Why Measure Pressure?

Process industries are organizations that transform one substance into another (e.g.,
crude oil into gasoline, pulp into paper, steam into electricity). Four of the most common
reasons that process industries measure pressure follow:
Safety
Process efficiency
Cost savings
Inferred measurement of other variables

SAFETY
Pipes, tanks, valves, flanges, and other equipment used with pressurized fluids in process
industries are designed to withstand the stress of a specific range of pressures. Accurate
pressure measurement and precise control help prevent pipes and vessels from bursting.
In addition, pressure measurement and control help minimize equipment damage, reduce
the risk of personal injury, and prevent leaks of potentially harmful process materials into
the environment. Pressure measurement used to control the level and flow of process
materials helps to prevent backups, spills, and overflows.

PROCESS EFFICIENCY
In most cases, process efficiency is highest when pressures (and other process variables)
are maintained at particular values or within a narrow range of values. Accurate pressure
measurement can help sustain the conditions required for maximum efficiency. For
example, the piece of paper on which these words are written was created from a pulp
solution put through a paper machine at a specific pressure. If the pressure had gone
above or below the set point (required range), the result would have been scrap instead of
a usable sheet of paper.

COST SAVINGS
The equipment used to create pressure or vacuum in process industries (e.g., pumps and
compressors) uses considerable energy. Because energy costs money, precise pressure
measurement can save money by preventing the unnecessary expense of creating more
pressure or vacuum than is required to produce the desired results for a particular
process.

INFERRED MEASUREMENT OF OTHER VARIABLES

Pressure measurements are frequently used to infer the measurement of other process
variables, such as the rate of flow through a pipe, the level of a fluid in a tank, the density
of a substance, or how two or more liquids in a tank interface. For example, if a
constriction is placed in a pipe, pressure will drop in a predictable way. By measuring the
pressure of fluid in a pipe before and after the constriction, the rate of flow through the pipe
can be calculated. For a discussion on how pressure measurement can be used to infer
the values of other process variables.

What is Pressure?
Pressure is the amount of force applied over a defined area. The relationship between
pressure, force, and area is represented in the following formula:

Where:
P = Pressure
F = Force
A = Area
If a force (due to physical contact) is applied over an area, pressure is being applied.
Pressure increases if the force increases or the size of the area over which the force is
being applied decreases.
Weight X and Weight Y in Figure 1.1 are applying different amounts of pressure to the
surface, even though the two weights are each 100 lb. Weight X has a base of 100 in2.
Therefore, the pressure being applied by Weight X is 100 lb of force being applied over an
area of 100 in2, or 1 lb/in2.

Weight Y is resting on a 1 in2 base. Therefore, the pressure being applied by Weight Y is
100 lb of force being applied over an area of 1 in2, or 100 lb/in2.

To better understand the relationship between force and area, think about the impact of
your weight on a couch. The force in this case is produced by your weight, which, in this
example, will remain constant. If you lie down on the couch, your weight is applied over a
large area and the cushions compress to a certain degree. If you stand on the couch on
one foot, your weight is applied to a much smaller area and the cushions compress much
more. The force (your weight) is now being applied over a smaller areatherefore the
pressure is increased.

Pressure Variables
The factors that influence the pressure of a liquid are different from the factors that
influence the pressure of a gas. Therefore, when measuring pressure, it is important to
understand the pressure properties of liquids and gases.

LIQUID PRESSURE
The pressure exerted by a liquid is influenced by three factors:
Depth of the liquid
Density of the liquid
Pressure on the surface of the liquid
Depth of a Liquid
The pressure at a point below the surface of a liquid increases as the depth of the liquid
above the measurement point increases. Pressure is affected by the depth, rather than the
volume, of a liquid. If other factors (e.g., density of the liquid and pressure on the surface
of the liquid) are constant, the pressure at a depth of 10 ft in a large tank holding 5,000 gal
of water will be equal to the pressure at a depth of 10 ft in a smaller tank holding only 5 gal
of water.

An example from everyday life might be your experience of swimming five feet beneath the
surface of a swimming pool and swimming five feet beneath the surface of a large lake.
Even though the lake contains a far greater amount of water, the pressure on your body at
a five foot depth is not proportionately greater. The pressure in the lake and in the pool is
the same at a depth of five feet.

Density of a Liquid
Density is the mass of a particular substance per unit of volume. A liquid with a greater
density has a greater mass per unit of volume. Liquids with greater densities will apply
more pressure to a given area than liquids with smaller densities because higher-density
liquids are heavier per unit of volume. Variations in temperature cause liquids to expand
and contract, which increases or decreases the volume of the liquid. When the volume of a
liquid changes, the density changes as well.
Density is often represented in terms of specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the
density of a particular liquid to the density of water at the same temperature. Water has a
density of 1,000 kg/m3 at 60 F (15.6 C). Temperature is specified when giving a density
value because temperature affects density. The density of gasoline is 660 kg/m3 at 60 F
(15.6 C). To calculate the specific gravity of gasoline, divide the density of gasoline by the
density of water:

Because specific gravity is a ratio of densities, it does not change as units of measure
change. Therefore, the specific gravity of gasoline at 60 F (15.6 C) is always 0.66, even
if the density of gasoline and the density of water are expressed in a different unit of
measure (e.g., lb/ft3):

Pressure on the Surface of a Liquid

Pressure on the surface of a liquid is pressure that is exerted above a column of liquid
being measured. In an open tank, atmospheric pressure (the pressure exerted by the
Earths atmosphere) is the pressure on the surface. If a gas is added to the top of a
column of liquid in a closed tank, pressure on the surface would result. If there is a vacuum
(space void of all pressure) above the liquid in a closed tank, a negative pressure on the
surface exists. In a closed-tank application, the pressure on the surface is called vessel
pressure. The effects of pressure on the surface must be taken into account to produce an
accurate pressure measurement.

GAS PRESSURE
Unlike a liquid, a gas will exert equal pressure on all parts of the container in which it is
held. Two factors affect the pressure exerted by a gas:
Volume of the container in which the gas is held
Temperature of the gas
Common practice in process industries is to refer to both liquids and gases as fluids.
Container Volume
The relationship between the pressure exerted by a gas and the volume of the container in
which it is held is known as Boyles law. Because a gas can be compressed, the pressure
of a gas increases proportionately as the volume of the container in which the gas is held
decreases. Conversely, if a set amount of gas is transferred to a larger container, the
pressure will decrease in proportion to the increase in container volume.
Temperature of a Gas
The relationship between gas pressure and temperature is known as Charless law. Gas
pressure is affected by changes in temperature. As the temperature of a gas increases,
the energy of the individual gas molecules increases as well. As a result, the gas
molecules collide with the vessel wall more frequently and with greater force, and the
pressure exerted against the inside wall of the vessel increases.
If the volume of the vessel holding a gas and the amount of gas are unchanged, the
pressure exerted by the gas on the vessel walls will change in proportion to changes in the
temperature of the gas.

Pressure Units
Pressure units can be divided into two categories: units of force over area and units
referenced to columns of fluid.

UNITS OF FORCE OVER AREA

The following are units of force over a defined area:
Pounds per square inch (psi)
Kilograms per square centimeter (kg/cm2)
Grams per square centimeter (g/cm2)1 g/cm2 = 1/1,000 kg/cm2
Pascals (Pa or N/m2)N stands for Newton
Kilopascals (kPa)1 kPa = 1,000 Pa
Bar1 bar = 100,000 Pa
Millibar (mbar)1 mbar = 1/1,000 bar
Pounds per square inch, or psi, are the units of pressure most commonly used in North
America. The other units of pressure listed above are most often used internationally.

UNITS REFERENCED TO COLUMNS OF FLUID

The following are units of pressure referenced to a column of fluid:
Inches of water (inH2O at 68 F [20 C])Most commonly used in the U.S.
Feet of water (ftH2O)
Meters of water (mH2O)
Millimeters of water (mmH2O)
Inches of mercury (inHg)
Millimeters of mercury (mmHg)
Atmosphere (atm)The pressure exerted by the Earths atmosphere at sea level
Torr1 torr = 1 mmHg
Pressure units referenced to a column of fluid serve as a useful measure of pressure, even
though they do not represent a force over a defined area. Because of gravity, a column of
fluid will exert a certain force (weight) downward and thus a certain predictable pressure.
The higher a column of fluid, the greater the force exerted by that fluid. The more dense a
fluid, the greater the force exerted by that fluid. Units of measure must have static
valuestherefore, fluid column height and fluid density must be specified when
representing pressure as a column of fluid.
1 inH2O is the amount of pressure applied by a one-inch column of water at 68 oF (20 oC).
Because the temperature is specified, the density will remain constant and the
measurement unit fixed.
Another commonly used fluid for pressure measurement is the element mercury (Hg),
often expressed as a pressure measurement in inches of mercury (inHg). 1 inHg is equal
to the amount of pressure applied by a one-inch-high column of mercury with a density of
13.5951 g/cm3. Again, because density is specified, the measurement unit remains fixed.
Millimeters of mercury (mmHg) are also used to express pressure. 1 mmHg is the amount
of pressure applied by a 1 mm high column of mercury with a density of 13.5951 g/cm3.
Units of pressure can also be expressed in atmospheres (atm). 1 atm is equal to the
pressure exerted by the earths atmosphere at sea level. 1 atm is equal to 101.325 kPa, or
approximately 14.6959 psi. Torr is a unit of pressure based on atmosphere (1 Torr equals
1/760 atm). One Torr is approximately equal to 1mmHg.

CONVERTING UNITS OF PRESSURE

Product literature (e.g., manuals, product data sheets, product price lists) for each
pressure measurement instrument lists the pressure range within which that device can be
effectively and safely operated. However, the pressure units used in the product literature
may not be the same as the units specified by people at the plant for his or her application.
Therefore, unit conversions are often required to determine if a particular pressuremeasurement device will meet the requirements of an application.
For example, imagine that a someone at the plant identifies 40 bar as the maximum
amount of pressure a particular process produces. The user wants to know what range
instrument to use. The product literature lists pressure ranges in psi, so a conversion from
bar to psi is necessary before a recommendation can be made. Units of pressure can be
converted using a conversion table, such as the table below, that shows the relationships
between different units of pressure (e.g., how many bar equal 1 psi). To convert 40 bar to
psi, look in the conversion table to find that one bar equals 14.5038 psi. Because you need
the psi value of 40 bar, multiply 14.5038 by 40 to obtain a value of 580.151 psi. Now you
can determine from the product literature that a specific Range of instrument is needed.

Reference Pressures
Pressure-measurement devices differ in what they use as a reference pressure. A
reference pressure is a pressure measurement that is compared to the measured pressure
of the process material. The sensor is the part of a pressure measurement instrument that
physically reacts to pressure input. The side of the sensor that measures the pressure of
the process material is called the high side of the instrument. The other side, or reference
pressure side, is known as the low side of the instrument. Pressure-measurement devices
can be categorized according to the reference pressure from which they measure. The
three reference pressures are:
Absolute
Gage
Differential
Absolute and gage devices measure the difference between the pressure of the process
fluid and a reference pressure. Differential devices take two pressure measurements of the
process fluid at different points and measure the difference between them.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Absolute pressure measurements compare measured pressure to a perfect vacuum.
Because no pressure reading can be less than a perfect vacuum, an absolute pressuremeasurement device will never have a negative reading. The reference pressure of an
absolute pressure-measurement device (i.e., a perfect vacuum) never changes.

GAGE PRESSURE
A gage pressure-measurement instrument uses the pressure of the surrounding
atmosphere (approximately 14.7 psi) as a reference pressure. Changes in atmospheric
pressure (such as those due to changes in the weather) cause the output of a gage sensor
to change. Depending on the application, the output change may or may not be desirable.
In process systems not open to atmosphere (e.g., a process in an unvented tank),
pressures of the process material being measured could be less than the surrounding
atmospheric pressure, which would result in a negative pressure reading.

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
A differential pressure measurement uses a second process pressure as a reference
pressure. Differential pressure measurements are often used to infer the rate of flow
through a pipe by determining the pressure drop that occurs from one point in a system to
another, such as the drop that occurs across a filter in a pipe.

For example, if a differential pressure (DP) instrument is installed so that the high side of
the instrument measures the pressure on the upstream side of the flow element in a pipe
and the low side of the instrument measures the pressure on the downstream side of the
flow element, with the high side pressure at 12 psi and the low side pressure at 10 psi, the
differential pressure is 2 psi.
Changes in atmospheric pressure do not affect the output of a differential pressuremeasurement instrument because both measured pressure and reference pressure are
equally influenced by exposure to the atmosphere.

DESIGNATING REFERENCE PRESSURES

The designator a for absolute, g for gage, and d for differential is often attached to the end
of pressure units to indicate the reference pressure or type of instrument being used.
Thus, pressure measurements are usually represented as psig, psia, or psid rather than
just psi. Bar becomes bar g, bar a, or bar d.
Converting Absolute Pressure Measurements
An absolute pressure measurement registers the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere
as part of the pressure reading, whereas a gage pressure measurement uses atmospheric
pressure as its reference. Therefore, absolute values can be converted to gage values by
subtracting atmospheric pressure from the absolute pressure reading (Figure 1.2).

For example, to find the gage value for an absolute pressure measurement device that
reads 34.7 psia and is surrounded by an atmosphere of 14.7 psia, use the following
equation:

To convert a gage value to an absolute value, simply reverse the process described
above. Add atmospheric pressure to the gage value.

14.7 psia is slightly higher than the standard pressure value of 1 atm, which is 14.6959 psi.
The value changes depending on the weather and the location of the instrument, but
normally does not vary more than a few tenths. For most applications, using a value of
14.7 psia for atmospheric pressure is sufficient.

Measurable Pressures
The three types of measurable pressures in the process control industry follow:
Head pressure
Static pressure
Vapor pressure

HEAD PRESSURE
Head pressure, also known as hydrostatic pressure, is the pressure exerted by a column
of fluid (Figure 1.3). Head pressure is directly proportional to the specific gravity of the fluid
and the height of the fluid column.

Depending on where the pressure transmitter is mounted, calculations must be performed

to factor out errors and ensure the correct head pressure is seen by the instrument.
Pressure-measurement instruments are often mounted above or below the tap, or point at
which the process fluid is being measured.

If the pressure transmitter is mounted below the tap, the column of fluid held in the
connection piping between the tap and the instrument will put additional pressure on the
sensor of the instrument. If the distance from the tap to the pressure transmitter and the
specific gravity of the fluid are known, the added head pressure can be factored out of the
measurement.

If the pressure-measurement instrument is mounted above the tap, gravity will act on the
column of fluid, pulling it away from the instruments sensor and thus creating a negative
head pressure. A negative head pressure can also be calculated and then factored out of
a pressure measurement.

STATIC PRESSURE
Static pressure, or line pressure, is the pressure exerted in a closed system. A closed
system is a system that is sealed from atmosphere. An example of static pressure can be
found in a common boiler system. As the water in the boiler is heated, pressure increases.
The term line pressure is more commonly used in flow applications.

VAPOR PRESSURE
Vaporization is the transformation of a substance from a liquid state to a gas state (e.g.,
water to steam). The transformation occurs at a specific temperature for each liquid. For
example, water turns to steam (boils) at 212 F (100 C). At the molecular level, the
transformation of a liquid into its gaseous form is simply an increase in the distance
between the individual molecules of the substance due to an increase in energy (i.e.,
heat). As the molecules move about faster and with more force, they occupy more space.
When pressure is applied to a substance, the molecules of the substance are pushed
closer together, and more energy is required to spread them apart. For this reason,
increased pressure causes the boiling point of a liquid to rise. Conversely, a decrease in
pressure causes the boiling point of a liquid to fall. For example, water boils at 212 F at or
near sea level, but at high altitudes where the atmospheric pressure is lower, water boils at
less than 212 F.
The relationship between pressure, temperature, and the boiling point of a substance can
be plotted on a simple, two-axis graph. Figure 1.4 shows the vapor pressure curve. Each
substance has its own respective vapor pressure curve. The vapor pressure curve of oil,
for instance, differs from the vapor pressure curve of glycerin.
Pressure-measurement instruments that use a fill fluid are sensitive to high temperatures.
If the fill fluid of an instrument boils, the instrument will no longer give an accurate pressure
reading. Therefore, the temperature and pressure conditions of fill fluids must remain such
that the process fluid always falls within the liquid region of its vapor pressure curve.

Inferring Non-Pressure Variables

Because there is a known relationship between pressure and density, pressure and level,
and pressure and the flow of a fluid through a pipe, these non-pressure variables can be
inferred from pressure measurements.

FLOW
A common use of pressure measurement is to infer a fluids flow rate through a pipe. As a
fluid flows through a pipe with a decreasing diameter, fluid velocity increases at a rate
proportional to the decrease in pipe diameter. Bernoullis principle states that as a fluid
speeds up to bypass an obstruction, pressure drops. The pressure of the fluid flowing
through a pipe will be greater on the upstream side of an obstruction in the pipe than on
the downstream side.
If pressure is measured before and after an obstruction in the pipe (e.g., a flow element
such as a venturi tube, flow nozzle, wedge, or annubar) the difference between the two
measurements, or differential pressure, is proportionate to the flow rate of the fluid through
the pipe.

The flow equation used for DP flowmeters is based on Bernoullis equation, which shows
that flow rate (Q) is proportional (a) to the square root of differential pressure (DP):

LEVEL
If specific gravity is known, then the level of a liquid in a container can be determined from
the pressure measurement by rearranging the equation used for density calculation:

The units used to express height and pressure must be comparable. Remember that
pressure on the surface of a liquid can affect a pressure measurement. For example, if you
are using a pressure measurement to infer the level of a tank open to the surrounding
atmosphere, then the atmospheric pressure must first be subtracted from the pressure
reading in order to obtain an accurate level calculation.

DENSITY MEASUREMENT
Pressure is equal to the height of the column of liquid being measured multiplied by the
specific gravity of the liquid. Therefore, if the height of the column is a known constant (as
in the case of the distance between two pressure measurement points on a vessel), the
density can be inferred from the pressure reading using the following equation:

Units of pressure are usually different than units of height. The equation requires
comparable units. Most pressure measurements used for density calculations are
therefore made in units based on referenced columns of fluid (e.g., inches of water). The

height in the equation can also be expressed in inches, and the units will cancel each
other out of the equation:

The specific gravity value can be converted into mass per unit of volume units, such as
grams per cubic centimeter (gm/cm3).

Constant Level - Open Tank (vented)

In open tank applications, level can be measured with either gauge or differential pressure
(DP) transmitters, using the assumption that P = L*SG. If specific gravity needs to be
measured, then the equation can be modified to SG = L/P. For this to work, the level must
stay constant so that any pressure changes reflect the specific gravity change.
This works well in a tank where there is no change in level, such as when it is desirable to
measure a density change as a way of monitoring a reaction, or as the fluids temperature
changes.

Constant Level - Closed Tanks (pressurized or vacuum), Wet Leg or Remote

Seal Assembly
In applications where the condensation tends to occur in the dry leg, use a wet leg system
or remote seal assembly instead (Figure 4):

Varying Level - Use of One Transmitter

Often the density of a fluid must be determined in a vessel where the level is changing and
a reference column is impractical. In this case, a differential pressure (DP) measurement
can be made. In this situation, the measured height is the distance between the high and
low pressure taps. The upper tap must be covered by the process fluid at all times. The
connection between the upper tap and the transmitter can be either a wet leg or a remote
seal and capillary (Figure 5). In either case, the calibration must account for the reference
height contributed by the wet leg or the capillary. This is done by subtracting the reference
height times the Sref value from the process (between taps) height, times the process
specific gravity.

Varying Level - Use of Two Transmitters

Density can also be measured with two transmitters. With this arrangement, the output of
the bottom transmitter can be used to provide both a level and, with a second transmitter,
a density measurement (Figure 6).

INTERFACE MEASUREMENT
An interface is the boundary between two immiscible (incapable of being mixed) fluids with
different densities (e.g., oil and water). An interface measurement finds the boundary
between two liquids stored in the same tank, each with a different density. For example,
when oil and water occupy the same vessel, the oil floats on top of the water. The interface
between the two fluids is the upper level of the water and the lower level of the oil. If the
density of both fluids is known, interface can be inferred from a pressure measurement.

Pressure Gauges
All pressure measurements depend upon some portion of the instrument being physically
moved by the pressure source being measured. Two types of pressure-measurement
gauges are liquid column gauges and mechanical gauges. In a liquid column gauge, the
height of a column of liquid varies in response to applied pressure. Mechanical gauges
have mechanical parts that move in response to applied pressure.

LIQUID COLUMN GAUGES

Below are two types of liquid column pressure gauges:

Barometer
Manometer

Barometer
A barometer is a device that measures atmospheric pressure. A barometer consists of a
clear, hollow tube with one end blocked off. The tube is filled with liquid and set, with the
blocked end pointing up, into a reservoir of fill liquid (typically mercury) (Figure 1.5).

When the tube is upright and longer than the column of liquid at atmospheric pressure,
there is a void at the top of the tube. For example, a column of mercury is 29.9 in high
(29.9 inHg) at a pressure of 1 atm. Therefore, the barometer tube must be longer than 30
in.
The distance from the top of the liquid in the reservoir to the top of the liquid in the
barometer is the barometric (atmospheric) pressure. If atmospheric pressure changes, the
level of the fluid in the tube changes as well.
Barometers are highly accurate. They are often used as a reference for calibrating other
pressure instruments. Barometers are also commonly used for weather forecasting.

Manometer
A derivation of the barometer is the manometer. A manometer is a clear, U-shaped tube
partially filled with fluid. One leg of the manometer is the reference side; the other leg is
the measured side. A pressure measurement is made by comparing the fluid levels of the
column in each leg of the manometer U (Figure 3).

If the reference side of the manometer U is open to atmospheric pressure, the manometer
will function as a gage instrument. If the reference side of the manometer U is sealed, a
vacuum exists above the fluid column on the reference side of the manometer. In this
case, the manometer will function as an absolute instrument.

MECHANICAL PRESSURE GAUGES

Mechanical pressure gauges have two basic parts:
Sensing device
Mechanical dial or indicator (connected to the sensing device; gives a pressure
reading)
The most commonly used types of pressure-sensing devices are:
Bourdon tube
Bellows and capsules
Mechanical pressure gauges are still widely used in the process control industry.
Bourdon Tube
Bourdon tubes are curled, flexible tubes with one closed end. As fluid flows into a bourdon
tube, the tube straightens. As pressure increases, the tube straightens further. When
pressure decreases, the tube springs back to its original shape. Several different metals
and other materials are used to make bourdon tubes.
Bourdon tubes come in four designs (Figure 1.7):
C shaped
Twisted
Helical
Spiral

Figure 1.7b: Bourdon tube mechanism

Bellows and Capsules

Bellows and capsules are pleated, flexible chambers that expand when filled with material
under pressure. The individual chambers of a capsule are sealed so that only the first
chamber in the series is actually in contact with process pressure. A bellows is open
inside.
Capsules tend to spring back to their original shape when the pressure is released.
Bellows often require an external spring to push them back into shape. A reference
pressure may also be applied to the outside of the bellows or capsule.

Pneumatic Pressure Cells

A transducer is a device that converts a signal in one form into a signal in another form.
Pneumatic transducers sense pressure and put out a stream of air in response. Pneumatic
devices consist of the following component parts:

Sensing deviceUsually a diaphragm, bourdon tube, or capsular element

Supply pressure nozzleA steady stream of air flows through the supply nozzle
FlapperConnected to the sensing device; directs more or less of the air flow from
the supply nozzle to the output pressure nozzle
Output pressure nozzleReceives a stream of air (regulated by the flapper) from
the supply nozzle and directs the air stream out of the instrument

PNEUMATIC TRANSMITTERS
A pneumatic transmitter is a device that, in response to input pressure, puts out a
proportionate, standardized pneumatic signal.
The most common industry standard for the output of pneumatic transmitters is 315 psig.
The pneumatic transmitter is calibrated so that when the process pressure is at its lowest
acceptable point, the output of the transmitter is 3 psig. When the process pressure is at
its maximum acceptable limit, the transmitter output is 15 psig. Pneumatic transmitter
signals between 3 psig and 15 psig correspond to process pressures within the operating
range.

PNEUMATIC CONTROLLERS
A pneumatic controller is a device that, in response to an input pressure, sends a
pneumatic output to a relay. A relay is a device that sends a pneumatic impulse strong
enough to physically accomplish some action (e.g., open or close a valve) to regulate the
process.
For example, as process pressure increases, a sensing device moves. Because the
sensing device is connected to the flapper, the flapper also moves. The flapper is set to
move back and forth over the opening of the supply nozzle in a way that directs more air
flow through the output nozzle. Therefore, as process pressure increases, the air pressure
output of the pneumatic device increases proportionately. In response to the output signal
from the pneumatic controller, a valve in a relay opens allowing more pneumatic pressure
to be sent to a valve. The pneumatic pressure sent by the relay adjusts the setting of the
control valve in order to keep the process pressure within defined limits.

Electronic Pressure Transmitters

Electronic transmitters convert input pressure into a digital or electrical signal. Electronic
transmitters have two basic parts:
Sensor
Electronics
Like a mechanical pressure gauges sensing device, the sensor of an electronic pressure
transmitter physically responds to changes in input pressure. The sensor converts the
physical movement into an electrical property, such as capacitance, voltage, inductance,
or reluctance. The electronics part of the transmitter changes the output of the sensor into
a standard electronic signal.
The most widely used electronic signal in the process control industry is the four to twenty
milliamp (420 mA) signal. When using the 420 mA signal, an electronic transmitter is
calibrated so that when the process pressure is at its lowest acceptable point, the output of
the transmitter is 4 mA. When the process pressure is at its maximum acceptable limit, the
transmitter output is 20 mA. Transmitter outputs between 4 mA and 20 mA correspond to
process pressures within the operating range.
Several types of sensors used with electronic pressure transmitters are listed below:
Variable capacitance
Piezoresistive
Piezoelectric
Variable inductance
Variable reluctance
Vibrating wire
Strain gauge

VARIABLE CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is the ability of a substance to hold an electrical charge. A capacitor is a
device consisting of two conductive plates aligned with one another but not making
contact. The space between the plates is filled by an insulating medium known as a
dielectric. In the variable capacitance sensor of most pressure transmitters, the dielectric is
oil. Three factors affect the capacitance of a capacitor:
Surface area of the plates
Insulating properties of the dielectric
Distance between the plates
In a variable capacitance pressure transmitter, the surface area of the plates and the
properties of the dielectric do not change. One of the capacitor plates, called a sensing
diaphragm, moves in response to the applied pressure. Because the sensing diaphragm
needs to be surrounded by the dielectric, it cannot be directly exposed to process
pressure. Therefore, the sensing diaphragm is held by glass insulation in a sealed
chamber. Usually, a fixed capacitor plate and an isolating diaphragm are on either side of
the sensing diaphragm. The isolating diaphragms are actually in contact with process or
reference pressures (Figure 1.8).

Operation
During operation, the isolating diaphragms and fill fluid on the process and reference sides
of the sensor transmit the process and reference pressure to the oil fill fluid. The fluid in
turn transmits the process and reference pressure to the sensing diaphragm in the center
of the variable capacitance sensor. The sensing diaphragm deflects in response to
differential pressure across it. In gage pressure transmitters, atmospheric pressure is
transmitted to the low side of the sensing diaphragm. In absolute pressure transmitters, a
reference pressure is maintained on the low side. The displacement of the sensing
diaphragm is proportional to the pressure. Capacitor plates on both sides detect the
position of the sensing diaphragm. The differential capacitance between the sensing
diaphragm and the other capacitor plates is converted electronically to an appropriate
current, voltage, or digital output signal.
Benefits and Limitations of Variable Capacitance Devices
Variable capacitance devices are very durable, accurate, vibration resistant, and can be
calibrated to measure both large and small amounts of pressure. Variable capacitance
devices are, however, sensitive to changes in temperature.

PIEZORESISTANCE
Resistance is the amount of opposition to the flow of electricity exhibited by a particular
conductor. A piezoresistor is a piece of metal or a semiconductor that exhibits a change in
resistance when bent or stretched. In a piezoresistive transmitter, pressure is transmitted
through a fill fluid from an isolating diaphragm to a piezoresistor (Figure 1.9). As the
piezoresistor is flexed by pressure, its resistance changes. The piezoresistor is usually
part of a configuration of electrical conductors and resistors set up to measure changes in
resistance called a Wheatstone bridge. The change in resistance is then converted by the
electronic components of the transmitter into a standard control signal, commonly a
milliampere, voltage, or digital control signal.

Benefits and Limitations of Piezoresistive Devices

Piezoresistive devices are also very responsive to pressure changes and are highly
accurate. Like variable capacitance devices, piezoresistive devices are sensitive to
changes in temperature.

PIEZOELECTRIC
The sensor of a piezoelectric transmitter consists of a pressure-sensing device, such as a
diaphragm, connected to a piezoelectric crystal. A piezoelectric crystal is a natural or
synthetic crystal that produces a voltage when pressure is applied to it. The piezoelectric
crystal produces a very small voltage, so the voltage is usually amplified and then
converted by the transmitter electronics into a standard control signal, commonly a
milliampere, voltage, or digital control signal.
Benefits and Limitations of Piezoelectric Devices
Piezoelectric measurement devices are sensitive to changes in pressure, but are not
particularly good at measuring static pressure. Piezoelectric devices are temperature and
vibration sensitive. Because of these limitations, piezoelectric technology is not widely
used in the process control industry.

VARIABLE INDUCTANCE
Inductance is a process by which a body that has magnetic or electrical properties passes
those properties to another body without making contact. In a variable inductance
transmitter, a movable iron core is surrounded by a coil of wire. An alternating current (ac)
input is run through the coil. The iron core is attached to a sensing device (e.g., diaphragm
or capsule). As the sensing device moves in response to pressure, the iron core moves in
relation to the surrounding coil. The change in position of the iron core causes a
proportionate change in the inductance of the coil. The change in inductance can be
measured and converted electronically to a standard control signal, commonly a
milliampere, voltage, or digital control signal.

Fig. 1.10: Variable inductance

Benefits and Limitations of Variable Inductance Devices

Variable inductance devices are durable and not greatly influenced by vibration. They are,
however, sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and to changes in the ambient
electromagnetic field.

VARIABLE RELUCTANCE
Variable reluctance transmitters also convert changes in inductance into a standard
milliampere, voltage, or digital control signal, but are configured differently than variable
inductance transmitters. Two coils are placed on either side of a magnetic diaphragm. An
AC voltage is run through the coils, which turns the coils into electromagnets. As the
magnetic diaphragm moves closer to one coil and farther from the other in response to
pressure, the inductance of the coils changes because of changes in the magnetic field
around the coils. The property of a body to create change in a magnetic field is called
reluctance.
Benefits and Limitations of Variable Reluctance Devices
Because the basic operating principle is similar to that of variable inductance devices,
variable reluctance devices exhibit similar characteristics. Variable reluctance devices are
sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and in the ambient electomagnetic field.

VIBRATING WIRE
If a current is passed through a wire that is in a magnetic field, the wire will vibrate.
Changes in the tension with which the wire is held change the frequency of the vibration of
the wire. If one end of the wire is attached to an elastic sensing device, such as a
diaphragm, changes in pressure on the diaphragm will cause proportionate changes in the

vibrational frequency of the wire. The frequency is measured and converted into a
standard control signal, commonly a milliampere, voltage, or digital control signal.
Benefits and Limitations of Vibrating Wire Devices
Because vibrating wire technology is dependent on measuring vibration, mechanical
vibration of the device can cause inaccurate outputs.

STRAIN GAUGE
The electrical property of resistance of a conductive substance changes as that substance
is stretched. In a strain gauge, one end of a wire is attached to an elastic sensing device,
and the other end of the wire is secured in place. As the sensing device moves in
response to changes in pressure, the wire is stretched or relaxed. The variations in strain
on the wire cause measurable changes in the resistance property of the wire. Changes in
resistance are electronically converted into standard control signals, such as milliampere,
voltage, or digital control signals.
Some strain gauges use foil cemented to the back of a sensing device instead of wires. As
the amount of strain on the foil changes, resistance changes as well. The piezoresistive
transmitters are actually a form of strain gauge.

Fig. 1.11: Bonded foil strain-gage and Thin-film strain gage

Benefits and Limitations of Strain Gauge Devices

Strain gauges can be very sensitive to small changes in pressure, but the output of the
strain gauge (i.e., a change in resistance) is very small and requires amplification. Strain
gauges that are cemented to a sensing device can become partially detached and
therefore inaccurate. Strain gauges are also extremely sensitive to temperature changes.