ramp" for production applications. Alloy benefits are

summarized in Figures 7 through 9.

Specific Modulus ofDRA, Aluminum, & Titanium

WffiK

20

i Resistance
Wear/Erosion Resistance
Reduced Thermal Expansion

18

ft

BE

200

E/p

175

1b

*~ 14

T 12
3
3 10

S B

III

II

6
4

1i

||

II

150

H
H

Al

DRA

125 3

100 5

|
|

50

75

25

Ti

Figure 0-7. DRA Benefits

Material System.
Form
Temper
thickness (in)
Density
Basis
F,tu(ksi>
L
LT
F.tyftsi)
L
LT
F, cy (ksi)
L
LT
F, su (ksD
L
LT
F, bru (ksi)
L,(e/D=1.5)..
L, (e/D= 2.0>...
LT, (e/D=1.5).
LT, (e/D= 2.0).
F, bry (ks
L, (e/D=1.5)..
L, (e/D= 2.0)...
LT, (e/D=l.S).
LT, (e/D= 2.0).
e, (percent)
L
LT
E, t (msi)
L
LT
E, c (msi)
L
LT
CTE, (ppm/F)
L
LT

6092/SC/17.5p
Sheet
T-6
.040
.101 lb/in
Average

6092/SiC/17.5p
Sheet
T-6
.060
.101 lb/in
Average

6092/SiC/17.5p
Sheet
T-6
.080
.101 lb/in
Average

6092/SiC/17.5p
Sheet
T-6
.100
.101 lb/in
Average

6092/SiC/17.5p
Sheet
T-6
.125
.101 lb/in
Average

69
66

67
65

66
65

67
66

67
70

58
54

58
52

56
52

57
53

57
53

71
66

66
63

56
56

59
56

62
59

44
44

43
43

42
42

42
42

43
42

119
157
117
156

118
150
114
152

109
144
108
142

106
139
110
139

107
140
104
136

117
147
116
147

116
144
112
145

101
125
100
123

100
124
101
122

100
122
95
119

7
7

8
8

14.6
14.7

14.7
14.4

14.7
14.7

14.7
14.7

14.7
14.7

14.1
13.9

14.3
14.0

14.3
14.0

14.5
14.5

14.1
14.2

9.3
9.1

9.4
9.2

9.3
9.2

9.1
9.4

9.3
9.1

Figure 0-8. DRA Mechanical Properties

o
ft
V)

2-7

Figure 0-10. Flight Testing of DRA Ventral Fin at RNLAF

SS^ptP^^^;1

SKfJSf^Wttl

-fflftSiistalnmentEnhancedThrough
> 4:1 Service Lite Extension

DRA Reduces Ventral Fin Peak

Deflections By More Than 50%
"Time History" Plot Deflections for
Ventral Fin Throttle Chops

W Al Blk 40 Rn
m DRA Blk 40 Fin + Nose Cap

NTanituredOn Existing OO-ALC

Repair Line
- Supports Field Level Repair
5

10

PSD Sequence Number

Figure 0-11. DRA Improved Dynamic Response of Ventral Fins

2-8

As a result of the successful flight testing on ventral fins, other opportunities to

demonstrate the material's higher bearing allowable and higheistiffeness were successfully
conducted. F-16 fuel access covers were flight tested inconjuntion with an improved
fastening system and demonstrated as much as a 40% reduction in the peak stress levels
on the F-16 upper skin as shown in Figure 12.

f^B^^^^f^^
Up to 38% Peak Stres Reduction In
Upper Skin
Predicted Durability Life Exceeds
8,000 Hrs

Figure 0-12. DRA Fuel Access Cover Benefits

As a result of these activities, over 200 shipsets of ventral fin skins have been produced at
DWA Aluminum Composites for spares applications.
Cost Benefits Analysis
In each of the implementation efforts discussed, the material implementation would not
have happened if the return on investment (ROI) was not financially sound. Figures 13-15
give the initial ROI estimates for these applications. The ROI has actually improved since
material prices have fallen on both the 2297 and DRA materials once production quantities
have been produced.

2-9
80
AL-T
70

OT-L

60
~ 50
c

c1

2 40
o
* 30
20
10

.000

.100

.050

'

.150

.200

.250

Sheet Thickness (in)

Figure 0-9. DRA Fracture Toughness

As a part of the Title III program, industry participants were selected to provide potential
applications for testing and/or full-scale evaluation. LMTAS elected to demonstrate the
material on F-16 ventral fin skin manufacturing. The ventral fins are subjected to a highly
dynamic environment due to inlet spillage and the various stores arrangements typical in a
fighter aircraft. Increasing the stiffness and aerodynamics of the ventral fin skins without
increasing the weight, was empirically shown to provide a significant reduction in stress
and increase in part life. Flight testing was conducted at the Royal Netherlands Air Force
with the support of NLR to document the effect of utilizing DRA skins on a Block 15
aircraft as shown in Figure 10. Flight test results verified the empirical analysis and
showed a 50% decrease in in-flight deflections (Figure 11).

2-10

Spares Rework Costs at Depot

Total Rework/Spares Cost

Current

New Design

$3200

$6391

Maintenance Costs Analysis (8000 Hr Service Life)

Inspection
Maintenance/Replacement Cost
Total Costs
Downtime Caused by Maintenance

$66,900
$16,000(5X)
$82,900
2343 Mhrs

$59,820
$0 (OX)
$59,820
745 Mhrs

rWfcbted Savings W
(900 New Ventral Fins)
Figure 0-13. DRA Ventral Fin Cost Analysis

Cost To Replace
Kit
Labor
Projected #
Total Fleet Cost
(850 USAF)

2124

2X97

$15K
$35K
3X

$25K
$35K
IX

$127.5M $51M

Projected Cost Savings = $76.5M

Figure 0-14. 2297 Bulkhead Cost Analysis

CONCLUSIONS
Two successful materials implementation efforts have been described: 2297 AluminumLithium plate products and 6092/17.5p/SiC Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum. The
success of both of these activities were a result of an industry/government/producer team
that provided a viable material that was successfully scale-up to production quantities,
provided predictable mechanical properties for design, was demonstrated in full-scale test
articles, and was successfully applied to aircraft flight test efforts. The ROI for each
material provided significant cost avoidance for the end-user.

3-1

Technology trends for future Business Jet Airframe

A . Rouquet and D. Chaumette
Dassault Aviation - France
78, Quai Marcel Marcel Dassault
92552 Saint-Cloud Cedex 300 - France

SUMMARY

2. USE OF METALLIC SUBSTRUCTURE CONCEPT

IN RELATION TO COMPOSITE DESIGNS

Today's aerospace market is extremely tough ; the constant

quest for reduced production cost in existing airframes may
provide an opportunity for introducing new technologies
through re-engineering of structural component.

Organic composites such as carbon / epoxy have strong

benefits compared to build up metallic structures:
- potential weight saving (up to 30%)

This paper higlight the approach used at Dassault Aviation

for the Falcon business jet family.
Withing the "technologies patchwork", choices and solutions
are reviewed and discussed using examples.

- corrosion resistance : carbon / epoxy parts are unaffected

by corrosion . This can be a significant cost maintenance
saving for example on a composite pressurised fuselage.
- fatigue resistance : composite are much stronger in fatigue
than metallic materials.

1. GENERAL
Several new technologies are under study at DassaultAviation for their possible application, first to improve
aircraft currently in production ( Falcon 900B and 900EX ,
Falcon 2000 and Falcon 50EX), and later on future models.

But they have also negative aspects ( to be assessed and

minimised).

Introduction of new technology is not an objective by itself.

Dassault approach (see fig 1 ) is that a new technology will
be introduced only if it provides better value for money for
the customer. Or the value side of the balance, safety is
always top of the list and never to be compromised ; the
other main components of value are dependability,
performances (payload, range, speed )and comfort.

- impact damage susceptibility :

Safety
Dependability

Fixed & Recurrent costs

Acquisition cost
operation & maintenance costs

Performance
Comfort

Value for money balance

figl
On the cost side of the balance are acquisition cost ,
operation and maintenance costs.
To achieve such objective, two of the rules used are :
- One is to maximise the "family effect", i.e. to introduce
new technology preferably on parts common to several
makes of Falcons, in order to spread development cost on
large production runs and also to save on recurring cost by
being earlier down the learning curve.

- Low performance for tridimensional loading (ie : fittings)

- repairability:
- cost of the raw material : to recover this initial cost,
savings must be sought in "design for manufacturing" using
, more integrated design diminishing part count and
assembly man-hours , and dedicated new manufacturing
techniques for example Resin Transfer Moulding of dry
fibre preforms. In this respect use of new metallic
substructures concepts are a way of designing innovatives
structures with a good integration of metallic and composite
component.
The philosophy is to design simple and robust structures
trading one part of the possible weight saving in exchange
of good impact damage resistance, easy manufacturing and
repairability.
A good example of application of all theses concepts is the
re-engineering for the Falcon horizontal tailplane, common
to all types of Falcons ( F 50, F 900, F 2000 ).
Existing design is a conventional riveted aluminium
structure as shown figure 2 .

- Another one is to asses and minimise all possible negative

effects of a candidate new technology .

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

3-2

Fig 2
From the 3D CATIA model, a pattern was first produced by
stereolithography, (the use of strereolithography diminishes
development time for prototype) a conventional wax model

^^\L.,
vs?<xzitjsix*z

MsMm

Fig 5
will be used for serie production ; the next step shows the
ceramic shell mold ; post casting operations including hot
isostatic pressing (HIP) represent a significant portion of
cost of producing investment casting.

New design is shown figure 3.

leading edge remains the original aluminium one

despite trials on low cost titanium SPFDB structure.

The reduction of part count and assemblies is quite obvious

permitting significant savings in production cost.

BBSS
gB

Titane

The first horizontal tailplane (prototype) has been

manufactured and is being tested with the objective of
being certified within this year and being introduced in
production line.

Fig 3
It comprises :

3. USE OF METALLIC UNITIZED STRUCTURES.

3.1 - Large size casting

- carbon / epoxy skins, monolithic with some cocured hat

stiffeners . The upper surface is a single panel from tip to
tip.
- three spars by side , produced by Resin Transfer Molding
and integrating some stiffeners and fittings.

For the designer, castings offers numerous advantages

compared to conventional build-up structures:
- design freedom
allows thin walled complex parts
reduce parts and fasteners count

- one structural central box consisting in one large titanium

(6-4) casting integrating all the attachment fittings
(see fig 4)
This part has been produced by investment casting process
( see figure 5).

In contrast the use of large size casting result in difficulties

dealing with dimensional tolerances.
Passenger door of Falcon 900 and Falcon 2000 is a
conventional build up structure of aluminium sheet metal
parts riveted together, (see fig 6 )

Fig 6
Fig 4

3-3

The idea is there to simplify the structure by replacing all the

build up internal structure by a single aluminium cast frame
as shown in figure 7.produced by vacuum assisted sand
casting.

- Pitch control surfaces

(common to Falcons 50, 900, 2000).
In this case, conventional aluminium build up structure will
be replaced by a much simpler design using integrally
stiffened panels.

4. CONCLUSION
Dassault-Aviation is keen to improve the competitiveness of
its products, and for this purpose to introduce new
technologies, quipping into mind than all aspects must be
properly accounted for, including maintenance.

Fig 7
3.2 - High speed machining
The advent of very high speed machining with very high
RPM spindle is providing two benefits : first the reduction in
milling time, second the possibility to go down to very thin
skins without cracking or buckling the part during
machining.. That opens the way to cost efficient and weight
efficient applications.
Two examples are in development:
Airbrake (common to Falcons 50, 900, 2000)
The
initial design (aluminium skin bonded on
aluminium honeycomb core ) will be replaced by one
single integrally stiffened part (see figure 8) with a
drastic reduction in part count.

W
BEFOHEI AFTER

fig8

:(>*

3-4

Paper 3
Question by Mr. Woithe
Have you examples of modification of aircraft parts resulting from fatigue problems
in service.
Author's reply
Very few examples at Dassault
replacement of some wing main spars on some MIRAGE III
replacement of straker fitting on Mirage F1

Question by Mr. Lincoln

Are casting factors used for design? Has there been any experience with shell
inclusions in Ti castings?
Author's reply
There is no casting factor for Titanium 6.4 castings. But in the case of the Falcon
horizontal tailplane the titanium fitting has ample static margins because it is
replacing aluminium fitting of the same dimensions. All the titanium cast parts are
HIP treated and we have had no problem up to now, for example a titanium cast
fitting used on the Mirage 2000.
Question by Frank Abdi
What is the margin of safety for fatigue of composite? is traditional I.S. safety
considered?
Author's reply
Margin of I.S. is considered only for plane stress. In that case fatigue is never a
problem due to the excellent strength of carbon epoxy composites.
Residual strength after impact is often the design device.

4-1

Future Aluminium Technologies and their Application to Aircraft Structures

J.B.Borradaile
Mechanical Sciences Sector, A7 Building
Defence Evaluation and Research Agency
Farnborough, Hampshire GUI4 OLX
United Kingdom

1. Introduction
Aluminium remains a predominant material for airframes.
Carbon fibre composites and titanium alloys have made
inroads especially in some military airframes such as Typhoon
and Tornado. However with affordability now having equal
emphasis to the classical performance requirements in aircraft
design, such as speed, range, payload and stealth, aluminium
could soon recover some of these applications. Aerospace
manufacturers are giving significant attention to developments
in the areas of new aluminium materials, low cost
manufacturing and unitised structures. The latter is because
the cost of producing aircraft is being driven by the cost of
assembly which drives production towards fewer, cheaper-toassemble parts, whilst maintaining close tolerance in
manufacture.
2. Emerging trends in aluminium based materials
Currently, the main aluminium alloys used by the UK airframe
manufacturers are the high strength Al-Zn alloys 7050, 7150
and 7010 primarily used in strength critical structures and the
damage tolerant Al-Cu alloys 2024, 2014 for fatigue critical
applications. There are occasional exceptions to this such as
superplastic 7475 on Typhoon and high temperature 2618 on
Concorde but overall these materials predominate. Thus there
is immediate scope for introducing the new higher strength AlZn alloys such as 7055 and 7449, the new higher toughness
Al-Cu alloys 2024A and 2524 and the new high stiffness,
lower density Al-Li alloy 8090 into new airframe applications.
These alloys should be able to deliver improved performance
fairly readily with the Al-Li alloy particularly being able to
offer a 10-15% weight saving providing that the cost premium
can be tolerated.( Note 7055, 7449 and 2524 are single
sourced which raises commercial issues also.)
The developments on aluminium based materials are
progressing on a number of fronts and include strength
improvements to Al-Zn and Al-Li alloys, damage tolerance
improvements to Al-Cu and Al-Li alloys, high temperature
aluminium alloys, high stiffness particulate aluminium matrix
composites and the hybrid laminates such as GLARE .
2.1.Strength Improvements to Al-Zn and Al-Li alloys
The composition and thermal processing of 7XXX is being
further optimised to meet requirements for upper wing skin and
extruded stringers. Higher Zn additions (>8% and similar to
7055 and 7449) have improved attainable compressive
strength (-10%) at no penalty to toughness and work
continues on the optimisation of these alloys. The improved
heat treatment practices such as the retrogression and reageing
treatments have improved the stress corrosion cracking and
exfoliation resistance compared to 7150-T651.

The alternative to the use of the high strength Al-Zn alloys at

very high levels of compressive strength would be the
adoption of a high strength Al-Li alloy where the combination
of the reduced density and extra stiffness could be taken to
offset the need for a very high compressive yield strength.
Two UK potential alloy options are available, the first which
has stemmed from the Brite-Euram (HSALLI) programme is
B13 and the second which has come from MOD research is
the isotropic alloy X.
The US Al-Li alloy 2195 (Weldalite) appears to be a cost
effective replacement for 2219 in weldable space structures
(cryogenic tanks) because its high strength provides superior
weight savings. (1) However the material is still heavy relative
to normal Al-Li alloys.
2.2.Damage Tolerance Improvements to Al-Cu, Al-Mg
and Al-Li alloys
Pechiney (2) have been developing a copper rich 6XXX series
alloy that is aimed at replacing 2024-T351. The material
offers significantly improved intergranular corrosion
resistance and weldability over 2024-T351 at equivalent
strength, fracture toughness and fatigue crack growth
resistance.
ALCOA (1) have been developing a weldable Al-Mg-Sc alloy
intended for use as thin section fuselage components, both
sheet and extrusions. The claimed advantages include
improved corrosion resistance and lower density when
compared with current 2XXX alloys. They have also been
developing a modified 2XXX with minimal recrystallisation
for thin (and thick) extruded applications to replace
2024/2224. They claim higher strength, minimal machining
and improved damage tolerance.
Sumitomo Light Metal Industries, Japan (3) have developed a
Al-Mg-Si-Cu alloy with similar properties to 2024-T351 but
with the added advantage of good formability and corrosion
resistance of 6XXX series alloys. The pressure deck beam of
an aircraft was extruded from this alloy. This alloy in a T6511
condition was stronger than 2024 and offered better corrosion
resistance. The cost saving of the beam using this extrusion
was estimated at 29%.
The UK has been developing dilute Al-Cu-Mg alloys which
have demonstrated exceptional damage tolerance in an
artificially aged condition and which should provide damage
tolerance in a creep aged condition.
The US Al-Li alloy 2097 has good fatigue resistance and is
targeted at bulkheads where it should eliminate the need for
periodic replacement of 2124, which can develop fatigue
cracks..(4) Application to F16 appears to be underway on a
case specific basis.

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

4-2

A new UK alloy ALFSOTATS (Aluminium Lithium Fuselage

Sheet Optimised for Toughness and Thermal Stability) has
been developed which combines dilute composition and a
novel heat treatment to produce a material of superior fracture
toughness than 2024-T3. (5) The material is targeted at large
civil type fuselages.
2.3 The high temperature aluminium alloys
A recent Brite-Euram programme has developed an
aluminium alloy for use at 150C using conventional ingot
metallurgy. The new alloy, designated 2650, derived from
2618 through the optimisation of the chemical composition
presents improved mechanical properties, mainly toughness
and creep, compared to 2618 alloy which up to now has been
considered as the reference for elevated temperature
applications.
US work on high temperature aluminium alloys for supersonic
transport applications has been reported by NASA and
Lockheed-Martin. Weldalite alloys RX818 and ML377 and
ALCOA alloys C415 and C416 were examined. Better creep
properties were exhibited compared to 2618. (6)
A current Brite-Euram programme is developing an
aluminium alloy for 200C plus temperatures using both
rapidly solidified aluminium powder and mechanical alloying
techniques. The alloy is still in the research phase.
2.4. Spraycast A Hoys
Osprey Metals have extended the work done by Alusuisse and
Alcan and are now producing a very high strength spraycast
7XXX alloys for commercial evaluation, in billets up to
100kg. (7) The alloy has a Zn content of 11.5% and is
believed currently to be the highest strength commercially
available 7XXX alloy.
2.5.Mechanical Alloyed Materials
The UK high stiffness particulate metal matrix composites, for
example, AMC225xe, produced by mechanical alloying using
an Al-Cu alloy base have progressed to small scale
commercial production. The material demonstrates gains in
specific stiffness approaching 50% and possesses reasonable
ductilities.
The mechanically alloyed Al-Mg-Li alloy, AMC 500, which
was derived from 5091 has excellent mechanical properties
and corrosion resistance and does not require heat treatment.
The material offers an 8% density reduction and 15% increase
in elastic modulus compared to 7XXX series. The elimination
of the final heat treatment is attractive in terms of
manufacturing procedures, quench sensitivity, distortion and
costs. There are issues around scale up but industrial interest
in the material appears substantial.
2.5. The hybrid laminates such as GLARE
US work on the fibre reinforced aluminium laminates has
continued. The target for second generation GLARE laminates
appears to be a civil type fuselage crown where weight
savings may be possible with improved durability and damage
tolerance.(l)

3. Emerging trends in aluminium manufacturing

technology
Manufacturing represents about 95 % of the cost of the
airframe, and ways to reduce costs and simplify production are
being vigorously pursued. Efforts to reduce the number of
fasteners and part count has focused on the design of unitised
structures, near-net shape forming, high-speed machining and
joining technologies particularly friction stir welding. The cost
effective processes such as high strain-rate superplastic
forming, creep forming and casting are also receiving
considerable attention.
3.1 Unitised integrally stiffened structures
Cost savings of 40 to 50 % may be possible with alternative
design approaches that use integral and welded structures to
replace the conventional built-up structures.
Boeing, Northrop Grumman, ALCOA, and NASA in the US
(8) and British Aerospace, British Aluminium, and Wyman
Gordon in the UK are involved in producing integrally
stiffened aluminium panels and addressing the crack
propagation issues. Two manufacturing techniques are being
investigated, machining from solid and extrusion.
3.1.1 High Speed Machining from thick plate
Whilst numerically controlled machinery is a well established
process, the advent of high speed machining to produce
structural components from thick aluminium plates offers a
number of advantages. These include reduced make-span time,
consistent quality and the ability to machine thin walled
components.
Historically, the balance of properties such as strength,
damage tolerance, corrosion resistance and low residual stress
required for aerospace applications were difficult to achieve in
thick gauges where slow quench rates and low deformations
dominate. However, ultra thick plate materials greater than
150 mm are currently under consideration for large
components.
Pechiney have proposed an alloy designated 7040 with lower
magnesium and copper levels to reduce quench sensitivity jn
thick sections.(9) Century Aluminium are offering 7050 plate
up to 200 mm thick with a class A ultrasonic standard and
mechanical properties only marginally reduced from those of
150 mm.(10) ALCOA are also developing thick 7050-T74
material.
BF Goodrich has developed the 'Grid-Lock' structural system
in which a cellular structure is produced rather cleverly from
machined, interlocking components.(11)
3.1.2. Extrusion
It is possible to extrude wide panels with integral stiffeners
and this technology has been applied to transport aircraft in
the former Soviet Union where the facilities to produce such
extrusions exist.
Both Boeing and NASA are considering extruded integral
stiffened panels as opposed to riveted aluminium skin and
stringer construction or integral machined thick plate.
Furthermore the two companies are also involved in joint

4-3

ventures with The Welding Institute (TWI)) and anticipate

using a friction stir welded structure in space launch vehicles
in the near future.

this area. The overriding factor is whether lower wing skins

can be formed by this process whilst retaining sufficient
damage tolerance.

Closer tolerances in the extrusions are being investigated to

reduce costs by minimising the extra operations involved with
fitting mating parts.

3.5 Shape Castings

3.2 Joining
Technologies to join stiffeners to the sheet metal components,
extruded section to extruded section and produce the large
integrally stiffened structures are being actively investigated.
Recent progress has resulted in an increase of confidence in
the potential application of welding to primary structures.
Welding technologies that produce joints without significant
heat input allow high fractions of the base metal strength to be
retained. Laser welding and friction stir welding are examples
of such technologies. Laser welding can save both cost and
weight, while improving corrosion resistance while FSW
results in higher weld ductilities than laser welds.
3.3 Superplastic Forming (SPF)
The superplastic forming of complex shapes including
perhaps integral structures is appealing as it is a "single shot"
process that achieves net shape forming. A main problem has
been the low forming rates for the aerospace materials.
Recently high strain rate superplastic forming has been
demonstrated in a number of aluminium based materials at
strain rates greater than 10"V. This was achieved by grain
refinement (<3um) either conventionally or through processes
such as mechanical alloying or equal channel angular pressing.
ALCOA, for instance, is developing a new superplastically
formable (SPF) sheet which offers weight savings by parts
consolidation. The new 7XXX alloy containing scandium is
said to combine a high forming rate with the high strength of
7475-T6.(l)
NASA has also reported work on integrally stiffened
aluminium panels made by SPF with cycle times down to 4
minutes and using a high temperature adhesive to form joints.
SKY Aluminium (Japan) have developed a method of
producing integrally stiffened aluminium structures by roll
bonding and superplastic forming. The sheets are clad over
certain areas and hot roll bonded to form a layered sheet
structure. A small amount of gas generant (used in automobile
air bags) is placed into the unbonded areas between the sheets.
The roll bonded clad sheets can be heated in a die and gas will
be spontaneously produced to expand the structure to the
desired mould shape with an internal honeycomb
structure. (12)
3.4. Creep Age Forming.
The advantages of creep age forming are that conventional
materials can be used and residual stresses are lower. The
process can not normally be applied to lower wing skins in
2XXX alloys used in the T351 condition, i.e. stretched and
naturally aged. There would be strong interest in using this
process for lower wing skins as they have considerably more
form than upper skins and various programmes are active in

Castings offer the potential for significant cost and mass

reduction compared to built-up fabricated structures. In
particular, casting technology developments are making it
possible to reduce post-casting operations such as machining
and assembly. Greater shape flexibility is also possible and
the reduction in fasteners due to reduced parts count reduces
mass. Whilst castings currently have limited uses on airframe
structured, they may find applications on severe curvature
skins.
Castings for secondary structures have displaced riveted
assemblies, for example on Typhoon. Enabling technologies
for castings as primary structures either already exist or could
be developed. In general, castings will find their application in
components and assemblies of high complexities

4. The exploitation of the new technologies

The selection and exploitation of the new aluminium materials
and manufacturing technologies will be a key issue in the
competition between aircraft manufacturers, in terms of
production costs, performance and enhanced structural
integrity. Substantial cost savings in comparison with polymer
composites and titanium structures are envisaged. The new
technologies coupled with integration of the design and
manufacturing process, improving relationships between the
primes and their suppliers, the digitisation of the factories will
improve the affordability of the new airframes .
The application of these new technologies into older
airframes, however, is less clear cut. UK fleet sizes are small,
project budgets are small and consequently the qualification
and certification costs for the new technologies will tend to
prevent their application to the older airframes.
5. References
1. J.Lui, J.T.Staley and W.H.Hunt, Jr., Third ASM Int. Conf.
On Synthesis, Processing and Modelling, Paris, France, June
1997, 91
2.R. Dif, D Bechet, T Warner and H Ribes, Proc of 6lh Int
Conf on Aluminium alloys, ICAA-6, Toyohashi, Japan 1998,
1991
3. H Sano, S Tani et al., Proc of 6th Int Conf on Aluminium
alloys, ICAA-6, Toyohashi, Japan 1998,413
5. W Vine, G Sutton and H J Price, Proc of 6th Int Conf on
Aluminium alloys, ICAA-6, Toyohashi, Japan 1998, 1973
6. RA.Edahl, M.S.Domack, Aeromat '98, 9th Advanced
Aerospace Materials & Processes Conference Programme and
Show Directory, 49
7. Osprey Metals Data Sheet, Dec. 1998.
8. J.G. Funk, M.S. Domack, P.B.Bogert, Aeromat '98, 9th
Advanced Aerospace Materials & Processes Conference
Programme and Show Directory, 37
9. T.J.Warner, R.A.Shahani, B. Lassince and G.M.Raynaud,
Third ASM Int. Conf. On Synthesis, Processing and
Modelling, Paris, France, June 1997, 79
10. V. B. Dangerfield, Aeromat '98, 9th Advanced Aerospace
Materials & Processes Conference Programme and Show
Directory, 45

4-4

11. C.Lockshaw, Aeromat '98, 9th Advanced Aerospace

Materials & Processes Conference Programme and Show
Directory, 47
12. H.Ohsawa and H Nishimura, Proc of 6th Int Conf on
Aluminium alloys, ICAA-6, Toyohashi, Japan 1998,63
13. A.Jupp and H.J.Price, The Aeronautical Journal, April
1998, Volume 102, Number 1014, 181

7-1

RRA Heat Treatment of Large Al 7075-T6 Components

by
R.T. Holt, M.D. Raizenne and W. Wallace
Structures, Materials and Propulsion Laboratory, Institute for Aerospace Research,
National Research Council, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1A 0R6
and
D.L. DuQuesnay
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada,
Kingston, ON, Canada, K7K 7B4

ABSTRACT
Retrogression and re-aging (RRA) is a heat treatment
process performed on the aluminum alloy 7075 in the
T6xxx temper condition to improve its resistance to
corrosion, while at the same time maintaining the high
strength levels required for aircraft structural
applications. For large extruded or forged parts, we have
determined that the most practical process involves
retrogression at 195C for 40 minutes, followed by rapid
cooling and full re-aging at 120C for 24 hours. After an
RRA treatment of a large extrusion (a three-metre
section from a CC-130 sloping longeron), we measured a
shrinkage of approximately 0.015%, with minimal
distortion damage. There is a small loss of strength, e.g.
the RRA yield strength is typically 515 MPa compared to
530 MPa for the same material in the T-6 condition. The
corrosion resistance measured both by exfoliation and
stress corrosion cracking are significantly better than for
the T-6 condition and approach that for the over-aged T73 condition. Furthermore, the fatigue resistance and
fracture toughness of RRA treated material are both
within the scatter bands for the T6 condition. For many
thick section extrusions and forgings, rework
specifications allow for the removal of up to 10% of the
material thickness to remove service-exposed corrosion
damage (after which the part must be replaced). Hence,
the small penalty in strength experienced after the RRA
treatment is more than compensated for by improved
corrosion resistance, which can eliminate the need to
remove corroded material.
INTRODUCTION
The aluminum alloy 7075 in the peak aged heat
treatment condition T6xxx (subsequently referred to as
T6) has been widely used for structural applications in
many aircraft designed in the 50's and 60's. Many of
these aircraft are still flying and several models,
including the CC-130, are still in production. Corrosion
damage is often the reason why 7075 -T6 components are
replaced in older aircraft, and hence, new parts in this
alloy are still available. When improved corrosion

resistance is required, alloy 7075 is often used in the

over-aged temper T73, but in comparison to 7075-T6,
there is a strength penalty of 10 to 15 % which precludes
use of the T73 temper when high strength is required.
An alternative is to perform the retrogression and reaging (RRA) heat treatment on parts purchased in the T6
condition. This process was first reported by Cina [1]
and over the past twenty years, has been shown to
improve corrosion resistance to levels approaching those
of the T73 condition while maintaining the strength at
levels at or slightly below the T6 condition [2-14]. The
first phase of the present work on the RRA treatment of
sections of a sloping longeron from the CC-130
(Hercules) aircraft has already been described in a
limited NRC report [15], and in two papers [16,17]
which cover a background review and detailed results.
Some of that work is also included in this paper for
completeness together with further tests that have
recently been completed.
The CC-130 sloping longeron is a long (9 m) primary
structural component in the fuselage of the aircraft. It is
roll formed and extruded to the T651 condition,
machined and delivered with a coat of epoxy primer and
zinc/chromate paint. During the current research
programme, we have prepared two open literature papers
which describe a range of RRA treatments that were
applied to pieces of a longeron (taken out of service due
to corrosion damage) [16] and also to new extruded
angle material [17].
Results of tensile, fatigue,
exfoliation and stress corrosion cracking tests were
reported. While some treatments gave better corrosion
resistance and some gave better tensile strengths, the
most practical RRA treatment for parts of thickness 8.5
mm and above is retrogression at 195 +1-2 C for 40
minutes followed by re-aging at 120 C for 24 hours.
For parts 4 to 8.5 mm thick a retrogression of 195+/-2 C
for 30 to 35 minutes should be adequate. Rapid cooling
after retrogression is required to limit the growth of
strengthening precipitates such as MgZn2 which develop
during the treatment. Water or glycol quenches are

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

7-2

preferred for maximum cooling efficiency which leads to

maximum strength, but forced air cooling with jets of
compressed air is just about as effective and in some
circumstances, much more convenient.
The stability of the various phases and microstructural
reactions occurring during RRA processing, particularly
with respect to resistance to stress corrosion cracking,
have been described by Thompson et al [2]. Danh et al.
[3] showed that the microstructural processes leading to
the enhancement of properties of 7075-T6, consist of:
1) partial dissolution of the GP zones
2) formation and growth of r\' particles, and
3) coarsening of grain boundary precipitates, which are
primarily r\ particles.
Wallace et al.[4,5] reported that there are three basic
phenomena associated with the increase in corrosion
resistance of 7X75-T6 after the RRA treatment:
1) The dislocation density in the RRA treated 7X75 is
much lower than that in the T6 condition. This has also
been observed by Cina [18]
2) The grain boundary precipitate size and spacing are
increased during the RRA treatment and become more
effective as sites for the coalescence of hydrogen.
3) After the RRA treatment, the alloy contains a high
volume fraction of r\' with small amounts of n
precipitates. GP Zones may also be present [6]. The r|
' particles are said to be responsible for the strength of
the alloy while the r| particles located at grain
boundaries are responsible for the alloy's corrosion
resistance [2]. Therefore, as the volume fraction of
these grain boundary precipitates increases, so does the
resistance of the alloy to SCC [7]
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The experimental work was performed on alloy 7075T6xxx in four forms with appropriate designations LN,
EA, EC and SP as follows:
LN: sections of a service-exposed sloping longeron from
the CC130 aircraft, extruded, variable section thickness 8
mm to 25 mm, T6511 (much of the work on this material
has already been published - for complete details see
reference [16]).
EA: straight lengths of new extruded angle, 101 x 76 x
7.8 mm thick, T6511 (some of the work on this material
has been published in reference [17])
EC: straight lengths of new extruded channel, 101 mm
wide, 6.3 mm thick, T6511
SP: a stepped bar of different thickness along the length,
machined from a 25.4 mm thick plate, 7075-T651.
7075-T73 plate material was tested in some cases to
provide comparable results.
In the total programme, a number of variables in RRA
processing have been studied [15-17]: note - not all
variables are discussed in this paper.
(i) method of heating (oil bath, electric furnace)

(ii) temperature of retrogression ( 180 C to 220 C, but

only temperatures of 190, 195 and 200 C were reported
in [16] as other temperatures did not provide adequate
tensile strengths)
(iii) time of retrogression (seconds to hours depending on
temperature, but 30 to 60 minute treatments were
selected for further study)
(iv) time of post retrogression aging treatment (0, 6, 12,
18 and 24 hours) [17].
All measuring equipment conformed to AMS 2750
Pyrometry and furnace characteristics conformed to
AMS 2770 Heat Treatment, Wrought Aluminum Alloy
Parts.
Before 7075-T6 structural parts can be replaced in
service with 7075-RRA treated parts, it is important to
determine that the RRA material conforms to the
mechanical property requirements of MIL-HDBK-5.
Many of the tests described below are listed in MILHDBK-5; other tests were included to determine
metallurgical characteristics of the RRA material, since it
was felt that such information could lead to an
understanding of the structural potential if for example
the RRA strength was slightly below the MIL-HDBK-5
levels.
The 7075 alloys from several sources used in this study
were all subjected to chemical analysis using a
Spectrolab Optical Emission Spectrometer (OES). The
results were compared against two reference standards,
one from NIST and the other from Alcoa, and all
compositions were within the allowable limits.
All the results presented below are for tests on the LN,
EA, EC or SP material in the as-received (AR) condition
and after RRA treatment. Unless otherwise indicated,
retrogression treatment is at 195 C for 40 minutes
followed by water quench (W), glycol quench (G) or air
quench (A), and re-aging is at 120 C for 24 hours. An
RRA treatment designation LN-195/40W-12 means the
material was from the longeron, received a retrogression
at 195C for 40 minutes, water quenched, followed by
aging at 120C for 12 hours. If a designation such as
195/40W does not include the aging time, it should be
assumed that aging is for 24 hours.
The goals of the program were to achieve mechanical
properties meeting the requirements of MIL-HDBK-5 for
7075-T6511 extrusions. While it has not been possible
to cover all the required properties with the resources
available, the results presented do compare favourably
with the goals.
TESTING PROCEDURES AND RESULTS
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity was measured after each heat
treatment and compared to the basic T6xxx values. It is

7-3

well established that for aluminum alloys, heat treatment

conditions which give rise to good corrosion resistance
also display higher values of electrical conductivity
[19,20], so conductivity is an important monitor.
Conductivity was measured using an Autosigma 2000
eddy current meter which utilizes a hand held probe to
measure the conductivity in units of %IACS
(International Annealed Copper Standard). The
conductivity was measured in at least six random
locations on each sample and then averaged to obtain a
conductivity number for the whole piece.
Careful
attention was paid to ensure that conductivity
measurements were not taken near the edge or at thin
sections, so that the electric field of the probe stayed in
the metal. The electrical conductivity of 7075-T6 was
found to be about 33.5 %IACS, rising to 38 to 39
%IACS after retrogression, and remains at that level after
subsequent re-aging. The value for 7075-T73 is required
to be 38 %IACS minimum, but is typically about 40 - 42
%IACS. Measurements for several RRA conditions
along with the equivalent corrosion results have already
been fully reported [16,17]. Long-term (up to 4 months)
conductivity stability tests were performed on various
RRA treated coupons and it was found that the values
were stable over that period [15].
Exfoliation Corrosion
Exfoliation tests, performed according to ASTM G34
Exfoliation Corrosion Susceptibility in 2XXX and 7XXX
Series Aluminum Alloys (EXCO Test), were used to
evaluate the exfoliation corrosion resistance of various
conditions of the L and EA material (as-received T6;
retrogressed; retrogressed and re-aged; T73) by exposing
specimens to an acid saline solution for 48 hours. The
EXCO solution consists of NaCl (4.0M), KN03 (0.5M),
and HNO3 (0.1M). At least two coupons were prepared
for each material/condition tested. The corroded samples
were then compared to photographs supplied with the
ASTM standard to determine the degree of corrosion.
Even though it is a comparative test, the results were
reproducible and different observers independently
agreed on the results. The EXCO Test classifications in
order of decreasing corrosion resistance are N (no
appreciable attack), P (pitting), and EXCO (exfoliation
corrosion) A, B, C, and D. Various RRA treatments
were exposed (190/30W, 190/60G, 195/40G, 200/30W)
and little difference was found in the exfoliation
performance. The results for the LN material are found
in [16] and for the EA material, RRA treatments of
195/40W-24 and 195/40A-24 both gave outstanding
exfoliation results, namely that in all tests the rating
obtained was P. Not even one coupon exhibited EXCO
A or worse.
In summary then, it can be stated that exfoliation
resistance after RRA treatments is similar to 7075-T73
i.e. "Pitting", while 7075-T6 performance was much
worse, i.e. EXCO B or C.

Salt Spray Tests

Salt spray tests were conducted on EC material in the
T6511 and RRA 195/40-24 conditions, according to the
requirements of ASTM G85 Practice for Modified Salt
Spray (Fog) Testing. Preliminary results confirmed the
exfoliation results (above) in that various RRA
treatments increased resistance to the acidified salt spray
as compared to the T6 condition. By exposing different
depths to the salt fog it was determined that the RRA
treatment was able to provide good corrosion protection
through a one cm section thickness, although the pitting
corrosion resistance at the outer surface was slightly
better. This could be important if fastener holes need to
be drilled into a part after treatment.
Stress corrosion
Stress corrosion tests on the LN longeron material, were
conducted according to ASTM G 38 Making and Using
C-Ring Stress-Corrosion Test Specimens, machined such
that loading was applied in the short transverse direction
and the crack formed in the longitudinal (extrusion)
direction. The C-ring samples were stressed to 75% of
the yield point value of 7075-T6 and then tested
according to ASTM G44 Evaluating Stress Corrosion
Cracking Resistance of Metals and Alloys by Alternate
Immersion in 3.5 % Sodium Chloride Solution, i.e.
cycling between immersion for 10 minutes and exposure
to air for 50 minutes. This process was repeated every
hour for 20 days. The samples were checked at the same
time every day for cracks and to ensure that no
appreciable evaporation had occurred in the test solution.
The stress corrosion resistance was rated by the average
number of days that a heat treatment could withstand the
test before cracking. Cracks were usually of a length of
1 to 2 mm, and located along the back surface of the Cring specimen.
The results [16] can be summarized as follows: 7075T73 specimens were able to withstand 20 days without
cracking. 7075-T6 specimens all cracked in the first 5
days and the best RRA results were for the 190/50W-24
and 190/60W-24 treatments, where all 24 of the
specimens survived the full 20-day test.
For the
195/40W-24 treatment, only one survived for 20 days,
and the other four cracked between day 18 and day 20.
In summary, the RRA performance almost matched the
T73 results, which is in agreement with earlier SCC
results on notched cantilever beam specimens of alloy
7475 [4].
Calorimetry
As mentioned above, the strength of 7075 in various
tempers has been ascribed to various precipitates, and the
sequencing of precipitation in the microstructure can be
determined by differential scanning calorimetry, DSC,
[6,11,21-23]. Several T6 and RRA specimens were
subjected to DSC (TA Instruments model DSC-2910) by
heating a specimen (of known mass) and producing a
curve of heat flow (watts per gram) vs. temperature
shown in Figure 1.

7-4

condition and to determine whether the curve for the

195/40W RRA treatment was similar to that for the T73
condition (i.e. the endothermic dissolution and
exothermic precipitation reactions occurred at the same
temperatures). Figure 1 clearly shows this to be the case,
supporting the conclusions of Baldantoni [6] that RRA
treatments (i) complete the dissolution of the GP zones
and (ii) - as indicated by the increase in PI temperature increase the volume fraction of the r\'. In the present
work, there appeared to be no difference in the DSC
response at depths up to one cm below the surface.

0.16
Endothermic

0.15
O)
5 0.14

T73N

195/40WRRA
PI

J 0.13
* 0.12
0)
0.11

0.1
100

200

300

400

500

Temperature, C

Temper
T6511
RRA
T73

PI
194
230
235

PII
235
261
277

pir
262
281
-

Tension Tests
Tension testing was carried out in accordance with
ASTM E8 Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. Due to
material constraints both full size and sub-size specimens
were used, and specimens were prepared with the tensile
axis in the longitudinal (L) and long transverse (T)
directions. A cross-head speed of 2mm/min was used.
The 0.2% offset yield strength, ultimate tensile strength
and the percent elongation were determined.

PHI
437
438
425

Figure 1: DSC curves for 7075-T6, 7075-T73 and

7075-RRA 195/40W materials. The characteristic peak
temperatures for each curve are shown in the table.
This curve is of a similar shape and has similar features
to the heat capacity/ temperature curve reported by
Delasi et al. [21] who summarized the temperature
ranges for the primary reactions as follows: for T6 - 113217C = GP zone dissolution, 217-250C = r/'formation
+ r\' dissolution + rj formation, 250 - 271C = growth of
j] particles, 271-448C = r\ dissolution; for T73 - 164245C = x]' dissolution + r\ growth, 245-442C = rj
dissolution.
In the present case, for the T6 and T73 conditions the
temperature ranges were similar, and the peak
temperatures PI etc. were very similar to those reported
by Baldantoni [6] who studied 220/1W to 220/6W
retrogression treatments.
The main reason for
performing this analysis was to verify the 7075-T6

For the service-exposed longeron LN material, in the

longitudinal direction, tension test results for four
different RRA treatments have been reported [16]. In all
cases, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), the yield
strength and the elongation results exceeded the
minimum requirements of AMS 4169 Extrusions 7075T6511. Note that the AMS 4169 values are the same as
the A-basis MIL-HDBK-5 design values [24]. The
tensile test results on RRA treated extruded angle
material have previously been reported [17]. A summary
of those results for the EA as-received (mean of 10 tests)
and RRA 195/40W and 195/40A (mean of 20 tests)
materials is reproduced in Table 1 together with MILHDBK-5 [24] design values for the same thickness
(7.938 mm) extrusions.
Although we have not
performed enough tests for A- or B-basis statistical

Table 1: MIL-HDBK-5G A-basis mechanical property values for 7075-T6511 extrusions, and test results for the
EA 7075-T6511 and EA RRA (195/40W&A-24) materials in the L and T directions.
Ftu

Fry

MIL-HDBK-5 (ksi)
(MPa)

L
81
558

T
78
538

L
73
503

T
69
476

EA 7075-T6 (MPa)
EA 195/40W (MPa)
195/40W-3O- (MPa)
EA 195/40A (MPa)
195/40A-3a (MPa)

613
583
573
576
568

591
571
569
568
562

556
522
514
517
504

530
515
512
512
506

Fbru*
L
146
1007

Fbry*
L
113
779

1080
1079
1029

878
890
803

e (%)
L
7

13
14

13
15

14

15

* for an edge distance to hole diameter ratio of 2.0

A full definition of the symbols can be found in reference [24], page 1-2, but briefly, Ftu ultimate tensile stress, Fty =
tension yield stress, Fey = compression yield stress, Fsu = shear stress, Fbru : ultimate bearing stress, Fbry = bearing
yield stress, e = elongation.

7-5

analysis, we have calculated values for the mean minus

three standard deviations for any given condition, which
for a small sample is statistically significant. For both
the ultimate tensile strength (Fu) and the yield strength
(Fty) these values exceeded the A-basis values for both
the water quenched and forced-air cooled specimens
although water quenching consistently results in higher
strength.
Hardness
Although hardness is not considered to be the most
reliable indication of the level of heat treat response,
Rockwell B hardness was measured both prior to and
after each treatment. For the various material sources,
the average HRB values for the 7075-T6 condition, the
retrogression condition and the RRA (195/40-24)
condition respectively were: LN=91,82,90 EA=94,88,92
EC=93,83,90. Rockwell B hardness was also taken on a
19 mm thick section of one of the longeron parts at equal
intervals through the thickness to determine if the
treatment's effects had penetrated the whole part. These
results showed that HRB was constant across the whole
section (90+/-1.5) [15].

55
50

(a)

Fracture toughness tests were performed in both the L-T

and T-L orientations for these materials. All fracture
toughness tests were performed in accordance with
ASTM E399-Jesr Method for Plane-Strain Fracture
Toughness of Metallic Materials. The specimens were
compact tension type with characteristic dimension,
W=50.8 mm. Loading rates were in the ASTM "slow"
regime. Because product forms of various thicknesses
were examined, it was not possible to obtain valid plane
strain results for the thinner (i.e. most) specimens.
Consequently the maximum stress intensity factor Kmax is
reported as the fracture toughness for all material forms
and conditions shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Figure 2 shows the effect of material thickness on the
fracture toughness of the RRA treated materials. In both
cases, the fracture toughness in both L-T and T-L
directions decreases with increasing thickness. In most
cases the measured values are above the typical values
for 7075-T6 quoted in the ASM Metals Handbook [25].
Figure 3 shows the effect of product form (EA, SP and
LN) and treatment on the relative fracture toughness for
specimens of constant (7.8 mm) thickness. Again it is

45
C3

40
X

Fracture Toughness
The material was tested in various product forms and
heat-treated conditions as follows:
EA in the -T6511 (as received, AR) condition
EA after 195/40A-24 and 195/40W-24 treatments
LN 7075-T6511 RRA treated 195/40W
SP in the RRA 195/40W condition

35
30
25

L-T Direction
SP 195/40W

60
(a) LT Direction

LN 195/40 W

-| 40

20
10

30

20

Thickness (mm)

'20 -

55
50

LN195/40W

35

20

(b) T-L Direction

JT

^40-

30
25

EA
EA
SP
LN
195/40A 195/40 W 195/40W 195/40 W

SP 195/40W

45
40

EA
AR

T-L Direction

(b)

OH

10
20
Thickness (mm)

ill

^20 -

JL

^
30

Figure 2: Effect of product form, thickness and

specimen orientation on the fracture toughness of RRA
treated 7075 aluminum alloy

0
EA
AR

EA
195/40W

EA
195/40W

SP
195/40W

Figure 3: Effect of specimen orientation, quench

medium and product form on fracture toughness of RRA
treated material.

7-6

observed that 195/40W and 195/40A RRA-treated

material exhibited fracture toughness at least as good as
forthe7075-T6511 temper.
Fatigue
Axial loading (R=0) test The material was tested in
axial fatigue using specimens machined from EA in the
as-received (AR) T6511 condition. Both 195/40A and
195/40W RRA treatments were examined. In addition,
two surface conditions were investigated:
(i) machined and mechanically ground and polished
(ii) as-extruded.
All axial fatigue testing was performed in load control in
accordance with ASTM E466 - Practice for Conducting
Force Controlled Constant Amplitude Axial Fatigue
Tests of Metallic Materials. The specimens had a
rectangular gauge section that was 12.3 mm x 4 mm for
the machined and polished specimens and 12.3 mm x 7.8
mm for the as-extruded surfaces. The data shown in
Figures 4 and 5 collected in this study for lives clustered
around 107 cycles represent unbroken specimens (i.e.,
tests interrupted before fatigue failure occurred).
The loading was repeated tension (R=0) with cyclic
frequency between 5-30 Hz depending on specimen life.
The fatigue life results are plotted in Figure 4 for the
polished specimens. The figure also shows the fatigue
data from MIL-HDBK-5G [24] for 7075-T6xx material
at R=0. In general, it can be seen that the RRA
specimens exhibit slightly lower fatigue strength than the
AR specimens but the data are generally within the
scatter of -T6xx data. Also, the water quench appears to
give slightly better fatigue strength than the air quench.
The data for the as-extruded surfaces are compared to
those for polished surfaces in Figure 5. As expected the
600Aosm
500-

as-extruded specimens all have lower fatigue strengths

than the polished specimens at all stress levels, although
at high stresses, the differences are not so pronounced.
For the as-extruded condition, the RRA results are
practically identical to the as-received T-6 results, so
neither benefit nor loss has been derived in this respect
by the RRA treatment.
Fatigue Crack Growth
Fatigue crack growth data were measured on EC 7075T6511 as-extruded channel and on EC 195/40W RRA
treated material. The specimens used were single edge
notch (SEN) type, 76 mm wide and with the original
thickness of the channel extrusions cut from the centre of
the backs of the channels. The testing was performed
with the loading axis in the L direction. All crack
growth testing was done in laboratory air at cyclic
frequencies of 10-30 Hz following ASTM E647 -Test
Method for Measurement of Fatigue Crack Growth
Rates.
The crack growth results for 7075-T6511 and RRA (EA
195/40W) materials at several stress ratios and maximum
stresses are shown in Figure 6. Two maximum stress
levels were used for the RRA material, 50 MPa and 30
MPa, and stress ratios of R = -0.3, 0.1, and 0.5 were
examined. In Figure 6, for the R values of -0.3, AK is
the positive portion of the range in accordance with
ASTM E467.
The data generally show that the RRA material exhibits
slightly greater resistance to fatigue crack growth than
the -T6511 material under similar loading. This is
consistent with the previous observations that the RRAtreated material is more ductile, has a slightly lower yield
strength and higher fracture toughness than the 7075T6511 material.
600-

500^

|0

ca 400-

j?

>dSn
l 300H
O

200-1

O ^> C
O <0O%

| 200o
n
A

MIL HDBK-5 [24]

EA 195/40W
EA195/40A
EA-T6511

T I I I Mill

10J3

^300-

00

100-

400

1n4

10"

I I I (Mill

J
in5

I I I I Mill

Polished
1001
I I I III III

-,6
1ri7
10
I0u
10'
Cycles to Failure

I II I MM

10

Figure 4: Constant amplitude axial fatigue data at R=0

for 7075-T6511 and after 195/40W and 195/40A RRA
treatments.

o- 1
icr

EA 195/40W
EA 195/40A
EA-T6511
I I Milil
T

104

As-extruded
o EA 19 5/40W
EA 195/40A
A EA-T6511

mtmi
nr i 1111111i
10
106
107
Cycles to Failure
1 I I llllll

i i mi

108

Figure 5: Effect of surface condition on the axial fatigue

behaviour of as-received 7075-T6511 and RRA treated
materials.

7-7

l.E-03

l.E-04

-a
la
-a

US

&

B
"el
6
<

xSf

l.E-05

43
00

l.E+03 l.E+04 l.E+05 l.E+06 l.E+07 l.E+08

Cycles to failure

7075-T6511 (air)

*RRA195/40W(air)

l.E-06

7075-T6511 (corrosion)

10
AK MPa^n
XT6511,R=- 0.3, Smax=30 MPa
<>T6511,R 0.1,Smax=50MPa
A RRA, R=0 5, Smax=50 MPa
RRA, R=0 5, Smax=30 MPa
ORRA, R=0 l,Smax=30MPa
A RRA, R=0 .l,Smax=50MPa
RRA, R=0 3, Smax=50 MPa
RRA, R=0 3, Smax=30 MPa

100

Figure 6: Single edge notch fatigue crack growth data

for 7075-T6511 and EA 195/40W RRA treated material.

Corrosion Fatigue
Rotating bending (R=-l) constant amplitude fatigue tests
were conducted on EA 7075-T6511 and 197/35W RRA
treated materials with and without the presence of a
corrosive medium. A cantilever-type rotating bending
fatigue machine equipped with a mechanism for dripping
EXCO solution (see above for formula) on the gauge
section of the specimen during cycling was used. The
gauge diameter of the specimens was 7.62 mm and
loading frequencies of 30-60 Hz were used depending on
the fatigue life.
The results of the fatigue tests with and without
corrosion are shown in Figure 7. The corrosion test is
extremely aggressive, and the results show that both the
7075-T6511 and the RRA-treated samples exhibit fatigue
lives on the same curve (or in the same narrow scatterband) under these conditions (open symbols). This
indicates that the RRA treatment has slightly improved
the corrosion fatigue properties, since the RRA tests in
air fall in the lower portion of the scatter-band (closed
symbols in Figure 7 which in turn are similar to the axial
fatigue results reported above in Figure 4).
Unfortunately, it was not possible to include corrosion
fatigue studies on 7075 -T73 in this programme for
comparison. As expected, the corrosion fatigue lives are
well below the fatigue lives of specimens tested in
laboratory air, especially at lower stress levels.

A RRA 195/40W (corrosion)

Figure 7: Rotating bending fatigue data for 7075-T6511

and RRA treated material, tested in air and in NaCl
solution.

Effect of Pre-Fatigue on RRA treated Materials

Rotating bending fatigue tests were used to determine if
the RRA treatment can eliminate or reduce existing
fatigue damage. This may be an important consideration
for example in choosing whether to perform the RRA
treatment on components which have experienced a
considerable amount of service exposure, and which
might therefore contain fatigue-induced damage. EA
specimens were pre-fatigued to 60% of their expected
life at several stress levels, then given the 197/35 W RRA
treatment. The fatigue tests were then continued at the
same stress levels. The results were given in reference
[17]; at all stress levels, the pre-fatigued specimens fell
in the same scatter-band as the T6511 and RRA results,
so the RRA treatment had no significant effect on prefatigue-induced damage.
Bearing Load
ASTM E 238 Standard Test Method for Pin-Type
Bearing Test of Metallic Materials is used to calculate
the bearing strength of materials under edge loading with
a close-fitting cylindrical pin. It is a comparative test
used in the design of structures, primarily to determine
material performance in the presence of fasteners. The
material for the test was EA, both in the as-received
T6511 and the RRA 195/40W-24 condition. The bearing
load tests were performed on material treated at IAR and
tested at SPAR Aerospace on specimens 6 inch (152.4
mm) long, 1.5 inch (38.1 mm) wide and 0.25 inch (6.35
mm) thick. The edge distance (e/D) ratio was 2. Due to
specimen thickness and width constraints, a smaller pin
than specified in ASTM E238 was used in the tests,
which might be expected to result in lower bearing yield
(Fbry) and ultimate (Fbru) strengths. However, for both
the T6511 (mean for 5 tests; Fbry = 878 +/- 41 MPa,
Fbru = 1080 +/- 24 MPa) and RRA (mean for 10 tests;

Fbry = 890 +/- 29 MPa, Fbru = 1079 +/- 17 MPa), the

results were comparable to those for 7075-T6 extrusions
published in MIL-HDBK-5 [see Table 1]. In all the
bearing load tests, RRA specimens (with shear-out
failures) consistently exhibited about twice the ductility
of the T6 specimens, which failed by tensile-cleavage
fractures.
Dimensional Stability
Selected parts were analyzed for size and shape both
before and after treatment. They were characterized by
their profile along one edge and the distances between
various fastener holes. A difference in the profile of the
part after treatment indicated bending, whereas a
difference in the distance between rivet holes indicated
shrinkage. The analysis used a Temmis Laser System to
identify points on the parts surface with relation to a
reference plane. To measure the distance between holes
the circumference of the circle was identified with the
same system and the center located and projected to a
reference plane. Then the distance between the two
centers on the reference plane was found. The same
procedure was used on each part before and after heat
treatment.
The results, which are described in detail in reference
[15], can be summarized as follows:
(i) The RRA treatment causes a slight shrinkage - the
maximum shrinkage recorded was 0.015%, equivalent to
1.5 mm in a 10 m length;
(ii) The RRA treatment induced a slight bending
distortion - the maximum bending distortion recorded
over a length of 1.3 m was 0.20 mm, which is minimal
and can easily be overcome during installation of a large
component.
DISCUSSION
The most important RRA [195/40W-24, and 195/40A24] results can be summarized as follows:
Corrosion: Exfoliation, salt spray and stress corrosion
cracking results for RRA material are always
significantly better than for the -T6 condition and
approach the performance of the -T73 condition. Several
previous studies have come to the same conclusion
[2,8,9].
Tension: For the service exposed longeron material, the
mean tensile strengths reported in reference [16] for a
195/40G RRA treatment are about 1% above the MILHDBK-5 (and AMS 4169) values. The mean values
minus one standard deviation (cr) were about 1% below
the MIL-HDBK-5 values. However, for new extrusion
material (EA) reported herein and in reference [17],
195/40W and 195/40A tensile results for both L and T
orientations, for a minimum of 10 tests, indicate that
(mean-3a) values exceeded the MIL-HDBK-5 A-basis
values for ultimate tensile strength (Ftu) and yield

strength (Fty). There may be several reasons for the

better results on the new extrusions - (i) the longeron
material, being older, may not have had the (even new)
strength of recently manufactured 7075-T6 extrusions;
(ii) the service exposure may have weakened the material
(e.g. damage incurred in service or during removal) and
(iii) the higher scatter in the LN results gives rise to the
higher standard deviations.
Although the typical values for as-received T-6 material
was always slightly higher (by 3-5 %) than the RRA/W,
which in turn was stronger than the RRA/A material, the
RRA treatments consistently resulted in higher
elongation (14 %) than 7075-T6 material (12 %).
Fracture Toughness Figures 2 and 3: The RRA EA
material had the same or slightly higher fracture
toughness in the L-T and T-L orientations than the asreceived material. Fracture toughness decreased with
section thickness.
Fatigue: The fatigue strength of the RRA material was
slightly lower than the -T6 material, although the results
did fall within the same broad scatter-band as the T6
results published in MIL-HDBK-5.
Hence, fatigue
should not be a design issue in the selection of the RRA
process to improve corrosion resistance.
Water
quenching after the retrogression step gave better fatigue
properties than did air cooling.
Fatigue Crack Growth Rate: the RRA process improved
the FCGR which is in agreement with the higher
observed ductility so it would be reasonable to assume
that the damage tolerance for cracked structures would
also be improved.
Physical Characteristics: Since re-aging is a low
temperature treatment, distortion is not considered to be
a problem, even for large parts. Also, as reported in
Reference [16], the RRA treatment does not damage
epoxy primer paint either on service-exposed or new
parts. Since many new parts are delivered in this
condition, it is beneficial that the RRA treatment can be
performed without paint removal.
In the present program, over the past four years, a
number of different RRA treatments that were performed
on various 7075-T6 extrusions have been evaluated and
those results have been presented in previous
publications [15-17]. It was found that for parts up to 25
mm thickness, the optimum RRA heat treatment was
retrogression at 195 C for 40 minutes, followed by
water or glycol quench and aging at 120C for 24 hours.
Similar results have been obtained for 197/35W-24
treatments, but shorter retrogression treatments at higher
temperatures, and shorter aging treatments failed to meet
the MIL-HDBK-5 requirements for yield strength [17].
Some of the earlier results have been included in this
report for the sake of completeness. Results for RRA

7-9

treated EA material, together with MIL-HDBK-5 A-basis

values (for equivalent thickness extrusions) are presented
in Table 1. Due to lack of resources, compression and
shear tests have not been performed in this programme
even though these properties are included in MILHDBK-5. However, for all tests where ductility is a
factor, (tension, bearing load, fracture toughness) the
RRA ductility was higher than that for the -T6 condition,
so the RRA results for compression and shear tests
would be expected to be favourable.
From Table 1 it can be seen that mean values
(determined from 10 to 20 tests), both for the new, EA
as-received 7075-T6 material and the RRA treated
material all exceed the MIL-HDBK-5 A-basis values by
at least 3CT (i.e. 3 standard deviations). Although we
have not performed enough tests for an A-basis statistical
computation, mean-3a can be considered to be a
conservative approximation. For the service -exposed
LN material, the tensile strengths were marginally lower,
so RRA treatment for service-exposed material is only
recommended for components that are life-limited by
corrosion. Note that in order to generate A- and B-basis
design allowables for the RRA heat treatment process an
extensive test program would have to be undertaken.
Statistically valid sample sizes would address variability
in product forms (plate, bar, extrusion, forging), grain
direction (L, LT) and production lots.
When choosing an optimum RRA heat treatment for a
structural component, the tensile strength results are
considered the most important as tension values are used
as one of the main selection criteria for design purposes.
Hence, although the 190/50W & 190/60W RRA
treatments gave better SCC results, the tensile results for
195/40W were better.
In cases where 7075-T6
components are removed from service because of
corrosion damage, then there is a strong case for
performing the RRA treatment on the new part prior to
installation. It is estimated that the life could be tripled
before equivalent corrosion is incurred.
Even for
fatigue- or tension-loaded critical components, there may
be justification for accepting small fatigue and strength
penalties of the RRA material if corrosion has been
found to be the life limiting factor. Obviously each case
will have to be considered individually, but it should be
noted here that many component drawings do allow for
the removal of corrosion damage by grinding (sometimes
up to 10 % of the section thickness in thick forgings and
extrusions), so 7075-T6 components which are thus
designated, are particularly strong candidates for the
RRA treatment.
Some thought has been given to performing the RRA
treatment on service exposed components and returning
them to service. This practice is not recommended
except as a temporary measure if new parts are not
available.

It is hoped that in the near future, an RRA-treated (small)

component will be installed on the CC-130 aircraft
during a routine overhaul. The selected part will be
corrosion-prone and will be readily and regularly
inspected for a period of three years, during which time,
in the -T6511 condition, it might be expected to show
signs of corrosion damage.
CONCLUSIONS
1. For 7075-T6 extrusions of up to 25 mm thickness, the
optimum RRA heat treatment is retrogression at 195 C
for 40 minutes, water quench and re-age at 120 C for 24
hours. Compared to the 7075-T6 condition, the RRA
treatment:
Significantly improves the corrosion resistance.
Improves ductility, fracture toughness, and fatigue
crack growth rates and slightly improves bearing load
strengths and possibly corrosion fatigue resistance.
Slightly decreases (by approx. 2%) the tensile strength,
tensile yield strength and possibly also the fatigue
strength.
2. Hence the RRA process is ideally suited for 7075-T6
parts and components which are usually replaced due to
corrosion problems. Where tensile strength or fatigue
resistance are critical, water quenching after
retrogression is required, but when corrosion is the main
cause for concern, parts may be forced-air cooled after
retrogression either for convenience or if a slight
shrinkage cannot be tolerated.
3. There is a slight penalty in strength when RRA
treatments are given to (older) service-exposed material,
so the treatment in this case should be limited to those
parts which are not strength or fatigue critical.
Acknowledgements
This work has been funded by the Department of
National Defence, Canada, contract 84776ACCY01.
The authors gratefully acknowledge experimental work
conducted by Officer Cadets B. Whalen and K. Merrick,
(fracture toughness and axial fatigue) and Officer Cadets
J. Taylor and J. Morphet (corrosion fatigue) all of the
Royal Military College of Canada. Students R. Kearsey
(Technical University of Nova Scotia) and C. Butler
(McMaster University) performed many of the heat
treatments and tension tests. The DSC tests were
conducted and analysed by Mr. G. Polomark of the NRC
Institute for Research in Construction. The bearing load
tests were conducted by Y.Yan and A. Baig of Spar
Aerospace, Edmonton. Many tests were performed at
the Department of National Defence, Quality
Engineering Test Establishment: the dimensional and
distortion analyses were performed by Mr. J. MacDonald
and Mr. D. Ouellette, the chemical analyses were
performed by Ms. G. Dunlop, and the salt spray tests
were performed by Dr. M. Roth. Thanks are due to Ms.
Kelly Brock for the very careful formatting of the
manuscript.

7-10

References
1. B. Cina and R. Gan, "Reducing the Susceptibility of
Alloys, Particularly Aluminum Alloys, to Stress
Corrosion Cracking", United States Patent 3856584,
Dec. 24, 1974.
2. J.J. Thompson, E.S. Tankins and V.S. Agarwala, "A
Heat Treatment for Reducing the Corrosion and Stress
Corrosion Cracking in 7XXX Aluminum Alloys", Nat.
Assoc. of Corr. Eng., June 1987, pp. 45-52.
3. N.C. Danh, K. Rajan and W. Wallace, " A TEM study
of Microstructural Changes during Retrogression and
Re-aging
in
7075
Aluminum",
Metallurgical
Transactions A, Vol.l4A, Sept. 1983, pp. 1843-1850.
4. W. Wallace, M.D. Raizenne, and A. Ankara,
"Techniques for Improved Surface Integrity of
Aerospace Aluminum Alloys", Surface Engineering,
1990, pp. 218-227.
5. K. Rajan, W. Wallace, and J.C. Beddoes,
"Microstructural study of a high strength stress-corrosion
resistant 7075 aluminum alloy", Jour, of Mat. Sei. and
Tech., Vol. 17, 1982, pp. 2817-2824.
6. A. Baldantoni, "On the Microstructural Changes
during the Retrogression and Re-aging of 7075 type
Aluminum Alloys", Material Science and Engineering,
Vol. 72, 1985, pp. L5-L8.
7. J.K. Park and A.J. Ardell, "Effect of Retrogression and
Re-aging Treatments on the Microstructure of Al-7075T651", Metallurgical Transactions A, Vol. 15 A,
Aug.l984,pp. 1531-1543.
8. G.L. Webb, J. Murali and J.D. Liley, "Effect of
Retrogression and Re-aging Treatment on Stress
Corrosion Cracking Susceptibility of 7075-T6 Aluminum
Alloy", Conf. on Env. Degradation of Eng. Matls. in
Aggressive Envs., ed. by M.R. Louthan et al., VPI Press,
Blacksburg, Va., 1981, pp. 181-192.
9. W. Wallace, J.C. Beddoes and M.C. deMalherbe, "A
new approach to the problem of stress corrosion cracking
in 7075-T6 Aluminum", Can. Aero, and Space Journal,
Vol. 27, No. 3, 1981, pp. 222-232.
10. F. Habiby, A Ul Haq, F.H. Hashmi and A.Q. Khan,
"Microstructural Changes during Retrogression and Reaging in AA-7075: A TEM study", Aluminum
Technology, March 1986, pp. 414-420.
11. J.M. Papazian, "Differential Scanning Calorimetry
during Retrogressed and Re-aged Microstructures in
Aluminum Alloy 7075", Material Science and
Engineering, Vol.79, 1986, pp. 97-104.
12. T. Ohnishi and T. Ito, "Effects of Retrogression and
Re-aging Treatments on Stress Corrosion Cracking and
Fracture Toughness of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloy", Proc. of the
8th Int. Conf. on the Strength of Metals and Alloys, ed.
by P.O. Kettunen et al., Pergamon Press, New York,
1988, pp. 1121-1126.
13. F. Habiby, A Ul Haq, F.H. Hashmi and A.Q. Khan,
"Some Remarks on the Hardness and Yield Strength of
Aluminum Alloy 7075 as a Function of Retrogression
Time", Metallurgical Trans. A, V0I.I8A, 1987, pp. 350353.

14. J.K. Park, "Influence of Retrogression and Re-aging

Treatment on the Strength and Stress Corrosion
Resistance of Aluminum Alloy 7075-T6", Mat. Sei. and
Engineering, Vol. A103, 1988, pp. 223-231.
15. R.T. Holt, V. Rosario and K. Durham, "RRA
Treatment of 7075-T6 Material from a CC-130 Hercules
Sloping Longeron", NRC/IAR Report LTR-ST-2021,
October 1995.
16. R.T. Holt, V.R. Parameswaran and W. Wallace, "
RRA Treatment of 7075-T6 Aluminum Components",
Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal, vol. 42, 1996,
83-87.
17. W. Wallace, R.T. Holt, C. Butler and D.L.
DuQuesnay, "Retrogression and Re-aging Revisited",
Key Engineering Materials, vols. 145-149, part 2, 1998,
1043-1052.
18. B. Cina and M. Talianker, "Retrogression and Reaging and the Role of Dislocations in the Stress
Corrosion
of
7000-Type
Aluminum
Alloys",
Metallurgical Trans. A, Vol. 20A, 1989, pp. 2087-2092.
19. M.U. Islam and W. Wallace, " Retrogression and
Re-aging response of 7475 aluminum alloy", Metals
Technology, Vol. 10, 1983, pp. 386-392.
20. M.U. Islam and W. Wallace, "Stress-Corrosion
crack growth behaviour of 7475-T6 retrogressed and reaged aluminum alloy", Metals Technology, Vol. 11,
1984, pp. 320-322.
21. R. Delasi and P.N. Adler, "Calorimetric Studies of
7000 Series Aluminum Alloys: I. Matrix Precipitation
Characterization of 7075", Metallurgical Transactions A,
vol. 8A, 1977, 1177-1183.
22. P.N. Adler and R. Delasi, "Calorimetric Studies of
7000 Series Aluminum Alloys: II. Comparison of 7075,
7050 and RX720 Alloys", Metallurgical Transactions A,
vol. 8A, 1977, 1185-1190.
23. J.M. Papazian, "Calorimetric Studies of Precipitation
and Dissolution Kinetics in Aluminum Alloys 2219 and
7075", Metallurgical Transactions A, vol. 13A, 1982,
761-769.
24. Military Handbook: Metallic Materials and Elements
for Aerospace Vehicle Structures, MIL-HDBK-5G, U.S.
Department of Defense, 1990.
25. Metals Handbook, 10* edition, Vol.2, Properties and
Selection: Non-Ferrous Alloys and Special Purpose
Materials. ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio,
1990.

7-11

Paper 7
Question by Mr. Frank ABDI
Introduction of heat treatment might change grain size?
Author's reply
We have not found any change in the grain structure after performing the RRA
treatment
Question by Frank Abdi
What is the composition of new precipitate material, and what temperature is it
formed?
Author's reply
We have not performed any analysis of the fine precipitate particles which form
during the RRA treatment. The scanning calorimetric results indicate that the
precipitate reactions are similar to those occurring during the T73 heat treatment.
Question by I.G. Palmer
What is the current patent situation with regard to RRA treatment?
Author's reply
Alcoa hold a number of US patents for a "three step aging process" for 7xxx series
alloys which closely resembles the RRA treatment. Early NRC work is cited as a
reference for prior work. I do not know of any patent coverage in Europe.
Question by I.G. Palmer
Are the problems in applying RRA treatments to thick sections in 7075-T6 due to
quench sensitivity effect? is the process more effective in the newer, less quench
sensitive 7xxx alloys?
Author's reply
We are only working with 7075 - T6 as this is the alloy of concern in aging aircraft.
To date we have only examined parts of section thickness up to 19mm thick, for
which the RRA process works, well. We are planning to do work on thicker sections
in the near future.

10-1

Improved Durability Aluminium Alloys

for Airframe Structures
T. Warner1, R. Dif1, J.C. Ehrstrom1,
P. Lassince^
1

Pechiney Centre de Recherches de Voreppe, B.P. 27,

38340 Voreppe, France

Pechiney Rhenalu, ZI des Listes, BP 42, 63502 Issoire,

France

ABSTRACT
The longevity of an airframe depends on its design, service
conditions, and the durability and damage tolerance (DADT)
of its constituent materials. Critical materials properties
include corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, fatigue
crack growth resistance, as well as toughness. The present
paper focuses on the metallurgical parameters that govern
these properties and on recent developments aimed at
improving the DADT of airframe alloys.
Resistance to structural corrosion of aluminium alloys for
airframes depends on the nature and number density of the
metastable hardening precipitates as well as on local
alloying element concentration profiles, in particular in
the vicinity of grain boundaries. The underlying corrosion
mechanisms are discussed in the context of the
development of two new corrosion-resistant products for
use as upper wing skin panels (7449-T7951) or fuselage
skin panels (6056-T78) respectively.
The fatigue resistance of structures is mainly governed by
the fatigue resistance of joints, which is strongly related to
technological factors (machining tolerances, riveting
practice, etc.). Materials testing to simulate this behaviour
is performed on open-hole specimens. Overall fatigue
resistance of thick plate, for example, depends on ingot
quality and rolling practices. Better understanding of these
parameters has enabled the development of aerospacequality 7010, 7050 and 7040 plate at thicknesses of up to
215 mm.
Finally, longevity of airframe structures depends on the
materials' resistance to fatigue crack propagation and their
fracture toughness. The metallurgical parameters that
govern these properties are discussed and illustrated by
recent results on fuselage and lower wing skin 2xxx alloys.
1. INTRODUCTION

metallic airframe part is presented in figure 1. Resistance

to corrosion phenomena and fatigue life affect the time
until initiation of a detectable flaw. Subsequently, fatigue
crack growth rate, in more or less aggressive environments
according to service conditions, dominates the growth of
this crack. Finally, the residual strength of the structure,
and thus the critical crack length, depends amongst other
factors on the toughness of the base material.
In this paper, the metallurgical principles underlying these
critical properties are discussed and illustrated with
examples of recent or ongoing alloy development work
(see AA compositions of alloys mentioned in table 1).
1

Tough tiess

Ny

so
us

M
o

Fatigue Crack
Growth
Resistance^

Fatigue resistance
Corrosion resisfancg

Number of flights, exposure time

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the influence of

materials properties on the lifetime of an airframe structure.

Table 1. AA registered compositions of the recently

developed alloys cited in this paper.

Commercial and military aircraft are increasingly required

to have longer service lives. As a result, considerable
effort has been put into the study of ageing aircraft and the
life extension of existing aircraft. However, it is clear that
the airframes of the future need to be designed in the
expectation of longer service lifetimes. Moreover, there is
a cost-motivated drive towards increasing inspection
intervals on new aircraft. As a result, there is a need for
improvements in the durability and damage tolerance of
airframe alloys.

Alloy

A schematic illustration of the way in which materials

properties can impact on the lifetime of a DADT-dominated

Si

Fe

Cu

Mn MP

Cr

Zn

Zr

6056

0.7
0.5
1.3 0.50 1.1

7449

1.4
1.8
7.5 <0.25
0.12 0.15 2.1 0.20 2.7 0.05 8.7 (Zr+
Ti)

2024A

3.7 0.15 1.2

0.15 0.20 4.5 0.80 1.5 0.10 0.25 0.05

0.4
1.0

0.6
0.1 <0.20
1.2 0.05 0.7 (Zr+
Ti)

Paper prepared for the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RIO MP-25.

10-2
2. CORROSION RESISTANCE OF AIRFRAME ALLOYS
Localised corrosion phenomena such as intergranular
corrosion (IGC) and exfoliation corrosion can limit
lifetimes of airframe structures, in particular by providing
flaws or even pre-cracks for subsequent crack propagation.
Sensitivity to IGC itself is a purely electrochemical
phenomenon (see e.g. /) determined by the existence of a
microgalvanic couple between a grain boundary feature
constituting a continuous anodic path with respect to a
cathodic matrix (e.g. a continuous film of Al3Mg2
precipitation in Al-Mg alloys or a copper-depleted zone
near the grain boundary for Al-Cu alloys). It is generally
recognised (3,4) that sensitivity to exfoliation corrosion
almost invariably results from the conjunction of an
aligned grain structure and sensitivity to IGC.
In order to avoid sensitivity to IGC of 2xxx or copper-rich
7xxx alloys it is necessary to devise a processing schedule
that precludes the development of and/or reduces solute
concentration profiles in the vicinity of grain boundaries.
This can be achieved by limiting heterogeneous
precipitation at grain boundaries during quenching or
subsequent ageing (see figures 2 and 3 for application to the
sensitivity to exfoliation corrosion of 7449 extrusions,
and also 5) and/or by overaging to equalise solute
concentrations between grain boundaries and the matrix.
The relative ease of desensitisation with ageing also
depends on a suitable choice of alloy composition; for
copper-rich 6xxx alloys, for example, there is an optimum
ratio of Si:Mg:Cu that enables effective desensitisation to
IGC for a minimal reduction in strength. This effect has
been exploited in the development of 6056-T78 for
fuselage skin and stringers, which combines a suitable
composition window with a targeted overage (see e.g. *>, 7)
Another example of an optimised overageing treatment is
the development of 7449-T7951 that allows a 10% increase
in compressive yield strength with respect to 7150-T651
with significantly improved corrosion resistance (see
figure 4 and ).

ED

-::?

EC

*=*K

.,-n

EA-

--

A"

10

15

20

25

Quenched thickness (mm)

H
Ind
quench

Figure 2. Influence of quench rate on exfoliation corrosion

resistance of heavy-gauge 7449 extrusion (approx 1"
flange thickness) in three near-peak tempers. Note the
improvement in EXCO rating (P (best) -> ED (worst)) with
increasing quench rate (decreasing quenched part
thickness).
This can be attributed to a concomitant
reduction in heterogeneous precipitation at the grain
boundaries during quench (see text). Temper A corresponds
to a slight under-age at 120C, tempers B and C
respectively to a near peak age and a slight overage in an
ageing cycle including a higher temperature step at 150C.
Ageing at 150C
Ageing at 140C

EC

EB

A Ageing at 135C

Ageing at 120C

0
EA.
P/EA
660

A A
1
665

,_ H
670

675

-H
680

685

690

Tensile Yield
Stress (MPa)
Figure 3. Exfoliation corrosion as a function of tensile
yield stress for 7449 heavy gauge extrusion (sampled at
th/10) aged to peak strength with ageing cycles with
different peak temperatures. EXCO rating (P (best) -> ED
(worst)) is degraded with higher temperature ageing, which
can be attributed to an increased propensity for grain
boundary precipitation (see e.g. Kirman") and concomitant
local solute depletion with ageing temperature. Note that
the ageing treatment at 150C (only) was preceded by a first
step age at 120C.

10-3

intrinsic materials fatigue resistance in its position in an

assembly.
The fatigue resistance of these hole-containing specimens
is related to the distribution of coarse intermetallic
precipitates (their number density and more markedly their
size) and to the yield stress of the material, both playing a
role in the initiation stage . It also depends on the
fatigue crack growth behaviour of the material, which is
discussed later.

(a)

Beside this main aspect of fatigue, it is necessary to assess

the fatigue resistance of the bulk material . Improved
smooth specimen (K(= 1) fatigue resistance of thick plate
depends on ingot quality and rolling practices. Better
understanding of these parameters has enabled the
development of aerospace-quality 7010, 7050 and 7040
plate at thicknesses of up to 215 mm. An example of the
effect of process modifications on a given alloy is given in
figure 5. A model relating fatigue life and defect size was
used to evaluate the different production practices on the
fatigue resistance* 2. Below a certain pore size, the
intermetallic precipitates become the predominant feature
for initiation of fatigue cracks.
Maximum stress(MPa)

340
i-tr*

j LJJ

A Process 1

O Process 2

'if

.\\HL-

10000

(b)
Figure 4. Comparison of corrosion in the vicinity of a
2117-T4 rivet in (a) 7449-T7951 and (b) 7150-T651 plate
after 5 months exposure in a sea coast atmosphere at Salin
de Giraud, on the Mediterranean coast (chromic etch of L-ST
cross-section). The exposed surfaces correspond to the
mid-planes of 38 mm (7449-T7951) and 25 mm plate
(7150-T651). Note the considerably reduced sensitivity to
exfoliation corrosion of the overaged 7449-T7951, which
nevertheless has a compressive yield stress 10% higher
than that of 7150-T651.
3. FATIGUE RESISTANCE
The fatigue resistance of structures is mainly governed by
the fatigue resistance of joints, which itself is strongly
related to technological factors. However, the material
itself plays a role and fatigue tests on specimens
containing one or two holes are aiming at evaluating the

100000

1000000

10000000

Lifetime (Cycles)
Figure 5. Effect of optimised process parameters on fatigue
resistance of thick plate (7010-T7451 200 mm plate,
R=0.1,Kt= 1).
4. FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH RESISTANCE
The design of many commercial aircraft lower wing and
fuselage skins is -limited by fatigue crack growth resistance
and toughness. Currently, the alloy of choice for these
applications is 2024-T351 or T3, but there is increasing
demand for the development of an alloy with an improved
balance of properties for these applications. Given the
complex nature of the property compromise required for
these applications, the replacement of 2024 is not a simple
matter. As part of an R&D effort to develop an improved
alloy for damage tolerance dominated structures, we have
undertaken a background study on the microstructural
paramaters that govern FCGR of 2024-type alloys. Some
of the results of this work are presented in the following
paragraphs.

10-4

The parameters mentioned in the literature as important

with respect to crack
propagation rates of aluminium alloys
include (see e.g. 13, '*):

A
D
0
1
4

- a beneficial effect of slip reversibility, which is affected

by the nature of the hardening precipitates and dispersoids,
and by the substructures;
- a detrimental effect of coarse intermetallic particles,
particularly for higher AK values;

Low disp dens. reX

Low disp dens. reX (eg)
Hi disp dens. reX
Hi disp dens. unreX
Med disp dens. unreX

E
a

- the cyclic behaviour of the material.

u
JZ

In addition, closure and environmental effects must also be

considered in the understanding of this behaviour.

00

210

CO
t-l

In order to quantify some of the above mentioned effects,

we have characterised the fatigue crack growth behaviour of
model plates of 2024-type alloys in CCT specimens
(sampled at quarter thickness, W = 200 mm, B = 5 mm, L-T
orientation) at R = 0.05 or R = 0.5. Plates with a variety of
dispersoid number densities (high, medium, low in figures 6
and 7) and extreme grain structures (largely unrecrystallised
to completely recrystallised, and completely recrystallised
with coarse grains) were processed and then characterised.
With respect to their FCGR performance, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
- the observed FCG rate increases with increasing
dispersoid number density at R = 0.05 (see figure 6);

Iff
8

9 10

20
AK (MPaVm)

30

Figure 6. Comparison of fatigue crack growth rates at R =

0.05 as a function of crack growth rate for different 2024type alloys (CCT specimens, sampled from 40 mm plate,
different composition-processing variants). See text for
discussion.
-i

10"

ri

D Low disp dens. reX (coarse grain)

A Low disp dens. reX
-f Med disp dens unreX

- FCG rate at R = 0.05 is lowest for the low dispersoid

number density, coarse recrystallised grain material;
- there is little or no influence of recrystallisation rate on
the FCGR of the high dispersoid density material.
In the tests at R = 0.5, the differences observed at lower Rratio between coarse grain low dispersoid content plate,
classical low dispersoid density plate, and medium
dispersoid density plate are no longer significant.

10"

These differences in FCGR are reflected in differences in

crack propagation paths (see figures 8 and 9). Crack paths
are extremely perturbed in the recrystallised, low dispersoid
density plates, with locally well-defined planar crack
surfaces and significant secondary cracking. For the higher
dispersoid density plates (see e.g. figure 9) the crack paths
are macroscopically very flat, though very locally
perturbed. These characteristic differences in crack path are
observed at both R-ratios.
These different paths can be attributed to the relative
homogeneity of deformation as a function of dispersoid
density (see e.g. 13, 14). Relatively low dispersoid density
allows planar slip over large distances, and thus crack paths
that are very perturbed on roughly the scale of the grain
size. Higher dispersoid densities homogenise slip, and
thus favour macroscopically flat crack surfaces. The fact
that the difference in crack propagation path is retained at
R=0.5 but not the improvement in crack propagation rate
of the low dispersoid density plate over the other 2024
plates implies that at least part of the difference in FCGR at
low R-ratio is attributable to crack closure effects that are
suppressed at the higher R-ratio.

10"
6

8 9 10

20

30

AK (MPaVm)
Figure 7. Comparison of fatigue crack growth rates at R =
0.5 as a function of crack growth rate for different 2024type alloys (CCT specimens, different compositionprocessing variants). See text for discussion.

10-5

#,H'. &
(a)

(a)

Writ-.
m-i

iiJuJi-'Jkft^.if^

lmm

w(. -j r:' ' *""-. \\ ''}

IV. .A. | kfe': ^W/M

iti'i'Mk'''*-'*

I". (!i,Ml %,1

Uir* < w^o-.v ' .%>

(b)

(b)

Figure 8. Crack paths at AK = 15 MPaVm in the low

dispersoid density plates (L-T sections, after chromic etch):
(a) recrystallised, coarse grain size, (b) recrystallised,
classical grain size.

Figure 9. Crack paths at AK = 15 MPaVm in the high

dispersoid density plates (L-T sections, after chromic etch):
(a) largely unrecrystallised (b) largely recrystallised.

The same line of reasoning can also account for the

improvement in FCGR at R = 0.05 for the coarse grain
material. Coarser grains allow of slip over a larger scale,
and thus render more marked the closure effects observed for
the low dispersoid density plates. For the higher dispersoid
density, the effect of modifying the grain structure is not
detectable because slip is already homogenised by the
dispersoids on a smaller microstructural scale.
These data, combined with similar results on other key
properties for lower wing skin and fuselage applications,
are currently being exploited in the design of a new lower
wing skin product.

5. TOUGHNESS
The microstructural parameters that determine the
toughness of aluminium alloys are well-described in the
literature (e.g. *-\ 16). A recent example of the application
of some of these principles is the development of improved
toughness versions of 2024-T3 fuselage sheet.
Improvements in processing schedule and composition that
enable a reduction in the volume fraction of coarse
intermetallic particles and dispersoids in 2024-type alloys
have been identified. The corresponding improvements in
materials properties are indicated in table 2.

10-6

Table 2. Typical properties of 2024A-T3 sheet compared

with conventional 2024-T3 sheet (data for 1.6 - 3.2 mm
sheet)
Property
TYS (MPa)

UTS (MPa)

El (%)

K
co/
Kc(MPaVm)*

Direction 2024A-T3

2024-T3

340

350

TL

300

320

455

465

TL

440

455

22

19

TL

24

18

L-T

105 / 155

93 / 140

T-L

100 / 150

90 / 130

* tested at W = 760 mm, 2a0 = 133 mm, calculated for W =

400 mm.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The development of improved alloys for DADT-dominated
applications requires detailed understanding of
microstructure-property relationships, some of which have
been discussed and illustrated above. However, significant
weight gains on new airframes will necessitate the
simultaneous improvement of several such properties, each
one not necessarily varying in the same sense with a given
microstructural (process) modification. Clearly, close
collaboration with airframe designers in order to quantify
key property goals. Moreover, quantified metallurgical
modelling of static and DADT properties of industrial
wrought alloys is therefore a key tool in providing efficient
responses to these property goals. Research efforts to this
end are underway17. Application of the results of this R&D
on an industrial scale requires both an understanding of the
possibilities and limitations of industrial processing and
continuous improvements in the mastery of the processing
schedule.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are due to Pechiney Rhenalu for permission to
publish. The contributions of B. Bes and M. Durand in the
property testing and microstructural characterisation are
gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

E. H. Hollingsworth and H.Y. Husicker in "Corrosion of

aluminium and aluminium alloys", Materials Handbook 9th
edition, vol 13, p 585. Published ASM Intl., Metals Park
Ohio, US.
2
R. Galvele and S.M. de Micheli: Corrosion Science, 27
(1987) p 329.
-3
J
B.W. Lifka and D.O. Sprowls "Localized corrosion - cause
of metal failure" ASTM STP 516, (1972) pl20.
J.D. Hatch (1984) "Aluminium: properties and physical
metallurgy" ed. ASM Intl, Metals Park, Ohio, US.
5
T.J. Warner, R. Dif, P. Lassince, and P. Lequeu (1988) in
Proc. of the International Conference on Aluminium Alloys
(ICAA6), Toyohashi, Japan, 1-5 July 1998, p 1669.
6
R. Dif, D. Bechet, T. Warner and H. Ribes (1998) in Proc.
of the International Conference on Aluminium Alloys
(ICAA6), Toyohashi, Japan, 1-5 July 1998, p 1991
7
D. Bechet and T. Warner (1994) International patent
application WO 96/12829.
8 Warner, T J ; Shahani, R A ; Lassince, P ; Raynaud, G M
"Aluminium alloy developments for affordable airframe
structures" Proc. conf. Synthesis, Processing and
Modelling of Advanced Materials, Paris, France, 25-27
June 1997 pp 77-88
9
I. Kirman: Metall. Trans. 2 (1971) 1761.
10
G. Patton, C. Rinaldi, Y. Brechet, G. Lormand, R.
Fougeres, "Study of fatigue damage in 7010 aluminum
alloy", Mat. Science and Engng A254 (1998), pp. 207-218
11
P.E. Magnusen, R.J. Bucci, A.J. Hinkle, M.E. Artley
and R.L. Rolf, "The influence of material quality on
airframe structural durability", 7th Int. on Fracture,
Houston, Texas, 1989, March 20-24
12
J.C. Ehrstrm, D. Roy, M. Garghouri and R. Fougeres,
"Modelling the effect of micropores on the fatigue life of
AA7050 smooth specimens", European Conf. on Fracture
12, Sheffield, GB, Sept. 1998.
13
F.J. Grau, A. Gysier et G. Liitjering (1994) dans Proc. de
"4th international conference on aluminium alloys",
Atlanta, p. 709.
14
E.A. Starke and J.C. Williams in "Fracture Mechanics:
Perspectives and directions", ASTM STP 1020, R.P. Wei
and R.P. Gangloff, Eds, 1989, pp 184-205.
J.T. Staley (1976) Properties related to fracture
toughness, ASTM STP 605, American society for testing
and material pp 71-103.
16
G.T. Hahn et A.R. Rosenfeld (1975) Met. Trans. 6A, p
653.
17
P. Sainfort, C. Sigli, G.M. Raynaud and P. Gomiero
(1997) Materials Science Forum 242 p 25.

11-1

Studies on long term durability of aluminum airframe structure

made by affordable process
HIRA Hirohito
Material Research Section, Aircraft Technology Research Department
Gifu Technical Institute
Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd.
1 Kawasaki-Cho, Kakamigahara City, Gifu-Pref. 504-8710 Japan
YOSHINO Yasuaki
Material and Process Engineering Section, Aerospace Engineering Department
Aerospace Division
Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd.

SUMMARY
Affordability is one of the most important problems of today's
development of airframe especially for aluminum alloy
application. Some new aluminum alloys and improved
processes are being applied to production cost reduction, and
tests related to long term durability of applied structures are
also carried out.
In this report, our recent studies of following three affordable
process methods to aluminum alloy structures are introduced,
these are outline of process studies and their merits, and
mechanical properties, fatigue properties and corrosion
resistance.
(l)Application of new 6000 series alloy of high formability
(2) Application of premium precision casting
(3)Application of superplastic forming
1. INTRODUCTION
Aluminum alloys and composites are competiting severely in
the field of airframe structural material. Development of
composites increases its speed now, and these are now applied
to primary structures. However application of aluminum
alloys seems to be maintained as major structural materials
because progressive improvement of aluminum alloy and its
process have been also made.
Weight reduction and cost reduction are pursued by
development of new alloys and improved forming process.
Trend of improved aluminum forming process is to change
complicated assembled structure to monolithic structure.
These are achieved by large scale high speed machining, large
panel precision forming, and relatively large size complicated
precision casting and superplastic forming. Application of
high cold form material may considered in this group. Target
of the application of these processes are decreasing of
remarkable assembly cost reduction and weight reduction by
decreasing fastener and two sheet layered area for joining.
Monolithic structure or monolithic complicated part is also
effective to long term durability. Free of joint means smooth
load distribution and lower stress concentration level, that is
good for fatigue life. And corrosion problem may be reduced
because crevice corrosion and dissimilar metal corrosion etc.
may be often caused around joint portion.
Our some recent studies about forming process are introduced
in this report, these includes application of high form 6000

series alloy by cold working, precision casting, superplastic

forming. These were examined the effectiveness of cost
reduction and weight reduction by forming trial parts. Then
mechanical properties and corrosion properties were examined.
2.NEW 6000 SERIES ALLOY OF HIGH
FORMABILITY
2.1 Concept of the development of new alloy
A new high strength Al-Mg-Si-Cu alloy (6000 series alloy) was
developed in Japan(Ref 1). Concept of this development is
shown in Figure 1, this material is considered to replace the
widely used 2024-T3.
Alloy 2024-T3 is one of Al-Cu-Mg alloys(2000 series alloy),
and has been used as main aerospace structural material. The
alloy has high strength and good resistance to fatigue crack
growth. But it also has some problems in formability and the
corrosion resistance. 6000 series alloys have lower strength
compared with 2000 series alloys, but have some better
properties like corrosion resistance, formability, lower density
and lower production cost compared with those of 2000 series
alloys. If the strength of 6000 series alloy is improved and the
merits are maintained, the alloy may meet the requirements for
the new major material. Alloy 6013 was developed with
similar ideas, but tensile strength is not reached to that of 2024
-T3.
Mechanical properties and corrosion resistance were studied in
some 6000 series alloys with varying amount of the alloying
elements. Mainly Cu and Si were controlled, effect of them
on strength is shown in Figure 2.
Finally chemical composition was fixed as shown in Table 1.
This alloy is 3% lower density than 2024-T3.
2.2 Mechanical properties and corrosion properties of
new alloy
Tensile and yield strength of new alloy is shown in Figure 3
compared with those of 2024-T3, 6013-T6 and 6061-T6.
Tensile and yield strength of new alloy are larger than those of
6013-T6, and tensile strength is almost same as that of 2024T3.
Figure 4 shows the comparison of fatigue crack growth rate
between new alloy and 2024 -T3, these are almost same. And
nearly the same fracture toughness data is obtained between
new alloy and 2024-T3.

Paper presented at the BIO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

11-2

Corrosion properties of new alloy are compared with those of

conventional alloys. Figure 5 shows the result of corrosion
test per ASTM G-l 10. 2024-T3 shows very severe corrosion
attack, and 6000 series alloy shows shallow intergranular
corrosion. Corrosion depth of new alloy is smaller than that
of6013-T6.
Above these tests and another tests, for example, bearing test
and shear test etc. show that new material is promising
mechanical properties used as replacing 2024 alloy. This new
alloy may have more long term durability than 2024 alloy
because of better corrosion properties, and almost same fatigue
crack growth and toughness.
2.3 Formability test and trial part forming results etc.
New material is formed at T4 condition and then aged to T6
condition. Formability of new alloy is compared with that of
conventional alloys, hemispherical dome test and bending test
were carried out. Result of hemispherical dome test is shown
in Figure 6. New alloy shows larger forming height than that
of 2024-T3 or 2024-W, and almost same as that of 6013-T4.
And bending test shows same trend, permissible bending radius
of new alloy is smaller than that of 2024-T3 or -W, and same
as that of 6013-T4.
Effect of the strain of cold forming on mechanical properties of
2024-T3 is very large, but that of new alloy is small because
aging process moderates cold working effect. Effect of strain
on compressive yield strength is shown in Figure 7 as example.
So, this material may be useful to severe contoured panel, bead
panel and curved frame etc.. Figure 8 shows bead panel of
new 6000 series alloy sheet. Inspection is secured no
irregular thickness nor distortion. In this case, about 50% cost
reduction may be estimated by changing the design concept
from assembled sheets to monolithic bead panel.
Precision extrusions and hollow extrusions of new alloy are
also developed, these are shown in Figure 9. Dimension of
wall thickness is able to be settled very thin. So these may be
used effectively as light and high stiff components.
Another merits of this new alloy are weldable and good
thermal stability of strength. For the latter property, tensile
strength is a little lower than that of 2219-T8, but thermal
stability of strength is rather better, because aging temperature
is high. So this alloy may be applied to welded structures or
high temperature structures in aluminum used field.
3. LARGE PRECISION CASTING OF ALUMINUM
ALLOY
3.1 Development of casting alloy and casting process
It is spreading to apply premium-quality large size precision
casting for primary aircraft structures. D357,A357 and A201,
which are used as casting alloys, have good mechanical
properties.
Improved casting methods such as low pressure casting
enables to decrease casting discontinuities, these are casting
cavities and cracks, and realizes the complicated thin casting
products. And control of microstructure is important to get
good strength, Figure 10 shows the effect of secondary
dendrite arm spacing on strength of A3 5 7 cast alloy.

Strength decreases with increase of arm spacing. Arm spacing

decreases with increase of cooling rate in solidification, so chill
block in a mold should be used if high strength may be secured
partially in the structure.
Following heat treatment process after casting process is also
important, uniform cooling rate must be requested to get
distortion free and proper strength cast structure.
3.2 Mechanical properties and corrosion properties of cast
alloys
Figure 11 shows the yield strength and fracture toughness of
cast aluminum alloys compared with sheet or forged Al alloys.
Fracture toughness of A3 5 7 is not so high compared with that
of 2024 sheet, but yield strength of A3 57 is almost same as that
of 2024-T3 sheet, and fracture toughness and yield strength of
A201 alloy is almost same as that of 7075 forging. Strength of
D357 is not shown, it is same as that of A357, and rather
narrower strength dispersion. A357 may used to replace
assembled sheet parts of 2024-T3 sheet, however applied
structure must be the high stiff structure of low stress level and
smooth stress distribution. A201 may be used to replace mainly
7000 series structural parts. In this report, results of A3 5 7 are
introduced as follows(Ref.2).
Figure 12 shows the fatigue crack growth rate of A3 5 7 cast
alloy, which inner discontinuities are permissible level
examined by X ray. Crack growth rate is relatively lower than
that of 2024-T3 or 7075-T6 wrought material. And Figure
13 shows the fatigue strength of A357 alloy. Fatigue strength
is lower than that of 2024-T3. When single crack is propagated
in the case of fatigue crack growth test, small casting cavities
may trap crack tip. So crack propagation path becomes wavy,
then it makes fatigue growth slow. On the contrary, many
cracks are caused at casting cavities simultaneously in the case
of fatigue strength test, and these cracks are joined each other.
This phenomena decreases fatigue strength. When strength
level is effectively low, former fracture mode of slow crack
propagation from single or a few portion may be considered as
structural fracture mode.
General corrosion property of A357 is said to be better than
that of 2024-T3 bare sheet. And A357 does not show
susceptibility of stress corrosion cracking.
Long term durability of A357 or D357 cast structure may be
considered that it depends on design philosophy to fit fatigue
properties. Casting structure should be designed by stiffness
driven and stress in the structure should be low level.
3.3 Study of application
Application of precision casting proves advantage of the
weight reduction and cost saving available when moving from
complicated fabricated structures to monolithic integrated
structures.
Figure 14 shows the exit door manufactured by casting for trial,
size is about 600 x 620 x 70 mm and thinnest portion is
1.5mm' . Material is A357. And then Figure 15 shows
comparison of cost and weight between precision casting and
assembled structure. Thickness of casting structure must be
increased compared with sheet thickness of assembled
structure because of casting factor. However 10% weight
reduction may be attained because there is no fastener nor two

11-3
sheets layered area for joining.
Cost may be decreased to about a half of the cost of assembled
structure of sheet.
Precision casting is promising method, but designers must
consider several problems of effective application when they
try to apply it. These problems are special design concepts
which include the knowledge of liquid metal flow and cooling
characteristics in mold, weight saving design technique, and
then knowledge of quality assurance concepts to casting
defects. More strict contact among staff from design to
qualification must be required than usual process because
effect of mutual relationship among design and each process on
the quality of products is stronger than usual process.
Now, D357 becomes available, and application study of casting
is developed widely, and structures about 2m 4> is studied as
casting application.
4. SUPERPLASTIC FORMING OF ALUMINUM
ALLOY
4.1 Outline of superplastic forming method
Superplastic forming technology makes it possible to fabricate
a sheet of complex configuration such as deep bulge forming,
and this technology also enables to change assembled sheet
parts to an integrated sheet part. Fine-grained aluminum
alloys such as 7475 and 5083 alloy show superplasticity at
restricted narrow range of both temperature and strain rate.
Figure 16 shows the relation between testing temperature of
tensile test and elongation of fine-grained 7475 alloy, which
shows superplastic phenomenon at about 500C.
Forming method used to application is generally bulge forming
by air pressure, sheet to be formed is fixed in jig and
sequentially controlled gas pressure to get desired strain rate is
loaded at proper temperature. Smooth plastic metal sheet
deformation on die must be required, so lubricating media
between sheet and die is also important.
4.2 Mechanical properties of superplastically formed
part
Mechanical properties are same if defects are not caused
during forming.
When forming condition is improper,
forming is not completed or thickness distribution becomes
improper.
Another problem is the generation of micro cavities as inner
defects which decrease strength. Figure 17 shows the effect of
the amount of cavities on tensile properties of formed 7475
alloy. When cavity area is over 1% of the examined unit area
of cut section, tensile strength and yield strength and then
elongation become decreased and lower than the values of
specification. And Figure 18 shows the effect of the amount of
cavities on fatigue properties. Fatigue strength become
decreased when cavity area is also over 1% (Ref.2).
Amount of cavities depends on prepared materials and process.
Microstructure etc. is secured by material specification.
Amount of cavities increases with increase of elongation so,
it is required not to cause partially heavy elongation by means
of design modification and proper process control. Corrosion
properties are not affected by the generation of cavities.

From the above, quality control about thickness distribution

and amount of cavities should be important to secure long term
durability of superplastically formed part and these factors
depend on process. Dummy part to be adjusted severest
elongation.level of real part may be formed simultaneously to
check the generation of cavities as sampling inspection.
4.3 Application study of superplastic forming
Figure 19 shows the trial product of superplastic forming,
which material is 7475 alloy. Thickness distribution is proper
and cavities are very few. Most important design requirement
is structural stiffness alike casting, and it is confirmed. Many
parts are integrated to one part, so about 20% production cost
reduction is predicted in this case.
When designers would like to use this method, they must
consider special design technique about thickness control and
quality assurance method about generation of cavities etc. and
strict contact with production stuff as is the case of casting.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Application of three new processes of aluminum alloys to
pursue affordability are studied, these are application of high
strength 6000 series alloy of high formability, large precision
casting and superplastic forming. Concluding remarks are as
follows.
(l)Removing joint and assembly process by using these new
processes to form monolithic structure is very effective to
attain total cost reduction and weight reduction.
(2)Monolithic structures by these new processes have basic
merits of long term durability, that is, free of joint which
cause many problems. These are crevice corrosion and
dissimilar metal corrosion, then bearing fatigue strength and
not smooth stress flow.
(3)New 6000 series alloy developed in Japan has good
mechanical properties to replace 2024-T3 alloy. Fatigue
strength and corrosion properties are also good.
(4)Structural stiffness is often most important design
requirement for the application of precision casting and
superplastic forming. Fatigue strength properties of
structure applied these two methods are good if design is
fair and inner discontinuities are proper low level.
(5)These new forming methods often require new design
concept and new qualification method etc. So, more strict
contact among staff of design, material, manufacturing and
qualification is required.

6. REFERENCE
1. H.Uchida et al, The 5 th. ICAA, p. 1758(1996)
2. H. Hira et al, Kawasaki Tec. Review, No.ll l,p.l8 (1991 ).

11-4

Material properties
to be hoped
1.Better mechanical properties
than 2024-T3.
2.Better cold formability
3.Better corrosion resistance
4.Lower material cost

Weight reduction
(Light and stiff structure)
Cost reduction of
fabrication
Yield strength

Cost reduction of
maintenance

0.5

Promiein? nandiHafa.

New 6000 alloy

Concept of the Development of New 6000

Series Alloy

Table 1

Chemical Composition of New 6000

Series Alloy (mass%)
Fe
0.14

Cu
1.64

1.5

(a) AM.0Mg-0.3Mn-0.9Cu-Si

Figure 1

Si
0.75

1.0

0.0

0.5

Si content (mass%)

Ma
0.01

MF
1.01

Cr
0.15

Zn
0.01

Figure 2

1.0

1.5

2.0

Cu content (mass%)
(b) AI-0.7SM.0Mg-0.3Mn-Cu

Effect of Silicon and Copper Content on

Strength of Al-Mg-Si-Cu Alloys

500

Ti
0.02

Al
bl.

NewAlloy-T6 2024-T3 6013-T6 6061-T6

10 -4

Figure 3
:

New A IOV-T6 f 1 'rj T

i
; 2024-T 1
Directior : T-L
|
10-5
\ R = 0.1
Jyjirrr." :~ ~^.
: SDecime n-nr.T i-A
o
o

i M.

E10-6

mg i

r~-

I """"'^J^^-.-^rT-rj

_ JJ
i

II

surface
attack 28

it_

'G- cor- dePth

Weight loss

-i10
-,
8 CM~

! ^.J-J..

I ; .. i
l

ill!

10
^K(MPa-m1/2)
Figure 4

Uniform

E
6 S

J^r j

10-'

10-8

^200
E
"160

Mechanical Properties of New Alloy and

Conventional Alloys (Thickness:1,27mm)

100

Comparison of Fatigue Crack Growth Rate

between New Alloy and 2024-T3
(Thickness:!.27mm)

0>
.
.
l o
NewAltoy-T6 2024-T3 6013-T6 6061-T6

Figure 5

Intergranular Corrosion Depth and Weight

Loss of New Alloy and Conventional Alloys
(ASTM-G-110)

11-5
2024
VWform)T42

2024
T3(form)

6013
T4(form)T6

XXX
T4(fom0T6

60

40

^P*

^
20

:b
0
NewAlloy-T4 6013-T4 2024-W

Figure 6

10

10

10

10

Strain by Stretch (%)

Figure 7

Comparison of Hemispherical Dome Test

of New Alloy and Conventional alloys
(50mm Diameter)

Figure 8

2024-T3

Effect of Strain by Stretching on

Compressive Yield Strength of New Alloy
and 2024 Alloy

Figure 9

Bead Panel Trial Part of New Alloy

(Bead Height:8mm,Width:27mm)

Precision Extrusion and Hollow Extrusion

of New Alloy

150

a
a

40

U
o 100

Class 2

\
30

\ Class 12

'O

o
C

o
N

"

bo

Class 11

50

at
u

20

50

10

DAS II (u m)

Figure 10

100

50

100

10

DAS H (M m)

Effect of the Secondary Dendrite Arm

Spacing (DAS II) on Tensile
Properties of A357 Cast Alloy
(Strength Class: from MIL-A-21180)

O: A357.0-T6 ,
A ' A201.0-T7 r Experimental Data
O : A356.0-T6J
ft:202*-T351(Plate)-Ti. MIL-HUBK.
it: 7075-T73(Forging>T Design Allowable

Figure 11

20

30

YS

(kgfymm*)

40

50

Relationship between Tensile Yield

Strength and Fracture Toughness of
Aluminum Cast Alloys and Conventional
Wrought Alloys

11-6

10"'

"7 r
A

1 Samples Urn Real Cist Product.

- : 2024-T3 (T-L)

'

: 707S-T6 (T-U
: Samples fro Cast
Test Panels

S.

20

Compact Tension Specimen

.
^~~--=e_

Unnotched Test Specimen

0
Stress Ratio
1Iu I i ml

100

Fatigue Crack Growth Rate of A357 Cast

Alloy Compared with That of Wrought
Alloys

Figure 13

Fatigue Strength of A357 Cast Alloy

Compared with That of 2024-T3 Sheet

^~__
Assembled structure of
Precision

Figure 14

Exit Door Manufactured by Casting for

Trial (Material: A357)

10'
10'
'if
Fatigue life (Cycles)

DELTA K (kef/mm'")

Figure 12

~* >- _ __

'>-^

_(,

x ^.20!4-T5 thtil

Figure 15

casting

Estimated
weight (X)

Estimated
cost 04)

100

100

91

53

Comparison of Predicted Cost and Weight

between Precision Casting and
Assembled Structure

600
Material:A17475(2mm')
Crosshead speed:2mm/min.
500

400

Upper:Before loading
Lower: After loadiag(5 lot)
IS 300

200

Figure 16
1O0

10

200
300
400
Test temperature (t)

500

600

Superplastic Phenomenon of Fine- grained

7475 Alloy

11-7

MIIMI

&

rq

m-rrr

10

1I

i i I I ii|

Amount of cavity area

4 0,51 - 1.00 %

TtS

I. - s.oo %
TBofD.A."

0-0-

2Tf

i~J3>o. .

..^

_A~

iD D.

I 111 il
0.1

0.01

UXJ
1

t ofD.A.*)
L

,T^
.10

Amount of cavity area (%)

Cycla

*)D.A.:Deiign allowable
In MILHDBK

Figure 17

Effect of the Amount of Cavities on

Tensile Properties of Superplastically
Formed 7475 Alloy
(Heat Treated to T6 after Forming)

Figure 19

Trial Product of Superplastic Forming

Figure 18

Effect of the Amount of Cavities on

Fatigue Strength of Superplastically
Formed 7475 Alloy
(Heat Treated to T6 after Forming)

12-1

Plastic envelope in propagating crack wake on Al-Li alloys

subjected to fatigue cycles and to different heat treatments
S. Corradi,* M. Marchetti* and W. Stellino *
School of Aerospace Engineering
University of Rome "La. Sa,pienza."
Via Eudossiana, 16, 00184 Rome, Italy

Summary. The aim of this research is to study the fracture behaviour of three Al-Li alloys (2091-2195-8090),
using standard CT specimens, in the frequency range of
1-10 Hz. Each of these three alloys is subjected to different heat treatments and its homogeneity is analysed,
before and after treatments, by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Crack tip opening displacements and plastic
zone envelope analyses are fully treated by experimental
and numerical results and fatigue crack growth process is
extensively reported. At the end of fatigue tests, specimen fracture surfaces have been deeply analysed by SEM
in order to individualise the characteristics of fracture as
function of frequency, AK and load ratio R.
Key words: crack growth, plasticity, CT specimen, SEM.

1. INTRODUCTION
Renewed and extensive research and development activities led to new generation of Al-Li
alloys by three major producers: Alcon, Alcoa
and Pechiney. For these alloys the improvements
in various properties, including density and stiffness, result from lithium additions and have the
potential to save up to 10% in weight by direct
substitution, and up to 18% in weight if the
increased specific stiffness (modulus/density) is
performed [1] [2].
Commercial aluminium-lithium alloys are targeted as advanced materials for aerospace technology primarily because of their low density, high
specific modulus, and excellent fatigue and cryogenic toughness properties. The superior fatigue
crack propagation resistance of Al-Li alloys, in
comparison with other traditional alloys, is primarily due to high levels of crack tip shielding,
meandering crack paths and resultant roughnessinduced crack closure.
However, the fact that these alloys derive
their superior properties extrinsically from the
above mechanisms has certain implications with
* Research Scientist
+
Full Professor
* Graduate Student

respect to small crack and variable amplitude behaviour. For example, aluminium-lithium
alloys loose their fatigue advantage over conventional aluminium alloys in compression dominated variable amplitude fatigue spectra tests. However, in tension dominated spectra, aluminiumlithium alloys show greater retardation on the
application of single peak tensile overloads.
The principal disadvantages of peak strength
aluminium-lithium alloys are reduced ductility
and fracture toughness in the' short transverse
direction, anisotropy of in plane properties and
accelerated fatigue crack extension rates when
cracks are microstructurally small. These limitations have imposed the direct substitution of aluminium airframe alloys with aluminium-lithium
alloys, although it is possible to group the present
aluminium alloys and the current aluminiumlithium alloys in terms of product form and of
primary design criteria.
During the past 20 to 30 years influences on
crack growth behaviour have been systematically
investigated. It was found that the mean stress
applied is important and its effect is closely correlated to crack closure behaviour. In recent years
the threshold behaviour had also been extensively investigated. Doker [3] showed that most of
the da/dN vs. AK data for different materials
which are presently available fall below some limiting curves. The experimental data show that
they fall comparatively close together for different R ratios in the middle part of the curve
(mean stress). At the lower and higher ends of
the curve, data for different material considerably deviate according respectively to crack closure effect and to fracture toughness Kc values.
The aim of this research is to investigate, by
means of experimental and numerical analyses, fatigue behaviour of 2091, 8090 and 2195
aluminium-lithium alloys and it has mainly two
purposes: 1) to define frequency effects on crack
propagation rate and 2) to survey plastic zone

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

12-2

progress, as function of time and space, over

crack tip. First purpose was carried out by experimental tests. These were all performed in the
same operating conditions: that is, same environment (lab air), same loads, same specimens
geometry whereas the only variable parameter
was the frequency. Testing frequency range has
been 1-10 Hz.
The second part required use of an elasto-plastic
analytical model, which has actual crack length
(experimental data) as input and gives out,
as output, the plastic zone size together with
length, width and abscissa of all elements (totally ten) used to describe it. A comparison will
be carried out 1) among different alloys, for the
same testing conditions, and 2) for the same
alloy, for different frequency values. The research
is concluded with presentation of fracture surface
analysis by SEM.

2. THE PROPOSED APPROACH

A two dimensional, weight function based, non
linear elasto-plastic analytical model has been
used for considering plastic zone evolution. This
model is restricted to two dimensional cracked
bodies with cracks under mode I loading. Using
predictions of crack opening stress, the effective
stress intensity factor range, at fatigue crack tip
under a given cyclic loading, is computed. The
effect of residual stress on fatigue crack propagation is of great practical significance and has been
the focus of much research. Superposition techniques are often used when assessing the effects
of fatigue crack propagation. The superposition
involves the computation of the stress intensity
factor, which is associated with the initial preexisting residual stress field. This factor is then
superposed upon the stress intensity factor that
results from external loading, to give the total
stress intensity factor as:
K = KTes + Kext

(1)

Maximum and minimum values of the total resultant stress intensity factor K are computed for
the cyclic loading and a total resultant stress
intensity factor range A.K is calculated. This
resultant stress intensity factor range may then
be used to compute the predicted fatigue crack
growth rate da/dN using a da/dN=f(AK) correlation.
The superposition technique is used extensively

because of its simplicity. It has been criticised

by some researchers because it considers only
the initial residual stress field that exists in the
uncracked structure, with no acknowledgement
of the redistribution of residual stress that occurs
as the propagating fatigue crack penetrates, with
its free or partially free surfaces, the residual
stress field. Other researchers have argued that
the redistribution of residual stress is of no consequence.
Bueckner (1958) has demonstrated mathematically that, for linear elastic materials, stress
intensity factors resulting from a given applied
loading may be computed using the stress distribution in the uncracked structure. Heaton [4] has
presented a mathematically rigorous proof that
generalises Bueckner's formulation to include
both thermal and residual stress fields. These
works suggest that, for linear elastic materials,
the redistribution of applied and residual stresses
due to fatigue crack propagation is of no consequence when computing stress intensity factors
and fatigue crack growth through use of correlation da/dN=f(AK).
These conclusions are applicable to linear elastic materials only. The existence of plastic deformation at the crack tip, even under small scale
yielding conditions, will produce crack generated residual stresses at the crack tip and crack
closure along the crack surfaces of a propagating
crack. The superposition methodology is unable
to account for the influence of these non linear plasticity effects. Consequently, the use of linear elastic superposition techniques for prediction of the effects of residual stress on fatigue
crack propagation and plastic zone evolution,
may result in predictions that correlate poorly with experimental observations. More accurate predictions may be possible if an increased
understanding is established of the interactions
between residual stress fields and crack closure.
The model used here is an extension of Newman's Model [5]. While Newman investigated
specific two dimensional geometry, the model
described here accommodates the analysis of any
two dimensional geometry that exhibits a crack
emanating from a free surface for which a weight
function is known.
Let's consider a propagating fatigue crack being
closed by plastic deformation at crack tip and
propped open by a wake of plastically deformed
material along the crack surfaces. A series of
rigid perfectly plastic elements is used to model
the residual plastic deformation along the fatigue

12-3

t t t t t t t t t t '

| t t t T t_T t 1ft

-*^2i*i

h^^^

Li

i i I i 1 i I U I

'

MM '

"ft

Figure 1: Elasto-plastic fatigue crack model

as superposition of elastic ones
crack surfaces and the plastic zone ahead of
the propagating crack. The model is constructed
using a superposition of two elastic crack problems and is based on the Dugdale Model, modified to leave plastically deformed material along
the crack surfaces as the crack advances.
The external loading is assumed to vary between
a fixed maximum value Smax and a fixed minimum Smin, thus only constant amplitude applied
loading is considered. Stress a(x) is generated
along crack surfaces as a consequence of plastic deformation at the crack tip and of residual
plastic deformation along the crack surfaces. The
model is composed of three region as indicated
in Fig. 1.
1. A linear elastic region containing a fictitious
crack of length d = a + p;
2. A plastic region of length p ahead of the
actual crack
3. A region of residual plastic deformation
along the crack surfaces
The plastic and residual plastic deformation
regions have been modelled using n rigid perfectly plastic bar elements as shown in Fig. 2.
To approximate the effects of strain hardening,
the flow stress <JQ is taken to be the average value
between the yield and the ultimate strength. The
generic stress aj is applied on the linear elastic
region and is transmitted to this region by the n
bar elements as illustrated in Fig. 2.

'

~
J
IHtlllKl

14

if"

15\

Figure 2: Elements and applied stresses

As originally postulated by Dugdale, under a tensile stress a(x), element 15 would yield in tension
and crack opening would be restrained.
Generic element j is located along and attached
to the upper crack surface. Under low levels
of a(x), crack remain closed at j, placing element j in compression, and thus propping open
the crack as shown. Under higher levels of a(x)
the crack would open and aj > 0. The plastic zone ahead of the current crack tip under
the maximum applied loading is modelled using
ten elements. The plastic zone size is computed assuming finite stresses at the fictitious crack
tip as originally postulated by Dugdale. Element
widths w are assumed such that elements near
the actual crack tip are smaller in width, while
element lengths L, in the plastic zone, are given
by weight function based computation. An initial edge crack length a is assumed to exist and
it is modelled using elements 1-5, with element 1
located at the crack mouth. These elements have
negligible length.
Weight function m,{x, a), which remains valid for
a/W < 0.5 [6], and crack tip opening displacement V(xi) expressions are as follows:

n(x,a) =

y/2n{a

1+mi 1--I +
a,

12-4

+ 777,2 I 1

V(Xi) = -^ [ m[xi,a)Ki{a)da
-fc Jxi

(2)

where m\ and 777,2 depend upon the ratio a/W

between specimen width W and crack length a,
a is a fictitious crack length, E' is the generalised Young modulus and Kj, which is the mode
I stress intensity factor, is given by:

Kj(a) = 2

Jo

T(x)m,(x,a)dx

(3)

Combining and substituting the previous equations, the total generic displacement Vi results
as

Vi = f(xi,Sa)

fully open, as originally postulated by Elber [7].

Small fatigue cracks induce limited plastic zones
mostly providing plane strain conditions. As
crack propagates and plastic zone size increases, a transition to plane stress condition can
be observed. It results that crack growth analysis requires the modelling of both plane strain
and plane stress conditions. In light of the
introduction of a correction factor, which varies
between 1 and 3, as demonstrated by Newman
[5], the present model predicts accurately the
crack propagation.

(4)
3=1

where the first term is the displacement due to

external loading S when crack lenght is a and
the second term represents the displacement in x,;
due to the stress <TJ on the generic j element. The
crack extension creates a new element with width
wi equal to Aa and length Li equal to the crack
tip opening displacement Vi before extension.
In fact under maximum loading crack surfaces
are completely opened and element lengths L?;
result equal to surface displacements V,;. Under
the minimum applied stress, elements representing the residual plastic deformation along the
crack surfaces may come into contact and transmit a compressive stress; compressive yielding is
also possible, requiring the computation of new
element lengths. The stress along the line of crack
propagation, that produces the first full opening
of the crack, is defined as opening stress aoh(x),
where <TQ is a scaling parameter that defines the
magnitude of the crack opening stress and h(x)
is a shape function which defines the crack opening stress along y = 0 (line of crack propagation).
Under a uniform stress with no stress concentration, one obtains h(x) = l, while it varies if the
geometry of interest exhibits a stress concentration.
Under constant amplitude loading, the last element to loose contact and open is generally the
element along the crack surface closest to the
crack tip. It is assumed that the only portion
of the loading cycle that contributes to the crack
propagation is the portion for which the crack is

3. THE EXPERIMENTAL TESTS

The elasto-plastic model is used to survey plastic
zone progress, as function of time and space, in
a cyclically loaded edge cracked panel (CT specimen) as shown in Fig. 3. The constant amplitude loading was a uniform pulsating tension
with =0.3 and Smax=400 Kg. The panel width
W is 40 mm. and an initial crack size a=6 mm.
is assumed. The specimens used in the experimentation have been obtained in the LT configuration. The preparation of the surface has been
particularly studied to facilitate the optical reading of the crack length; Knuth-Rotor System,
that consists in using some rotating disks at constant speed on which are supported abrasive SiC
papers, has been utilised. The cooling has been
performed through a continuous throw of water,
while the polish by some rotating cloths wetted by suspensions of allumina particles of 1 \xm
diameter. Finally, on both specimen faces some
imprints, spaced 1 m,m, the one from the other,
have been realised. The ultimate strength for the
three alloys, in LT direction, are: 462 MPa for
2091 alloy, 557 MPa for 2195 alloy and 470 MPa
for 8090 alloy.
Their section is reported in succession in
Fig.4. Like other age-hardened aluminium alloys,
aluminium-lithium alloys achieve precipitation
strengthening by thermal ageing after a solution heat treatment. The age hardening of
aluminium-lithium alloys involves the continous
precipitation of 6' {Al-$Li) from a supersaturated
solid solution. Aluminium-lithium based alloys
are microstructurally unique. They differ from
most of the aluminium alloys in that once the
major strengthening precipitate (61) is homogeneously precipitated, it remains coherent even
after extensive ageing. All three alloys under
examination have a temper designation of T8,

12-5
S(x)

2091

Figure 3: Finite width panel with edge crack a

which consists in a solution heat treatment, a

cold working and an artificially ageing. Two of
them, 8090 and 2091 alloy, have been subjected
to a further treatment, designated as Tx51 (normally applied to plate and to rolled or cold finished rod and bar), which relieves residual stresses by stretching.
The measures of crack length have been performed by an optical microscope WILD M38,
provided of an enlargement of 40X. Measures
have been taken on both specimen sides and,
periodically, each specimen has been removed
and observed with the electron microscope or
with an optical microscope that allows bigger
enlargements.
Besides the necessary data for the determination of wake plastic strain, i.e. length, width and
abscissa (as function of cycles number) of each
of the ten elements, a parameter \&, which takes
into consideration the crack opening and consequently keeps track of AKeff and not simply of
AK, is considered as,

1 - So/Sm

(5)

Finally, the fracture surfaces have been observed

by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope). The
same surfaces, attached subsequently by a specific acid solution (50 ml H2O, 50 ml HNO3, 32
ml HCl, 2 ml HF), have been studied with the
scanning microscope for the individualisation of
fracture plans and of flow directions.

2195

:T
tig
7.v..-.-" . "
" J*

. -.

-i- *' -" ..

'

:.r.yl

'*rSBEiw'jTK^v^..V!j<;0' s3"v*'tA^"K', v&*ie

8090

Figure 4: Section of the alloys under examination

4. RESULTS
The tests performed for the 8090 alloy are reported in Figg. 5-6. These allow to follow the crack
evolution both in terms 1) of crack length us the
number of effected cycles and 2) of the evolution
of plastic zone adimensional size p vs the number
of cycles. From Fig. 5 is deduced, as confirmed
by most bibliography, that, as frequency increases, the rate of propagation decreases and the
ultimate number of cycles increases. Such conclusions are also confirmed by Fig. 6, where as
frequency increases, the dimension of the plastic
zone p (and therefore the degree of local plasticity present at the crack tip) tends to decrease.
The tests performed for the 2195 alloy are reported in Figg. 7-8: same conclusions are valid both in
terms of crack rate of propagation and in terms

12-6

20 00

'

200000 00

'

400000 00

600000 00

800000 00

'I

200000.00

1OO0000 00

400DDD 00

Number of Cycles

Number of Cycles

Figure 8: 2195 alloy

Figure 5: 8090 alloy

E
E.

.c

15,0

'

u
2091 1 H*
2091 2 Hi
2091 3 Hz
2091 1QH*

i
0 00

200000 OD

400000.00

600000 00

B0D00D 00

1000000 00

<

100000 00

150000 00

1
200000 00

r250000 00

Number of Cycles

Figure 6: 8090 alloy

50000 00

Number or Cycles

Figure 9: 2091 alloy

--,- 21951 Hi

-*- 2199 2 Hi

tt)

-e- 2195 5 HE
-- 219510 Hi

7
i

ffi
ffl

20.00

:
1500

cu

2.00

"
?

10 00

5.00

'

200000 00

1
400000 00

Number of Cycles

Figure 7: 2195 alloy

'
600000 00

i
50000.00

'

i
100000.00

'

1
150000 00

Number of Cycles

Figure 10: 2091 alloy

'

r
200000 00

25D000 00

12-7

-80901 Hi
-2091 lib
- 2195 1 Hi

20.00

0.00

100000.00

200000.00

-|

30OD00.00

400000.00

0.00

200000.00

400000.00

600000.00

B0Q000.00

Number of Cycles

Number of Cycles

Figure 14: Comparison at 10 Hz

Figure 11: Comparison at 1 Hz

E
E

20.00

-1
O.D0

100000 OD

200000.00

"'

[300000.00

400000.00

500000.00

Number of Cycles

1
200000.00

'

1
400000.00

'

I
600000.00

Number of Cycles

Figure 13: Comparison at 5 Hz

0.2D

0.40

r
0.60

Number of Cycles

Figure 15: Comparison at 1 Hz

Figure 12: Comparison at 2 Hz

0.00

0.0D

i'i'r

'
B00000.00

0.40

0.60

0.80

Number of Cycles

Figure 16: Comparison at 2 Hz

1000000.00

12-8

of plastic zone size. For such alloy, however, the

gap between the curves at low frequency (1-2
Hz) and the curves at higher frequency (5-10
Hz) results comparably high, denoting a remarkable frequency effect even if a larger ammount
of tests at lower and higher frequencies should
still be provided. Finally the tests performed for
the 2091 alloy are reported in Figg. 9-10. Similar
results are obtained even if this alloy introduces
more regular variation between frequencies.
In Figg. 11-12-13-14 are represented some comparative diagrams between the considered alloys.
In order to facilitate a correct comparison, the
curves are reported with frequency as parameter. Fatigue life for 8090 alloy is greater at any
frequency, resulting much more evident at lower
frequency.
In Figg. 15-16-17-18 plastic zone size (p) is
plotted as function of the adimensional cycles
number (n/N). In this case 2195 alloy, which
shows better mechanical performances (in terms
of yield and ultimate stress), seems to be less
sensitive to the phenomenon of plasticity, always
present at crack tip. In this context, 2091 alloy
shows an extreme sensibility to plasticity, denoting, expecially at higher frequency, the largest
plastic zone size. 8090 alloy assumes an intermediary role between the previous two (apart of the
test at 10 Hz for n/N>0.8) showing a rather regular trend.
Wake plastic zone progress, which represents
residual stress distribution on crack surfaces, is
analysed through the monitoring of the first element length vs crack propagation. Generally its
exponential behaviour has been found to change
passing from 1 to 10 Hz, meaning that wake plastic zone is not only spreading on crack surfaces
but also varying its shape. For the 2195 alloy, on
the contrary, the exponential fitting curve (Fig.
19) remains a Vapor Pressure one, having a standard error close to 1 10~5 and a correlation coefficient of 0.999.

5. CRACK SURFACE ANALYSES

At the end of fatigue tests, specimen fracture
surfaces have been analysed by SEM in order
to individualise the characteristics of fracture as
function of the frequency and AK.
The fatigue fracture of 8090 alloy could be
investigated through two different models: Shear
Facet Mode and Flat Tensile Mode. These
depend obviously on the load conditions (R,

i
D.G0

D.2D

040

'r
0 60

OE

Number of Cycles

Figure 17: Comparison at 5 Hz

~i
0.40
0 60
Number of Cycles

r
0 80

Figure 18: Comparison at 10 Hz

Smax) and are influenced also by crack length and

frequency. The Tensile Mode appeared dominant
at low frequency and in regime of Short Cracks,
while the Shear Mode did likewise at high frequency and in the regime of Long Cracks (Fig.
20). The transition from one mode to another
depends upon crack lenght and applied load: this
may lead to the definition of a variable parameter
of the stress state as, for instance, Kmax, AK or
AKeff. In fact, beyond an opportune critical value of AKeff, fracture due to Tensile Mode is no
longer present, while at lower values some mixed

12-9

WAKE PLASTIC ZONE

**<*'

X&~.
n*

LP*

V^'

rfS
1
1 * I | I Mf S
.01^.56-003 1.0e-002 1.2e-002

1.4e-002

1.6e-O02

1.8e-002

1.9e-002

Abscissa

WAKE PLASTIC ZONE

Abscissa

Figure 19: Wake plastic zone spreading for 2195 alloy

Transition

Mainly
tensile

Mainly

Large shear
facets

I Overload
failure

Crack length
increasing

Figure 20: Fracture profile for 8090 alloy

ways of fracture may be observed (Shear + Tensile). Such marked dependence from the effective
value of stress intensity factor, has been justified
correlating the real dimension of the plastic zone
(p) with the limit of diffusion of hydrogen per
cycle. In other words, when p overcomes the distance of diffusion of hydrogen, a fracture is had
preferentially by Shear type rather than Tensile
type. Basing on this concept, for low values of the
AK at 1 Hz (Photo 1), the surface shows mixedmode fracture (Shear + Tensile), that tends, for
higher values of the AK (Photo 2), to a Shear
Mode fracture with the presence of delamination. Applying the chemical solution previously
described, the fracture surface revealed (Photo
3) pits which denoted that the crystallografics
planes of fracture are (100) type. At higher frequencies (Photo 4), fracture mode is primarily
Shear Mode, with an accented roughness of the
surface and therefore a notable effect of crack
closure. The analysis, performed by Scanning
Electron Microscope, for 2195 alloy has denoted
the presence of overload and delamination. For
instance, Photo 5 refers to the zone of threshold
in the test at 5 Hz in which the overloads are well
recognised. In the same test, fracture surface, at
higher AK values, shows zones (along the whole
specimen) with fatigue striatures (Photo 6, Photo 7). At collapse, the specimens show a ductile
structure with dimples (cone and cup). Delamination occurs similarly to 2091 alloy (Photo 8).
In the case of 2 Hz tests, 2195 alloy introduces,
at threshold, a behaviour analogous to that at 5
Hz, with less evident overload. Furthermore at
4-8 m,m,. distance from the threshold the fracture
is similar to that of 5 Hz test while, at around 10
mm,, distance from the threshold, some fatigue
striatures, less marked than in the test at higher frequency, appeared. At higher values of AK,
just before collapse, is noticed the presence of
"Aluminum Plaques" (Photo 9).
Finally in the Photos 10-11-12, at high values of
the AK, it is easily noticeable, for 2091 alloy, a
marked delamination. In this alloy, the surface
treatment attack has been performed for the 5
Hz test: the evidence of fracture planes (100)
has been much easier in proximity of collapse.
In 2195 alloy, the attack has been performed for
the test at 5 Hz. In proximity of the threshold,
fracture planes of (111) type have been individuated (Photo 13) while, as crack growth rate and
AK increase, fracture planes of (110) type are
observed (Photo 14).

12-10

...;.*.'i

*;

... .

,:

* . ' V

v ;/

Kit;

*&'- -n

T-y.

ftmM^
Photo 1: 8090. Fracture surface

. .\ .
Photo 4: 8090. Roughness and crack closure

SHC1

St* 'aissapiaiip

ife

"Jfcsjf '

'* i\*

If. , :'

a
*i( n

'.

'

:.

* " -"- [;

Photo 2: 8090. Delamination

*;

\,

..

^''.1

is*-.-.1

Photo 5: 2195. Overloads

;g:W'*-3F&J

Photo 3: 8090. Pits

Photo 6: 2195. Fatigue striatures

12-U

rajr'y-rfj, -jj, v -w

W?
<%'"'' r-I

"

Photo 10: 2091. Delamination

Photo 7: 2195. Fatigue striatures

%^P#
^".VaT

j*

Photo 8: 2195. Delamination

. , %.-

rs

Photo 11: 2091. Delamination

C'^'%
^^%L
*Vr^ r^T^^IWBlfr
Photo 9: 2195. Aluminium Plaques

Photo 12: 2091. Delamination

12-12

Photo 13: 2195. Fracture planes (111)

Photo 14: 2091. Fracture planes (110)

6. CONCLUSIONS
Fatigue tests on 2091, 2195 and 8090 Al-Li
alloys have shown different behaviours in terms
of AKth, of maximum number of cycles and of
plastic crack wake. Average values of AKth pass
from 3.45 MPa^fm, for 2091 alloy to 4.40 and
4.58 respectively for 8090 and 2195 alloys, however imposing negligible crack growth for AK less
then 15 MPa^/Wi,. While 8090 alloy showed the
highest fatigue life at constant frequency in the
range 1-10 Hz, 2195 alloy appeared particularly
sensible at its variation denoting, as frequency
effect, a large gap passing from 1-2 Hz to 5-10
Hz curves. 2195 alloy presented, also, the smallest ammount of plasticity at crack tip, while 2091
alloy showed the widest spreading. Plastic wakes,
increasing in size exponentially as crack propagates, appeared to maintain their shape just for
the case of 2195 alloy.
SEM crack surface analysis results can be summarized as follows:
- 8090. Fracture planes of (100) type, evidence of delamination expecially close to
failure, no clear striatures and strong effect
of crack closure.
2195. Fracture planes of (111) type and
of (110) type respectively for low (close to
threshold) and high AK, strong evidence of
delamination close to failure and of fatigue
striatures.
2091. Fracture planes of (100) type not easily identificated at low AK but subsequently
(at failure) much clearer, evidence of delamination and strong oxidation at each test
frequency.

References
1.

Ekvall J.C., Rhodes J.E., Wald G.C., Methodology

for evaluating weights savings from basic material
properties, Design of Fatigue and Fracture Resistant
Structures, ASTM STP 761, Philadelphia, PA, USA,
1982, pp. 328-341.
2. Pell C.J., Evans B., Baker CA., Bennet D.A.,
Gregson P.J., Flower H.M., The development and
application of improved aluminium-lithium alloys,
Aluminium-Lithium Alloys II, The Metallurgical
Society of AIME, Warrendale, PA, USA, 1984, pp.
363-392.
3. Doker H., Bachmann V., Castro D.E., Marci G.,
Schwellwert fur Ermudungsribausbrcitung: Ekvall
Besthmmmgsinethoden, Kennwerte, Einflubgrobcn,
Z. Werkstofftech, 1987, 18, pp. 323-29.
4. Heaton M.D., On the calculation of Stress Intensity
Factor Due to Thermal and Residual Stress Field,
CEGB Research Report NW/SSD/RR/158/76,
1976.
5. Newman J.C., Edwards P.R., Short-crack growth
behaviour in an aluminium alloy, an AGARD cooperative test programme, AGARD report No. 732,
Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, December 1988
6. Parker A.P., Residual Stress Effect in Fatigue,
ASTM STP 776, American Society for Testing and
Material, 1982, pp. 13-31
7. Elber W., Damage Tolerance in Aircraft Structures,
ASTM STP 486, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1971, pp. 230-242

12-13

Paper 12
Question by D. Chaumette
The paper did not present on one side analytical methods and on the other side
experimental results. Was there a correlation between the two approaches. How was
the plastic zone measurement done. What are the effects of plane stress - plane strain.
Author's reply
Experimental tests followed the crack length "a" from which (together with other
parameters as W, L, R) the analytical model is able to calculate extension and shape of
plastic zone through the use of a series of rigid elements (strip model). This model
considers residual plastic deformation along crack surfaces and plastic zone ahead of
crack tip.
Small fatigue cracks mostly induce plane-strain conditions. As plastic zone spreads
out we assist at a transition to plane-stress conditions. This model, according to
Newman, may pass, through the use of a correction factor (1-3) from one condition
to another depending upon crack size. (5)

14-1

A Framework for Corrosion Prediction and Management

TODD E. STEYER
NORTHROP GRUMMAN CORPORATION
Integrated Systems and Aerostructures Sector
8900 E. Washington Boulevard 9K51/GK
Pico Rivera, California 90660
USA

ABSTRACT
Technology and economics drive the reduction in life
cycle costs for the sustainment of aging aircraft.
Technological advances in metal alloys, heat treatments,
coatings and processes provide opportunities for longer
component life with less frequent inspections to meet the
challenge of maintenance cost reductions. Key aspects for
the successful implementation of these newer technologies
will be discussed. They include a framework to predict
corrosion and the development of a corrosion management
paradigm.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental degradation of materials and systems is
inevitable over the long term. Therefore, the issue of
corrosion is not new; however, a renewed interest in
corrosion stems from the aging of our equipment in the
budget constrained post-cold war era. The cost of
corrosion control for our platforms is staggering. It is
beyond the scope of this paper to even estimate this cost,
and the interested reader is encouraged to investigate
various publicly available documents which detail careful
cost estimates.
Structural integrity programs have greatly mitigated the
risk of catastrophic failure of components by using a
thorough understanding of the mechanics of fracture.
Although corrosion can result in the eventual
condemnation of individual aircraft over time, the
overwhelming concerns are controlling existing corrosion
and mitigating the risk associated with catastrophic failure
induced or exacerbated by corrosion.
As our existing aircraft are being asked to perform beyond
their original design lives or for an extensive number of
years, the day to day occurrences of corrosion are resulting
in higher maintenance costs.

The focus of this paper is to examine and outline the

necessary steps to develop a framework for corrosion
prediction and provide suggestions for a corrosion
management paradigm. The challenges for corrosion
prediction and management are:
To reduce the cost of ownership for current and future
aircraft, and
To provide cost effective sustainment of aging
aircraft.
Many will suggest that the prediction, prevention and
management of corrosion are too great and that the
challenges are too complex. Our current understanding
leads us to conclude that corrosion is fundamentally a
stochastic process and the complex mechanism remain
largely uncharacterized and unmodeled. Even if the
mechanisms of corrosion were well understood, there is
little chance of obtaining accurate information on
corrosion of fielded components nor would it be possible
to offer accurate predictions. The problem with this
pattern of thinking, although it is hard to argue with such
logic today, is that the consequences are astounding. The
implication is that corrosion prevention comes at a very
high cost of materials, maintenance man-hours, and capital
resources. These costs are incurred through the frequent
inspections required to find corrosion and the costly repair
or replacement programs required as corrective action
when corrosion is found.
Table 1 compares and contrasts structural integrity
programs and corrosion. Although the fracture mechanics
based structural integrity programs are now quite mature,
this has not always been the case. Brought about over
time, methodologies have been established. Lifing
strategies now accurately manage fracture or durability
critical components based on a number of parameters tied
back to the cumulative flight hours.
Corrosion is still an immature and largely undeveloped
area, not for lack of excellent research but for the lower

Paper prepared for the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

14-2

critical components based on a number of parameters tied

back to the cumulative flight hours.
Corrosion is still an immature and largely undeveloped
area, not for lack of excellent research but for the lower
propensity for catastrophic failure of components.
Whereas fracture relates to stresses during the flight
profile, corrosion is mainly what occurs between flights in
local environments that vary widely worldwide. Although
corrosion-prone components are well known or easily
established, the corrosion critical components analogous
to fracture or durability critical components remain largely
uncategorized. Presently, there are insufficient
methodologies and collected data available to develop a
life prediction strategy. The result is that corrosion
continues to be a degradation mechanism that is chased
and corrected rather than predicted and managed.

CORROSION MANAGEMENT PARADIGM

There are a number of potential avenues for the
development of a corrosion management paradigm. This
particular method places the burden on the technology
community to develop methodologies to enable corrosion
management through risk mitigation, emphasizing
similarities with structural integrity programs. The
following steps give the basis for this paradigm:
Develop corrosion methodologies,
Establish known corrodent species and
concentrations,
Establish corrosion critical or corrosion-prone
components for tracking,

Collect and manage data by aircraft tail number

Establish smart inspections, and

Provide opportunities for rapid technology insertion.

Develop Corrosion Methodologies
The largest technological undertaking in this management
paradigm is to develop detailed scientific understanding of
the various types of corrosion including stress corrosion
cracking, pitting, intergranular attack, exfoliation, general
corrosion and galvanic couples. The priorities for which
types of corrosion should receive priority in research has
already been carefully studied and reported by the
National Research Council. 1 In addition to specific
mechanisms for each variety of corrosion, it is important
to establish how various corrosion methods interact and
what synergism is introduced.
Once sufficient understanding is developed, it will be
necessary to codify life prediction algorithms. With
limited understanding, these algorithms may simply be
1

National Research Council's National Materials Advisory

Board, "Aging of U.S. Air Force Aircraft," NMAB-488-2,
1997.

empirical relationships representing data trends. However,

additional research may work to establish more
fundamental relationships and rules akin to an Arrehenius
behavior or corrosion analogue to Miner's Rule.
Establish Known Corrodents
Although it is useful to have standardized corrodents and
concentrations, such as sodium chloride or synthetic
seawater solutions, for comparing new or improved
protective coatings or alloys, these fluids may not be
ideally suited for verification of corrosion methodologies.
Instead, we can go beyond relying on salt fog or other
standardized tests that may be overly conservative for
specific applications.
A wealth of data can be gleaned from our existing aircraft
fleets. Corrosion-prone areas of aircraft will need to be
sampled for corrosion. Specific corrodent species and
corrosion products can be obtained during these surveys
and, using chemical electrophoresis or other techniques,
the active corrodent species and concentrations can be
established.
Once corrodent species and concentrations are established,
appropriate corrosive mixtures can be formulated and used
to verify corrosion mechanisms and methodologies, when
developed.
Establish Corrosion Critical Components
Inspection records or discussions with aircraft maintainers
may easily identify a number of corrosion-prone
components. Such components, with historically known
corrosion problems, may be the source of frequently
recurring replacement and/or inspection. The original
equipment manufacturer may also be aware of likely
corrosion-prone components based on the use of alloys or
heat treatments that may be more susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking, or other types of corrosion. Lastly,
there may be severe service environments that may be
more prone to frequent corrosive damage. These will
depend on the type of aircraft; however, they may include
areas near lavatories and galleys, around doors, and in
wheel wells.
Although the above list represents corrosion-prone
components, these should be distinguished from the more
important subset of components that are corrosion critical.
A corrosion critical component may be defined as one that
is difficult to inspect or repair which can deteriorate over
time and be a source of significant systems or vehicle
failure. It may also include components that, through
corrosion, may result in failure which would be mission
limiting.

14-3
Collect and Manage Aircraft Data
Collecting sufficient amounts of accurate data is the key to
both corrosion prediction and prevention. This data will
need to be managed by aircraft tail number to
accommodate the specific environments and other data
required. Key variable will be established from the
corrosion methodology, but will include local service
conditions such as temperature, humidity and other
weather conditions prevailing at the base or airfield where
deployed. To a first approximation, if this data is not
available, an index system could be employed, ranking
various bases and airfields by their propensity for specific
environmental factors leading to corrosion. Aircraft
maintenance history will also need to be collected and
managed, even to incorporate aircraft washings and the
use of corrosion preventive compounds.
It is important that this step not become a logistical burden
to maintenance personnel. To the extent feasible, this data
should be collected automatically. If possible, smart
components should be used. It may be possible to have
sensors or data loggers attached or embedded for
convenience. Whatever the approach, steps should be
taken to minimize the need for data entry to avoid the
introduction of errors into the database and to keep costs
low.

By avoiding the pitfalls listed above, it will be easier to

develop and implement smart inspection strategies. These
will include the use of predicted corrosion rates
methodology to identify critical inspections of corrosion
critical components. These will not be generically applied
to all aircraft based on time in service, but will take into
account the service environment for the specific aircraft,
by tail number. The long term smart inspection strategy
will be to use sensor data to trigger inspection or, better
yet, component replacement. Provide Rapid Technology
Insertion
Involve the technology community in ways to reduce the
cost of ownership for aging and future aircraft platforms.
This may entail close coordination with the original
equipment manufacturer and supplier base. All due
consideration should be given to the practical application
of technological advancements. Some of these may
include:
New corrosion resistant alloys,
Heat treatments for new or existing alloys that may
reduce the risk of SCC or other types of corrosion,
Environmentally-acceptable coatings,
Faster and more durable repair processes, and
Non-destructive techniques that can further increase
the interval between inspections.
SUMMARY

Establish Smart Inspections

To keep the costs of ownership in balance, it is imperative
that we avoid:
Establishing rigid inspection intervals where
unnecessary. A first look at this approach, it seems
quite obvious that planes in relatively benign
corrosive environments may benefit provide cost
savings by having broader inspection intervals.
De-painting for inspection. As better NDI techniques
are developed and as corrosion prediction
methodologies improve, it will be best to let
protective coatings, primers, and topcoats provide the
corrosion protection without interruption for
unnecessary inspection.
Reverting to finding and fixing corrosion. Although
there is a great deal of momentum to continue with
finding and fixing corrosion, the high cost of
inspection and premature repair is not the long-term,
cost effective solution to the corrosion problem.

A complete corrosion management paradigm has been

outlined which is based on technology drivers to advance
the basic understanding of corrosion mechanisms, and
provide a methodology of corrosion to enable corrosionbased life prediction. In addition, fielded aircraft should
be the basis for establishing known corrodents and their
concentrations for verification of corrosion methodologies
developed. The burden falls on the aircraft owners, with
the recommended enlistment of the original equipment
manufacturer, to identify and establish corrosion critical
components for tracking in an extensive database which
incorporates the latest in networking and information
technology. Inspections are not to be established by the
calendar, but by the culmination of the established
methodology and accurate data for corrosion critical
components. An overarching consideration is the rapid
integration of technological advancements that may
provide improved component life and be effective for the
total cost of ownership.

Table 1: Comparison of Structural Integrity Programs and Corrosion

Corrosion
Structural Integrity
Corrosion critical components not identified
Identifiable fracture critical or durability critical components
Primarily related to non-flight hours
Based on cumulative flight hours
Insufficient methodology established
Established methodology
Insufficient data collection and/or management
Fleet Data Tracking
Currently a "find and fix" approach
Predicted and managed
'

15-1

Advances in Protective Coatings and their Application

to Ageing Aircraft
C. J. E. Smith, M.S. Higgs and K. R. Baldwin
Mechanical Sciences Sector
A7 Building
Defence Evaluation and Research Agency
Farnborough, Hampshire GUI4 OLX
United Kingdom
Abstract

Significant improvements have been achieved in the

performance of coatings used in the corrosion protection of
military and civil aircraft during the last thirty years. Research
into aircraft paints, for example, has resulted in coatings with
increased adhesion, fluid resistance and greater flexibility.
New methods of paint stripping and novel processes for the
repair of pre-treatments and metal coatings are being
developed which will lead to reductions in the cost of
corrosion maintenance and improved levels of protection. The
paper reviews recent developments in aerospace coatings and
considers their application in ameliorating some of the
corrosion problems associated with ageing aircraft.

The protection of both civil and military aircraft is based on

reducing the risk of corrosion through design, the selection of
materials that are resistant to corrosion and the application of
protective treatments to individual components.

INTRODUCTION

Advances in aircraft coatings over the last 50 years or so have

been in the main part concerned with improving the level of
corrosion protection afforded to aerospace components and
structures. This has become more critical with the introduction
of materials with increased strength and damage tolerance
which generally have reduced resistance to corrosion attack.
The protection of aluminium parts, for example, has
progressed from the use of etch primers over-coated with
alkyd and cellulose nitrate/alkyd based paints to schemes
involving the use of a pre-treatment, a primer containing a
leachable corrosion inhibitor and a polyurethane topcoat [1].
Many of the processes employed in the surface finishing of
aerospace parts involve both the use of toxic materials which
can be absorbed into the food chain and the use of solvents
which can cause damage to the ozone layer and promote smog
formation. The protection of aluminium alloys for example is
very dependent on the use of chromate-based pre-treatments
and chromate pigmented primers. As a result there is
increased pressure on the aircraft constructors and operators to
adopt environmentally compliant coatings.
This paper first examines the general principles involved in
the corrosion protection of aircraft and looks at several
examples of in-service corrosion. These have been used to
show how the breakdown or failure of protective treatments
has led to the initiation of corrosion. The paper reviews the
developments in protective treatments and repair methods,
which have taken place, and considers how they have been
applied to ageing aircraft. Finally new developments in
coating technology are discussed and their likely impact on
the protection of ageing aircraft is discussed.

CORROSION PROTECTION

2.1
Design
A number of factors need to be considered during the design
stage of an aircraft to reduce the risk of corrosion. Some of
these are listed in table 1.
Table 1 Corrosion control through design
Potential problem
Design solutions
crevices

use of sealants
wet assembly

dissimilar metal contacts

wet assembly
metal coatings to reduce
differences in galvanic
potential
shims

water traps

drain holes, fillers

leakage from galleys, toilets

drain paths
use of non-metals
sealed floor coverings

In some instances, problems experienced on military aircraft

have arisen because insufficient consideration has been given
to corrosion control through design. The failure on the
assembly of components to fill crevices and avoid direct
contact between dissimilar metals has often led to the early
initiation of corrosion.
2.2
Materials selection
Aluminium alloys easily represent the bulk of the materials
used in the construction of ageing aircraft. In many cases high
strength aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys were employed in
plate, forging and extrusion product forms in the manufacture
of top wing skin panels and landing gear components. Many
examples of the 7075 aluminium alloy in the T6 temper can
be found on military aircraft presently in service. Similarly
2024 aluminium - copper alloy in the naturally aged T3
temper has been widely used for the construction of lower
wing skin panels and fuselage components where good
resistance to fatigue cracking is the main requirement. In
terms of materials selection for corrosion resistance, 2024-

Paper presented at the RTO AVT Workshop on "New Metallic Materials for the Structure of
Aging Aircraft", held in Corfu, Greece, 19-20 April 1999, and published in RTO MP-25.

15-2
T351 and 7075-T651 in the form of plate or other thick
section forms are poor choices since both alloys are
susceptible to exfoliation corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking. Unfortunately this was not evident until aircraft
built with these materials had been in service for some years.
In the case of the 7075-T651 plate alloy attempts were made
to modify the heat treatment to improve the corrosion
resistance whilst accepting some reduction in strength. Duplex
ageing treatments were introduced which gave lower
susceptibility to exfoliation corrosion and stress corrosion
cracking. Table 1 compares various tempers of the 7075 alloy.
Table 2

Corrosion behaviour of some 7000 series alloys

7075
7075

T651
T7351

Resistance to
stress corrosion
cracking
D
A

7010
7010

T7651
T73651

B
A

B
A/B

7050
7050

T7651
T73651

B
A

B
A/B

Alloy

The main protection applied to aluminium alloys is epoxy

primer paint pigmented with strontium chromate corrosion
inhibitor. This is applied to the aluminium alloy component,
which is pre-treated either by anodising in chromic acid, or by
applying a chromate conversion coating. The pre-treatment
promotes adhesion of the paint to substrate and additionally
provides some measure of corrosion protection.

Temper

Resistance to
exfoliation
corrosion
D
A
0.001

0.01

0.1

Chromate concentration, mmol/litre

A further development was the production of new aluminium

- zinc - magnesium alloys 7010 and 7050 which could be heat
treated to the T7651 and T73651 tempers to give resistance to
exfoliation corrosion and stress corrosion cracking and
strength levels comparable to 7075 in the T651 peak aged
condition.
Whilst the use of alloys such as 7075 in the T6 condition
should be avoided on future aircraft, the replacement of
components on existing aircraft with less corrosion
susceptible alloys is generally not an option which has been
taken. The approach adopted has been to carry out careful
audits of the materials used on various ageing aircraft in order
to identify areas which may be particularly prone to corrosion
attack. This has been complemented with teardowns of aircraft
to look for evidence of corrosion in critical areas. Section 3
gives some examples of in-service corrosion problems. The
control of corrosion on parts and areas constructed using
susceptible materials has been largely through the use of
coatings and surface treatments.
2.3
Protective treatments
The standard protective treatments applied to aerospace
components are summarised in table 3.
Table 3

Standard protective treatments for aerospace

components

Material
Aluminium alloys

Protective treatments
pre-treatment
+
chromate
pigmented primer

Steels

cadmium plating + passivation

Magnesium alloys

pre-treatment + resin + primer

Titanium alloys

anodising

Fig 1.

Effect of strontium chromate concentration on

the corrosion of 2014-T6 aluminium alloy in
600mM/litre sodium chloride solution

Chromates are very efficient corrosion inhibitors for

aluminium alloys particularly in the presence of chloride ions.
This is illustrated in fig. 1, which shows the effect of strontium
chromate concentration on the corrosion of 2014-T4 sheet
aluminium alloy in 600mM/litre sodium chloride solution [2].
The data show that provided the concentration is greater than
0.02mM/litre the corrosion attack is prevented. The protection
of aluminium alloys by inhibited primers depends on the
release of chromate when there is contact with moisture.
Chromate based primers currently applied to military aircraft
have leaching rates, which ensure that the level of chromate
level is well in excess of the critical level given in fig.l.
Corrosion is prevented at areas where the paint has become
damaged or there is loss of adhesion between the paint and the
substrate. Studies made some years ago by Khler and
Scott[3] indicated that chromate levels present in bilge fluid
samples were normally well above the critical level indicated
in fig. 1 to inhibit corrosion.
The preferred scheme for the protection of steel components
and fasteners is cadmium plating deposited either by electrodeposition or physical vapour deposition. The cadmium
plating acts both as a barrier coating, separating the steel
substrate from the environment, and as a sacrificial coating
which is able to give protection when the coating becomes
damaged. A chromate passivation treatment is applied to the
cadmium plating to promote paint adhesion and to improve
the corrosion resistance of the coating.
The corrosion protection of magnesium alloys is achieved by
applying a barrier coating. The current trend is away from the
use of magnesium alloys on aircraft mainly because of its poor
corrosion resistance. However many of the ageing military
aircraft in service have employed magnesium alloy castings

15-3
for gearbox housings, undercarriage components and canopy
structures. Magnesium alloy sheet has also been employed for
skinning on helicopters and on the rear fuselages of fixed
wing aircraft. Severe galvanic corrosion problems arising
from cracking of the protective coating around fasteners
resulted in major repair programmes with the replacement of
magnesium sheet with aluminium alloy sheet. Current design
documentation prohibits the use of magnesium alloy sheet on
UK military aircraft.
Titanium alloys are generally resistant to corrosion when
exposed to aircraft fluids and marine environments. Apart
from cleaning they require no further treatment although
components are often painted. The normal practice would be
to pre-treat by wet abrasive cleaning, etch priming, pickling or
anodising and then paint with an epoxy primer. When
titanium alloy parts are in contact with components machined
from magnesium alloys or aluminium alloys coatings are
applied to reduce the risk of galvanic corrosion. Zinc based
and aluminium based coatings are frequently employed for
this purpose. Coatings are also applied to titanium alloy parts
to improve their wear and fretting resistance.
3

IN-SERVICE CORROSION

The various types of corrosion found on fixed wing aircraft

and helicopters have been well documented in the AGARD
corrosion handbook [4]. A few examples are given below of
some of the more common corrosion problems that have been
observed by the authors on ageing transport aircraft and fast
jets.
These include: 1. corrosion problems associated with materials selection i.e.
use of materials which are inherently susceptible to
various forms of attack such as intergranular corrosion,
exfoliation corrosion and stress corrosion cracking
2. Problems arising from poor design considerations e.g. crevice corrosion and dissimilar metal corrosion.
Exfoliation corrosion has been found on the lower wing skins
of several military aircraft types currently in service in the
United Kingdom. The problem has arisen with panels
machined from 2024-T351 plate material. This material has a
poor resistance to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion but
was originally selected for lower wing skin applications
because of its excellent fatigue properties. In each instance
breakdown of the protective treatments applied when the
aircraft was built, has allowed the metal substrate to become
exposed to the environment. Two examples of exfoliation
corrosion occurring in-service are described below.
In the first example, extensive exfoliation corrosion was found
to have taken place on the internal surfaces of the lower wing
skin of a transport aircraft. The main cause of the problem was
the leakage of hydraulic fluid. This had degraded the
protective scheme, effectively acting as a paint remover. The
aircraft was operated in a marine environment and the build
up of moisture and led to the initiation of intergranular attack
eventually leading to the development of exfoliation
corrosion. The protective treatment which had been applied
when the aircraft was first built consisted of chromic acid
anodising, a prime coat of etch primer and an epoxy top coat
pigmented with aluminium. During subsequent repair, the

protective scheme was over-painted with a gloss polyurethane

finish to give improved resistance to hydraulic fluids.
In the second example, exfoliation corrosion was found to
have developed on the external wing surfaces of a fast jet at
areas adjacent to fasteners. The attack initiated in the
countersinks and spread parallel to the wing surface. Two
factors were believed to play an important role in the initiation
of corrosion. The first was the absence of sealant between the
fastener and countersink and the second was the cracking of
the polyurethane finish. As a result a crevice existed in the
fastener \ countersink area permitting the ingress of moisture
and the development of exfoliation corrosion. Subsequent
repairs involved the blending out of corrosion damage and reprotection using coatings with improved flexibility to reduce
the risk of cracking.
Many of the instances of stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
found on ageing aircraft occur in parts machined from thick
section 7000 series alloys heat-treated to the T6 peak aged
condition. Examples of SCC found recently on UK military
aircraft include: 1. SCC in main spars manufactured from material
equivalent to 7075-T6. Crack initiation was associated
with deterioration of the protective scheme around
fasteners
2. SCC in extrusions used for front and rear spar booms
made from 7000 series alloys
3. SCC in undercarriage components machined from
7000 series alloy forgings
An example of galvanic or dissimilar metal corrosion was
identified on flap shroud panels manufactured from 2024T351 aluminium alloy. At areas where titanium alloy flap
tracks were fastened to the flap shroud panel there was
enhanced corrosion attack as result of dissimilar metal contact.
The problem was thought to be associated with the absence of
wet assembly compound between the titanium track and
aluminium alloy flap shroud.
An example of crevice corrosion was found on a leading edge
slat that had been manufactured from a clad 2014-T6
aluminium alloy. A modification had been carried out using a
stainless steel stiffener, which was adhesively bonded to the
slat to improve its fatigue performance. Extensive corrosion
was found to have taken place on the clad aluminium alloy
skin where it was covered by the stainless steel stiffener. The
attack was intergranular in nature and in places penetrated to a
depth of 50% of the skin. The stainless steel stiffener had been
cadmium plated to reduce the risk of dissimilar metal
corrosion with the aluminium alloy skin. Examination of the
contacting surfaces indicated that there was only a patchy
layer of sealant or adhesive present. It was concluded that
corrosion had initiated as a result of the adhesive bond
breakdown. The establishment of a crevice would further lead
to accelerated corrosion of the aluminium alloy slat.
Invariably problems have arisen with materials, which are
inherently susceptible to corrosion as discussed in section 2.2.
The cause is associated with a breakdown of the protective
scheme, which has been applied. Internal schemes for
example are applied when the aircraft is constructed and are
generally expected to last the life of the aircraft. Apart from

15-4
the application of a supplementary protective scheme to
enhance the existing protective treatment, there is usually little
opportunity to change or improve the internal protection.
4

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PROTECTIVE

COATINGS

4.1
Etch primers
One of the early paint schemes applied to military aircraft was
an etch primer, top coated with an epoxy finish. This scheme
has not been employed for a number of years and etch primers
now only find applications as pre-treatments over which is
applied a standard epoxy primer. One of the main
developments has been the formulation of etch primers which
give enhanced filiform corrosion resistance. BS 2X32 [5] is
the current UK standard for etch primers and includes a
filiform corrosion test.
A recent application of etch primers has been in the reprotection of the air intake of an aircraft following paint
stripping and removal of the corrosion damage. An etch
primer was chosen as the pre-treatment rather than the normal
chromate conversion coating. The choice was made to avoid
the need to deoxidise the surface and water rinse the intake
before and after the application of the conversion coating.
There was concern that aggressive solutions could have been
washed into the internal structure of the aircraft.
4.2
Paints
4.2.1
Epoxy primers
For a number of years, chromate pigmented epoxy primers
specified for use on UK military aircraft were qualified to
MoD specification DTD 5567 [6]. Developments in the mid
1980s were concerned with improving the adhesion and fluid
resistance of the standard primer. This was in response to
corrosion problems occurring on civil transport aircraft.
Leakage of hydraulic fluids led to degradation of the standard
protective coatings and the eventual corrosion attack of the
underlying aluminium alloy substrate. New generation
primers were developed by the leading aircraft manufacturers,
which in addition to giving improved resistance to aircraft
fluids also gave greater adhesion.
The current UK aerospace specification for two component
epoxy primers is BS 2X33[7] and covers two material types.
Type A materials are intended for application to chemically
pre-treated substrates suitable for general applications and are
equivalent to materials qualified to DTD5567. Type B
materials have improved tolerance to the standard of surface
preparation and increased chemical resistance. This is
reflected in differences in the condition of the substrates used
in the qualification tests for paint adhesion. For type A
materials, cross hatch adhesion measurements are conducted
on aluminium alloy panels (BS L163) which have been acid
chromate pickled prior to priming. For type B materials on the
other hand measurements are carried out on detergent
degreased panels. In each case the pass requirement is the
same. For resistance to hydraulic fluid tests the pass criteria is
more severe for the type B materials. For example after
immersion in tri--butylphosphate, the load applied in the
scratch test for type B materials is 2000g compared with
1000g for type A materials.

For most applications on military aircraft the type B materials

are now used.
4.2.2
Acrylic finishes
Acrylic finishes have been used on military aircraft in the
United Kingdom over a number of years. They were
introduced in the 1970s partly to fulfil a requirement for a
paint finish, which could be more readily removed than
Polyurethane coatings. The UK MoD specification DTD5599
[8] covers this finish. Hoey [9] has indicated that the useful
life of an acrylic finish is 2-3 years compared with 5 years for
a polyurethane finish. For some time the trend has been away
from acrylic finishes and polyurethane schemes with their
higher resistance to fluids are now preferred. A further
disadvantage of acrylic finishes is their relatively poor
resistance to chemical agents. Most fixed wing aircraft are
finished in polyurethane schemes and helicopters are being
finished in polyurethane schemes when they are repainted.
4.2.3
Polyurethane finishes
Polyurethane finishes have been available for aerospace
applications for a number of years. The MoD specification
DTD5580 [10] describes the original scheme applied to UK
military aircraft. As highlighted earlier in this paper (section
3) one of the main sources of corrosion initiation has been
identified as cracking of the paint film around fasteners. One
of the main developments in polyurethane finishes has been
the formulation of paints, which give coatings with increased
tolerance to flexing, a particular problem with large aircraft
and helicopters. The current specification for polyurethane
finishes is BS 2X34[11]. The specification covers two types
of materials type A and type B. Type A materials are intended
for interior and exterior use where maximum resistance to
fluid attack is required whilst type B materials are intended for
exterior surfaces, and offer increased tolerance to flexing
compared with type A materials.
4.2.4
Selectively removable paint schemes
The removal of paint from the exterior surface of an aircraft is
manpower intensive and involves the handling and disposal of
hazardous materials. One approach has been to develop a
selectively removable paint scheme which permits the
polyurethane top coat to be removed leaving the primer intact.
The scheme uses an intermediate coat, typically 8-12um thick,
which is applied over a standard epoxy primer. This is then
top coated with a polyurethane finish. Blackford [12] has
described the use of such schemes on Concorde and Airbus
A320 aircraft. Trials have been conducted demonstrating that
the polyurethane finish may be removed used a comparatively
simple paint stripper.
The recently issued specification BS X35[13] describes the
requirements for a selectively removable intermediate coating
for aerospace purposes. Two types of intermediate coating are
specified. Type A intermediate coating is intended to function
with a finish conforming to type A of BS X34 where
maximum resistance to fluid attack is required. Type B
intermediate coating is intended to function with a finish
conforming to type B of BS X34 offering increased tolerance
to flexing compared with type A finish. A specification
covering the paint remover (BS X36 [14]) has also been
issued. A composition for a reference paint remover based on
benzyl alcohol is given which meets new VOC requirements.

15-5

Pre-treatment primer
Primers
Selectively removable intermediate
coats
Paint removers
Top coats

780
350
780
300
420

The present policy is to procure materials which meet the

VOC levels given in table 4 whilst complying to the
performance requirements given in the appropriate paint
specification. For example the epoxy primer currently being
applied to military aircraft is a high solids material. It meets
the requirements of BS 2X33 and has a VOC level of less than
350g/litre. This compares with a VOC level of 600 g/litre in
the original primers. At present only gloss finishes are
available which meet the VOC requirement in table 4. Matt
finishes which are used on most military aircraft are still under
review.
4.3
Elastomeric coatings
A number of corrosion problems arising on ageing aircraft are
related to the cracking of the protective finish around fasteners
and the subsequent ingress of moisture. For this reason the
BS X34 type B topcoat with greater flexing properties is
preferred to the type A finish. For some areas however this
finish alone does not provide adequate protection and schemes
using elastomeric coatings have been employed. These
coatings are self-curing polysulphide based systems which are
either applied directly as a primer or are used over a
conventional epoxy primer. They have been employed both
in the repair of corrosion damage on exterior surfaces and in
interior areas where moisture collects and conventional
schemes cannot be applied. An example of the latter was in
the re-protection of an area housing a fuel bag tank. Moisture
collected under the tank causing breakdown of the protective
treatment and the eventual development of corrosion. After
blending out any corrosion present the surface was reprotected using and etch primer and a polysulphide coating.
One disadvantage of the elastomeric coatings is their
thickness. Typically they are applied at a thickness of between
150 to 250u.m giving coating weights of around 8oz/sq yard
compared with 2oz/sq yard for conventional paint films. Their
use has been limited to exterior areas on upper and lower wing
skins where corrosion has occurred adjacent to fasteners. One
scheme used has replaced the standard epoxy primer with a
polysulphide coating which is then over-coated with a flexible
Polyurethane coating. A second approach has been to apply

4.4
Metal coatings
Three areas of coating development have made a significant
impact on the corrosion protection of military and civil
aircraft. The initial thrust has been in the development of
replacement coatings for cadmium and chromium plating but
several applications have been identified where they have
been used to achieve improved corrosion protection.
Developments in electrodeposited zinc alloy coatings,
aluminium coatings and metallic-ceramic coatings are
discussed below.
4.4.1
Electrodeposited zinc alloy coatings
Electrodeposited zinc alloy coatings have been considered as
alternatives to cadmium plating for the protection of steel
parts and fasteners. The main interest has been in
electrodeposited zinc-nickel and zinc cobalt coatings.
600

o
o

Table 4 Volatile organic compound emission

concentration limits
VOC emission
concentration
Coating
limits g/litre

the elastomeric coating over a conventional epoxy primer but

to restrict it to fastener runs. The surface is then topcoated
with a flexible polyurethane finish. Cracking can still occur
however due to the mismatch of flexing properties between
the different coats. The aim is to improve the corrosion
protection at fasteners and minimise the weight penalty.

rust (hours)

4.2.5
Low VOC materials
Legislation concerning the release of solvents into the
atmosphere was introduced under the 1990 environmental
protection act. One area to have an impact on the aerospace
industry was on the permitted level of volatile organic
compounds in aircraft paints. The current limits are
summarised in table 4 and are based on figures given in
reference 15.

^200
o
E

'

o
0

Fig. 2

30

10
20
Nickel in coating (weight %)

Effect of nickel concentration on time to first rust

on exposure to neutral salt fog

The addition of nickel to zinc coatings greatly improves the

corrosion resistance on exposure to neutral salt fog. Fig.2
shows the effect of nickel concentration on the time to first
rust [16]. The optimum composition is achieved at -14%
nickel which represents the balance between the barrier and
sacrificial properties of the coatings.
Exposure to Neutral Salt Fog

As plated
D Passivated

Fig.3

500
1000
Time to first rust (hours)

1500

Corrosion behaviour of steel panels with 8u.m

thick coatings.

15-6
Both acid and alkaline zinc - nickel plating baths are available
commercially and have been examined as possible alternatives
to cadmium plating.
Fig.3 compares the corrosion of several zinc alloy coatings
exposed to neutral salt fog [17]. The results obtained show
that under these conditions levels of corrosion protection
similar to cadmium may be achieved. Currently some
aerospace parts manufactured from medium strength steels are
being electroplated with zinc alloy coatings.
4.4.2
Aluminium coatings
Aluminium coatings prepared by physical vapour deposition
have been generally available in the aerospace industry for
more than 20 years. There applications include the protection
of steel parts and fasteners as an alternative to cadmium
plating and the plating of titanium alloy fasteners to prevent
dissimilar metal corrosion in contact with aluminium alloys.
Within the UK PVD aluminium coatings have found
comparatively applications on military aircraft. One area
where these coatings have been considered is in the protection
of parts manufactured from 7075-T651 aluminium alloy
where stress corrosion cracking is a concern. Initial laboratory
studies [18] have indicated that PVD aluminium coatings may
help in delaying the initiation of stress corrosion cracking.
4.4.3
Metallic-ceramic coatings
A variety of commercial coatings are currently available
which may be described generically as metallic - ceramic
coatings. These consist of an inorganic matrix containing a
dispersion of metal flakes or powders. For corrosion
protection purposes the most interesting systems are those that
are zinc or aluminium based. The coatings have been
considered as cadmium replacements however to date their
use for this purpose has been fairly limited. Mosser [19] has
described the use of aluminium-ceramic coatings as
alternatives to cadmium plating for some undercarriage
applications.
5

IMPROVED REPAIR SCHEMES

A recent estimate made for the RAF Tornado fleet indicate

that on average 296h are spent on each aircraft annually on the
removal of corrosion and repair of the protective schemes and
equates to an annual cost of around 2M [20]. Calculations
have shown that even a modest reduction in corrosion arisings
could have a significant impact on aircraft availability. For
instance if the number of corrosion arising should be reduced
by 10%, the time spent by the Tornado fleet on 3rd line
maintenance would be reduced by 56 days. Aircraft
availability can be further improved by introducing more
effective methods of repair, which reduce the time spent on
repair and give improved protection. Three areas are
considered below, paint removal, corrosion removal and the
use of brush plating and anodising techniques.
5.1
Paint removal
The paint schemes applied to the external surfaces of aircraft
generally have a service life of between 4 and 5 years. The
normal practice has been to remove all the protective
treatment from the aircraft surface using a chemical paint
stripper to expose the metal substrate. This allows inspection
of the airframe for evidence of corrosion attack and fatigue
cracking.

Most military aircraft are finished with a polyurethane topcoat

selected because of its high resistance to fluids. The only
chemical paint strippers, which are effective on these types of
coating, are based on methylene chloride with additives of
phenol. These are unpleasant and hazardous to use and much
effort has been directed towards finding more effective and
safer methods of paint removal.
Plastic media stripping (PMS) has become an important
method of removing paint from military aircraft. The process
involves the impacting of small plastic beads onto the painted
surface. The equipment developed allows the plastic beads to
be blasted at the work surface at a controlled velocity and to
recycle spent beads removing dust and paint particles.
Facilities have been installed allowing small components to be
stripped as well as complete aircraft. There are still some
concerns regarding the treatment of thin sheet, clad alloys and
composite materials. Other blasting media such as dry ice,
and wheat starch have been evaluated. There is also interest in
laser techniques, possibly for use at areas around fasteners.
5.2
Corrosion removal
Impact blasting techniques such as shot peening and abrasive
blast cleaning are widely used in the aerospace industry for
the preparation of metal surfaces. In shot peening operations,
the workpiece is blasted with a high velocity stream of
spherical particles such as glass balls or steel shot in order to
induce compressive stresses into the surface. The process is
mainly used to improve the fatigue strength of components
and to give improved resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Abrasive blast cleaning is used to remove corrosion products
or scale from metal components or to roughen the surface in
preparation for bonding, painting or metal coating. The
abrasives which are employed include alumina grit, angular
metallic particles, crushed slag and smooth glass beads.
In recent years abrasive blast cleaning with either small
diameter glass beads or fine alumina grit has been used to
blend out corrosion damage on aircraft. One area where it has
proved to be invaluable has been in the repair of corrosion
damage that sometimes occurs adjacent to countersink
fasteners, particularly on upper wing skins. Prior to the
introduction of abrasive blast cleaning, the corrosion was
blended out by hand using metal wool, abrasive pads or small
abrasive wheels mounted in a power drill. This could take up
to 2 hours for a single fastener head but by using abrasive
blasting techniques this time has been reduced to a few
minutes.
When abrasive blast cleaning methods were first introduced
for use on military aircraft, glass beads were preferred to
alumina grit because they readily remove brittle corrosion
products but remove little of the ductile metal substrate. It
became apparent, however, that although the surface appeared
free of corrosion after blasting the peening action of the glass
beads could deform the surface layers and cause small pockets
of corrosion in pits or intergranular sites to become trapped.
There was concern that these pockets of buried corrosion
might act as stress concentrators which could accelerate
fatigue crack initiation or allow enhanced corrosion attack. A
change to alumina grit blasting was therefore made in order to
ensure that all the corrosion was blended out even though this
would lead to a significant amount of metal removal.

15-7
Research conducted at DERA by Smith and Hewins [21]
examined the effects of abrasive blast cleaning on the fatigue
of a 2014-T6 aluminium alloy. Table 5 compares the fatigue
strength at 107 cycles determined using rotating bending tests.
The results indicate that although there is a significant loss in
fatigue strength following exposure to neutral salt fog this can
largely be restored by abrasive blasting.
Table 5 Fatigue strength (M Pa) at 107 cycles
8h exposure to
None
neutral salt fog
As machined
Alumina grit blasted
Glass bead blasted

170
165
175

107
150
160

Alumina grit blasting is now extensively used in the blending

out of corrosion damage.
5.3
Brush plating
Brush plating techniques allow the in-situ repair of metal
coatings on aircraft. The main application has been on the
repair of damaged cadmium plating on landing gear
components. Research undertaken at DERA has explored the
use of brush plated zinc alloy coatings for the repair of
corroded metal coatings [22]. Trials were conducted on a
commercial zinc-nickel coating and on two experimental
coatings, a zinc-nickel and a zinc-cobalt. In neutral salt fog
tests, encouraging results were obtained with the experimental
zinc-cobalt system. A series of experiments were conducted
using steel test panels which had been plated with
electrodeposited cadmium, PVD aluminium, electrodeposited
zinc-nickel or electrodeposited zinc-cobalt coatings. The
panels were then damaged by removing the centre portion of
the coating. The bare steel was then repaired by brush plating.
Corrosion tests indicated that brush plated zinc - nickel and
zinc - cobalt coatings could be used to repair a range of
coatings including bath plated zinc-nickel, zinc-cobalt, PVD
aluminium and bath plated cadmium. Further details of the
research programme are given in reference 22.
5.4
Brush anodising
Recent research at DERA has examined the use of brush
anodising techniques for the repair of protective treatments
[23]. Trials were conducted on two sheet aluminium alloys, an
aluminium copper alloy 2014-T6 and an aluminium - zinc magnesium alloy 7075-T6. Three commercial brush anodising
treatments were evaluated, a sulphuric acid solution, a boricsulphuric acid solution and a chromic acid control. Corrosion
tests were made on samples, which had been bath anodised
and then damaged and repaired using brush anodising. The
results obtained showed that satisfactory repairs could be
made using the boric-sulphuric acid brush anodising process.
The work is at an early stage and further research is needed to
develop a practical repair process.
6

FUTURE COATING DEVELOPMENTS

Many of the developments in coating technology for

aerospace applications are being driven by the need to replace
existing protective treatments with environmentally compliant
systems.

Trials have been conducted at DERA on a number of

commercial chromate-free primers [24]. Accelerated and
marine exposure trials have shown that these coatings do not
produce the same level of protection as the standard chromate
pigmented epoxy primers currently in-service. Under
laboratory tests, the chromate-free systems failed to give
protection to the substrate at areas where the paint scheme was
damaged. This was also observed in marine exposure trials
and additionally evidence of filiform corrosion was found
after 2 years with a number of the schemes. It was concluded
that the most promising materials could have applications on
the exterior surfaces of civil aircraft operating in a relatively
benign environment but were unsuitable for use on military
aircraft.
Research is currently in progress within Europe to develop
new surface cleaning and etching processes, which reduce the
use of solvents and chromates. Replacements for chromate
based anodising processes and conversion coatings are also
being investigated and attempts are being made to develop
chromate-free primers and sealants. The eventual aim is to
introduce a chromate-free protection scheme that will be used
both in the manufacture of new aircraft and in the
maintenance and repair of aircraft in service.
The last 30 years has seen the development of advanced tape
technologies for aerospace applications. This has included
protection against erosion, corrosion, abrasion and impact
damage. One area currently being evaluated is the use of
appliqu6 technology for the replacement of aircraft topcoats.
This could have a major impact on the protection and
maintenance of ageing aircraft by reducing the requirement
for extensive painting and paint removal facilities and
increasing aircraft availability.
In the field of metal coatings, some of the major advances
relevant to aerospace have been in the field of PVD coatings.
Coatings under development include:

aluminium alloy coatings to replace cadmium

plating on steel components [25]

multilayered coatings for fasteners and parts

where combinations of corrosion and wear
resistance are needed

Although initially intended for new aircraft it is likely that

these coatings will ultimately find applications on ageing
aircraft to improve corrosion protection.
7

CONCLUSIONS

The protection of military aircraft against corrosion is based

on the selection of corrosion resistant materials, the
application of protective treatments and careful design to
avoid potential corrosion problems such as crevices, dissimilar
metal contacts and water traps. One of the main problems
associated with ageing aircraft is the extensive use of
structural materials that are inherently susceptible to
corrosion. In many instances the protective treatments applied
when the aircraft was built have proved inadequate and poor
design against corrosion has resulted in many corrosion
arisings. Although there have been advances in aluminium
alloy technology with the development of new tempers and

15-8
compositions which combine good mechanical properties with
high corrosion resistance, material substitution is generally
not an option. Instead the approach has been to look for more
effective repair methods and coatings. In general
developments in coatings have been incremental rather than
major leaps forward. Paints with increased fluid resistance,
flexibility and adhesion are replacing existing schemes. An
added problem facing the maintenance and repair of ageing
aircraft is environmental legislation. This is having a major
impact on the aerospace industry to the effect that many of the
current protective schemes will not be available in the future.
8

References

1. J.B.G. Lewin, Chapter 1 Aircraft Finishes, in Treatise on

Coatings V.4. Formulations Part 1. Edit. R.R. Myers and
J.S.Long, published by Marcel Deleker Inc. New York
(1975)
2. C J.E. Smith and K.R. Baldwin, Progress towards the
replacement of chromates in Aerospace protective
treatments and coatings, Proceedings of the 4th
International Aerospace Corrosion Control Symposium,
Jakarta, Indonesia, published by SP Conferences
GravesendUK-(1996)
3. R. Khler and J. Scott, The corrosion properties of
aircraft contaminants, Procurement Executive, Ministry
of Defence, D MAT Report No. 179 (1971)
4. AGARD Corrosion Handbook Volume 1, Aircraft
Corrosion: Causes and Case Histories, (1985)
5. BS 2X 32: Specification for pretreatment etch primer for
aerospace purposes, British Standards Institution, London
(1998)
6. DTD 5567: Aircraft Material Specification Interior and
Exterior Protective Finishing Scheme (Cold Curing
Epoxide Type), Procurement Executive, Ministry of
Defence (1969)
7. BS 2X33: Specification for two component epoxy primer
for aerospace purposes, British Standards Institution,
London (1998)
8. DTD 5599: Aerospace Material Specification Selectively
Strippable Acrylic Finishing Schemes - Matt and Glossy For Use on Aircraft, Procurement Executive, Ministry of
Defence (1979)
9. C.E. Hoey, Aircraft Paints and Painting, Trans. Inst. Met.
Finishing, 46(3) pp95-100 (1968)
10. DTD 5580: Aerospace Material Specification Exterior and
Interior Finishing Schemes - Matt and Glossy (Cold
curing polyurethane type), Procurement Executive,
Ministry of Defence (1971)
11. BS 2X34 Specification for two component polyurethane
finish for aerospace purposes, British Standards
Institution, London (1998)

12. R. Blackford, Environmentally Acceptable Chemical Paint

Stripping to Enhance Corrosion Protection, in
Proceedings of 3rd Aerospace Corrosion Control
Symposium, Amsterdam published by Sawell
Publications, England (1994)
13. BS X35: Specification for Selectively removable
intermediate coating for aerospace purposes, British
Standards Institution, London (1998)
14. BS X36: Specification for Paint remover for air drying
selectively removable paint scheme for aerospace
purposes, British Standards Institution, London (1998)
15. Environmental Protection Act 1990, Part I PG6/40(94)
Secretary of State's Guidance - Coating and Recoating of
Aircraft and Aircraft Components, HMSO October (1994)
16. C.J.E. Smith and K.R..Baldwin, Some cadmium
replacements for use on aircraft components, Product
Finishing June ppl2-18 (1992)
17. C.J.E. Smith and K.R. Baldwin, Progress towards the
replacement of cadmium plating on military aircraft,
Proceedings of the International Symposium on the
Environment and Defence, University of Wales, Swansea
UKpp60-66(1995)
18. J. Smart, private communication
19. M.F. Mosser, Metallic - ceramic coatings as
replacements for cadmium plating, Proceedings of the
26th Annual Airline Plating and Metal Finishing Forum
and Exposition, Tulsa, Oklahoma paper No. 900968
(1990)
20. K. Hill, Corrosion Prevention in the Royal Air Force: Is
there a Simple Solution, Proceedings of the 4th
International Aerospace Corrosion Control Symposium,
Jakarta, Indonesia, published by SP Conferences
GravesendUK-(1996)
21. C.J.E. Smith and M.A.H. Hewins, The Effect ofAbrasive
Blasting on the Fatigue and Corrosion of an Aluminium Copper Alloy, RAE Technical Report 84082 (1982)
22. K.R. Baldwin and C.J.E. Smith, Repair of Metal
Coatings using Environmentally Compliant Brush Plating
Solutions, Plating and Surface Finishing 84(7) pp23 - 28
(1997)
23. K.R. Baldwin and C.J.E. Smith, Repair ofProtective
Treatments using Environmentally Compliant Brush
Anodising Solutions to be published
24. S. Erricker, V.M. Evans, K.S. Smith and C.J.E. Smith,
Research into Chromate-free Primers for Aerospace
Applications to be published
25. K.R. Baldwin, R.I. Bates, R.D. Arnell and C.J.E. Smith,
Aluminium - magnesium Corrosion Resistant Coatings,
published in "Advances in Surface Engineering, Volume
I: Fundamentals of Coatings Section 1.2 Aqueous
Corrosion" pp 117-131(1997)

British Crown Copyright 1999 / DERA

Published with the permission of the Controller of Her
12. Britannic Majesty's Stationery Office

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1. Recipient's Reference

2. Originator's References

RTO-MP-25
AC/323(AVT)TP/13
5. Originator

4. Security Classification
of Document

3. Further Reference

UNCLASSIFIED/
UNLIMITED

ISBN 92-837-1029-0

Research and Technology Organization

North Atlantic Treaty Organization
BP 25, 7 rue Ancelle, F-92201 Neuilly-sur-Seine Cedex, France

6. Title

New Metallic Materials for the Structure of Aging Aircraft

7. Presented at/sponsored by

the Applied Vehicle Technology Panel (AVT) Workshop, held in Corfu,

Greece, 19-20 April 1999.
9. Date

8. Author(s)/Editor(s)

April 2000

Multiple

11. Pages

10. Author's/Editor's Address

108

Multiple
12. Distribution Statement

There are no restrictions on the distribution of this document.

Information about the availability of this and other RTO
unclassified publications is given on the back cover.

13. Keywords/Descriptors

Metals
Alloys
Composite materials
Airframes
Service life
Life cycle costs
Military aircraft
Commercial aircraft
Aluminum alloys
Aging (metallurgy)
Damage

Tolerances (mechanics)
Failure
Structural integrity
Fracture mechanics
Fatigue (materials)
Corrosion
Benefit cost analysis
Stress analysis
Protective coatings
Durability
Aging aircraft

14. Abstract

This workshop dealt with the replacement of Structural components of aging aircraft with
components manufactured from materials with specifications of a high qualification, thus
enhancing various parameters including overall life cycle cost technology (LCC).
The following topics were treated:
- An Overview
- Aluminium Alloys and Composites
- Processing, Fatigue and Durability

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Des exemplaires supplementaires peuvent parfois etre obtenus aupres des centres nationaux de distribution indiques ci-dessous. Si vous
souhaitez recevoir toutes les publications de la RTO, ou simplement celles qui concernent certains Panels, vous pouvez demander d'etre
inclus sur la liste d'envoi de l'un de ces centres.
Les publications de la RTO et de l'AGARD sont en vente aupres des agences de vente indiquees ci-dessous, sous forme de photocopie ou
de microfiche. Certains originaux peuvent egalement etre obtenus aupres de CAST.
CENTRES DE DIFFUSION NATIONAUX
FRANCE
O.N.E.R.A. (ISP)
29, Avenue de la Division Leclerc
BP 72, 92322 Chtillon Cedex

ALLEMAGNE
Streitkrfteamt / Abteilung III
Fachinformationszentrum der
Bundeswehr, (FIZBw)
Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 34
D-53113 Bonn
BELGIQUE
Coordinateur RTO - VSL/RTO
Etat-Major de la Force Aerienne
Quartier Reine Elisabeth
Rue d'Evere, B-1140 Bruxelles

GRECE (Correspondant)
Hellenic Ministry of National
Defence
Defence Industry Research &
Technology General Directorate
Technological R&D Directorate
D.Soutsou 40, GR-11521, Athens

CANADA
Directeur - Recherche et developpement
Communications et gestion de
l'information - DRDCGI 3
Ministere de la Defense nationale
Ottawa, Ontario Kl A 0K2

HONGRIE
Department for Scientific
Analysis
Institute of Military Technology
Ministry of Defence
H-1525 Budapest P O Box 26

DANEMARK
Danish Defence Research Establishment
Ryvangs Alle 1, P.O. Box 2715
DK-2100 Copenhagen 0

ISLANDE
Director of Aviation
c/o Flugrad
Reykjavik

ESPAGNE
INTA (RTO/AGARD Publications)
Carretera de Torrejon a Ajalvir, Pk.4
28850 Torrejon de Ardoz - Madrid

ITALIE
Centra documentazione
tecnico-scientifica della Difesa
Via Marsala 104
00185 Roma

ETATS-UNIS
NASA Center for AeroSpace
Information (CASI)
Parkway Center
7121 Standard Drive
Hanover, MD 21076-1320

LUXEMBOURG
Voir Belgique
NORVEGE
Norwegian Defence Research
Establishment
Attn: Biblioteket
P.O. Box 25, NO-2007 Kjeller

PAYS-BAS
NDRCC
DGM/DWOO
P.O. Box 20701
2500 ES Den Haag
POLOGNE
Chief of International Cooperation
Division
Research & Development Department
218 Niepodleglosci Av.
00-911 Warsaw
PORTUGAL
Estado Maior da Forca Aerea
SDFA - Centra de Documenta9o
Alfragide
P-2720 Amadora
REPUBLIQUE TCHEQUE
VTL a PVO Praha /
Air Force Research Institute Prague
Nrodni informacm stredisko
obranneho vyzkumu (NISCR)
Mladoboleslavsk ul, 197 06 Praha 9
ROYAUME-UNI
Defence Research Information Centre
Kentigern House
65 Brown Street
Glasgow G2 8EX
TURQUIE
Millt Savunma Baskanligi (MSB)
ARGE Dairesi Baskanligi (MSB)
06650 Bakanliklar - Ankara

AGENCES DE VENTE
NASA Center for AeroSpace
Information (CASI)
Parkway Center
7121 Standard Drive
Hanover, MD 21076-1320
Etats-Unis

The British Library Document

Supply Centre
Boston Spa, Wetherby
West Yorkshire LS23 7BQ
Royaume-Uni

Canada Institute for Scientific and

Technical Information (CISTI)
National Research Council
Document Delivery
Montreal Road, Building M-55
Ottawa K1A 0S2, Canada

Les demandes de documents RTO ou AGARD doivent comporter la denomination "RTO" ou "AGARD" selon le cas, suivie du
numero de serie (par exemple AGARD-AG-315). Des informations analogues, telles que le titre et la date de publication sont
souhaitables. Des references bibliographiques completes ainsi que des resumes des publications RTO et AGARD figurent dans les
journaux suivants:
Government Reports Announcements & Index (GRA&I)
Scientific and Technical Aerospace Reports (STAR)
publie par le National Technical Information Service
STAR peut etre consulte en ligne au localisateur de
Springfield
ressources uniformes (URL) suivant:
Virginia 2216
http://www.sti.nasa.gov/Pubs/star/Star.html
Etats-Unis
STAR est edite par CASI dans le cadre du programme
(accessible egalement en mode interactif dans la base de
NASA d'information scientifique et technique (STI)
donnees bibliographiques en ligne du NTIS, et sur CD-ROM)
STI Program Office, MS 157A
NASA Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia 23681-0001
Etats-Unis
Imprime par le Groupe Communication Canada Inc.
(membre de la Corporation St-Joseph)
45, boul. Sacre-Cceur, Hull (Quebec), Canada K1A 0S7

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY ORGANIZATION

BP 25 7 RUE ANCELLE
F-92201 NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE CEDEX FRANCE
Telefax 0(1)55.61.22.99 E-mail mailbox rta.nato.int

DISTRIBUTION OF UNCLASSIFIED
RTO PUBLICATIONS

NATO's Research and Technology Organization (RTO) holds limited quantities of some of its recent publications and those of the former
AGARD (Advisory Group for Aerospace Research & Development of NATO), and these may be available for purchase in hard copy form.
For more information, write or send a telefax to the address given above. Please do not telephone.
Further copies are sometimes available from the National Distribution Centres listed below. If you wish to receive all RTO publications, or
just those relating to one or more specific RTO Panels, they may be willing to include you (or your organisation) in their distribution.
RTO and AGARD publications may be purchased from the Sales Agencies listed below, in photocopy or microfiche form. Original copies
of some publications may be available from CAST.
NATIONAL DISTRIBUTION CENTRES
BELGIUM
Coordinateur RTO - VSL/RTO
Etat-Major de la Force Aerienne
Quartier Reine Elisabeth
Rue d'Evere, B-1140 Bruxelles
CANADA
Director Research & Development
Communications & Information
Management - DRDCIM 3
Dept of National Defence
Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0K2

GREECE (Point of Contact)

Hellenic Ministry of National
Defence
Defence Industry Research &
Technology General Directorate
Technological R&D Directorate
D.Soutsou 40, GR-11521, Athens

POLAND
Chief of International Cooperation
Division
Research & Development
Department
218 Niepodleglosci Av.
00-911 Warsaw

HUNGARY
Department for Scientific
Analysis
Institute of Military Technology
Ministry of Defence
H-1525 Budapest P O Box 26

PORTUGAL
Estado Maior da For9a Aerea
SDFA - Centro de Documentaco
Alfragide
P-2720 Amadora

CZECH REPUBLIC
VTL a PVO Praha /
Air Force Research Institute Prague
Narodnf informacnf stredisko
obranneho vyzkumu (NISR)
Mladoboleslavsk ul., 197 06 Praha 9

ICELAND
Director of Aviation
c/o Flugrad
Reykjavik

DENMARK
Danish Defence Research
Establishment
Ryvangs Alle 1, P.O. Box 2715
DK-2100 Copenhagen 0

ITALY
Centro documentazione
tecnico-scientifica della Difesa
Via Marsala 104
00185 Roma

FRANCE
O.N.E.R.A. (ISP)
29 Avenue de la Division Leclerc
BP 72, 92322 Chatillon Cedex

LUXEMBOURG
See Belgium

GERMANY
Streitkrfteamt / Abteilung III
Fachinformationszentrum der
Bundeswehr, (FIZBw)
Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 34
D-53113 Bonn

NASA Center for AeroSpace

Information (CASI)
Parkway Center
7121 Standard Drive
Hanover, MD 21076-1320
United States

NETHERLANDS
NDRCC
DGM/DWOO
P.O. Box 20701
2500 ES Den Haag
NORWAY
Norwegian Defence Research
Establishment
Attn: Biblioteket
P.O. Box 25, NO-2007 Kjeller

SPAIN
INTA (RTO/AGARD Publications)
Carretera de Torrejon a Ajalvir, Pk.4
28850 Torrejon de Ardoz - Madrid
TURKEY
Mill! Savunma Baskanligi (MSB)
ARGE Dairesi Baskanligi (MSB)
06650 Bakanliklar - Ankara
UNITED KINGDOM
Defence Research Information
Centre
Kentigern House
65 Brown Street
Glasgow G2 8EX
UNITED STATES
NASA Center for AeroSpace
Information (CASI)
Parkway Center
7121 Standard Drive
Hanover, MD 21076-1320

SALES AGENCIES
The British Library Document
Supply Centre
Boston Spa, Wetherby
West Yorkshire LS23 7BQ
United Kingdom

Canada Institute for Scientific and

Technical Information (CISTI)
National Research Council
Document Delivery
Montreal Road, Building M-55
Ottawa K1A 0S2, Canada
Requests for RTO or AGARD documents should include the word 'RTO' or 'AGARD', as appropriate, followed by the serial
number (for example AGARD-AG-315). Collateral information such as title and publication date is desirable. Full bibliographical
references and abstracts of RTO and AGARD publications are given in the following journals:
Scientific and Technical Aerospace Reports (STAR)
Government Reports Announcements & Index (GRA&I)
STAR is available on-line at the following uniform
published by the National Technical Information Service
resource locator:
Springfield
http://www.sti.nasa.gov/Pubs/star/Star.html
Virginia 22161
STAR is published by CASI for the NASA Scientific
United States
and Technical Information (STI) Program
(also available online in the NTIS Bibliographic
STI Program Office, MS 157A
Database or on CD-ROM)
NASA Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia 23681-0001
United States
Printed by Canada Communication Group Inc.
(A St. Joseph Corporation Company)
45 Sacre-Cceur Blvd., Hull (Quebec), Canada K1A 0S7
ISBN 92-837-1029-0