Sistem Otot Dan Kerangka Unggas

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated
macroarray for gene discovery

E.C. Jorge1, C.M.R. Melo2, M.F. Rosrio1, J.R.S. Rossi1, M.C. Ledur3,
A.S.A.M.T. Moura4 and L.L. Coutinho1
Departamento de Zootecnia, Escola Superior de Agricultura
Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de So Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brasil
2
Departamento de Aquicultura, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina,
Florianpolis, SC, Brasil
3
Embrapa Sunos e Aves, Gentica e Melhoramento Animal, Vila Tamandu,
Concrdia, SC, Brasil
4
Departamento de Produo Animal,
Faculdade de Medicina Veterinria e Zootecnia de Botucatu,
Universidade Estadual Paulista Jlio de Mesquita Filho, Botucatu, SP, Brasil
1
Corresponding author: L.L. Coutinho

E-mail: [email protected]
Genet. Mol. Res. 9 (1): 188-207 (2010)
Received November 4, 2009
Accepted December 2, 2009
Published February 2, 2010
ABSTRACT. Macro- and microarrays are well-established technologies

to determine gene functions through repeated measurements of transcript
abundance. We constructed a chicken skeletal muscle-associated array
based on a muscle-specific EST database, which was used to generate a
tissue expression dataset of ~4500 chicken genes across 5 adult tissues
(skeletal muscle, heart, liver, brain, and skin). Only a small number
of ESTs were sufficiently well characterized by BLAST searches to
determine their probable cellular functions. Evidence of a particular
tissue-characteristic expression can be considered an indication that the
transcript is likely to be functionally significant. The skeletal muscle
macroarray platform was first used to search for evidence of tissuespecific expression, focusing on the biological function of genes/
transcripts, since gene expression profiles generated across tissues were
found to be reliable and consistent. Hierarchical clustering analysis
revealed consistent clustering among genes assigned to developmental
Genetics and Molecular Research 9 (1): 188-207 (2010)
FUNPEC-RP www.funpecrp.com.br
Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery
189
growth, such as the ontology genes and germ layers. Accuracy of

the expression data was supported by comparing information from
known transcripts and tissue from which the transcript was derived
with macroarray data. Hybridization assays resulted in consistent tissue
expression profile, which will be useful to dissect tissue-regulatory
networks and to predict functions of novel genes identified after
extensive sequencing of the genomes of model organisms. Screening
our skeletal-muscle platform using 5 chicken adult tissues allowed
us identifying 43 tissue-specific transcripts, and 112 co-expressed
uncharacterized transcripts with 62 putative motifs. This platform also
represents an important tool for functional investigation of novel genes;
to determine expression pattern according to developmental stages; to
evaluate differences in muscular growth potential between chicken
lines, and to identify tissue-specific genes.
Key words: Gallus; Gene expression; Skeletal muscle;
Tissue-specific expression
INTRODUCTION
The chicken is an important non-mammalian vertebrate model; the availability of the
complete genome sequence (Hillier et al., 2004) will likely contribute to fundamental discoveries and scientific progress in medicine, developmental biology and livestock production.
However, even after extensive sequencing efforts, analysis of the gene sequences revealed that
only about 50% of chicken proteins were known to be expressed in vivo; the remaining were
only digitally predicted (Buza et al., 2007).
Macro- and microarrays are well-established technologies used to determine gene
functions through repeated measurements of transcript abundance. High throughput profiling of gene expression provides insights into new gene functions and transcriptional regulation that underlies biological processes (Eisen et al., 1998; Niehrs and Pollet, 1999). Available chicken arrays have been mainly developed based on tissue-specific gene expression,
including an intestine-specific array containing 3072 transcripts (van Hemert et al., 2003), a
macrophage-specific array with 4906 transcripts (Bliss et al., 2005), a lymphocyte-specific
array with 3011 clones (Neiman et al., 2001), an immune response-specific array with 5000
genes (Smith et al., 2006), a heart precursor cell-specific array with 11,000 genes (Afrakhte
and Schultheiss, 2004), and others (Jorge et al., 2007; Cogburn et al., 2007).
We have developed in-house a 9378 chicken skeletal muscle-associated expressed
sequence tag (EST) database, generated from 5-end sequencing of cDNA clones from six
libraries: one from somites (developmental stage HH15; Hamburger and Hamilton, 1951), the
precursors of vertebrate skeletal muscle; one from limb buds in three developmental stages
(HH21, HH24 and HH26); one from whole embryos (HH26) (Jorge et al., 2004), and three
from the pectoralis major muscle at various developmental stages from broiler and layer lines
(pool of HH35 and HH43, for broiler and layer lines, and pool of one and 21 days post-hatch,
just for a broiler line). All ESTs were deposited at the dbEST at GenBank (http://www.ncbi/
nlm.nih.gov/dbEST) as CD760792 to CD765430 and CO502869 to CO507803. Our objecGenetics and Molecular Research 9 (1): 188-207 (2010)
E.C. Jorge et al.
190
tive was to construct an exclusive chicken-expressed sequence database that represents the
complete myogenic program, from cell determination to differentiation, considering all cell
populations in chicken skeletal-muscle samples.
However, only a small number of these ESTs were sufficiently well characterized regarding their cellular functions based on annotation. For the large majority of the transcripts,
their functions remained either completely unknown or only partially understood. Therefore,
we developed approximately 4500 chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray based on
our myogenic-specific EST database to use the expression profile to functionally characterize
unknown or uncharacterized chicken transcripts.
We used this macroarray platform to generate an expression dataset of approximately
4500 chicken genes across five chicken adult tissues (skeletal muscle, heart, liver, brain, and
skin). Tissue screening was first used because evidence of a particular tissue-characteristic
expression can provide an indication that the transcript is likely to be functionally significant
(Bono et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2004). Gene expression profile data across tissues were reliable and consistent with previous information about gene expression and tissue function. Tissue profiling analysis allowed us to suggest novel functions to known and unknown genes; this
information will be useful to direct experimental characterization of chicken genes.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Transcript selection and array construction
The transcripts selected to be spotted onto the macroarray were identified in an inhouse constructed skeletal muscle-associated EST database. The macroarray was constructed
using the Q-bot robot (Genetix, Queensway, UK) by the Brazilian Clone Collection Center.
Bacterial clones were spotted on 8 by 12 cm high-density nylon filters (PerForma II, Genetix)
in duplicate, with a layout of 384 blocks in a 5 by 5 configuration.
Plasmidial probes
Plasmidial probes were used to determine the amount of DNA in the bacterial clones
spotted onto the macroarray membranes. Oligos were obtained to recognize a specific region of
the Ampicillin gene (5-TAGACTGGATGGAGGCGGATAA-3 and 3-CGCCTATTTCAAC
GTCCTGGTG-5) present in the pSPORT1 sequence of every clone. They were labeled using the Klenow large fragment of DNA polymerase I (Invitrogen Co., Carlsbad, CA, USA) to
incorporate [-33P]-dCTP in the sequence of complementary oligos, using the overgo method
(Ross et al., 1999). Probes were purified using G-50 columns (GE Healthcare, Piscataway, NJ,
USA), following manufacturer instructions, and immediately used to hybridize the macroarray platforms.
Biological material and RNA preparation

Chicken tissues were obtained from nine 21-day-old broiler chickens. Pectoralis major muscle, heart, liver, brain, and skin were collected from these animals. Three pools of
dissected tissues, derived from three animals each, were homogenized with Trizol Reagent
191
(Invitrogen) to isolate total RNA. Poly(A)+ RNA was purified using the Oligotex kit (Quiagen,
Hilden, Germany), following manufacturer directions.
Labeling and hybridization

HotScribe first-strand cDNA labeling (GE Healthcare) was used for cDNA probe synthesis and labeling using [a-33P]dCTP, following manufacturer instructions. After labeling,
probes were purified in G-50 columns. The labeled cDNA was heated to 95C for 3 min and
immediately used for hybridization. A procedure similar to Northern blotting was used for
hybridization, as described by Sambrook et al. (1989). After a washing step, membranes were
placed in contact with an imaging plate (Kodak, Rochester, NY, USA) for 72 h. The digital
image was obtained in Storm PhosphorImager (GE Healthcare) and quantified using the ArrayVision software (version 8.0, Imaging Research, GE Healthcare). The volume value corrected for the background signal was used for the statistical analysis.
Statistical analysis
A two-step general linear model, described by Wolfinger et al. (2001), was used to
normalize the macroarray data and to detect differentially expressed genes. In the first step,
expression data were normalized using the following model: yijklm = + Gi + Tj + Mk + Q(k)l +
ijklm, where yijklm is the log2 value of the intensity of the hybridization sign (gene expression);
is a constant associated to each observation; Gi is the effect of gene i (i = 1,,4,520); Tj is the
effect of treatment j (j = 1,,5); Mk is the random effect of membrane k (k = 1,,6); Q(k)l is
the random effect of quadrant within each membrane (l = 1,,384), included to adjust for the
spatial effect on the membrane, and ijklm is the random error associated with each observation.
This model assumes Mk, Q(k)l and ijklm are idd
,
,
respectively, with
all of them independent of each other.
In the second step, the residuals from this model were denoted rijkl , computed by subtracting the fitted values for the effects and the residuals from the first step from the yijklm values.
This defined the following gene-specific model: rijkl = Gi + (GT)ij + (GM)ik + eijkl , where rijkl is the
residual of the normalization model; Gi is the average effect of gene i; (GT)ij is the effect of treatment j on gene i; (GM)ik is the effect of membrane k on gene i, and eijkl stands for the random error associated with each observation. This model considers that (GM)ik and eijkl are idd
and
, respectively, with all of them independent of each other. Data were analyzed using
PROC MIXED in SAS (SAS/STAT software version 9, SAS Institute) and the significance of the
differences between expressed sequences was assessed by the t-test (P < 0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Genes spotted onto the macroarrays
The macroarray was developed using transcripts derived from a collection of 9378
chicken skeletal muscle-associated ESTs constructed in-house. These ESTs were generated
from 5 end-sequencing of clones obtained from six cDNA libraries (Table 1): one from somites (developmental stage HH15; Hamburger and Hamilton, 1951); one from limb buds in
192
E.C. Jorge et al.
three developmental stages (HH21, HH24 and HH26); one from whole embryos (HH26),
and three from pectoralis major muscle in various developmental stages for broiler and layer
lines (Alves HJ, unpublished results). This EST collection was originally annotated using the
identification from the highest hit score using BLAST (BLASTN and BLASTX against the
GenBank chicken genome, and non-redundant and EST databases, respectively). This database was deposited in the dbEST division of GenBank as CD760792 to CD765430 (Jorge et
al., 2004) and CO502869 to CO507803. Clustering and assembling of the EST collection was
conducted using CAP3 (Huang and Madan, 1999), resulting in 4269 unique sequences. One
representative clone from each contig and all singlets were selected to be spotted onto the
nylon membrane platforms. Selection of a representative clone from each contig was based
on a search for the longest EST read. As the cDNAs were synthesized from the 3 poly(A) tail
up to an average insert size of around 1 kb; possibly the longest sequence also had the longest
part of the coding sequences. During clone selection, whether two or more unique sequences
were from the same mRNA was not considered. In addition, clones representing genes of
-actin and GAPDH, plus pSPORT1 empty vector (Invitrogen) were selected to fill 251 random spaces in the array, to be used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Therefore,
selection resulted in a total set of 4520 clones. The set was re-arrayed into twelve 384-well
plates and robotically spotted in duplicate onto the nylon filter (9040 spots on the membrane).
Table 1. Selection of transcripts for the macroarray construction.
Library
Tissue
Developmental stage HH
SM1
Somites associated with neural tube/notochord
HH15
EM1
Whole embryo
HH25
LB1
Limb bud
HH21, HH24 and HH25
CB1
Breast muscle
HH35 and HH43, broiler
EB1
Breast muscle
HH35 and HH43, layer
EB2
Breast muscle
1 and 21 days old, broiler
Control
Total
Number of ESTs in array

1,096
119
655
731
988
680
251
4,520
HH: Hamburger and Hamilton, 1951. ESTs = expressed sequence tags.
Filtering the expression database

The skeletal-muscle associated macroarray was used to simultaneously determine the
abundance of 4520 chicken gene transcripts in 5 tissues: skeletal muscle, heart, liver, brain,
and skin. The expression data were first filtered to remove inconsistent information generated
after subsequent hybridization assays. Among the 4520 transcripts spotted onto the macroarray, 11.8% did not show any detectable signal after the first hybridization, performed using
plasmidial overgo probes. As the lack of hybridization signal probably derived from problems
with colony growth after spotting, these missing spots were removed from the analysis. In
addition, 9 clones did not show any detectable signal after hybridizations with all 5 cDNA
probes, despite the fact that the plasmidial probe signals were detectable. After further removing these 9 clones, the complete set used to construct the tissue expression database contained
3974 transcripts.
All 5 cDNA probes derived from the distinct adult tissues were hybridized to the
macroarray, giving similar numbers of spots with positive hybridization signals, which ranged
193
from 3529 to 3765 for skin and muscle, respectively (Table 2). The expression database was
constructed based on this filtered set of data of detectable signals.
Table 2. Numbers of spot signals obtained after hybridization assays.
Tissue

Number of spots with cDNA

probe hybridization signals
Number of spots without cDNA

probe hybridization signals
3,765
3,691
3,728
3,645
3,529
209
283
246
329
445
Skeletal muscle
Brain
Liver
Heart
Skin
Analysis of the expression profiles

Tissue-specific gene expression has traditionally been used to predict gene/transcript
function. Evidence of expression can be considered an indication that a gene/transcript is functionally significant and not an artifact or unprocessed nuclear RNA (Bono et al., 2003; Zhang et
al., 2004). Our array was used to produce expression profiling of 5 distinct chicken tissues (skeletal muscle, heart, liver, brain, and skin) to search for evidence of tissue-specific expression,
focusing on the biological function of the genes/transcripts. After data filtering, our database
was arranged into: 1) differentially expressed transcripts, to identify tissue-specific transcripts
and ubiquitously expressed (housekeeping) genes, based on a statistical model, and 2) sets of
co-expressed transcripts, adopting a mathematical description of similarity. Because many cellular processes are tightly associated with coordinate transcriptional changes, cluster analysis
of gene expression profiles can be used to identify candidate sets of co-regulated genes that are
directly or indirectly involved in related processes (Eisen et al., 1998; Niehrs and Pollet, 1999).
Differentially expressed transcripts: a statistical approach

Statistical analysis was used to identify tissue-specific transcripts, which were those
that had hybridization signal in only one of the 5 screened tissues. Even though it was a small
screening, tissue-specific genes could be helpful to characterize tissue ontogenesis, evolution,
and biomarkers. Tissue-specific transcripts can also provide identification of new gene functions and insights into the transcriptional regulation that underlies biological processes.
Forty-three transcripts were identified with this pattern (Table 3): 11 skeletal muscle-specific; nine heart-specific; 11 liver-specific; seven brain-specific, and five skinspecific. The level of expression of these tissue-specific transcripts most likely reflects differential expression among these tissues analyzed. Only abundant mRNAs are identified in
non-normalized cDNA libraries, which mainly correspond to concurrently expressed transcripts (Adams et al., 1991; Soares et al., 1994). As non-normalized libraries were the source
of transcripts for the macroarray construction in our study, a small number of transcripts with
tissue-specific expression patterns were expected. Tissue expression patterns are traditionally
used to characterize unknown transcripts, and they were used here to identify skeletal musclespecific transcripts. Heart, brain, liver, and skin-specific transcripts were also identified
and listed in this study (Table 3).
194
E.C. Jorge et al.

Table 3. Tissue-specific transcripts identified by macroarray analysis.
Tissue (5)
Clone
Accession number
Chromosome
LOC
Blast hit
Skeletal muscle GGEZEB1019A02

CO506019
GGA5
TNNI2
(11)
GGEZSM1031G08
CD763069
GGA7
LOC424311

GGEZSM1025A02
CD762476
GGAZ
CENPH

GGEZEB1011B12
CO505879
GGA17
LOC417221

GGEZEB1030G03
CO505176

GGEZEB1017B08
GGA10
RGMA

GGEZEM1004A09

GGEZLB1012C01
CD764305
GGA7
DDX18

GGEZLB1016H06
CD764531
GGA23
LOC419695

GGEZEB1023G11
CO505496
GGA22
LOC395787

GGEZLB1020G11
CD764829
GGA1
ZDHHC23

Brain
GGEZLB1006H04
CD763873
GGA2
(6)
GGEZLB1015B02
CD760734
GGA12
RBM5

GGEZLB1024D02

GGEZSM1006G04
CD761166
GGA6
LOC423861

GGEZLB1017A11
CD764545
GGAUn
Hmm168569

GGEZEB1018B01
CO503061
-
Gga.12751
Heart
GGEZEB2003E01
(9)
GGEZCB1003A02

GGEZEB1009H05
CO506409
GGA4
POF1B

GGEZEM1003A08
CD763205
GGA1
MIRN135A-2

GGEZSM1031G01
CD763063
GGA11
GINS3

GGEZSM1020F04
CD762101
GGA26
LOC419807

GGEZLB1010D12
CD764161
GGA3
LOC421237

GGEZSM1026H01
CD762647
GGA21
DNAJC11

GGEZSM1025A12
CD762485
GGA2
Hmm43586
Skin
GGEZEB2019E01
CO507240
GGA9
LOC424948
(5)

GGEZCB1029H10

GGEZLB1025H11
CD765156
GGA24
TRAPPC4

GGEZSM1029H08
CD762905
GGA4
GPR23

GGEZEB2014G01
C0507332
GGA8
DEPDC1
Liver
GGEZEB2015E01
CO506935
GGA4
NXT2
(11)

GGEASM1007C12
CD761217

GGEZSM1008A01
CD761271
GGA3
LOC421819

GGEZLB1017G10
CD764602
GGAZ
TBCA

GGEZLB1018F12
CD764669
GGA17
LOC417280

GGEZEB1002H10
CO505633

GGEZLB1015B06
CD760738
GGA23
BSDC1

GGEZSM1030A04
CD762913
GGA6
PALD

GGEZSM1031D01
CD763031
GGA15
GNB1L

GGEZEB1014H01
CO505561
GGAUn
hmm239375

GGEZSM1006A01
CD761106
GGA1
LOC427872

Troponin I type 2
Similar to chromosome 2 ORF 25
Centromere protein H
Ubiquitin related modifier 1
Repulsive guidance molecule A
DEAD (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) box
polypeptide 18
Grainyhead-like 3
Smooth muscle protein phosphatase
type 1-binding subunit
Zinc finger, DHHC-type
containing 23
RNA binding motif protein 5
Transmembrane protein 180
Premature ovarian failure, 1B

MicroRNA 135A-2
GINS complex subunit 3
RNA binding motif protein 15
Similar to uncharacterized
hypothalamus protein HT013
DNAJ (Hsp40) homolog,
subfamily C, member 11
Eukaryotic translation initiation
factor 2B, subunit 5 epsilon, 82 kDa
Trafficking protein particle complex 4
G protein-coupled receptor 23
DEP domain containing 1
Nuclear transport factor 2-like
export factor 2
RNA guanylyltransferase and
5-phosphatase
Tubulin folding cofactor A
NADPH-dependent diflavin
oxidoreductase 1
BSD domain containing 1
Paladin
Guanine nucleotide binding protein
(G protein), beta polypeptide 1-like
Peptidylglycine alpha-amidating
monooxygenase COOH-terminal
interactor
LOC = locus name following NCBI (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) nomenclature.
Among the 11 transcripts identified as skeletal muscle-specific (Table 3), Troponin T

type 2 (TNNI2) was identified, which is a fast skeletal muscle protein associated with the regulation of muscle contraction. The expression patterns obtained also highlighted transcripts for
which a potential role in skeletal muscle development has not yet been defined. The zinc finger
195
DHHC-type containing 23 (ZDHHC23), for example, codes for a membrane protein containing
a palmitoyl transferase domain, which supposedly promotes protein palmitoylation, a crucial
lipid modification in protein trafficking and function (Fukata et al., 2006). Substrates for palmitoylation include H-Ras, a GTP binding protein that regulates cell growth and differentiation
(Fukata et al., 2006). A ZnFDHHC motif was found with an expression pattern similar to MyoD
(muscle determination transcription factor) in the somitic mesorderm in Danio rerio (Nagaya et
al., 2002). The expression pattern of this known transcript in chicken skeletal-muscle suggests
a new uninvestigated biological function for DHHC motif during myogenesis.
A member of the repulsive guidance molecule (RGM) family (member A; RGM-A)
was also identified as skeletal muscle-specific transcript. RGM-A was firstly described as
responsible for providing guidance cues for axons of retinal neurons (Monnier et al., 2002).
Other RGM-A biological functions have been recently investigated, including neural tube
closure and inhibition of axon growth after injury in the adult central nervous system (Matsunaga and Chdotal, 2004; Niederkofler et al., 2004; Mawdsley et al., 2004; Hata et al., 2006).
RGM-C (also known as hemochromatosis type 2, Hfe2) is the member of the RGM family
with biological function described in skeletal muscle, associated with iron homeostasis; it is
responsible for the hemachromatosis type 2 disease in humans (Papanikolaou et al., 2004).
Curiously, neither genomic nor EST sequences were found for the chicken RGM-C in public
databases. Based on the expression profiles described here, we hypothesize a novel biological
function for RGM-A in chicken skeletal muscle. Induction of transcripts associated with neuronal activity during skeletal muscle development has been described (Szustakowski et al.,
2006) and mouse RGM-C was induced in muscle cell survival and differentiation after growth
factor treatment, based on microarray analysis (Kuninger et al., 2004).
Clustering analysis
Clustering analysis is a computational method, which calculates similarities of items
in large databases to recall patterns and higher order structure. All 3974 valid expression data
were clustered using GeneSpring GX (Agilent Technologies), first to obtain the expression
profile of all transcripts in all tissues (skeletal muscle, heart, liver, brain, and skin), and second,
to identify transcripts that are highly expressed in each tissue, in an attempt to reveal uncharacterized transcripts with similar expression patterns.
Hierarchical clustering
The entire valid expression database was subjected to hierarchical clustering (Eisen et
al., 1998), where both transcripts and tissues were clustered. The resulting dendrogram (Figure
1) revealed that brain and skin were grouped together (bootstrap of P = 100%), and to a lesser
degree with heart (P = 56%; Figure 1A). Skeletal muscle and liver were the other tissues
grouped (bootstrap of P = 68%). Samples derived from similar embryonic germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm) are expected to show similar gene expression patterns. Brain
and skin are both ectoderm derivatives and were tightly clustered in our analysis. However,
mesoderm-derived tissues (skeletal muscle and heart) and endoderm (liver) did not show
expression consistent with this hypothesis. Inconsistent dendrograms generated from tissue profiling and embryonic origin were previously observed in Xenopus laevis (Baldessari et al., 2005).
E.C. Jorge et al.
196
Figure 1. Dendrograms generated from hierarchical clustering analysis. In A the valid expression database was
subject to hierarchical clustering, where both transcripts and tissues were clustered, and in B, transcripts grouped
into the embryonic development GO category (1342) were subject to hierarchical clustering. Only in B, samples
derived from similar embryonic germ layers showed similar gene expression patterns. BR = Brain; SK = Skin;
HT = Heart; LV = Liver; SM = Skeletal muscle.
Interestingly, when clustering only 1318 transcripts from the embryonic development
GO category, a dendrogram consistent with embryonic germ layers origin was obtained (Figure
1B): brain and skin were tightly clustered together (bootstrap values of 100%); heart and
skeletal muscle formed another robust group, both separated from liver (Figure 1B). The
differences observed in the hierarchical clustering between these two sets of genes might have
occurred because genes spotted onto the array were mainly identified in samples of skeletal
muscle tissue, which is composed of a mixture of tissues (including conjunctive tissue and vasGenetics and Molecular Research 9 (1): 188-207 (2010)
197
cular and nervous systems), all of them contributing to the muscle expression profile. Genes
selected from the embryonic development GO category might have more specialized functions; for this reason, they were grouped properly following germ layer derivatives.
In order to further characterize tissue expression profiles, highly expressed transcripts
(HET) characteristic of each tissue were identified. These genes were recognized by summarizing the expression data for each tissue in a box plot and selecting genes with higher
than the upper quartile range as the highly expressed genes (HET). With this strategy, the
number of HET for each tissue were: 851 transcripts from muscle; 880 from heart; 901
from liver; 896 from brain, and 216 from skin. Comparison among the HET across tissues allowed identifying the most abundant transcripts characteristic of each tissue. No HET
were expressed in more than two tissues. There were 197 muscle HET; 406 heart HET; 474
liver HET; 427 brain HET (Figure 2). All skin HET were also muscle HET (Figure 2),
probably indicating that there was cross-contamination between muscle and skin samples.
Figure 2. Venn diagram representing numbers of highly expressed transcripts.
All HET characteristic of each tissue were compared against the chicken genome database from NCBI to check the consistency of our expression results. Skeletal muscle HETs
showed enrichment for i) muscle contraction and cytoskeletal organization proteins, such as
tropomyosin 3 (TPM3), tubulin beta 2A (TUBB), tubulin gamma 1 (TUBG1), myosin heavy
chain 8 (MYH8), coronin (actin-binding protein 1C, CORO1C), troponin T type 3 (TNNT3);
actinin alpha 2 (ACTN1); tubulin tyrosine ligase-like family, member 12 (TTLL12), tubulin
polymerization promoting protein (LOC420800), actin alpha 1 (LOC421534), actin-filamentassociated protein (AFAP1), tropomodulin 1 (TMOD1); Smoothelin-like protein (actin bindGenetics and Molecular Research 9 (1): 188-207 (2010)
198
E.C. Jorge et al.
ing protein, LOC417687), long microtubule-associated protein 1A (LOC770402), and others;

ii) transcripts associated with metabolism, such as pyruvate kinase (PKM2), creatine kinase
(LOC396507), NADH dehydrogenase (NDUFA5), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK3),
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), glucose phosphate isomerase (GPI),
phosphoglucomutase 1 (PGM1), fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase 2 (FBP2); iii) extracellular matrix and cell adhesion: catenin (cadherin-associated protein), beta 1 (CTNNB1), protocadherin
19 (PCDH1), matrin 3 (MATR3), protocadherin gamma subfamily C, 3 (PCDHGC3), procollagen-proline, 2 oxoglutarate 4-digoxygenase, beta polypeptide (P4HB), alpha type XVI collagen
(LOC430477); iv) myogenesis-associated transcripts: MyoD family inhibitor domain containing (LOC417774), identified as an inhibitor of myogenic basic helix-loop-helix transcription
factors (Kusano and Raab-Traub, 2002), single-minded homolog 2 (LOC418515; Woods et al.,
2008), and ZEB1 zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 1 (Postigo and Dean, 1999), and v) transcripts associated with the degradation of muscle proteins, such as ubiquitin conjugating enzyme
E2G1 (LOC770961), and F-box and leucine-rich repeat protein 5 (FBXL5). Heart, liver, and
brain HETs have also revealed gene markers that suggest the consistency of the screening using these tissues on a skeletal muscle-associated macroarray (data not shown).
There were some cases in which different transcripts from the same gene were identified
as HETs in distinct tissues. For example, CO503458 and CO506114 are transcripts that were
cloned from adult and embryonic chicken pectoralis muscle, respectively; both encode for a
phosphatidylinositol transfer protein beta (PITPNB), but CO503458 presented high expression
in heart, while CO506114 had high expression in liver. The existence of alternative splicing for
this gene in these two tissues should be further investigated before disregarding these two transcripts as HETs. Another example observed among the HETs identified in this study was protein
families differentially expressed among the sampled tissues; the solute carrier proteins were
the best example. Solute carrier family 7 (cationic amino acid transporter, y+ system), member
4, and solute carrier family 16 (monocarboxylic acid transporter), member 1, were identified
as heart HETs. Solute carriers identified as liver HETs included family 39 (metal ion transporter), member 1; family 43, member 2, and family 5 (sodium-dependent vitamin transporter),
member 6. Solute carrier characterized as brain HETs included family 25 (mitochondrial, adenine nucleotide translocator), member 6; family 16 (aromatic amino acid transporter), member
10 (two ESTs); family 25, member 29; family 7 (cationic amino acid transporter, y+ system),
member 5; family 15, member 4; family 25 (mitochondrial citrate transporter), member 1, and
family 13 (sodium-dependent dicarboxylate transporter), member 3.
Co-expressed non-characterized (unknown) highly expressed transcripts

Non-characterized transcripts were found to be co-expressed among established HETs.
These unknown transcripts included mainly those named hypothetical proteins, which are
defined as predicted proteins for which there is no experimental evidence of in vivo expression.
Among the 406 heart HETs, for example, 19 were identified as co-expressed unknown transcripts; as were 40 of the 427 brain HETs; 32 of the 474 liver HETs, and 21
of the 197 muscle HETs (Table 4). As the accuracy of our macroarray measurements was
confirmed by functional annotations of those HETs, it is possible to use our tissue expression
profile to add biological information for those uncharacterized transcripts. The expression pattern of unknown transcripts among tissues is a step towards their functional characterization.
199
Table 4. Hypothetical transcripts found to be co-expressed among highly expressed transcripts (HETs).
Clone name
Accession #
LOC
Chromosome
Description
Motifs or conserved domains
Skeletal muscle unknown HETs (Total = 21)

GGEZEB2019F02
CO507252
LOC420999
2
chromosome 9 open reading

frame 19 [G. gallus]
GGEZSM1004E06
CD761013
LOC421073
2
similar to chromosome 18 open

reading frame 45 [G. gallus]

GGEZCB1020C02
CO504231
LOC428472
2
similar to AI595366 protein [G. gallus]

GGEZLB1012D02
CD764316
LOC422389
4
similar to MGC83004 protein [G. gallus]
GGEZEB2012A03
CO507432
LOC422860
4
similar to hypothetical protein

KIAA0232 [G. gallus]
GGEZSM1020H10
CD762128
LOC425097
5
hypothetical LOC425097 [G. gallus]

GGEZEB1023D11
CO505466
LOC771455
5
hypothetical protein LOC771455

[G. gallus]
GGEZLB1005F03
CD763772
LOC772299
5

[G. gallus]
GGEZCB1025A08
CO504294
LOC771456
7

[G. gallus]

GGEZCB1016A01
CO504070
LOC429066
8
GGEZCB1005C05
CO503101
LOC424866
9
similar to hypothetical protein

MGC75902

GGEZCB1025C09
CO504308
LOC770260
14

[G. gallus]
GGEZSM1012G12
CD761620
LOC416639
14
GGEZSM1002C12
CD760911
LOC417387
18

GGEZSM1008G10
CD761345
LOC419378
21
chromosome 1 open reading frame 174

[G. gallus]
GGEZCB1013G10
CO504752
LOC425366
23
GGEZCB1020F06
CO504264
LOC426094
Un
similar to MGC78933 protein [G. gallus]
GGEZEB1026C11
CO505217
LOC777320
Un

[G. gallus]

GGEZEB2012D07
CO507467
LOC777053
Un

[G. gallus]
GGEZSM1018A12
CD761892
LOC425539
Un
C9orf32 chromosome 9 open

GLI pathogenesis-related 2; promotes

epithelial to mesenchymal transition in vitro.
VRG4: Nucleotide-glucose transporter
(Carbohydrate transport and metabolism /
Posttranslational modification, protein
turnover, chaperones / Intracellular trafficking
and secretion].
Leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing
protein 14-like; LRRs, ribonuclease
inhibitor (RI)-like subfamily. LRRs are 20-29
residue sequence motifs present in many
proteins that participate in protein-protein
interactions and have different functions and
cellular locations.
CCDC86 coiled-coil domain

containing 86 [G. gallus]
NADB_Rossmann; A large family of

proteins that share a Rossmann-fold NAD(P)
H/NAD(P)(+) binding (NADB) domain.
The NADB domain is found in numerous
dehydrogenases of metabolic pathways.
Methyltransferase domain: Members of this
family are SAM dependent methyltransferases.
NADB_Rossmann;
Primase domain similar to that found in the
small subunit of archaeal and eukaryotic
(A/E) DNA primases. Primases are DNAdependent RNA polymerases that synthesis
the short RNA primers required for DNA
replication. MtLigD_Pol_like: Polymerase
(Pol) domain of bacterial LigD proteins
similar to Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mt)
LigD. The LigD Pol domain belongs to the
archaeal/eukaryal primase (AEP) superfamily.
MBTD1 mbt domain containing 1 [G. gallus];

zinc ion binding
Peptidase C65 Otubain: This family of

proteins conserved from plants to humans is
a highly specific ubiquitin (Ub) iso-peptidase that
removes ubiquitin from proteins. The modification
of cellular proteins by Ub is an
important event that underlies protein stability
and function in eukaryotes; it is a dynamic
and reversible process.
NADB_Rossmann;
Continued on next page

200
E.C. Jorge et al.

Table 4. Continued.
Clone name
Accession #
LOC
Chromosome
GGEZCB1021A08
CO503167
Un

Description
hypothetical protein
[Monodelphis domestica]
Heart unknown HETs (Total = 19)

GGEZEB2019G04
CO507262
LOC418494
1

GGEZLB1009A12
CD764046
C21orf66
1


GGEZEB1014G06
CO505556
LOC769105
2
LOC769105 hypothetical protein

LOC769105 [G. gallus]
GGEZSM1018F02
CD761936
LOC768893
2

GGEZEB1025D04
CO505075
LOC395778
3

GGEZEB1029H10
CO506472
LOC768787
3

GGEZEB1007F03
CO505763
LOC422945
4

GGEZEB1007F09
CO505769
LOC772299
5

GGEZLB1011E06
CD764252
LOC423192
5
KIAA0652 KIAA0652 [G. gallus]

GGEZSM1030E08
CD762963
LOC423481
5

GGEZEB2005A05
CO507354
LOC426270
6
LOC426270 similar to DOCK180

protein [G. gallus]

GGEZEB2010D11
CO507773
LOC423610
6
LOC423610 similar to KIAA0613

protein [G. gallus]
GGEZEB2011C07
CO507072
LOC429153
9
LOC429153 hypothetical

GGEZLB1003D07
CD763598
C9orf58
17


GGEZEB2004G11
CO506751
LOC770563
28


GC-rich sequence DNA-binding factorlike protein: Sequences found in this family

are similar to a region of a human GC-rich
sequence DNA-binding factor homolog. This
is thought to be a protein involved in
transcriptional regulation due to partial
homologies to a transcription repressor and
histone-interacting protein.
Putative GTPases (G3E family) [General

function prediction only]
ATG13; Uncharacterized conserved protein

(DUF2224): Members of this family of
phosphoproteins are involved in cytoplasm to
vacuole transport (Cvt), and more specifically
in Cvt vesicle formation. They are probably
involved in the switching machinery regulating
the conversion between the Cvt pathway and
autophagy. Finally, ATG13 is also required for
glycogen storage. DUF2224; Uncharacterized
conserved protein (DUF2224): The proteins in
this highly conserved family are found from
worms to humans. The function is unknown.
NADB_Rossmann
SH3 domain: SH3 (Src homology 3)
domains are often indicative of a protein
involved in signal transduction related to
cytoskeletal organization.
Cytochrome P450 domain

EF hand: EF-hand, calcium binding motif;
A diverse superfamily of calcium sensors
and calcium signal modulators; most
examples in this alignment model have two
active canonical EF hands.
R3H domain. The name of the R3H domain
comes from the characteristic spacing of the
most conserved arginine and histidine residues.
R3H domains are found in proteins together
with ATPase domains, SF1 helicase domains,
SF2 DEAH helicase domains, Cys-rich
repeats, ring-type zinc fingers, and KH domains.
The function of this domain is predicted to be
binding of ssDNA or ssRNA in a sequencespecific manner.

201
Table 4. Continued.
Clone name
Accession #
LOC
Chromosome
Description
GGEZCB1005E03
CO503121
LOC771404
Un

[G. gallus]

GGEZEB2019F01
CO507251
LOC776536
Un

GGEZEB1014G07
CO505557
LOC427196
Z
LOC427196 similar to MGC83563

protein [G. gallus]
GGEZEB1019C05
CO506042
Gga.7682
hypothetical protein G. gallus
Homeodomain; DNA binding domains

involved in the transcriptional regulation of
key eukaryotic developmental processes;
they may bind to DNA as monomers or as
homo- and/or heterodimers, in a sequencespecific manner.
NNT nicotinamide nucleotide

transhydrogenase [G. gallus]
similar to Manbal protein
Liver unknown HETs (Total = 32)

GGEZCB1004A02
CO503312
LOC418871
1

frame 1 [G. gallus]

GGEZEB2010E12
CO507784
Gga.12126
1
PREDICTED: hypothetical protein

G. gallus
GGEZLB1026F02
CD765214
C21orf66
1


GGEZSM1011D11
CD761506
LOC418725
1

GGEZEB2018G08
CO506887
LOC768645
2

GGEZSM1024D09
CD762427
LOC420493
2


GGEZEB1018F08
CO506627
LOC416719
3


GGEZEB1022C03
CO506562
LOC395778
3

GGEZEB1021E06
CO506655
LOC422542
4


GGEZSM1028E03
CD762787
LOC428774
4

GGEZEB2001E03
CO506794
Gga.46793
5
similar to chromosome 5 open

reading frame 5 (LOC770655)
GGEZLB1003D06
CD763597
LOC421605
5

GGEZEB1025C08 CO505069
LOC423781
6
LOC423781 similar to

FLJ00156 protein [G. gallus]

GGEZEB1017C03
CO506312
LOC424241
7


SPRY domain: SPRY domain is named

from SPla and the RYanodine Receptor.
Domain of unknown function. Distant
homologues are domains in butyrophilin/
marenostrin/pyrin homologues.
Coiled-coil domain containing 90B; Protein
of unknown function (DUF1640).
GCFC; GC-rich sequence DNA-binding
factor-like protein: Sequences found in this
family are similar to a region of a human
GC-rich sequence DNA-binding factor
homolog. This is thought to be a protein
involved in transcriptional regulation due to
partial homologies to a transcription
repressor and histone-interacting protein.
TNFR/NGFR cysteine-rich region: Tumor

necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) domain;
superfamily of TNF-like receptor domains.
When bound to TNF-like cytokines, TNFRs
trigger multiple signal transduction pathways,
they are involved in inflammation response,
apoptosis, autoimmunity and organogenesis.
RecB: ATP-dependent exoDNAse
(exonuclease V) beta subunit (contains
helicase and exonuclease domains) [DNA
replication, recombination, and repair]
Peptidase_C78; Peptidase family C78: This

family formerly known as DUF1671 has
been shown to be a cysteine peptidase called
(Ufm1)-specific protease.
Similar to PDZ domain containing 8
WDFY4 WDFY family member 4 [G. gallus];

BEACH (Beige and Chediak-Higashi)
domains, implicated in membrane trafficking,
RhoGEF domain: Guanine nucleotide
exchange factor for Rho/Rac/Cdc42-like
GTPases; Also called Dbl-homologous (DH)

202
E.C. Jorge et al.

Table 4. Continued.
Clone name
Accession #
LOC
Chromosome
Description

GGEZEM1003A02
CD763200
LOC429154
9

GGEZLB1010A01
CD764119
LOC424773
9


GGEZSM1015G03 CD761866 LOC416056
12

GGEZSM1005E10
CD761082
KIAA0430
14

GGEZLB1010C03
CD764143
LOC771533
18
similar to chromosome 17

open reading frame 26

GGEZSM1019A03
CD761969
LOC422071
18
LOC422071 hypothetical gene

supported by CR407540 [G. gallus]
GGEZEB1016D04
CO505309
LOC419279
20

GGEZEB1020E05
CO505678
LOC419329
20


GGEZEM1004H04
CD763342
LOC771089
20

GGEZSM1011B08
CD761482
LOC419203
20


GGEZSM1011F04
CD761522
Gga.41998
20
GGEZSM1029A08
CD762830
C1orf151
21

frame 151 [G. gallus]

GGEZEB2012A04
CO507433
LOC426357
25

GGEZSM1007B10
CD761203
LOC420161
28


GGEZEB2003A03
CO507127
Gga.17527
Un
G. gallus finished cDNA,

clone ChEST992e8
GGEZSM1027A11
CD762666
Gga.34499
Un

clone ChEST293f16
GGEZLB1022A05
CD764921
Gga.36089
Z

clone ChEST128e22
GGEZSM1027G05
CD762728
LOC768733
Z

domain. It appears that PH domains invariably

occur C-terminal to RhoGEF/DH domains.
Surp module: This domain is also known as

the SWAP domain. SWAP stands for
Suppressor-of-White-APricot. It has been
suggested that these domains are RNA binding.
Neurotransmitter transport;
Sodium:neurotransmitter symporter family
Macolin: transmembrane protein
(pfam09726); RRM (RNA recognition
motif), also known as RBD (RNA binding
domain) or RNP (ribonucleoprotein
domain), is a highly abundant domain in
eukaryotes found in proteins involved in
post-transcriptional gene expression
processes including mRNA and rRNA
processing, RNA export, and RNA stability.
SLC39A11 solute carrier family 39 (metal
ion transporter), member 11 [G. gallus].
ZIP Zinc transporter: The ZIP family
consists of zinc transport proteins and many
putative metal transporters.
DUF602; Protein of unknown function,

DUF602: This family represents several
uncharacterized eukaryotic proteins.
[pfam04641]; oxidative stress responsive 1
TSP_1 super-family; Thrombospondin type
1 domain.
DUF776; Protein of unknown function
(DUF776): This family consists of several
highly related mouse and human proteins of
unknown function. [pfam05604]
DUF543; Domain of unknown function
(DUF543): This family of short eukaryotic
proteins has no known function.
UPF0556; Uncharacterized protein family

UPF0556: This family of proteins has no
known function. [pfam10572]
Brain unknown HETs (Total = 40)

GGEZEB1001F07
CO506283
LOC771099
1

GGEZEB1011H02
CO505932
LOC770190
1


COX17; Cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) copper

chaperone (COX17): Cox17 is essential for
the assembly of functional CCO and for
delivery of copper ions to the

203
Table 4. Continued.
Clone name
Accession #
LOC
Chromosome
Description

GGEZSM1020H02
CD762121
LOC770530
1


GGEZSM1022F02
CD762271
LOC418472
1

GGEZCB1019B05
CO504371
LOC420370
2
similar to KIAA1285 protein

[G. gallus]

GGEZEB1014D05
CO505528
LOC420252
2
LOC420252 similar to KIAA0896

protein [G. gallus]
GGEZEB1023A12
CO505441
LOC420961
2

GGEZLB1010A05
CD764123
LOC768667
2


GGEZLB1022A02 CD764919
LOC420907
2

GGEZSM1022D01
CD762248
LOC420983
2


GGEZSM1025B02
CD762487
LOC420764
2


GGEZLB1016E06
CD764497
LOC422195
4
CXorf34 chromosome X open

GGEZEB1001G06
CO506289
LOC423293
5

GGEZEB2015A08
CO506905
LOC768377
5

GGEZEM1001A09
CD763087
LOC426752
5

GGEZLB1010F11
CD764180
LOC423494
5


GGEZSM1009E10
CD761395
LOC423192
5
GGEZEB1034F09
CO505997
LOC423782
6

GGEZEB1011E08
CO505905
LOC424385
8
LOC424385 similar to chromosome

1 open reading frame 9 [G. gallus]

mitochondrion for insertion into

the enzyme
FMC1 protein family: This family of
proteins is related to the yeast FMC1 protein
that is required for assembly and stability of
mitochondrial F(1)-ATPase. [pfam10560]
KRAB domain (or Kruppel-associated box)

is present in about a third of zinc finger
proteins containing C2H2 fingers. The
KRAB domain is found to be involved in
protein-protein interactions.
DOMON; Protein of unknown function;

PKc_like; PhoP regulatory network protein
YrbL: The protein kinase superfamily is
mainly composed of the catalytic domains of
serine/threonine-specific and tyrosinespecific protein kinases. Kdo;
Lipopolysaccharide kinase (Kdo/WaaP) family.
SMC (structural maintenance of
chromosomes): Chromosome segregation
ATPases [Cell division and chromosome
partitioning]; RecF/RecN/SMC N terminal
domain: This domain is found at the N
terminus of SMC proteins. The SMC
superfamily proteins have ATP-binding
domains at the N- and C-termini, and two
extended coiled-coil domains separated by a
hinge in the middle.
GCV_H; Glycine cleavage H-protein: This
is a family of glycine cleavage H-proteins,
part of the glycine cleavage multienzyme
complex (GCV) found in bacteria and the
mitochondria of eukaryotes.
FliH; Nodulation protein NolV:
[cl03451|122155]; Yae1_N; Essential protein
Yae1, N terminal: Members of this family
are found in the N terminal region of the
essential protein Yae1. Their exact function
has not as yet been determined. [pfam09811]
NADB_Rossmann;
PKc_like; PhoP regulatory network protein

S15/NS1/EPRS_RNA-binding domain;
Ribosomal protein S15 domain;
FHA domain (Forkhead-associated domain):
found in eukaryotic and prokaryotic
proteins. Putative nuclear signalling domain.
ATG13;
SMC_N; RecF/RecN/SMC N terminal

domain: This domain is found at the N
terminus of structural maintenance of
chromosome (SMC) proteins. The SMC

204
E.C. Jorge et al.

Table 4. Continued.
Clone name
Accession #
LOC
Chromosome
Description

GGEZSM1015G09
CD761869
LOC424580
8


GGEZSM1012G03
CD761612
LOC415704
11

GGEZEB2015G12
CO506967
LOC417886
12

GGEZCB1016F10
CO504125
LOC416357
13
GGEZEB2005G05
CO507414
LOC769251
14

GGEZSM1013F09
CD761689
LOC425771
16

GGEZEB1020H07
CO505714
C9orf58
17

GGEZEB1022C04
CO506563
LOC770371
18

GGEZEM1001A12
CD763088
LOC769908
18

GGEZEB1023B09
CO505446
LOC419221
20

GGEZEB2003E11
CO507177
LOC420073
28

R31449_3 [G. gallus]
GGEZLB1003E10
CD763613
LOC420101
28


GGEZEB1005H06
CO505429
LOC425086
Un


GGEZEB1017F10
CO506340
LOC772194
Un

GGEZEB2019F11
CO507258
LOC777501
Un


GGEZLB1002D11
CD763513
LOC771478
Un

GGEZLB1009E04
CD764080
LOC776802
Un


GGEZLB1010D05
CD764156
Gga.12325
Un
GGEZEB1026D06
CO505224
3.1
Z

GGEZEB2012H08
CO507509
LOC426891
Z

GGEZSM1027A10
CD762665
LOC427408
Z
superfamily proteins have ATP-binding

domains at the N- and C-termini, and two
extended coiled-coil domains separated by a
hinge in the middle.
RING; U-box domain: RING-finger (Really
Interesting New Gene) domain, a specialized
type of Zn-finger of 40 to 60 residues that
binds two atoms of zinc;
MBTPS1 membrane-bound transcription
factor peptidase, site 1 [ G. gallus]
ZNF692 zinc finger protein 692 [ G. gallus]

Allograft inflammatory factor 1-like
Membralin; Tumor-associated protein:

Membralin is evolutionarily highly
conserved; though it seems to represent a
unique protein family.
Perilipin family: The perilipin family
includes lipid droplet-associated protein
(perilipin) and adipose differentiationrelated protein (adipophilin). [pfam03036]
nidG2; G2F domain: Nidogen, G2 domain;

Nidogen is an important component of the
basement membrane, an extracellular sheetlike matrix. Nidogen is a multifunctional
protein that interacts with many other
basement membrane proteins, like collagen,
perlecan, lamin, and it has a potential role in
the assembly and connection of networks.
ChSh; Chromo shadow domain: Chromo

Shadow Domain, found in association with
N-terminal chromo (CHRromatin
Organization MOdifier) domain; Chromo
domains mediate the interaction of the
heterochromatin with other heterochromatin
proteins, thereby affecting chromatin structure
P311 POU
Chromosome Un = unknown.
205
To further characterize the unknown highly expressed transcript, public databases

were searched; only motifs or conserved domains were identified in some of those transcripts
(Table 4). Among 21 skeletal muscle unknown HETs, for example, conserved domains
could be found in 10 of them, including a nucleotide-glucose transporter domain (EST accession number CD761013, LOC421073), and three NADB-Rossmann domains (CO504294,
CO504070, CD761892, corresponding to LOC771456, LOC429066 and LOC425539, respectively), which have been found in numerous dehydrogenases of metabolic pathways, such as
glycolysis, and many other redox enzymes. As at least one previously conserved domain or
motif was identified in those unknown transcripts; they can be considered as proteins with
defined features (PDFs; Gollery et al., 2007).
Eleven novel PDFs were also found among chicken heart unknown HETs, including
GC-rich sequence DNA-binding factor-like protein (CD764046, C21orf66); an SH3 domain,
involved in signal transduction related to cytoskeletal organization (CO507354, LOC426270),
and one with the same NADB-Rossmann domain (at different loci and EST, CD762963,
LOC423481), found among skeletal muscle PDFs.
Conserved domains were found in 18 transcripts from the 32 liver unknown HETs,
including a cysteine peptidase called Ufm1-specific protease (CO506655, LOC422542); a
WDFY family member 4 domain (CO505069, LOC423781), and one with a solute carrier family 39, which is a metal-ion-transporter domain. Finally, 23 PDFs were identified among the 40
brain unknown HETs, including two with protein kinase c like protein domains (CO506905,
LOC768377 and CD764123, LOC768667).
On the other hand, among the selected 112 unknown HETs, 50 remained as proteins
that lack defined motifs and conserved domains. These proteins are currently defined as proteins with obscure features (POFs). Increased attention has been recently given to these POF
sequences as, on average, they represent 15-40% of the genes encoded in every eukaryotic genome sequenced to date (Gollery et al., 2006, 2007). POFs are considered to represent newly
evolving genes or genes that are evolving faster than the genome average; they also contribute
to determine species specificity (Galperin and Koonin, 2004; Gollery et al., 2007).
There was also evidence of alternative splicing among the PDFs. For instance, the
locus c21orf66 encoding for a PDF with a GC-rich sequence DNA-binding factor-like protein
domain was found among heart and liver uncharacterized HET. Using the MapViewer tool
from NCBI, we observed that corresponding ESTs (CD765214 and CD764046) were distant
from each other in the gene sequence (data not shown), and that CD764046 was positioned
in an intronic region of the gene sequence in chicken chromosome 1. A number of possibilities can explain intronic ESTs, including the presence of this intron in one of the transcribed
mRNAs (reviewed by Graveley, 2001).
LOC772299 was also found as duplicated unknown HETs, identified among skeletal
muscle and heart unknown HETs. Although no conserved domains have been found, the
expression pattern of this POF could suggest a novel muscle gene, alternatively expressed
between heart and skeletal muscle. Other duplicated HETs were two ESTs from the locus
c9orf58, identified as brain and heart HETs, encoding for a PDF with a calcium-binding
domain called EF-hand; the locus LOC395778 (c6orf72) duplicated in liver and heart, and
the locus LOC423192, duplicated in heart and brain expression profiles and encoding for
a PDF with an ATG13 uncharacterized domain, associated with autophagy and probably with
glycogen storage (Scott et al., 2000; Table 4).
E.C. Jorge et al.
206
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Research supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientfico e Tecnolgico (CNPq) and Fundao de Amparo Pesquisa do Estado de So Paulo (FAPESP). L.L.
Coutinho is the recipient of a scholarship from CNPq.
REFERENCES
Adams MD, Kelley JM, Gocayne JD, Dubnick M, et al. (1991). Complementary DNA sequencing: expressed sequence
tags and human genome project. Science 252: 1651-1656.
Afrakhte M and Schultheiss TM (2004). Construction and analysis of a subtracted library and microarray of cDNAs
expressed specifically in chicken heart progenitor cells. Dev. Dyn. 230: 290-298.
Baldessari D, Shin Y, Krebs O, Knig R, et al. (2005). Global gene expression profiling and cluster analysis in Xenopus
laevis. Mech. Dev. 122: 441-475.
Bliss TW, Dohms JE, Emara MG and Keeler CL Jr (2005). Gene expression profiling of avian macrophage activation. Vet.
Immunol. Immunopathol. 105: 289-299.
Bono H, Yagi K, Kasukawa T, Nikaido I, et al. (2003). Systematic expression profiling of the mouse transcriptome using
RIKEN cDNA microarrays. Genome Res. 13: 1318-1323.
Buza TJ, McCarthy FM and Burgess SC (2007). Experimental-confirmation and functional-annotation of predicted
proteins in the chicken genome. BMC Genomics 8: 425.
Cogburn LA, Porter TE, Duclos MJ, Simon J, et al. (2007). Functional genomics of the chicken - a model organism. Poult.
Sci. 86: 2059-2094.
Eisen MB, Spellman PT, Brown PO and Botstein D (1998). Cluster analysis and display of genome-wide expression
patterns. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 14863-14868.
Fukata Y, Iwanaga T and Fukata M (2006). Systematic screening for palmitoyl transferase activity of the DHHC protein
family in mammalian cells. Methods 40: 177-182.
Galperin MY and Koonin EV (2004). Conserved hypothetical proteins: prioritization of targets for experimental study.
Nucleic Acids Res. 32: 5452-5463.
Gollery M, Harper J, Cushman J, Mittler T, et al. (2006). What makes species unique? The contribution of proteins with
obscure features. Genome Biol. 7: R57.
Gollery M, Harper J, Cushman J, Mittler T, et al. (2007). POFs: what we dont know can hurt us. Trends Plant Sci. 12:
492-496.
Graveley BR (2001). Alternative splicing: increasing diversity in the proteomic world. Trends Genet. 17: 100-107.
Hamburger V and Hamilton HL (1951). A series of normal stages in the development of the chick embryo. J. Morphol.
88: 49-92.
Hata K, Fujitani M, Yasuda Y, Doya H, et al. (2006). RGMa inhibition promotes axonal growth and recovery after spinal
cord injury. J. Cell Biol. 173: 47-58.
Hillier LW, Miller W, Birney E and Warren W, et al. (2004). Sequence and comparative analysis of the chicken genome
provide unique perspectives on vertebrate evolution. Nature 432: 695-716.
Huang X and Madan A (1999). CAP3: A DNA sequence assembly program. Genome Res. 9: 868-877.
Jorge EC, Monteiro-Vitorelo CB, Alves HJ and Silva CS, et al. (2004). EST analysis of mRNA expressed during
embryogenesis in Gallus gallus. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 48: 333-337.
Jorge EC, Figueira A, Ledur MC and Moura ASAMT, et al. (2007). Contributions and perspectives of chicken genomics
in Brazil: from biological model to export commodity. Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 63: 597-610.
Kuninger D, Kuzmickas R, Peng B, Pintar JE, et al. (2004). Gene discovery by microarray: identification of novel genes
induced during growth factor-mediated muscle cell survival and differentiation. Genomics 84: 876-889.
Kusano S and Raab-Traub N (2002). I-mfa domain proteins interact with Axin and affect its regulation of the Wnt and
c-Jun N-terminal kinase signaling pathways. Mol. Cell Biol. 22: 6393-6405.
Matsunaga E and Chdotal A (2004). Repulsive guidance molecule/neogenin: a novel ligand-receptor system playing
multiple roles in neural development. Dev. Growth Differ. 46: 481-486.
Mawdsley DJ, Cooper HM, Hogan BM, Cody SH, et al. (2004). The Netrin receptor Neogenin is required for neural tube
formation and somitogenesis in zebrafish. Dev. Biol. 269: 302-315.
Monnier PP, Sierra A, Macchi P, Deitinghoff L, et al. (2002). RGM is a repulsive guidance molecule for retinal axons.
Nature 419: 392-395.
207
Nagaya M, Inohaya K, Imai Y and Kudo A (2002). Expression of zisp, a DHHC zinc finger gene, in somites and lens
during zebrafish embryogenesis. Mech. Dev. 119 (Suppl 1): S311-S314.
Neiman PE, Ruddell A, Jasoni C, Loring G, et al. (2001). Analysis of gene expression during myc oncogene-induced
lymphomagenesis in the bursa of Fabricius. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 6378-6383.
Niederkofler V, Salie R, Sigrist M and Arber S (2004). Repulsive guidance molecule (RGM) gene function is required for
neural tube closure but not retinal topography in the mouse visual system. J. Neurosci. 24: 808-818.
Niehrs C and Pollet N (1999). Synexpression groups in eukaryotes. Nature 402: 483-487.
Papanikolaou G, Samuels ME, Ludwig EH, MacDonald ML, et al. (2004). Mutations in HFE2 cause iron overload in
chromosome 1q-linked juvenile hemochromatosis. Nat. Genet. 36: 77-82.
Postigo AA and Dean DC (1999). Independent repressor domains in ZEB regulate muscle and T-cell differentiation. Mol.
Cell Biol. 19: 7961-7971.
Ross M, Labrie T, McPherson S and Stanton VP (1999). Screening large-insert libraries by hybridization. Curr. Protoc.
Hum. Genet. 5.6.1-5.6.32. DOI: 10.1002/0471142905.hg0506s21.
Sambrook J, Fritsch EF and Maniatis T (1989). Molecular Cloning: a Laboratory Manual. 2nd edn. Cold Spring Harbor
Laboratory Press, Plainview.
Scott SV, Nice DC III, Nau JJ, Weisman LS, et al. (2000). Apg13p and Vac8p are part of a complex of phosphoproteins
that are required for cytoplasm to vacuole targeting. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 25840-25849.
Smith J, Speed D, Hocking PM, Talbot RT, et al. (2006). Development of a chicken 5K microarray targeted towards
immune function. BMC Genomics 7: 49.
Soares MB, Bonaldo MF, Jelene P, Su L, et al. (1994). Construction and characterization of a normalized cDNA library.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 9228-9232.
Szustakowski JD, Lee JH, Marrese CA, Kosinski PA, et al. (2006). Identification of novel pathway regulation during
myogenic differentiation. Genomics 87: 129-138.
van Hemert S, Ebbelaar BH, Smits MA and Rebel JM (2003). Generation of EST and microarray resources for functional
genomic studies on chicken intestinal health. Anim. Biotechnol. 14: 133-143.
Wolfinger RD, Gibson G, Wolfinger ED, Bennett L, et al. (2001). Assessing gene significance from cDNA microarray
expression data via mixed models. J. Comput. Biol. 8: 625-637.
Woods S, Farrall A, Procko C and Whitelaw ML (2008). The bHLH/Per-Arnt-Sim transcription factor SIM2 regulates
muscle transcript myomesin2 via a novel, non-canonical E-box sequence. Nucleic Acids Res. 36: 3716-3727.
Zhang W, Morris QD, Chang R, Shai O, et al. (2004). The functional landscape of mouse gene expression. J. Biol. 3: 21.

Sistem Otot Dan Kerangka Unggas

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sistem Otot Dan Kerangka Unggas

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sistem Otot Dan Kerangka Unggas

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated

macroarray for gene discovery

Corresponding author: L.L. Coutinho

ABSTRACT. Macro- and microarrays are well-established technologies

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery

growth, such as the ontology genes and germ layers. Accuracy of

E.C. Jorge et al.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Biological material and RNA preparation

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery

Labeling and hybridization

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

E.C. Jorge et al.

Number of ESTs in array

HH: Hamburger and Hamilton, 1951. ESTs = expressed sequence tags.

Filtering the expression database

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery

Number of spots with cDNA

Number of spots without cDNA

Analysis of the expression profiles

Differentially expressed transcripts: a statistical approach

E.C. Jorge et al.

Skeletal muscle GGEZEB1019A02

Premature ovarian failure, 1B

LOC = locus name following NCBI (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) nomenclature.

Among the 11 transcripts identified as skeletal muscle-specific (Table 3), Troponin T

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery

E.C. Jorge et al.

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery

Figure 2. Venn diagram representing numbers of highly expressed transcripts.

E.C. Jorge et al.

ing protein, LOC417687), long microtubule-associated protein 1A (LOC770402), and others;

Co-expressed non-characterized (unknown) highly expressed transcripts

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery

Motifs or conserved domains

Skeletal muscle unknown HETs (Total = 21)

GLI pathogenesis-related 2; promotes

CCDC86 coiled-coil domain

NADB_Rossmann; A large family of

MBTD1 mbt domain containing 1 [G. gallus];

Peptidase C65 Otubain: This family of

Continued on next page

E.C. Jorge et al.

Motifs or conserved domains

Heart unknown HETs (Total = 19)

GC-rich sequence DNA-binding factorlike protein: Sequences found in this family

Putative GTPases (G3E family) [General

ATG13; Uncharacterized conserved protein

Cytochrome P450 domain

Continued on next page

Chicken skeletal muscle-associated macroarray for gene discovery

Motifs or conserved domains

Homeodomain; DNA binding domains

NNT nicotinamide nucleotide

Liver unknown HETs (Total = 32)

SPRY domain: SPRY domain is named

TNFR/NGFR cysteine-rich region: Tumor

Peptidase_C78; Peptidase family C78: This

WDFY4 WDFY family member 4 [G. gallus];

Continued on next page