Root Locus Analysis

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Izmir Institute of Technology

Chapter 6

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 1 / 37
 Root locus analysis

The poles are the roots of the denominator of the transfer function.
Recall that, pole locations in the system transfer function determine
performance characteristics; such as rise time, overshoot, settling
time.
We have also seen that feedback can change pole locations in the
system transfer function and therefore performance is changed.

Suppose that we have one variable parameter in our control system.

We can make a parametric plot of pole locations as that parameter
changes.
This plot is a plot of the locus of the roots or the root locus plot
which was first suggested by Walter Evans in 1948.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 2 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Root locus is a parametric plot of the roots of an equation
b (s)
1+K =0
a (s)
vs. K .
In this course, unless otherwise stated, we will only consider real
positive K values (i.e., 0 < K < +∞).
The root locus where the gain K can take only positive values is
sometimes called the 180◦ root locus.
A common control configuration is

which has unity feedback with proportional gain.

We will generalize the control configuration later.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 3 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Let the closed–loop transfer function be
KG (s)
T (s) =
1 + KG (s)
where the poles are the roots of
1 + KG (s) = 0.
Assume that the open–loop transfer function G (s) is a rational
polynomial of the form
b (s)
G (s) =
a (s)
where
b (s) = (s − z1 ) (s − z2 ) ... (s − zm )
a (s) = (s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) ... (s − pn )
with n ≥ m.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 4 / 37
 Root locus analysis

Note that, a (s) and b (s) are assumed to be monic.

a (s) may be assumed monic without loss of generality.
If b (s) is not monic, then its gain is just absorbed as part of K in
1 + KG (s) = 0.
zi and pi are zeros and poles of the open–loop transfer function
G (s), respectively.
Closed–loop poles are roots of

1 + KG (s) = 0
⇒ a (s) + Kb (s) = 0

which clearly change as a function of K .

Notice that, zeros are unaffected by feedback.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 5 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

Plot the root locus for G (s) = 1s .

– We have a (s) = s and b (s) = 1.
For K > 0, locus of roots are

s + K = 0.

For this simple system, we can easily find the only root as

s = −K

which is real and negative (since K > 0).

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 6 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

Root Locus

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02
Imaginary Axis

−0.02

−0.04

−0.06

−0.08
−1.4 −1.2 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2
Real Axis

1
Figure: Root locus plot for G (s) = s
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 7 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

s+2
Plot the root locus for G (s) = s+3 .
– We have a (s) = s + 3 and b (s) = s + 2.
For K > 0, locus of roots are

s + 3 + K (s + 2) = 0.

For this system, we can easily find the only root as

2K + 3
s=−
K +1
which is real and negative (since K > 0).

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 8 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

Root Locus

0.06

0.04

0.02
Imaginary Axis

−0.02

−0.04

−0.06
−3.5 −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis

s+2
Figure: Root locus plot for G (s) = s+3
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 9 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

1
Plot the root locus for G (s) = s(s+2) .
– We have a (s) = s (s + 2) and b (s) = 1.
For K > 0, locus of roots are

s (s + 2) + K = 0 ⇒ s 2 + 2s + K = 0.

For this system, we can easily find the roots as

√
−2 ± 4 − 4K √
s1,2 = = −1 ± 1 − K
2
which are real and negative for 1 > K > 0, and are complex
conjugates for K > 1.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 10 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

Root Locus

1.5

0.5
Imaginary Axis

−0.5

−1

−1.5
−2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5
Real Axis

1
Figure: Root locus plot for G (s) = s(s+2)
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 11 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

Suppose we are asked to make damping ratio 0.707.

– Recall that,
s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 = s 2 + 2s + K
√
thus ωn = 2 so K = ωn2 = 2.
Suppose we are asked to locate the poles on the root locus to satisfy
|R {poles}| = |I {poles}|.
√
– Recall that, s1,2 = −1 ± 1 − K , so
 √ 
|−1| = ± 1 − K  ⇒ K = 2.
 

– Notice that, K = 0 results in s = 0 and s = 2.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 12 / 37
 Root locus rules

1. On the s–plane, mark poles (roots of a (s)) by an “×” and zeros

(roots of b (s)) with an “o”.
2. Symmetry of root loci:
– Because we assume that system models are rational polynomials with
real coefficients, all poles must be either real or complex conjugate
pairs.
– Therefore, the root locus is symmetrical with respect to the real axis.
3. Number of distinct root loci:
– There will be as many root loci as the largest number of finite
open–loop poles or zeros.
– For the majority of systems, the number of finite open–loop poles will
be greater than the number of finite open–loop zeros.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 13 / 37
 Root locus rules

4. Starting points:
– What happens at K = 0?
– Consider
(s − z1 ) (s − z2 ) · · · (s − zm )
1 + KG (s) = 1 + K =0
(s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) · · · (s − pn )

from which we can obtain

(s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) ... (s − pn ) + K (s − z1 ) (s − z2 ) ... (s − zm ) = 0.

– At K = 0, the closed–loop poles are equal to the open–loop poles, so,

the root loci start at the open–loop poles.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 14 / 37
 Root locus rules

5. Termination points:
– What happens at K = ∞?
– Consider
(s − z1 ) (s − z2 ) · · · (s − zm )
1 + KG (s) = 1 + K =0
(s − p1 ) (s − p2 ) · · · (s − pn )
from which we can obtain
(s − p1 ) · · · (s − pn )
+ (s − z1 ) · · · (s − zm ) = 0.
K
– The root loci terminate at the open–loop zeros.
– Thus, all n poles approach the zeros of the open–loop transfer
function, including the n − m zeros at C ∞ (i.e., infinity).
⋆ The idea of ∞ in the complex plane is a number with infinite
magnitude and some angle.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 15 / 37
 Root locus rules

6. Root Locus asymptotes:

– For large values of s, the root loci are asymptotic to straight lines
with angles given by

180◦ + 360◦ (l − 1)
φl = , l = 1, . . . , (n − m) .
n−m
– Asymptote chart in the s–plane is found as

where the asymptote intersections are marked with ×.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 16 / 37
 Root locus rules

7. Asymptote intersection:
– The asymptotes intersect the real axis at a point given by
P P
open–loop poles − open–loop zeros
σi =
n−m
where n − m is usually called the relative degree (RD).
8. Root locus locations on the real axis:
– The root locus may be found on portions of the real axis to the left of
an odd number of open–loop poles and zeros.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 17 / 37
 Root locus rules

A value s is on the root locus iff 1 + KG (s) = 0 for some real positive
value of K , so, K = G−1
(s) .
Since G (s) is complex, this is really two equations (i.e., magnitude
and angle conditions)
   
 −1  −1
|K | = 
  and ∠G (s) = ∠ .
G (s)  K


Since K is real and positive, ∠K = 0◦ , so ∠ −1 K = 180◦ .
Therefore, ∠G (s) = 180◦ + l360◦ , l = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
We will use the angle condition to plot the root locus.
The locus of the roots is equal to all the points on s–plane where
∠G (s) = 180◦ + l360◦ .
If we know a point is on the root locus, we can use the magnitude
condition to find the gain K that produced it.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 18 / 37
 Root locus rules

The angle criteria explains why the root locus is sometimes called the
180◦ root locus.
Similarly, the complementary root locus where the gain K can take
only negative values is called the 0◦ root locus.

We will derive techniques so that we won’t need to test every point

on the s–plane.
For any point s on the s–plane, we have
X X
∠G (s) = ∠ (due to zeros) − ∠ (due to poles) .

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 19 / 37
 Root locus rules
Consider G (s) = (s−ps−z 1
1 )(s−p2 )
.
– The location of poles and zero, and a test point are given as

from which, we obtain

∠G (s1 ) = θz1 − θp1 − θp2 .

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 20 / 37
 Root locus rules
Locus on the real axis:
– Consider a test point s1 on the real axis.

When the test point is on the real axis, complex conjugate poles have
equal and opposite angles which cancel each other and may be
ignored.
When the test point is to the right of all poles and zeros of G (s), then
∠G (s1 ) = ∠z1 − ∠p1 − ∠p2 − ∠p̄2 = ∠z1 − ∠p1 .
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 21 / 37
 Root locus rules

When the test point s1 is to the left of one pole or zero, then ∠G (s1 )
will be −180◦ or +180◦ (= −180◦ ), so s1 is on the locus.

When the test point s1 is to the left of:

– One pole and one zero, then ∠G (s1 ) = 180◦ − (−180◦ ) = 360◦ = 0◦ ,
– Two poles, then ∠G (s1 ) = −180◦ − 180◦ = −360◦ = 0◦ ,
– Two zeros, then ∠G (s1 ) = 180◦ + 180◦ = 360◦ = 0◦ ,
then it is not on the root locus.

All points on the real axis to the left of an odd number of poles and
zeros are part of the root locus.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 22 / 37
 Root locus rules
Example

1
Consider G (s) = s(s+4+4j)(s+4−4j) and draw the root locus.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 23 / 37
 Root locus rules
Example

s+8
Consider G (s) = s+1 and draw the root locus.

Root Locus

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
Imaginary Axis

−0.1

−0.2

−0.3

−0.4
−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1
Real Axis

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 24 / 37
 Root locus rules
Departure & arrival angles

The given general rules, plus some experience are enough to sketch
root loci.
Some additional rules help when there is ambiguity.

We know asymptotically where poles go, but we need to know how

they start, and how they end up there.
We can find:
– departure angles (from the poles),
– arrival angles (to the zeros).

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 25 / 37
 Root locus rules
Departure & arrival angles

One of the following systems is stable for all K > 0, the other is not.
Which one?

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 26 / 37
 Root locus rules
Departure & arrival angles

1
Consider G (s) = s(s+4+4j)(s+4−4j)

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 27 / 37
 Root locus rules
Departure & arrival angles

Take a test point s0 very close to p1 and compute ∠G (s0 ).

If s0 is on locus, then

−φ̄1 − φ1 − φ2 = 180◦ + 360◦ l, l = 0, 1, . . .

where
φ̄1 is the angle from p̄1 to s0 (which is approximately equal to 90◦ ),
φ1 is the angle from p1 to s0 ,
φ2 is the angle from p2 to s0 (which is approximately equal to 135◦ ).
So we have

−90◦ − φ1 − 135◦ = 180◦ + 360◦ l, l = 0, 1, . . .

thus
φ1 ≈ 45◦ .
We can now draw how the poles depart.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 28 / 37
 Root locus rules
Departure & arrival angles

Single pole departure rule

X X
φdep = ∠ (zeros) − ∠ (remaining poles) − 180◦ ± 360◦ l.

Multiple pole (with multiplicity q > 1) departure rule

X X
qφdep = ∠ (zeros) − ∠ (remaining poles) − 180◦ ± 360◦ l.

Multiple zero (with multiplicity q > 1) arrival rule

X X
qψarr = ∠ (poles) − ∠ (remaining zeros) + 180◦ ± 360◦ l.

Note that, the idea of adding 360◦ l is to add enough angle to get the
result within 180◦ .
Also, if there is multiplicity, then l counts off the different angles.
Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 29 / 37
 Root locus rules
Imaginary axis crossings

Routh test can be used to find the value of K that causes marginal
stability.
Substitute K̄ and find the roots of

a (s) + K̄ b (s) = 0.

Alternatively, first substitute K̄ , then let s = jω0 , and solve for

a (jω0 ) + K̄ b (jω0 ) = 0.

– Since there are real and imaginary parts, we have two equations from
this expression.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 30 / 37
 Root locus rules
Points with multiple roots

Sometimes, branches of the locus intersect.

Computing points of intersection can clarify ambiguous loci.

Consider two poles approaching each other on the real axis.

As two poles approach each other, gain K increases.
When they meet, they break away from the real axis.
Therefore, gain K along a branch of the locus is maximum at a
breakaway point.
Gain K is minimum along a branch of the locus for arrival points.
Both are saddle points in the s–plane.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 31 / 37
 Root locus rules
Points with multiple roots

So, for these points,

dK
=0
ds
where, from 1 + KG (s) = 0, K = G (s) .
−1

So, we obtain  
d −1
=0
ds G (s)
where the roots of this expression are the double roots.
But we must verify that the roots are on the root locus, since it may
be an extraneous result.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 32 / 37
 Root locus rules
Points with multiple roots

Figure: Some similar loci for which finding saddle points helps clarify ambiguity

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 33 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

1
Consider G (s) = s(s+2) where we know that two poles approach each
other on the real axis.
The roots of  
d −1
=0
ds G (s)
are the double roots (i.e., the breakaway point).
Substituting for G (s) results in

d
0 = (−s (s + 2))
ds
= − (2s + 2)

from which we conclude that s = −1 is the breakaway point.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 34 / 37
 Root locus rules
Finding K for a specific root locus point

Recall that the root locus is defined by the equation

1 + KG (s) = 0

which can be broken up into magnitude and angle conditions

   
 −1  −1
|K | = 
  , G (s) = ∠ .
G (s)  K

The angle condition is used to plot the root locus.

The magnitude condition may be used to find the value of K to get a
specific set of closed–loop poles.
 
That is, K =  G−1(s0 )  is the gain to put a pole at s0 provided that s0 is
 
on the locus.

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 35 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

Matlab is also able to draw space aliens.

z=[-5+5j -5-5j -4.8+2j -4.8-2j 0.35+0.2j 0.35-0.2j 2j -2j 2j -2j 0.7 0.7
1.0+1.5j 1.0-1.5j 1.0+1.5j 1.0-1.5j 2.2];
p=[-4.5+3.2j -4.5-3.2j -0.15+0.8j -0.15-0.8j 0.3j -0.3j 0.4+0.3j
0.4-0.3j 0.45+0.6j 0.45-0.6j 1+1.3j 1-1.3j 1+1.3j 1-1.3j 2+0.15j
2-0.15j 2];
num=poly(z);
den=poly(p);
rlocus(num,den);

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 36 / 37
 Root locus analysis
Example

Root Locus

2
Imaginary Axis

−2

−4

−6
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Real Axis

Figure: Root locus plot

Assoc. Prof. Enver Tatlicioglu (EEE@IYTE) EE362 Feedback Control Systems Chapter 6 37 / 37