You Can Run, You Can Hide:

The Epidemiology and Statistical Mechanics of Zombies

Alexander A. Alemi, Matthew Bierbaum, Christopher R. Myers, James P. Sethna

arXiv:1503.01104v2 [q-bio.PE] 5 Mar 2015

Laboratory of Atomic and Solid State Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
(Dated: March 6, 2015)
We use a popular fictional disease, zombies, in order to introduce techniques used in modern
epidemiology modelling, and ideas and techniques used in the numerical study of critical phenomena.
We consider variants of zombie models, from fully connected continuous time dynamics to a full scale
exact stochastic dynamic simulation of a zombie outbreak on the continental United States. Along
the way, we offer a closed form analytical expression for the fully connected differential equation,
and demonstrate that the single person per site two dimensional square lattice version of zombies
lies in the percolation universality class. We end with a quantitative study of the full scale US
outbreak, including the average susceptibility of different geographical regions.

I.

INTRODUCTION

Zombies captivate the imagination. The idea of a

deadly disease that not only kills its hosts, but turns
those hosts into deadly vectors for the disease is scary
enough to fuel an entire genre of horror stories and films.
But at its root, zombism is just that: a (fictional) disease,
and so should be amenable to same kind of analysis and
study that more traditional diseases have long benefited
from.
Much scholarly attention has focused on more traditional human diseases [10], but recently, academic attention has turned some amount of focus towards zombies
as a unique and interesting modification of classic disease
models. One of the first academic accounts of zombies
was the 2009 article by Munz et al. [12], in which an
early form of a compartmental model of zombism was introduced. Since then, there have been several interesting
papers published including works that perform Bayesian
estimations of the zombie disease parameters [22], look
at how emotional factors impact the spread of zombies
[16], using zombies to gain insight into models of politics
[9], or the interaction of a zombie epidemic and social
dynamics [11, 19]. Additional essays can be found in two
books [4, 20], both collections of academic essays centered
around zombism.
Besides the academic papers, zombies have seen a bit of
a resurgence in fiction. Of particular note are the works
of Max Brooks, including a very detailed Zombie Survival
Guide [1], as well as an oral history of the first zombie
war [2] in a hypothesized post outbreak world. In both
these works Brooks discusses lots of details of zombies
and their behavior often glossed over in other media. In
particular, he makes the connection to disease explicit,
describing zombies as the result of a hypothetical virus:
Solanum.
Zombies form a wonderful model system to illustrate modern epidemiological tools drawn from statistical
mechanics, computational chemistry, and mathematical
modeling. It also forms an ideal vehicle for public outreach: the Center for Disease Control uses preparation
for a zombie apocalypse [17, 18] to promote emergency

preparedness. In this work, we will build up to a fullscale simulation of a zombie outbreak in the continental United States, with realistic values drawn from the
literature and popular culture (section V, simulation accessible online [14]). Before that, we shall use statistical
mechanics to scrutinize the threshold of zombie virulence
that determines whether humanity survives (section IV).
Preceding that, we shall show how methods from computational chemistry can be used to simulate every individual heroic encounter between a human and a zombie
(section III). But we begin by describing and analyzing
a simple model of zombies (the SZR model) the simplest and most natural generalization to the classic SIR
(Susceptible-Infected-Recovered) model used to describe
infectious disease spread in epidemiology.
II.

SZR MODEL

We start with a simple model of zombies, the SZR

model. There are three compartments in the model: S
represents the susceptible population, in this case the uninfected humans; Z represents the infected state, in this
case zombies; and R represents our removed state, in
this case zombies that have been terminated by humans
(canonically by destroying their brain so as to render
them inoperable). There are two transitions possible: a
human can become infected if they are bitten by a zombie, and a zombie can be destroyed by direct action by a
human. There are two parameters governing these transitions: , the bite parameter determines the probability
by which a zombie will bite a human if they are in contact, and the kill parameter that gives the probability
that a human kills the zombie. Rendered as a system of
coupled differential equations, we obtain, for a particular
interaction site:
S = SZ
(1)
Z = ( )SZ
R = SZ

(2)
(3)

Notice that these interactions are density dependent, in

the sense that the rate at which we convert humans to

2
zombies and kill zombies is dependent on the total count
of zombies and humans in this site. This is in contrast
with most models of human diseases, which frequently
adopt frequency dependent interactions wherein S, Z, R
would be interpreted as the fraction of the population in
that state.
This distinction will become stark once we consider
large simulations with very inhomogeneous populations.
By claiming that zombies can be modeled by a single bite
parameter that itself is a rate per person per unit time,
we are claiming that a zombie in a block with 5,000 people would be one hundred times as effective at infecting
new zombies as a zombie in a block with fifty people,
similarly the zombie in question would be killed one hundred times faster. This would seem false for an ordinary
disease like the flu, but in the case of zombies, we argue
that it is appropriate, as zombies directly seek out hosts
to infect, at which point the human and zombie engage
in a dual to the (un)death.
To ease analysis we can nondimensionalize the equations by choosing a relevant population size N , and recasting in terms of the dimensionless time parameter
= tN and dimensionless virulence = /
dS
SZ
=
d
N
dZ
SZ
= (1 )
d
N
SZ
dR
=
d
N

(5)
(6)

(8)
(9)

(10)

lim Z( ) = P = Z0 + (1 )S0

(11)

lim S( ) = 0

(12)

(13)
(14)

So that P is a constant of the dynamics. As for

S0
SZ 0
2
Z
Z
S
S S
= (1 )
N
NZ
S
= (1 + (1 ))
N
P
=
N

0 =

(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)

P 0 ( ) = 0
(19)
P ( ) = P0 = Z( ) + (1 )S( ) = Z0 + (1 )S0
(20)
(
P > 0
0 ( ) =
(21)
+ P < 0
(
S( )
e P > 0
( ) =
= 0 +
(22)
Z( )
e
P <0

(7)

lim f ( ) = 0

dP
= P 0 = Z 0 + (1 )S 0
d
SZ
SZ
(1 )
=0
= (1 )
N
N

So that if we choose N = |P |, we end up with the very

simple dynamics:

Given the analytical solution, it is clear to see that the

sign of P governs whether we will eventually have humans
or zombies in the final state. If < 1, P > 0, so

In fact, we can recast the dynamics in terms of the

variables P Z + (1 )S and = S/Z to gain further
insights. First note that

(4)

Unlike a traditional disease (e.g., as modeled by SIR),

for the zombie model, we have a stable configuration
when either the human or the zombie population is defeated (S = 0 or Z = 0). Furthermore, unlike SIR, SZR
admits an analytical solution, assuming R(0) = 0, and
with Z0 Z(0), S0 S(0):
P Z0 + (1 )S0
S0
P

(1 ) =
1
Z0
Z0
P
f ( ) P/N
e
+
Z( ) = P f ( )
f ( )
S( ) =
1

If however, > 1, then humans are more effective at

killing zombies than zombies are at biting humans, but
if we start with enough zombies in the initial state, we
can still convert all of the humans before they have time
to kill all of the zombies.

and we will always flow to a final state composed of entirely zombies and no humans, where P denotes the number of zombies that survives.

S0
Z0

(23)

Here we see that the dynamics is simply an exponential

decay or increase in the ratio of humans to zombies =
S/Z. The final populations in either case are easy to see
due to the conservation of P . If zombies win we have
Z = Z0 + (1 )S0

(24)

And if humans win

S = S0

Z0
1

(25)

3
1.

SIR model

This dynamics should be compared to the similarly

nondimensionlized density dependent SIR model:
SI
dS
=
d
N

dI
S
=
I
d
N
dR
= I
d

(26)
(27)
(28)

Where here = tN as above, but = /(N ) = R01 ,

because in the SIR model our infected population recovers on its own. This should be contrasted with SZR,
where the process of infection and recovery have the same
functional form, depending on the product SZ. This is
the inverse of the usual R0 parameter used to denote the
infectivity of the SIR, here used to make a closer analogy
to the SZR model. It is this parameter that principally
governs whether we have an outbreak or not. Unlike the
parameter for SZR which depends only on our disease constants , , the relevant virulence for the density
dependent SIR model () has a population dependence.
Notice that while the only stable configuration for the
SIR model is when we have no infected population (I =
0), the SZR model is stable when either the humans or
zombies are depleted (S = 0 or Z = 0).
Beyond that, the SIR model does not admit a closed
form analytical solution, but we can find a parametric
solution by dividing the first equation by the third, revealing.
S( ) = S0 e

(R( )R0 )
N

FIG. 1. Example analytical dynamics for the SIR and SZR

models with an initial population of 200 people, 199 uninfected and 1 infected. The (susceptible, infected, removed)
population is shown in (blue, red, black). The SZR results
are solid lines while the SIR results are lighter lines. For both
models = tN where N was taken to be the total population. For the SZR model was chosen to be 0.6, while for the
SIR model was chosen to be 0.6 to show similar evolutions.
Notice that in this case, in SZR the human population disappears and we are left with zombies in the end, while the SIR
model is self limiting, and only a fraction of the population
ever becomes infected.

(29)

And using the observation that in the limit of infinite

time, no infected population can persist, we can choose
N to be the total population
S0 + I0 + R0 = N = S + R

(30)

and so obtain a transcendental equation for the recovered

population at long times.
R = N S0 e

(R R0 )
N

(31)

Unlike the SZR model, here we see that no matter how

virulent the disease is, the epidemic will be self-limiting,
and there will always have some susceptibles left at the
end of the outbreak. This is a stark qualitative difference
between zombies and more traditional SIR models, arising from the fact that the recovery of zombies is itself
dependent on the presence of susceptibles.
To visually compare the difference, in Figure 1 weve
shown example analytic dynamics for both SIR and
SZR

FIG. 2. Example Gillespie dynamics for the SIR and SZR

models with the same parameter settings as Figure 1. The
(susceptible, infected, removed) population is shown in (blue,
red, black). The SZR results are solid lines while the SIR
results are lighter lines. The two simulations were run with
the same seed so as to match their dynamics at early times.

III.

STOCHASTIC SIMULATION

While most previous studies modeling zombie population dynamics have been deterministic, things get more
interesting when we try to model discrete populations.
By treating the number of zombies and humans as continuous variables in the last section, we are ignoring the ran-

4
dom fluctuations that arise in small populations: even a
ferociously virulent zombie infestation might fortuitously
be killed early on by happy accident. Similar problems
arise in chemical reactions: reactions involving two types
of proteins in a cell can be described by chemical reaction kinetics evolving their concentrations (like our SZR
equations 4), but if the number of such proteins is small,
accurate predictions must simulate the individual binary
reactions (each zombie battling each human). Interpreting our SZR transitions as reaction rates, gives us a system akin to a chemical reaction with two possible transitions:
SZ

(S, Z) (Z, Z)
SZ

(S, Z) (S, R)

When a human and zombie are in contact, the probability of a bite in a small period of time is given by the bite
rate and the size of the populations of the two species
(SZ dt), and similarly for the probability of a kill. In
order to efficiently simulate this dynamics, we use Gillespie dynamics [7], which efficiently uses the computer to
sequentially calculate the result of each one-on-one battle.
The stochasticity gives more character to the simulation. The fully connected continuous dynamics modelled
by the differential equation is straight forward: either the
humans win and kill all of the zombies, or the zombies
win and bite all of the humans. While the continuous approximation may be appropriate at intermediate stages
of the infection where the total population is large and
there are a non-trivial number of infected individuals,
we will eventually be interested in simulating an actual
outbreak on an inhomogeneous population lattice, where
every new site will start with a single infected individual. But even though we may be interested in modeling
the outbreak case ( < 1), we would like to allow the
possibility that the humans manage to defeat the outbreak before it really takes off. The stochastic Gillespie
dynamics allows for this possibility.
In Figure 2 weve shown an example of a single stochastic simulation using the same parameter settings as those
used in Figure 1. The stochastic trajectory overall tracks
the analytic result, but at points in the simulation there
may be more or less zombies than anticipated if the dice
fall that way.
Another implication of stochastic dynamics is that it is
not always guaranteed that an < 0 outbreak will take
over the entire susceptible population. For the parameter
settings used in Figure 1 and 2, namely = 0.6 with a
population of 200 and one infected individual to start,
the zombies win only 40% of the time. Additionally, the
number of zombies we end with isnt fixed; as shown in
Figure 3.
In fact, we can solve for the probability that an < 1
simulation will go extinct in the limit of large populations. We are interested in Pext , the probability that the

FIG. 3. Distribution for final zombies over 100,000 Gillespie

runs of the same settings as Figure 2. Not pictured are the
60% of runs that end with no zombies in the final state. Compare these to the analytical result, in which the final population of zombies would be 81.

FIG. 4.
The observed fraction of simulations that end in
an extinction for the zombie outbreak, for 1,000 runs of 104
individuals at various values of (eqn. 33). The observed
extinction probabilities agree with the expectation that they
should go as , here shown as the dashed blue line. This is
the same behavior as the SIR model.

outbreak goes extinct. At the very beginning of the simulation, there is only one zombie, who will be killed with
probability /( + ). If we kill the first zombie before
he bites anyone, we guarantee extinction. Otherwise, the
zombie will bite another human, at which point we will
have two independent zombie lines that we need to each
cause to go extinct, which will occur with probability
2
Pext
. This allows us to solve:

1+
P2
+
+ ext

= =.

Pext =

(32)

Pext

(33)

The probability of extinction is just given by our dimensionless inverse virulence . In Figure 4 weve shown the

5
observed extinction probabilities for 1,000 Gillespie runs
of a population of 104 individuals at various values of ,
and overlaid our expected dependence of .
This same extinction probability (Pext = = R01 ) is
observed for the SIR model [10]. This is not a coincidence. In fact, in precisely the limit that is important for
studying the probability of an extinction event, namely at
early times with very large populations, the SZR model
and SIR are effectively the same, since the population of
susceptibles (S) is nearly constant. Writing S as S0 S,
we have:
dZ
S0 Z
SZ
= (1 )
(1 )
d
N
N

dI
N S0 I
I
= 1
(N + S) .
d
S0
N
N

(34)
(35)

Here as S 0, the two models are the same with =

N/S0 , another indication that the density dependent
SIR models virulence is dependent on population size.
To get a better sense of the effect of the stochasticity,
we can look at the mean fractional population in each
state for various settings of and choices for initial population size. The results are shown in Figure 5.

Shown are the fractional populations in the final state

left for both the SZR model (top row) and SIR model
(bottom row) for different parameter combinations of
and the initial population. In all cases, the N parameter
was chosen to be 100. For each pixel, 1,000 independently seeded runs of Gillespie dynamics were calculated
until completion. Looking at the SZR results in the top
row, we can see that the dynamics is fairly independent
of population size once the population size gets above
around 100 individuals. The population dependence for
lower population sizes is an effect of the stochasticity. We
can clearly see a transition in the susceptible population
near = 1 corresponding to where our continuous dynamics would show a sharp boundary. Here the boundary
is blurred, again due to the stochasticity. The final dead
zombie population R remains small for all values of ; for
extremely virulent zombies  1, very few will be killed
by the humans before all of the humans are converted,
while in the other extreme few zombies are created so
there are few to be killed.
Contrast these results with the density dependent SIR
dynamics shown in the second row. There can be no infected individuals left in the end, so only the fraction of S
and R in the final state are shown. The two transitions in
SIR couple differently to the population of infected and
susceptible. While our nondimensionalized SZR model
has Z 0 = (1 )SZ/N , our nondimensionlized SIR has
I 0 = (S/N )I. This creates a very strong population
dependence. The transition observed in the S population
is largely independent of , except on the very small end.
When we move to inhomogeneous population lattices this
means that for the density dependent SIR model, the
most important parameter governing whether a particular site has a breakout infection is the population of that
site on the lattice.

IV.

FIG. 5. Results from many Gillespie runs. One thousand different simulations are run for each cell. Each simulation starts
with a single zombie or infected individual. The runs are run
until they naturally terminate, either because the susceptible
population is deleted, the zombie population is gone, or there
are no more infected individuals. Each cell is colored according to the mean fraction of the population occurring in each
state. The top row is for SZR simulations and the bottom row
is for SIR simulations. In both cases N is chosen to be 100.
Here the stark contrast between density dependent SZR and
SIR is made apparent. Notice that density-dependent SIR
is very strongly population dependent.

CRITICAL BEHAVIOR OF LATTICE

MODEL

Until now, weve considered fully connected populations, where any infected individual can infect any susceptible individual. But surely, a zombie in New York
cannot bite someone in Los Angeles. Studies of the spatial spread of infectious diseases is one of the applications of network science; social diseases spread among
intimate contacts, Ebola spreads by personal contact in
a network of caregivers, influenza can be spread by direct
contact, through the air or by hand-to-mouth, hand-toeye or hand-to-nose contact after exposure to a contaminated surface. For most diseases, long bonds dominate
the propagation to distant sites [13] airplane flights take
Ebola to new continents. Zombies do not fly airplanes, so
our model is closer in spirit to the spread of certain agricultural infestations, where the disease spreads across a
lattice of sites along the two-dimensional surface of the
Earth (although not those in which pathogens are transported long distances by atmospheric currents).

6
To begin, we will consider a two dimensional lattice,
where each site contains a single individual. Each individual is allowed to be in one of three states: S, Z,
or R. The infection spreads through nearest neighbor
bonds only. That is, a zombie can bite or be killed by
any susceptible individuals in each of the four touching
sites.
To make direct contact with our zombie model, the
rate at which an susceptible cell is bitten is given by Z
where Z is the number of zombie neighbors (since S is
one), and the rate at which a zombie site is killed is S
where S is the number of susceptible neighbors.
Because all state transitions in the SZR model depend only on ZS contacts, for computational efficiency,
we need only maintain a queue of all ZS bonds, that is
connections along which a human and zombie can interact. At each step of the simulation, one of these
ZS bonds is chosen at random, and with probability
/( + ) = 1/(1 + ), we bite the human, marking it
as a zombie and visiting each of its neighbors. If any of
its neighbors are human, we add that link to our queue.
With probability /( + ) = /(1 + ) we kill the zombie, removing any of its links to neighboring humans from
the queue. This process matches the stochastic dynamics
of our zombie model operating on the lattice.
Simulating zombie outbreaks on fixed lattices, there is
qualitatively different behavior for small and large .
When is large, the zombies do not spread very far, always being defeated by their neighboring humans. When
is very small, the zombies seem to grow until they infect the entire lattice. This suggests evidence of a phase
transition. Technically, the presence of a phase transition
would mean that if we could simulate our model on an infinite lattice, there should be some critical (c ), above
which any outbreak will necessarily terminate. Below the
critical value, we have the possibility (assuming we dont
go extinct) of having the infection grow without bound,
infecting a finite fraction of individuals, even on the infinite lattice. The SIR model has been demonstrated
to undergo such a phase transition, and we expect the
zombie model does as well.
The study of critical phenomena includes a series of
techniques and analyses that enable us to study the property of these hypothetical phase transitions even on finite
lattices. A major theme of critical phase transitions is
that with the order parameter (the parameter governing
the transition, in this case ) set to precisely the critical
value, models show scale free behavior, meaning there
is no natural length scale to the dynamics, and various
physical parameters all are governed by power laws.
With chosen to be precisely at the critical value, we
expect to see fractal like growth (Fig. 6). Note that there
are holes (surviving pockets of humans) of all sizes in the
figure. This reflects the proximity to the threshold: the
battle between zombies and humans is so evenly matched,
that one gets an emergent scale invariance in the survival
patterns. This is in keeping with studies of the SIR
model, which shows a similar critical behavior and phase

transition [8].

FIG. 6. Example cluster resulting from the single population

per site square lattice zombie model with periodic boundary
conditions near the critical point c = 0.437344654(21) on a
lattice of size 2048 2048.

Systems near critical points with this kind of scale

invariance fall into universality classes. Different systems (say, a real disease outbreak and a simple computational model) can in many ways act precisely the
same on large scales near their transitions (allowing us to
predict behavior without knowing the details of zombiehuman (anti)social interactions). The SIR model on a
two-dimensional lattice with a single person per site falls
into the percolation universality class [3], though details
of its cluster growth can differ [21]. Given that the SZR
model has two second order couplings, it is of interest
whether it falls into the same percolation universality
class.
To extract the scaling behavior of our zombie infestation, we study the distribution P (s, ), the probability
that a single zombie will generate an outbreak of size s
at inverse virulence . (An outbreak will be a fractal
cluster in two dimensions, with ragged boundaries if it
dies out before reaching the entire world.) At = c
where the zombies and humans are equally matched, we
have an emergent scale invariance. A large outbreak will
appear to almost stop several times it can be viewed
as a sequence of medium-sized outbreaks triggering one
another. Medium-sized outbreaks are composed of small
outbreaks, which are in turn composed of tiny outbreaks.
At threshold, each of these scales (large, medium, small)
is related to the lower scale (medium, small, tiny) in the
same fashion. Let us oversimplify to say that at criticality an outbreak of size 3s is formed by what would have

7
been three smaller outbreaks of size s which happened
to trigger one another, and these in turn are formed by
what would have been three outbreaks of size s/3. If the
probabilities and form of this mutual triggering is the
same at each scale, then it would not surprise us that
many properties of the outbreaks would be the same, after rescaling the sizes by a factor of three. In particular,
we expect at the critical point to find the probabilities of
avalanches of size s to be related to the probabiities at
size s/3 by some factor f :
P (s, c ) = f P (s/3, c ).

(36)

This formula implies that P (s, c ) s , with =

log(1/f )/ log(3). The distribution of epidemic infection
rates is a power law.
Figure 7 shows a thorough test of this dependence for
our zombie model, following a procedure akin to that
of reference [21]. We simulated a zombie outbreak on
a two-dimensional lattice with periodic boundary conditions starting with a single zombie. With the outbreak
sizes following a power law distribution, the probability
that a site belongs to a cluster of size ns is Ps = sns , so
that at the critical point Ps s1 . Integrating from s
to , the probability that a point belongs to a cluster
of at least s in size Ps should at the critical point itself follow a powerlaw: Ps s2 . To find our critical
point c , we ran many simulations until our integrated
cluster size distribution followed a power law, using the
interpolation methods of reference [21] to get a precise
estimate of the critical point.
For zombies on a two dimensional lattice, this critical
point occurs at c = 0.437344654(21), the resulting integrated cluster size distribution is shown at the top of
Fig. 7. Percolation theory predicts = 187/91 in two dimensions, and we test that prediction in the bottom part
of Fig. 7. Here, if we were precisely at the critical point
and the SZR model was in the percolation universality
class, we would have a perfectly straight line. Notice
the small scale our experimental results vary over several
order of magnitude. The clear agreement convincingly
shows that the zombie model on the two dimensional lattice is in the percolation university class.
As an additional check, we computed the fractal dimension of our clusters near the critical point using box
counting, a distribution for which is shown in Figure 8.
We find a fractal dimension D = 1.8946(14), compared
to the exact percolation value of D = 91/48 = 1.895833.
Why did we need such an exhaustive test (many
decades of scaling, many digits in our estimate of c )?
On the one hand, a much smaller simulation could have
told us that there was emergent scale invariance and fractal behavior near the transition; one or two decades of
scaling should be convincing. But it turns out that there
are multiple different universality classes for this kind of
invasion process, and their exponents and D are rather
similar. And a small error in c can produce large shifts
in the resulting fits for and D demanding efficient
programming and fast computers to achieve a definitive

FIG. 7. The cumulative distribution of epidemic sizes for the

two dimensional zombie model near the critical virulence. The
critical point found was c = 0.437344654(21). The top plot
shows the probability of a site being in a cluster of at least s
in size (Ps ). The fact that it forms a straight line on a loglog plot indicates that Ps is a power law, and the slope is
2 . For comparison, the blue line shows the powerlaw corresponding to the percolation critical exponent: = 187/91.
The bottom plot shows the same data times s 2 using the
exponent from percolation theory. The plot is very nearly flat
suggesting the percolation exponent accurately describes the
zombie model.

answer.
We conclude that the single person per site zombie
infestation, near the critical virulence, will on long length
scales develop spatial infestation patterns that are well
described by two-dimensional percolation theory.

V.

US SCALE SIMULATION OF ZOMBIE

OUTBREAK

Having explored the general behavior of the zombie

model analytically, stochastically and on homogeneous
single person lattices, we are prepared to simulate a full
scale zombie outbreak.

FIG. 8. A histogram of the observed fractal dimension of the

zombie epidemic clusters as measured by box counting. These
give a measured value of D = 1.8946(14), consist with the
exact percolation fractal dimension of D = 91/48 = 1.895833.

A.

Inhomogeneous Population Lattice

We will attempt to simulate a zombie outbreak occurring in the United States. This will be similar to our lattice simulation, but with an inhomogeneous population
lattice. We based our lattice on code available for creating a dot map based off the 2010 US Census data [15].
The 2010 Census released census block level data, detailing the location and population of 11,155,486 different
blocks in the United States. To cast these blocks down
to a square grid, we assigned each of the 306,675,005 reported individuals a random location inside their corresponding census block, then gridded the population into
a 1500 900 grid based on latitude and longitude coordinates. The resulting population lattice can be seen
in the top half of Figure 9. You will see the presence
of many empty grids, especially throughout the western
United States. This disconnects the east and west coasts
in a clearly artificial pattern our zombies in practice
will gradually wander through the empty grid points. To
add in lattice connectivity, we did six iterations of binary
closing (an image processing technique) on the population lattice and added it to the original. The effect was
to add a single person to many vacant sites, taking our
total population up to 307,407,336. The resulting population map is shown in the bottom half of Figure 9. This
grid size corresponds to roughly 3 km square boxes. The
most populated grid site is downtown New York City,
with 299,616 individuals. The mean population of the
occupied grid sites is 420, the median population of an
occupied site is 13.

B.

Augmented Model

In order to more realistically simulate a zombie outbreak, we made two additions to our simplified SZR
model. The first was to add a latent state E (Exposed).

FIG. 9. A 1500 900 grid of the 2010 US Census Data. The

above figure gives the raw results. Notice the multitude of
squares with no people in them in the Western United States.
The bottom figure shows the resulting map after 6 steps of
binary closing added to the original population.

The second was to introduce motion for the zombies.

Considered as a system of differential equations, we now
have:

S i = Si Zi
E i = Ei
Z i = Ei Si Zi

(37)

R i = Si Zi
X
Z i =
Zj Zi

(40)

hji

(38)
(39)

(41)

9
or as a set of reactions:
Si Zi
(Si , Ei ) (Si 1, Ei + 1)

(42)

Ei
(Zi , Ei )
(Zi + 1, Ei 1)

(43)

Si Zi
(Zi , Ri )
(Zi 1, Ri + 1)

(44)

Zi
hi ji : (Zi , Zj ) (Zi 1, Zj + 1) .

(45)

Here i denotes a particular site on our lattice. hji denotes

a sum over nearest neighbor sites, hi ji denotes that i and
j are nearest neighbors. In this model, zombies and humans only interact if they are at the same site, but the
zombies diffuse on the lattice, being allowed to move to
a neighboring site with probability proportional to their
population and some diffusion constant (). We assume
that the humans do not move, not only for computational efficiency, but because, as we will see, the zombie
outbreaks tend to happen rather quickly, and we expect
large transportation networks to shut down in the first
days, pinning most people to their homes. The addition
of a latent state coincides with the common depiction
that once a human has been bitten, it typically takes
some amount of time before they die and reanimate as a
zombie. If a human is bitten, they transition to the E
state, where at some constant rate () they convert into
the zombie state.
To choose our parameters we tried to reflect common depictions of zombies in movies. In the work of
Witkowski and Blais [22], they performed a Bayesian fit
of a very similar SZR model to two films, Night of the
Living Dead, and Shawn of the Dead. In both cases, the
observed was very close to 0.8. This means that the
zombies in the films are 1.25 times more effective at biting humans than the humans are at killing the zombies.
We will adopt this value for our simulation. For our latent state, we adopt a value close to that reported for
Shawn of the Dead, namely a half life of 30 minutes. To
set our movement parameter, we estimate that zombies
move at around 1 ft/sec. To estimate the rate at which
the zombies will transition from one cell to the next, we
assume that the zombies behave like a random gas inside
the cell, so that the probability that a zombie will cross
a cell boundary is roughly 14 LZ2 Lvt, that is, one fourth
of the zombies within vt of the edge will move across
that edge in a small amount of time. This suggests a
value of of 0.0914 /hr. This corresponds to an average
time between transitions of around 11 hours, which for a
zombie stumbling around a 3 km block agrees with our
intuitions. Finally, to set a rate for our bite parameter,
we similarly assume that the zombies are undergoing random motion inside the cell at 1 ft/sec, and they interact
with a human anytime they come within 100 feet. We
can then estimate the rate at which humans and zombies
will interact as SZ Rvt
L2 , which corresponds to a choice of
of around 3.6 103 /hr. Another way to make sense
of these parameter choices is to ask how many susceptible individuals must be in a cell before a single zombie

3.6 103 /hr/person

0.8

2 /hr
0.0914 /hr

TABLE I. The parameters chosen for our US-scale simulations of a zombie outbreak. These parameters were chosen to
correspond with standard depictions of zombies and simple
physical estimations explained in the main text.

has a higher rate for biting a human than transitioning

to a neighboring cell. For our choice of parameters, this
gives
N = 4 = N 102 .

(46)

This corresponds to a low population density of

11 people/km2 , again agreeing with our intuition. All
of our parameter choices are summarized in Table I.

C.

Simulation Details

To effectively simulate an outbreak at this scale, we

employed the Next Reaction Method of [6]. We maintained a priority queue of all possible reactions, assigning each the time at which the reaction would take place,
an exponentially distributed random number with scale
set by the rate for the reaction. At each time step of
the simulation, we popped the next reaction off of the
queue, and updated the state of the relevant squares on
our grid. Whenever population counts changed, we of
course needed to update the times for the reactions that
depend on those population counts. This method remained efficient for simulating the entire US. However,
at late times a large amount of simulation time was spent
simulating the diffusion of the zombies back and forth between highly populated states. We could have achieved
additional computational efficiency by adopting the time
dependent propensity function approach of Fu et al. [5].

D.

Results

With the simulation in place, we are now in a position

to simulate a full scale zombie outbreak. We first consider
an outbreak that began with one in every million individuals starting in the Exposed (E) state in the United
States. For a single instance the overall populations are
shown in Figure 10. This looks similar to the analytical
outbreaks we saw in Figure 1, but with a steeper rate
of initial infection and some slight perturbations to the
curves. The total population curves however hide most of
the interesting features. In Figure 11 we attempt to give
a sense of how this outbreak evolves, showing the state

10

(a) 1 Day

(b) 2 Days

(c) 1 Week

(d) 2 Weeks

(e) 3 Weeks

(f) 4 Weeks

(g) 2 Months

(h) 4 Months

FIG. 10. The S (blue), Z (red), R (black), and E (green)

populations as a function of time for a full scale zombie outbreak in the continental United States starting with one in
every million people infected.

of the United States at various times after the outbreak

begins.
As you can see, for the parameters we chose, most of
the United States population has been turned into zombies by the first week, while the geographic map doesnt
necessarily seem all that compelling. In the early stages
of the outbreak, while the population is roughly homogeneous, the zombie plague spreads out in roughly uniform circles, where the speed of the infection is tied to
the local population density. Infestations on the coasts,
with their higher population density, have spread farther than those near the center of the country. After
several weeks, the map exhibits stronger anisotropy, as
we spread over larger geographical areas and the zombie
front is influenced by large inhomogeneities in population
density. After four weeks, much of the United States has
fallen, but it takes a very long time for the zombies to
diffuse and capture the remaining portions of the United
States. Even four months in, remote areas of Montana
and Nevada remain zombie free.
To investigate the geographical characteristics of the
outbreak, we must move beyond a single instance of an
outbreak and study how different regions are affected in
an ensemble of outbreaks. If it takes a month to develop
and distribute an effective vaccine (or an effective strategy for zombie decapitation), what regions should one locate the zombie-fighting headquarters? We ran 7,000 different 28-day zombie outbreaks in the continental United
States starting with a single individual. A single instance
of one of these outbreaks originating in New York City
is shown in Figure 12.
By averaging over all of these runs, we can start to
build a zombie susceptibility map, as shown in Figure
13. In the top plot, we show the probability that the
given cell is overrun by zombies after seven days. Here
you can clearly see that there are certain regions those
surrounding populous metropolitan areas that are at a
greater risk. This is partly because those regions have
lots of individuals who could potential serve as patient
zero, and partly due to the rapid spread of zombies in

FIG. 11. Simulation of a zombie outbreak in the continental

United States. Initially one in every million individuals was
infected at random. Results are shown above at (a) one day,
(b) two days, (c) one week, (d) two weeks, (e) three weeks,
(f) four weeks, and (g) two months after the outbreak begins.
Shown here are the population of susceptible individuals (S)
in blue, scaled logarithmically, zombies in red and removed in
green. All three channels are superimposed.

those areas. In the bottom plot, we plot the probability

that the cell is overrun, but at the 28 day mark.
After 28 days, it is not the largest metropolitan areas that suffer the greatest risk, but the regions located
between large metropolitan areas. For instance, in California it is the region near Bakersfield in the San Joaquin
Valley that is at the greatest risk as this area will be overrun by zombies whether they originate in the San Francisco area or the Los Angeles / San Diego area. The area
with the greatest one month zombie risk is north eastern
Pennsylvania, itself being susceptible to outbreaks originating in any of the large metropolitan areas on the east
coast.

11
ena. We have described and analyzed various zombie
models, from one describing deterministic dynamics in a
well-mixed system to a full scale US epidemic. We have
given a closed form analytical solution to the well-mixed
dynamic differential equation model. We compared the
stochastic dynamics to a comparable density-dependent
SIR model. We investigated the critical behavior of the
single person per site two-dimensional square lattice zombie model and demonstrated it is in the percolation universality class. We ran full scale simulations of a zombie
epidemic, incorporating each human in the continental
United States, and discussed the geographical implications for survival.
FIG. 12. Status of the United States 28 days after an outbreak that started in New York City. Here blue represents
humans, red represents zombies and green represents dead
zombies. The three color channels have been laid on top of
one another.
VII.
VI.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CONCLUSION

Zombies offer a fun framework for introducing many

modern concepts from epidemiology and critical phenom-

We acknowledge NSF IIS1247696 and Cornell University for support of this research, and thank Paul Ginsparg
for useful references and conversations.

[1] Max Brooks. The Zombie Survival Guide: Complete protection from the living dead. Broadway books, 2003.
[2] Max Brooks. World War Z. Queridos Uitgeverij BV,
Em., 2013.
[3] John L Cardy and Peter Grassberger. Epidemic models
and percolation. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and
General, 18(6):L267, 1985.
[4] Andrew Cartmel et al. Mathematical Modelling of Zombies. University of Ottawa Press, 2014.
[5] Jin Fu, Sheng Wu, Hong Li, and Linda R Petzold. The
time dependent propensity function for acceleration of
spatial stochastic simulation of reactiondiffusion systems. Journal of Computational Physics, 274:524549,
2014.
[6] Michael A Gibson and Jehoshua Bruck. Efficient exact stochastic simulation of chemical systems with many
species and many channels. The journal of physical chemistry A, 104(9):18761889, 2000.
[7] Daniel T Gillespie, Andreas Hellander, and Linda R Petzold. Perspective: Stochastic algorithms for chemical kinetics. The Journal of chemical physics, 138(17):170901,
2013.
[8] Peter Grassberger. On the critical behavior of the general
epidemic process and dynamical percolation. Mathematical Biosciences, 63(2):157172, 1983.
[9] Ronald Hochreiter and Christoph Waldhauser. Zombie politics: Evolutionary algorithms to counteract
the spread of negative opinions.
arXiv preprint
arXiv:1401.6420, 2014.
[10] Matt J Keeling and Pejman Rohani. Modeling infectious
diseases in humans and animals. Princeton University
Press, 2008.

[11] Bruno Mota. Optimum survival strategies against zombie

infestations-a population dynamics approach. Bulletin of
the American Physical Society, 59, 2014.
[12] Philip Munz, Ioan Hudea, Joe Imad, and Robert J
Smith? When zombies attack!: mathematical modelling
of an outbreak of zombie infection. Infectious Disease
Modelling Research Progress, 4:133150, 2009.
[13] Mark EJ Newman, I Jensen, and RM Ziff. Percolation
and epidemics in a two-dimensional small world. Physical
Review E, 65(2):021904, 2002.
[14] http://mattbierbaum.github.io/zombies-usa/.
[15] https://github.com/meetar/dotmap.
[16] Felipe Nunez, Cesar Ravello, Hector Urbina, and Tomas
Perez-Acle. A rule-based model of a hypothetical zombie
outbreak: Insights on the role of emotional factors during
behavioral adaptation of an artificial population. arXiv
preprint arXiv:1210.4469, 2012.
[17] U.S. Department of Health, Human Services Centers
for Disease Control, and Prevention.
Preparedness
101: Zombie pandemic. http://www.cdc.gov/phpr/
zombies/.
[18] U.S. Department of Health, Human Services Centers for Disease Control, and Prevention.
Preparedness 101:
Zombie apocalypse.
http:
//blogs.cdc.gov/publichealthmatters/2011/05/
preparedness-101-zombie-apocalypse/, 2011.
[19] Evelyn Sander and Chad M Topaz. The zombie swarm:
Epidemics in the presence of social attraction and repulsion. Mathematical Modelling of Zombies, page 265,
2014.
[20] Robert Smith? Braaaiiinnnsss!: From Academics to
Zombies. University of Ottawa Press, 2011.

12

FIG. 13. Average survivability from US scale runs. In both cases, the plot shows the probability of being infected in that
square after an epidemic that originates from a single infected individual chosen at random from the total population. The top
figure is the probability of being infected after 7 days, while the bottom plot is after 28 days. In total, this represents 7,000
simulated runs starting from a single individual. The top plot represents the 1,467 outbreaks that lasted at least 7 days, the
bottom plot represents 1,458 outbreaks that lasted at least 28 days.

[21] T
ania Tome and Robert M Ziff. Critical behavior of the
susceptible-infected-recovered model on a square lattice.
Physical Review E, 82(5):051921, 2010.

[22] Caitlyn Witkowski and Brian Blais. Bayesian analysis of

epidemics-zombies, influenza, and other diseases. arXiv
preprint arXiv:1311.6376, 2013.